^mm.

THE

CYCLOPAEDIA;

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

%xX%, ^cirntts, anlj l^ittrature.

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S.Atncr.Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

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VOL. XIX.

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181<J.

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CYCLOPEDIA:

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OR, A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

ARTS and SCIENCES.

INCREMENTS.

INCREMENTS, Method of, called by the French
Cah-iil (hs Differences Finies, is a branch of analyfis in-
vi'nted by- the learned Dr. Brook Tavlor, particularly ufefiil
in the fummation of feries, and applicable to feveral fubjeits
of mathematical invcftifration, where fcarcely any other me-
thod can be fucccfsfully employed. Mo)itucla obferves,
that had the human mind always purfued the path which
appears the moft natural, the theory of increrrcr.ts, or of
iinite difFerencrs, would have preceded that of fluxions, or
the differential calculus ; as it feems more natural for the
mind to be carried from the confideration of finite differ-
ences, to that of differences uidefinitely fmall, than that
the latter Ihould b? tlie precurfor of the former. Such,
however, was the faft ; for the liril diltinft notions of the
method of increments did not appear till the year 1 715, in
a work entitled " Methodus Incfementorum.'' .kc. by Dr.
Braok Taylor, in which both the direft and inverfe method
of increments are treated of in a very learned manner, and
;m application of the fame to various interefHng problems ;
but the novelty of the fubjcft, and the concife mode cf ex-
preflion employed by its author, tojrcther with the very com-
plicated notation, rendered the work nearly unintelligible to
any man Icfs (killed in analyfis than the author hirafelf ; even
the enunciation of fome of the propofitions requires the
greateft poffible attention in order to comprehend their
jneaning ; but in other refpcCis, t!ie work bears (Irong and
evident marks of the lofty genius of its author, and contains,
in tlic fccond part, many very excellent applications of the
preceding theory to the folution of fomc of the moft inte-
refting and celebrated mathematical problems. Such, Iiow-
ever, bein£r the intricacy of the original work, it neceffarily
follows that it could only be read by tlie very firll rate mu-
VoL. XIX.

thematicians ; and it was therefore fortunate that any of
them would condefccnd to illuftrate a fubjec^ in which they
could only aft a fecondary part ; fuch a perfon was however
found in M. Nichole, of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
who, having very early been in pofFefiion of a copy of Dr.
Taylor's work, and perceiving, at once, its general utility,
he undertook the taflc of illuftrating the principles upon
which it relied; and, by flmplifying the notation and opera-
tions, rendered it intelligible to readers of an inferior order:
his iirft paper on the fubjeft was publifhed in the Memoirs
of the Academy for 171 7, which was afterwards followed
by two others in 1723 and 1724. Dr. Taylor himfelf alfo,
in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, undertook an explanation
of certain parts of his work, and its farther application to
fome kinds of feries beyond thofe treated of in the original :
the fame was alfo done by M. Montmort, in the Tranfac-
tions for the years 1719 and 1720 ; which latter gentleman,
it feems, had conceived fomc idea of the theory before Dr.
Taylors work appeared ; and a trifling altercation took
place between tl»em as to the originality of fome of the no-
tions which was claimed by both parties. In 1763, Emer-
fon publilhcd his *■ Method of Increments ;" a work which.,
at leaft, does this author as much credit as any that he ever
produced ; but the notation refembles, in a great meafure,
that of Dr. Taylor, which renders it now almoft obfolete.
Emerfon appears to have been extremely anxious to
bring the theory of increments to perfeftion ; and earneftly
urged thofe who were qualified for the tafli, to purfue the
paths he had opened to them. " I cannot,'' fays he, " pro-
mife that I ftiall have time and leifure hereafter to profe-
cute this fubjeft any farther. And as I have an earnefl de-
fire of advancing truth and improving fcience, let me here

444060

INCREMENTS.

entreat the friendly matheiiaticians, who are lovers of
fcicnce, to lend their kind affiftance for the advancement of
this uncultivated branch of knowledge, yet in its infancy,
or rather, as yet, in the hands of Lucina, either according to
the model I have here laid before them, or fome better if it
cm be found, fo that, by degrees, it may at length be
brought to perfcftion." Hence it appears that this author
WAS, in 1763, fenfible of the nesrledt that had been paid
to the theory of increments ; and even now, near half a cen-
tury after this date, the fubjeft has not been advanced, nay
foarcelv touched upon by any Englirti mathematician, while
foreign authors are fil ing quarto volumes with the theory of
differences finUs, and its almoft univerfal application to the
moil curious and important of mathematical inquiries. Eu-

«- +

0("'-^),.«-,

1.2.3

+ &c.

by means of this general expreflion, for the increment of
K"^, we readily deiuce the increment of any function of Xy
as *•„ + a X" + i *, + &c. Thus, for example, if it
were required to find the increment of x» + 3 ■-• ^ + 4.V, we
have increment of x ' = 3 .v * n + 3 .v n ^ + " '

of 4A- = 411

Hence the increment of .v^ + 71-^ -f 4X = 3 .»•-- fi +
*(3«^ + 6«) + „' + 3«- +4n.

It is therefore not uecefTary, when we proceed thus, that
the propofed funftiou fliould be made up of fa<5tors in arith-
ler, whofe univerfal genius led him to the inveltigation of metical progreffion, as in the former rule.

Again, the increment - is the difference between — and

every fubjeCl that was ufeful and interefting, did not lea
the theory ot increments untouched, but hns ti-eated of it,
in his ufual mafterly ftyle, in a work entitled " Inflitutiones
Calculi Differentiales," &c. in which he has given a new
form, and much extended the bounds of this important
br-\nch of analyfis; and fubfequent authors have adopted his
ideas, and rendered permanent the form he gave it. Vari-
ous other works have fince appeared to illuftrate and render
famihar the principles of this doftrine ; the molt complete
of which is the " Traitedes Differences," &c. par Lacroix.
BolTut has likewife a chapter on this fubjeft in his " Traites
des Calcul Difierentiel,'' where the theory is treated in a
very elementary and comprehcnfive manner ; and the fame is
aifo done by Coufin, in chapter 3. of the introdudtion to his
«' Traitcs de Calcul Diffcrentiel," &c.

Having thus given a brief flcctch of the hiftory and pro-
grefs of the method of increments, we Ihall now endeavour
to explain the principles and application of it : in order to
which, that we may prepare the reader for the more general
theory, it will be ufeful to confider the fame in a more limited
form in the firft inllance, in doing which we cannot have a
better model than that of M. Nichole above-mentioned.

The method of this author is extremely fimple, but cer-
tainly lefs general than that of Dr. Taylor ; it is, however,
well calculated for conveying the firft clear and connefted
ideas of this theory, and prepares the reader for more general
refearches, by leadir.g him on, from ftep to ftep, with order
and precifion.

If we confider x as any variable quantity, which is con-
tinually increafed by a conilant quantity n, fo that it becomes
fuccelhvcly x, x + n, x + zn, &c. : and if y be any func-
tion of .r, made up of failors, as ^ = ;i; (.v + n) (.r + 2 «)
(* + 3 n), then the difFcreRce between this value oi y, and
tiiat which it becomes when .v is again increafed by n, is the
increment of J', or of .r (.r + ?/1 (x 4- in) [x -\- 3n); v.'hich
increment is- readily obtamed, by obferv;n<r, that

(x-mo -- « r. = «

{X + /7j (.V + 2 «) - X (.V + „) = 2« (.V + «)

(;r + n) {X -I- 2«) {x + 3») - .V {x + n) (.v + zn) = 3,,
.(jr H- n) (r -r 2 w) ; and hence generally, the incre-
ment of A- (.r + n) (.r + 2 h) ... (.r -;- rn) = (r + l) n
(x -f n) (x -f 2n) . . (j' -f rn) : And hence again con-
verfely, the integral of (r -4- l) b (a- + n) . . . (j: f 2n)
(a- -I- rii) ^ B (:r + n) (.v + 3 li^ ...(* + rn) ; or more
generally, the integral ai x i^x -\- ri) (x -i- 2b) ... (jc + rn)
(.-„)._(^r^(^J_2^)_^(^+r^^ Again.

the increment of
(r-fd)-. Now(.r + n)

- - 2) B

s the dilTerence between x'^ and
m\jn~\)

X+B- .V (.+ „)="'"

the fame way

we find the

f I

2n

• of

(« + «) (* +

2B)'

I

- 3«

a'(.v + b) (v + 2«) - x(a

+ «)(.V+2B

)(« + 3«/

and gou'jrally the increment of

>^ (* -f- «) (x + 2 «) . . .

. . . {.V +

rn) -

(r + I) „

And hence,

A-(.v + B) (a-+ 2b) . . . . (.V

+ r + IB)-

again, converfely, the integral of

- '>• 4-

) n

X (.V + «) (x + 2 Bj . . .

. . . . (x +

r + IB)
Or, more

- ' A-(x -B)(x-f 2„) .

. (. + ru)

J

b) {x+ 2«).

..{x + rn)

7

" + — r~ —

X {X 4- «) (.V + 2 B) (^- + r - I »).

This, as was before obferved, is not the moll general
mode of confidering the fubjecl, but we are miich miftaken
if it be not the moft obvious and natural ; and therefore the
bell adapted for illuflration, and for conveying to a beginner
the fird ideas of the theory. We will now (hew the applica-
tion of the above principles to an example or two, by way
of elucidation, and then proceed to,-i more general and ex-
tended inveiligation of the method of increments, and its
application to mathematical problems.

^.v. I. — Let it be propofed to find the fum of 100 terms
of the feries

1.2 + 2.34-3.4 + 4.5 100 . lOI.

Each of thefe terms is of the form x {x + l), and it is
obvious that the next term to 100 .101, that is loi . 102, is
the inclement of tlie feries ; or, making 100 = .v, the lall
term is x (x + I ), and the fucceeding one is (x -h 1 ) (a- 4- 2 ) ;
which is evidently the increment of the feries, or the dif-
ference between the propofed feries in the firil cafe, and
what it becomes when x is increafed by the common dif-
fercnce i ; and therefore converfely, the integral of this in-
crement, that is, of (.V I- i) i.v -f- 21, will be the fum of
1 the

INCREMENTS.

the feries foiight. Now the integral of {x + i) (•» + -)
^X(:.+ !)(>:+ 2).

3

and fir

the prefcnt ex- tioii

this form, that tlie theory of ir.cremenls becomes fo uiiivcrfally
applicable to alr.ioll every fpecies of mathematical inveiliga-

ample = loo, we have —

lOI X 102

= 343-1

for

the fum required.

£x. 2. — Required the fura of n terms of the feries
I . 2 . 3 + 2 . 3 . 4 + 3 . 4. 5 + &c. n (» + I ) (n -f s).

Here, by writing x inftead of n + i, we (hall have for
the fucceeding term x {x -\- i) {.v +2), which is the in-
crement of the feries, and therefore the integral of

*(:.•

0 (■>•■

_(x-l)x{.

.)(.<

2)

vill

be the fum required ; which, by re-eftabli(hing the value of

= n + I, becomes

r,{n+ I) (n + 2) (n +3)

the

fum of n terms.

Ex. 3. — Required the fum of n terms of the natural
feries of fquares i' + 2' + 3' + 4^ -j- . . . . . n.

Here writing .v for «, the fucceeding term is (v + l)*
=: x' + 2 X + I = X {x + 1) 4- (j.- + i), which is the
increment ; and it confifts of two parts. Now the

integral ofx(. + x) = ^"+'^;("+'^

integral of w + i = ~ '

And therefore fince x = n, we have (-

2

{n — 1) n (n + 1) _ ^j^^ j-^^ required.
3
Ex. — Let it now be propofed to find the fum of the infinite

feries 1 1 1 1- &c.

1.2 2.3 3.4 4.5

Here it will be neceffary for us to confider the feries as
generated from the extreme term, which is o, and therefore

as its laft term, which will therefore be the increment

of the feries -f + + &c. ; and, confe-

2-3 3-4 4 • >
quently, the integral of this will be the fum of the feries,

wanting only the term . Make, therefore, x^= 2, or

J . 3 X {^

in which cafe the increment ■

the increment is — 1) ; therefore the fum of the feries, be-
ginning at the term ,is- , to which adding the firft

2-3 2

term = — , we have the fum of the whole feries = i.

1.2 2

This will ferve to cxpkin the method purfued by M. Ni-
chole in his iirft paper, and will bo ufcful as an introduftion
to what follows : in which we (hall not limit ourfeivcs Icj con-
iideriiig the continual increafe of x as conllant as is done
above; but as being variable like jr iifclf; fo» it is under

Notation and Definiiioni.

... "?

more than the difference between that quantity in its firlt
ftate, and what it becomes after a certain increafe, this dif-
ference may be properly reprefentcd by V) x, or :i x ; and
in the fame manner, if j' be any funftion of a variable quan-
tity, D J', or i\y, will reprefent the increment oi y. And
as in the fiuxional or differential calculus, yis made the cha-
rafter of integration, fo in the prefent inftance, we (hall em-
ploy it to reprefent the integral of any increment.

2. The increment of a variable quantity being, as we have
obferved above, only the excefs of this quantity in one ilatc,
over the fame quantity in the confecutive flr.te, it follows
that if a variable magnitude x become fucccflively x, x, x'',
x'", &.C. we (hall have A x = :r' — .v ; A .v' = .v" — .v' ;
A A-" = .r'" — *" ; A .r'" = .-c"' — .t'", S:c.

It may happen that an increment may be pnfitive, or ne-
gative, according as the variable quantity of wliich it is the
increment is augmented or dinuinlhed, with regard to feme
other magnitude or magnitudes which we fuppofe to in-
cre.ife, and of which the increments are therefore neceflarily
poiitive.

3. The increments of quantities being themfelves quan-
tities, if they be variable, we may take the increments of
them, thefe are called fecond increments ; and if tliefe fecond
increments be alfo variable, we may in like manner take the
increments of thefe alfo; which are called third increments, and
fo on as long as the differences or increments are variable.

In all thefe cafes, the condition of the increments being
variable, is neceiTary ; becauie if, in any cafe, they become
coniiant, then it is obvious that the increments are o,
whether it be the tirll, fecond, third, &c. increment that
thus become conllant or invariable.

Thus the feries of fquares i, 4, 9, 16, 25, &c. is an ex-
ample of a cafe in which th.e fecond differences or increments
are conflant : for this feries may be confidered as generated by
a variable quar.tity x' ; which is fuch, that if the difference
between the fuccelTive terms be taken, they will form a feries
of quantities in arithmetical progreffion, and confequently
the differences of thefe differences, or the fecond increment
of .-«- will be conflant. In the fame manner we find the
third differences of the feries of cubes, 1,8, 27, 64, I2J, or
the third increment of x , is conftant ; and therefore the
fourth increment — o ; for after any order of increments
becomes conflant, ail the ulterior orders muft, neccfTarily,
become zero.

4. As A.v denstes the firft increment of any variable
quantity x ; fo A'.v, A' a-, i^* x. Sec. will reprefent the fe-
cond, tliird, fourth, &c. increments of the fame quantity .v ;
which c.^ipreffions are fufficlcnlly di.linft from Ajr% Ax\
Aa- , &c. which reprefent the powers of tliofc increments;
and if it be required to exprefs the power of any increment
pafl the firfl, as lor inflance the nl\\ pswer of the fecond,
third, &c. increment of .r, that will be done thus, A'*',
AV, &c.

5. In fome problems it is neceflary to confider a certain
order of the increments as conllant ; thi.s, in any arith-
metical progrefiion ttie firft incrtments are conllant. \n
the feries cF nr.lural fquares, the fecond increments are
neceffarily conllant ; as are alfo the third increments of
cubes, &c. as we have fcen above. But there is an in-

B 2 Suite

INCREMENTS.

finite number of quelHons, in which, from their nature, it
is not I! -ceflary that any order of their increments (hould be
conftant : yet as we may attribute to a certain quantity
whatever variation we pleafe, providing that the variations
of the other q'lantitics depending upon the firft be fuch as
to accord with the variation wc have attributed to it ; it
follows, that in any problem, we may at pleafure make any
order of increments of a quantity chofen at will be con-
Uant ; obferving only, that the other quantities ought to
vary in confequencc ; and, therefore,' we cannot make an-
other order of increments alfo conftant, unlefs, from the na-
ture of the problem, fome other increment has a certain
ratio to that which is fo alTumed.

6. The whole of the method of increments confifts of
two problems ; viz. l ft. Finding the increments of all or-
ders of any variable quantity, raifed to any power ; the
prodnft of different variable quantities ; and generally of
any funftion of variable quantities ; which problem is al-
ways folvible, and prefcnts but little difficulty in any cafe ;
and this is called the DireH Method of Increments. The
other problem, which is the reverfe ot the preceding, is
that of finding the integral of any given increment, which
is frequently infolvible ; at leall, without infinite feries, or
fome other mode of approximation ; and this is termed the
Jnverfe Method of Increments : which two problems we will
confider under their diftindt heads.

Of the Direa Method of Increments.

7. Since the increment of a variable quantity is the dif-
ference between the funis in any two conlecutive ftates, it is
obvious in general, that in order to find the increment of
any fundlion of variable quantities, we muft fuppofe, that
each of thofe quantities is increafed or diminifhed by their
refpeftive increments ; and fubftitute thefe quantities, thus
changed, into the propofed funtlion ; and from this refult,
if there be fubtrafted the original expreffion, the remainder
will be the increment fought.

Ex. I. — Find the firil increment of the fum x -\-y + s.
Thefe quantities, augmented by their refpeftive increments,
become

(.v-f-AA-) + 0 + Aj-)+ (si-H Ak)
from which fubtrafting the original expreffion, there re-
mains A X + Aji + A s, as is e\'ident ; fince the whole
increment muft neceffarily be equal to the fum of each par-
ticular one.

In the fame manner wc find the increment of .v -\-y — z,
or A (.V + y — z) =1 A .r + A;i — A z.

And if we had to find the increment of a + x + y — z,
we fnould have, confidering a as a conftant quantity,
A (<J + .V + > — z) = A A- + A jf — A a,
the fame refult as before, becaufe the conftant quantity
a has no increment, or its increment is equal to zero.

Hence it appears, that if to the fum of any variable
quantity we add or fubtruft any conftant quantity what-
ever, the increment of the whole function will ftill be the
fame.

£x. 2. Find the firft increment of «•'".

This is, from what is obferved above, the difference be-
tween (*• + A x)"" and x"" ; which by the binomial theo-
rem becomes m x"'-' A a- + ^"""^ A .-c' +

the increment of .v', or

A (x') =2xAx + Ax''
aIx') = Sx"-Ax + 3xAx' + Ax'
A (jt') = 4.r' A.V + 6x'Ax'- + ^xAx' + x*
&c. &C. &C. &.C.

And if the propofed quantity, of which the increment ii
required, be a x", a being a conftant multiplier, then it is
obvious that

r a(x + Ax)'^-ax- =
A {ax") = i c(x ^A .vj" - a (.v-) =

I .Z(x + Axr-x-:i^aA{x")
whence the increment a x" is equal to a times, the incre-
ment of x"'.

Ex. 3. To find the firft increment of the produA xy.
Here x becomes x 4 A x
and _y becomes _j' + A_y

whence the produft = .v y -Jr y .^-v + x Ay -\- A .r A v :
from which, fubtrafting the original quantity xy, we have
A (.r ^) — y Ax -^r x Ay ir Ax Ay.
And in the fame way we find

^K^y^) - I +yAxAz->rzAxAyJf.AxAyAz..
And in like manner may the increment of any other pro-
duft be readily afcertained.

If the produCl was axy, a x y z. Sec, a being a con-
ftant quantity, we ftiould have

A {a xy) = aA (xy), A (a xy z) - n A (xy z), &c.
that is, we muft find the increment as above, and multiply
the refult by the conftant faftor ci.

Ex. 4 — To find the firft increment of any quantity of

the form .v (x + a) {x ~ 2 a) {x -t- 3 a) (.r -f ra).

It is obvious that this may be referred to the preceding ex-
ample, by making x + a ~ u; x -f- 2 a - y ; .r -j- 3 a = s;
&c. under which fubftitution, the funflion, of which the
increment is required, reduces to x u y z, &c. and,confe-
quently, A (x u y z) may be found as above. But if,
without this fubftitution, we find the aftual produft, it is
obvious that it will take the following form (where A, B,
C, D, &c. reprefent conftant quantities) ; viz.
x" + A.v"-' + B:r"--4- C .x"- ' + D.r-" + &C.
and hence by finding the increments of each of thofe terms
by example 2, the fum of them will be the increment of
the fundlion propofed. Thus,

A (^x (.r + «) j := A {x' + <7 .v).

Now A (.r)- = 2 .V A .r + A .v ,

A (ax) =<7A(.x) = a Ax;
whence A ^.v (x + a)) = (2x + a) Ax + A x\
And in the fame manner

a(^x(x +a) (x + 2a)) = A (a' + 3ax' + 2a .x).

Now A (.v) = 3 .r' A.V 4- 3 .V A x^ + A.i-'
A ( 5 a .V*) = 6 <j X A .r 4- 3 j A x^
A (2 a x) = 2a Ax.
The fum of which particular increments will be the incre-
ment of the original fundion propofed: and in exatlly
the fame way, the increment of any fimilar funftion may
be afcertained.

>_-2)^

•3

•' A.v^ 4- &C. A:

Tin

find

-To find the firft increment of the fraftion ■

Here

INCREMENTS,

O'

y \x — x A y _

^ + -^^' y

And therefore from the expanfion of {y' + y ■^y)~ ^ into
a feries, we have

^ (:!) = iy^I:z^)^(.-^+^- +-"-£+ Sec.)
\y / r \ y y- y' '

And if the propofed fraflion be effefted with any conftant
faftor a, the whole of the above increment muft be multi-
plied by a.

Ex. 6. — To find the firft increment of the quantity
^{a' + x^.

Here it io obvious, on the fame principles, that
A ( ,/(a-- + :r)'-) = ../{a- + (x + Ax)) - ^'{a' + :t-)

^/( {a + x) + (2 .V A .r + A .V ) ) - ^'{d' + .r^)
And if now we confider thefe two exprefHons as two bino-
mials, to be raifed to the power }, it is obvious that from
the developement of the firft, there will be cancelled the firit
term, and the other terms will reprefent the increment re-
quired ; and thus we have

2.vAi- + Ajr' (2xA.r + A.vT

A v(a- + x) =

(2.vA.r+ A.V-)-'

2(0'

- Sec.

^)-

(a + >:■)-'

i6 («' + .v)

Et. 7. — Having given the equation y' — a x + x' = o
which expreffes the relation between the conftant quantity a,
and the two variable quantities x and y ; to find the equa-
tion whith ought to exprefs the relation between a, and the
firft increments of .v and y.

H^re we muft fubftitute x + A x for .r ; and y + A^
for y ; which gives

(.V + A j)^ -aix + A.v) + (.V + A .r)'- = o ;
from which, fubtraifting the original equation, there re-
mains

2y

+ 2 xAx -^- A.V- + A/-

which.isthe equation required.

And in a fimilar manner the firft increments of any quan-
tities whatever may be afcertained, as alfo of any algebraical
equation.

When it is required to find the fecond, third, &c. incre-
ments of any propofed fnnftion, it is only neceffary to conli-
der the preceding order of increments as variable quantities ;
and we ftiall thus pafs from the firft increments lo the
fecond, from the fecond to the third, from the third to the
fourth, &c. ; in the fame manner as we pafs from the ori-
ginal function to the firft increment.

Ex. I. — To find the fecond increment of .r'.

Here we have, in the firft place,

A (.v^) = 2 X A .r -f A .v' the firft increment.

And if now, in this expreflion, we fubftitute .r + A.v for
X, and Ax -t- A' j- for -i x, we have

A' i^) = A (2 A- A .r + A .x^) = 2 (.V -f- A x)

(A.V -I- A't) + (A;,- -f- A'x)-- - (2.V Aat + A.v')
= 2 A x' -^ 4 A jr A- X + 2 .V A= .V + A' .vS
which is the fecond increment required.

And in the fame way we find the third, fourth, &c. in-
crements of a qujntity or funftion, by fubftituting A' .v
-r A'jrinftead of .J.' x j and A'x + A-' x inftead of A' .v ;
&iid fo or:.

Remark. — If we confider the fecond increments as being
conftant, it adds very much to the limplicity of the operation ;
for, after having found the firft increments, viz.
A (.v') = 2.V A.I- -f- A-r',
A (.v') = 3 .V- A X -}- 3 .-c A .V- 4- A .v',
A (v') — 4 x^ A .V -j- 6 JT^" A .v^ -f- 4 .V A a'' -I- A *■',
&c. &c. &c. &c.

we fliall have for the higher order of increments,
A- (x) = 2 Ax% A' x' = o, A' (x^) = o, &c.
A^ (.1- ) = 6 X A .v' + 6 A x\ A'- (.v) = 6 A x\
A* {x) = o. A* (<;•) = o, &c.
AM-v ) = 12 .v" A .V- + 24 X A.v' + 14 A x\
A^ (.V ) = 24 .r A .v' + 36 A X-, A' (.r') = 24 A*-*,
A' (.1 ) = o, A'' {x') = o, &c.
&c. &c. &c.

Scholium It \j eafv to find, on the fame principles, the

fecond increments of all forts of fun(riions. For example, to
find the fecond increment of the prcduft x )■, without fup-
pofing any increment as conftant, we muit firft find the
firft increment, which is,

A {xy) = _j. A :v + ,r A J. + A .V A J.
And fubftituting now in this expreflion,
X + A .r for x, and y + A ji for ^ ;
A .V + A' X fcr A X, and Ay + A' y for A v,
it becomes

0' +Ay) (A.V + A-x) + (.v + Ax)
{Ay -\- A\y) -f (A x + A' x) {Ay + A» ;
from which, fubtrafting the firft increment, there remains
A' {xy) =yA'xJrxA^y-\-zAxAy
+ 2 _\ _y A' X + 2 A .V A' J)' + A- X A' y.
And if we fuppofe A x conftant, this expreflion reduces to
A' (x^) = xA'_y+ 2 Ax Ay -\- 2 Ax A' y.
And fimiiar metliods apply in all cafes ; it will, therefore,
be unnecelfary to give any farther examples, except in the
csfe of an exponential expreflion, which is foraewhat dif-
ferent.

Let it be propofed, for example, to find the increment of
the hyperboHc logarithm of x.

Let y = h .1 .x; then, as x becomes .v + A .r ; fo will /
become _}i -\- Ay, that is,

y + Ay - hi {x + Ax) ;
and hence, Cncej = h . I . x, we have

y + ^y -

^y = hl(>

= h.l{x + Ax)

h. l.x, or
A,

Ax)-U.x=hl{ I -t-

Now, by the well-known logarithmic feries, we have

, ,/ A.v\ Ax A.v' Ax' A.'

V X / X 2.V 3x' 4.

'(-^->

— i- &c.

A.1-^

A.v^

y.xnce Ay {j x) ^ ^ ^^ + ^ ^^ ^ ^^

+ &c. as required. And the higher order of increments
of /' /.v will be found as above, by taking the increments of
the terms of this feries.

Ex. 2. — Required the firft increment of the exponential
expreflion a'.

Make y= a";
become _y + A v ;

y + ^y

V

then, when x

whence

_ a'*^' c= a'

= a' = a

becomes
X a^' ;

■v +
but

A

whence A_v = a x a^'

— ef :

= .'{a^'

' - I

)•

INCREMENTS.

Now, expanding (a*

I ) into a fcries,

) _^ A:r--(/.^r

("')

t 1 1.3 1-2.3 J

as required. And the higher
be found bv the ufual method.

rder of its incremenis may

Of the Inverfe Method of Increments.

P. In the inverfe method of increments, the queftion
find the integral,

f Ax =

5 -^ A- 2

&C, &C.

3

&c. &c

where it is only necefTary to obferve, that if the propofed
funftion, from its increment being given, increment have - any eonftant mulliplier, the integral above
We muft, therefore, examine with attention the fteps by found mutl have the fame.
■which we defcend from a variable quantity to its increment ; Cor. i — Hence we may find the integral of any funftion
and then, by the reverfe operation, we may afcend to the compofed of the powers of x, affefted with any eonftant co-
integral, when the increment is known. But this reverfe efficients a, 6, c, &c. For in order to find the integral of
operation is attended with the very fame difficulties as the in- fuch an increment, it is only necefTary to find thofe of the
Terfe method of fluxions, for, as in that, every fluent may be different powers of x, and their fum will be the integral re-
readily put into fluxions, fo may the increment of any fiinc- quired.

tion be readily obtained ; but it is frequently difficult, and £^_ , — Required the integral of the increment a + iiff

fometimes impoffible to find the fluent of a given fluxion ; ^ ^ ^^ . confidering Ax as eonftant.
and fo in the method of increments, there are many cafes

that will not admit of integration ; we fliall, however, give /"^ _ ^ C l =■ " ''

fome of t!ie mod ufual and obvious rules, and which will -^ .' Ax

apply to tho generality of examples. ,-. , ^ __ o -f' ix

Let us firft attend to the powers of a variable quan
tity X.

fi

a + i X

2 A.V

1. Since Ax = A{x); therefore, reciprocally, j Ax J J' ^Ax
= X. And if we fuppofe A jr as eonftant (a fuppolition that And hence by addition,
has place in all that followr.), we fliall have /"a .r x i — x,

erAxfi = X ; therefore /"i = — •

2. Since A (x'') = 2 .v A .v + A x', therefore, recipro-
cally,/'(2a' A.v + A .v") = .v-; or, which is the fame,
f 2 X A X + f A x^ = A-' ; whence again alfo f x +

= ; and hence, by tranfpofition, / x — — —

2 2 Ax' ' '^ ;/ 2A.V

A J."

..-/..

) = ^ + :^., ^

5A»

Ax

6~'

Ex. 2. — Required the integral of ax*— I x^, confidering

.V as conllant.
Here we have

d r' A jf a X A x'

r^x ^ _£ Ax r^ ^ x2_

J Z 1 Ax 2 ^J ' 2 A A-

3. Again, fince A {x) = 3
therefore, reciprocally,
\\lx^Ax^lxAx
/3x'A.vM-/3,tA.

C A X

I.-+Axjx + -^^

■Ax +

+ A*^

+ A .v') = .m" ; or, which is the fame,
-f /A .V' = .V ' ; or dividing by 3 A .»

r 1 = — -r— ; whence, again.

./''

3 Ax

A x fx —

.h:

I'hich is the fame.

r /t .r' ax' d r' .i

ax' = — H

5^-^ 2 3 i^

3 A x 2 6

the fum of which exprcffions will be the whole increment
fouglit.

Cor. 2. — When it is required to find the integral of a
quantity of any of the following forms, (Aa- being fiip-
pofed eonftant,) viz.

(.V + a)

(x + a) (.V 4- 2«)

{x -r a) (.r -;- 2a) (x + ^a)

{x i-a) {x + 2 a) (x + 3 fl) {x + j^a)
we arrive at them by taking the aAual produft of thofe
quantities, and finding fucceffively the increments of each of
the terms : thus.

We find in a fimi!;!r manner, by continuing to fuppofe Ax
as eonftant, and fubftitutiiig always for tiie quantities con-
tained under the particular fum their refpeftive values ; the /.,>_,-/• _ x'' ^ , "^
following refults for the integrals of the fucceffive powers " ./ ^* "^ "' ~J '*-'''~2Ax 3 A.v
of x; iit which we have repeated the two preceding ones, ^ % r
f«r the fake of uniformity. J. / (.v -t- fl) (.v + 3 a) = y (*' -f 3 a at -j- 2 0")

INCREMENTS.

~6~

but a real quantity, pofit'iTC or negative, in other cafes,
which rauft be determined from the nature of the pro-
blem. This remark will be of confiderable importance in
what follows.

lo. Let

faciora
viz.

Whence /'(a- + a) (.r

--=j^

ax- S"^ , 2a\v

.^AT 2 ' ^X '

3. Again, f (.V +

a) (.V +. 2 c

f{y' +6ax'-+ lia\v + 6a):^

X^ A .V

ax'' 6axS

lla'x
2

[/-' =^'

AVhence by addition,

we have f (.v

us thet) confider thofe produfts, of which the
continually increafed by a conftant dilTerence ;

:«)

a) (.^

3^)

-) (

A;
Ga.

+ 2 a)

tfi'Ax lla-.r" Ga^x I

other fimilar quantities.

And if it be required to find the integral of quantities of
the form

.V {x

It

+ '»)

+ a) (:r + 2«)
+ a) (.v + 2a) (r-1-3
&c. &c. &c.

")

ive have in t

le fame

way

I

A (.'-•-

- ") -

= /•<•+/"= ii-.

- 2' -^ 1

2

a X-

ax
2

!«)=r»' + 3«/-'' +

2«y.v =

1

fx^ =

Zafx- =

3 ax'

3 A.!-

_..£A. .

3,7.,:^ 3<j.vA«

x(x + A,) {x+2Ax)
x{x + ^x) (4;+2A.r) (jr + 3Ax)
&c. ike. &c.
Here it is obvious that the increment of 4? (.v + A*) ; or
I A(.v(.v^ A.r))=(.v + AA0(4r+2Ax)-..-(*4-Ax) i
whence, by multiplication and fubtra<^ion, we have
A (.V (.r + A a-)) - 2 A A- (* + A x).

In the fame manner we iind,
A (x{x + A.t-) (.r + 2 A;r))=3A*'(.v + AiV>-+ 2A*);

And thus again,
A ( T (.V + A x) (*■ 4- 2 A X) (.r + 3 A *)) = 4 A x

(x + Ax) {x + 2 Ax) (xH-3 Ax)
and fo on of other fimilar produfts. Whence it appears,
that in order to find the increment of any produft of the
above form, we niuvt fupprefs the firft faftor x, and v/rite
in its place the increment A x, effected with a co-eificient
equal to the total number of faftors ; all the other part of
; and fo 00 of the. expreflion remaining as before.

Yv'hence again, converfely, the integral to any increment
of this form, wiU be found from the reverfe operation.
Thus for example,

1. y 2 A X (.V + A .v) = .V (.f + A .r)

2. /" 3 A .V (.r + A x) (.V + 2 A x) = X {x 4- A x)
(.v+ 2Ax)

3. /'4 A .V (.V + A x) {X +ZA x) (t + 3 A^) =
.V (x'+ A .f) (x + 2 A.v) {x + S Ax)
and fo on of others.

Whence, in order to find the correfponding integral to any
increment of the above form, which may be reprefented ge-
nerally by

aAx{x-\-A x) (x + 2 A r) . . . (x -J- n A k),
wc mud change A .v in the firft faftor into x, and divide the

whole by the number of faftors ; that is,
fa A X (x + A .v) (.V + 2 A .t)
a v ( V + A X) (;. -f- 2 A x) .

Ax)
Ax).

J 2A:(r 1

the fum of which will be the increment required.

And, in a fimilar manner, we may find the integral to any
other quantity of thefe forms.

9. Rimark. — Before we proceed any further on this fiib-
jeft, it will be proper to attend to the correftion of irny in-
tegral, when from the nature of the problem under confjder-
ation fuch becomes neceffary.

As the increments of any variable quantities x, and * + a>
are both exprcffed by Ax, the conftant part a having no ia-
crement, fo, reciprocally, the integral of the increment A x
may be x, or x + a ; therefore, wlien we have fo\ir.d the
integral of any increment, we muft add to it atoniiant quan-
tity, which will be zero, if the integral needi no correftion

This part of the theory has been before confidered in the
preceding pages, in defcribing the method employed by M.
N'thaleof the Academy of Sciences, publiflied in 17 17.

1 1. Let us now confider thofe fraftions, the denominators
of whicli are compofcd of faftors fimilar to thofe above de-
fcribed, T.'a.

-i-Ax)

:•) [X+ZAX)

X {x + A
in which A x

:) (x -I-.2A
s conftant.

.) (.v. -I- 3 A;r); &c.

INCREMENTS.

Here, by t-^king the differences as before, we (hall have This quantity admits of the following Jccompofition :

Ir,^}

(x + ^x) {.v + 2Sx) .v(^+ A.v) .V {x + A.x) {x +2^x) A .v

2AXX X. -- . - r-^' .-^-. = ^ X i +

r(.v + A x) (x + 2 A .v) • A.v (.V + 2 A a:) A .v -v A ..• x + A .■<

And in the fame manner we find the increment, or, ^ ^^ I . (..^^i, ^f „ Inch parts is evidently of

. ^ -J _ ^ .1- X + 2 A .f

' 1 V (x -t- A v) (v 4- 2 A x) i ~ ~ the form that has bc-en invelligated in the preceding para-

graph. By maliing firil n — o, >i = i, and « = 2 ; thus
liave

.r(.v + Ax) [x + 2 A.r) (.r + s^x)
l^x + Ax) (x + Z A.r) {x + 3A.I-) J

4A.r

by which means the integral of the propofed quantity take
the following form : vi-z.

X (x + Ax) (x -h 2 A.r) (x + 3 A.v) (.r + 4 A.f)
znA fo on of others. Whence it follows, that in order to

d^nermine the increment of any expreffions of the above But the above formula gives alfo
form, we muft mcreafe the denommator by one fadtor, and °

mnltiplv the ne>v fraction by the conllant increment taken

negatively and affefted by fuch a co-efficient, as is equal to
the number of faftors in the denominator of the refulting

means the integral
ing form : vi-z.

It the above formula gives al

fraftion.

the whole integral is

<! .r - A .r

And hence, again, converfely, in order to find the integral _}_ x { ~ ^ — ^

correfponding to any increment of the form -^ x V-i-t--i-i- x / x A .v (.v 4- A a)

a A X as required.
X {x + A x) (x + 2 A J-) (x + 3 A .v) . . (.I- + n A .r) £x. 2. — Required the integral of the quantity
we muft fupprefs the laft faflor in the denominator, and S -^ ^'

afterwards divide the refulting fraftion, taken negatively, by x Ix + 3~aT)

the produft of A x, into the number of factors comprifed in

the denominator of the faid fraiftion ; thus, pj^ ^p „.g ],.,yg 3 ^

.A

(x+ Ax) (.V + 2 A^x) (.1- -^ 3 A .v) . . (.V + n A X ) a"J, confequently, the integral of the quantity will be

«.r (.v4-Ax)(.v-f 2A.f)(^-+3-^«)--- (^• + «-l^-') -^ ""' J «+3---'

12. On the fame principles we find Now the above formula gives

and, therefore, reciprocally, p j _ i /•

J X + (« + 1 ) A jr J x + nAx s + nSx whence the whole integral is exprefled by

The integration of thefe two latter expreflions cannot be /• 1 / \ 1

cffefted feparately, but the difference of them is evidently / ^^r~^. ~ / .v + 2 -^ .v ~ ~x ~

eoual to the algebraical fraftion -n /^ i /^ •

, ^+"^\ . , . ^"7 rv-:^^ -J .^^-^- '-

Whence it appears, that quantities may iometimes admit

of integration, by being decompofed into many parts ; which, by the fame formula, and, conlequently, we have at length

though they will not admit of it in their (late of feparalio:i, /•-Ax i I I

may, notwithftanduig, be fo combined with each other, that / — — — - , = — ^ r— "" "•

the final refuh (hall be algebraical ; a circumftance that com- J ■»'(•'•' i" 3 ■^•''; •"* + ■■* ■^' "^ •■* •*"

monly happens in praflical operation*. Such are the elements of the direft and inverf : method of

increments, and which will be found to embrace a very great

Examples of Integration. number of cafes ; but thofe who wifli for a more complete de-

n. Ex. i.-Find the integral of the increment velopement of the principles, cannot con (ult a work better

*J' ■^■' ° calculated to convey the ncccffary information, than the

3 a- -I- 2 A .V third volume of the " Traitc du Calcul Diffcrentiel,

,r (.1- + A x) (x -f 2 A x) &c.'' par La Croix. We (hall now conclude this article,

by

t- A

INCREMENTS.

hy (Ttewing the application of the foregoing tlicory a few JUx. 3. — Find the fum of the fcries of fq\iare3 i'
esamplcs. 3- + 5- + 7' + &c. h\

Jpprtcalton of the Method of Increments. Here the general term of the feiics is (.v 4- 2) -, and there-

fore the fum required will be expreffed by the integral of
{■V + 2)\

14. The fummation of feries, by the invcrfe method of
increments, is founded generally on this principle ; that if

have any feries of quantities, as Now^ (.v + 2)' = y .r* -f /'4 ;r + ^4 ; and by

b, e, d, e, &c. article 8

which are deiived from each other according to fome known /• .v' .v* *• A .»

law ; each term may be conlidered as the increment of the
fum of all thofe which precede it. Thus,

l\^

6

let a+i + c + d+e — z 4 ,/ '^

and (i + i + c + d + e+f=z*':

2 ■^ X

then it is obvious, that 2' — z = Az =/; and therefore, 4 /' i = i— ^

converfely, the integral of any one of thofe terms, con- ' -^ ■«■

(idered as an increment, will reprefent the fum of all the And fmce in this cafe A .v = 3, we hz\

preceding part of the feries. ;,.i ,.■> j ^ ^ ^t

This being premifed, we may proceed to the folution of ^' (•» + -)' — 7 — t" ~g' +

the following examples. ^ ^ ^

£x, I . - Required the fum of n terms of the natural feries

3+4 + 5

6 • 2+3-6

by making .» =

Here, by writing x in (lead of n, the term next in order

will be a: + I, which being the increment of the feries, we {hall But here again, if the feries do not begin at unity, it will

have /'( . + l) = the fum required. '/"^''''f % '^""'^'^'^i""' "''"ch will be found generally, thus :

./ ^ ' ' ^ fuppofe the feries to commence at any term f ; and let x — p.

Now /'(.r + i) = f '= +f^i andbyart. 8. then the above formula gives the fum of the fcries to the

f X = — ^ — - ; and / I = —' term * = V + - + • whereas it ought to be p' ; the
"^ z Ax 2 -^ ^ ^623 ° ^

And fince in this cafe A .■ = I , we ha^•e ^^^^^^^.^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ _ .p_ P: p _p:\
■ •»■ _ ^^ + * _ " + " \6 ' 2 3 \/

/(«+0 =

2 2' ^ ^ _ yL _ C. 4. £ \ = c ; and, therefore, the general expref.

bv writing again n in (lead of x, which is the fum of n terms V » 2 3 ,

of the propofed feries, as is alfo evident from other confi- fion for any number of terms of this feries, between the limits

derations. . , „ . r , /> and n, will be

iJ^mari.— This example offers an eafyilluftrationot what "',«'' " P^ P^ P

has been obferved at art. 9, of the corredion of an inte- Z^ 1'^ '^~ 6 '^ 1~ ^ '

gral. which is necelTary in many cafes, the fame as the cor- ^ J

redion of a fluent is in the fluxional or dilferential cal- Qor. — This example will alfo furnifh the folution of the pro.

cuius. Suppofe for example, that inllead of the preceding blem, when the roots of the fquares differ from each other by

feries'beginning at unity, it had commenced from any other any condant quantity m; for it will only be neceffary to make

term as 7 • the sreneral law of formation would have been , , r r i -n • /'/ n-

term, as 7 , me gcucia. lav A* = m, and the fame formula wiU crive / f.v + m V =

the fame, and the increment would ItiU nave had uie torm * > b j v t 1

* + I ; and confcquently the integral, in the hrft inllance, f ^^ ^ 2 m f x + m^ J 1
would be reprefented as above ; viz.

But here a correaion of the integral is neceffary, for
from the nature of the feries, when ;i- = 7. the fum ot the
feries is 7, this being the term at which the feries com-
mences ; whereas, without a correAion, we fliould have the
fum = 28 ; we mud, therefore, write

r I. , ,\ _ •'' "^ •*' -\- c ; c being the corredlion, and

ft nee when .t = 7,

ll±l+,= 7,

/^'

._!' + :

V A .r
6

2./x =

2 m V

■" 2 A.C

2mx

.^/.=

m"- X

~ aT

And fince in this cafe v
exprefTions becomes

ve have A

x=m

, the fum of thefe

f{x + my

x'
1m

+ ^"

X

< + ''

the corredlion :

;and

, . , . , c u f therefore the general formula for the fum beffiniiinK at any

we find . = - 2 1 ; after which the fum of any """^ber of ^^^ ^ .jj ^^ h k 7

terms of the propofed feries IS readily obtained. Thus ior r /,•„/,

example, let « = 16, then the fum of the fer.es beginning ± + "_ + 1" ^ ±. +t _ 01/. ,

with the term 7 becomes 3 '» 2 6 3 " » 6

16'-+ 16 •„] Ex. I. — Required the fum of the natural feries of cube*
i 21 = 115 as required. ^, _^ ^^i_^ ^, ^ ^, ^ ^^ ^,_

Vol, XIX. C Here

INCREMENTS.

Here the generul term is (f -}- 1 ) '' ; and the integral of Ex. j — Required the fum of any number n terms of the

this, that is, /(.r f 1)' =/..' + 3 f^-- + Sf" + / >. ^'"" I . a + 2.3 + 3 .4 + 4- 5 + &'^- « (n + 0

is compuud as follows : ^ j^^^.^ ^j^^ g^^^,.^! term of the feries is x (.x- +1), it is

^ , _ x' _ :l' 4. •'^'" "^ ■'■' therefore required to find the integral of (A-f I ) (.v + 2).

J 4A.V 2 4 riril by art. 10. wc have

3/ «• = ffi. - ^r - ^' / <■' -)(•■-> = ^^^^^^ =

»/".,: — _3j1_ _ 3 -^ — ^ '- — i '- by writing x = n, and S x = l.

^ The fame may alfo be found, as in the example above,

f I = by article S ; but it is needlefs to repeat it, as it only dif-

-^ •'■■ firs from that in its conftant fador.

We have in neither of the foregoing examples any
correction, for it is obvious that when .r = o, the formula

" ' ^ ^> v'^ + ^) _ ^^ ^^ jt ought to be, and there -

fori the integral needs no correction.

Hence a very curious property with regard to the fums of ^.v. 6. — Required the fum of any number of terms n, of

confecutive cubes h«Tinning at I ; -viz. that tliis fum is the feries

equal to the fquare of'the fum of all their roots. , .4.7.10 + 4.7. 10.13 + 7 . 10 . 13.16 + Sec.

Thus, i5+2> = (i + ar ^ «{« + 3) (» + 6) (« + 9).

l' + 2' + 3' — (i + 2 + 3)- j^g^g t]j(. general terra of the feries is .r (.r + 3) {x + 6)

I' 4- 2' -i- 3' + 4' = (i + 2 + 3 4- 4)' (.,. + ^^, and ^-e have therefore to find the integral of

^*'- , /""' ■ , ■ • •„ (■»■ + V) (.'• f 6) (.r + 9) (x + 12). Now, by art. 10.

As to the correftion in thofe cafes that required it, it will ,

be found as in the preceding example; as alfo the fums _/ (.v + 3) (.r + 6) { x + g) (x + 12) =

of any number of cubes wliofe roots are in arithmetical pro- ^

greffion, having any common difference m. And the fums ■•^- (^ -f 3"* (-'■• + 6) (-'• + 9) (.v + 12) _

of any powers whatever are attainable upon the fame prin- J 5 A .v

ciples. 1 „ (n + 3) (;■■ + 6) jr. + 9) (n + 12)

£x. 4. — Required the fum of any propofed number of |^ ij

terms in the feries of triangular numbers ^^_ ,,-r[thg x = h, and A .r = 3.

' / ■. Hx.'j. — Required the fum of the infinite feries

In this cafe the general term is ^^— i^ — ' I i i i

+ - — + , , - + --. + &c.

And here, fince A .y — I, ^\e have

Or, by making .v = n, the fum required is ( i

and it will therefore be necelTary to find the integral of 1-2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5 4-5

6

Here the crcncral term of llie fe

(■^ + ^)l'^+-) = if (.,+ ,) (, + ,) but (art. ,0) «(,:+!) (. f.)" """ ^'" S-cral term ot tr,e ler.es

= X /■ '.+ t) (x + 2) = -±+^U^ + ^) ^ - 7{7r^h^TT)''"^'^'' moftfimple idea is now

I 'j_ \ I _u 2) ^° confider the feries as generated from its extremity,

" \" • ' '^ : 1 by making x = n, and A x = I. which is infinitely diftant ; under which circumil.iiice each

6 , -r r 1 c 01. term will be the increment of all thofe which follow it in

The fame may be otherwiie found from art. 8 ; thus, t^e above arrangement ; and therefore, in order to find the

^ f(x+i) (x + 2) = ij\' +lfs X + J f 2 f„^ beginning at any term _ ' , we have

„i ,.1 ,. A, ,. •"•' (•"■' + •) (* "i- 2)

^ J ' 6A.r 4 13 fimply to fir.d the integral of ~ — —

i r ^ _ _i.— _ 2j1 taken negatively, beeaufe the increment x, that is»

^ J 4 A A- 4 ;i .V = — I. Now, by art. II,

J ' - aT J{x- 1} (x) (X + 1} ~ Ax ^ 2x (X + i)~

And fince A .x = i, this fum becomes ^ . l^^caufe Ax=^ i; that is, the fum of the

r' x"- X 2 -^ (■»' + 1 )

h fix- + I) {X + 2) =-.-+-+- = ' . c ■ r • u • •

-' 023 above infinite fenes beginning at any term

X (^ + I) (^ + 2) And the fums Of any order Of poly- , n(„ + i)(„4-2>

o is equal to ■ ; and therefore when n = i, the

gonal and figurate numbers may be found in the fame 2 n (h + i)

manuer. whole feries becomes = ^.

Cor.

I N C

Cor. Having thus found the fum of the whole feries, we
may readily find the fum of as many terms as we pleafe,
for we have fecn that the fum beginning at the nth term from

the fir ft, is ; -; and therefore, beginninj: at the

2 n (n + i) 6 °

{n -t i)th term, the fum will be

which lad fum taken from the whole fi
of the tirll it terms, that is,

fum n terms =

I N C

2 (« + i) (« + 2)'

um f , will leave that

i!.Y = aJ

rf Y =

(/■ Y =

d-Y =
Now tliefe values being fubflituted
ftall liave for the increment of Y,
AY=^

f- 2i.vd.v + 3.v*^>

zbdK- + 6 .X dx

6d«-'

(a + 2 b>
Again, given Y =

(« +

:(n-r !)(.•! + 2) 4(« -f

Thus, if n = I, fum = t ; if n = 2, fui
= 3, the fum = /„, &c.
Ex. 8. — Find the fum of the infinite feries

11" + ^)- '

Here the general term of the feries being

« (n + 4)

increment of Y.

d Y = ad>

d^ Y =
d'Y =
fi'- Y =

d'Y =^

Whence maki:i
we have

3 a-) + A.V (i + 3.r) + Ax^
+ 6x' — c X' + .%■', to find the

+ 2 i. »■</.!

+ 2id X-

— ^cx' dx + 4.1-' dx

- 6,.vdx- + I2.x-dx-
— 6 c d x' + 24 J- (/.r'

+ 24. dx*

thefe fubftitutions in thi

(hall, on the fame principles as in the precedmg examp!
have to find the integral of -

AY

~ 1+ A.

general theorem.

4)-v

Now by art.

/, r- = — X = ; becaufe A.r = — 4.
^ (.v-4;*- -^•^- •'^ 4--^-
iviaking, therefore, .v = i , we have ^ for the fum of the
whole leries, beginning at the firll term. We might have
added here a v;uiaty of other examples, had the limits of

Aa-(a + 23s:- 3<:a-^ + 4s:") + Ax"(* -
(r + 4 *•) + A .V.
Thefe examples will explain the method of applying the
theorem to any cafe that may arife, it being as univerfal in
its application in the theory of increments, or differences ;
as the binomial theorem is in tlie expanfion of roots and
powers ; but, like the latter, it was left by its author witl»-
out deraonllration : it has, however, received many fince from
feveral able mathematicians, though there is no one of the™
perhaps thit is quite fo Hui factory as might be wiflied ;
Maclaurin's refts upon the fluxional calculus, which it would
bedefirable not to introduce, if it could be obtained from i

the article admitted of it, but fuch ai are given wiU be found "''.f"^^^^^ "°J to mtroauce, it it couia be obtamed trom more
to apply in a number of cafes ; and will mdioate to the in- f;^ldent and obvious pnnc.ples. Another dem^onftrat.on of
telligent reade

the method of application in many others,
which are reducible to fimilar principles. It will be proper,
however, befoi-e we difmii's this fubjecl entirely, to fay a few
words on the celebrated theorem of Dr. Taylor, the learned
author of tiiis theory. This theorem may be exprell'ed as
follows :

Let Y'reprefentanyfunftion whateverof the variable quan-
tity X ; then if x be increafed by any difference ^ x, the
value Y, that is Y + A Y, becomes (adopting the ditl'

tial notation) Y + A Y = Y -|-
A ^1 ^' Y A A^ ^' Y ,

dY

' I.2.3rf.V=

A x^ d' Y

I.2.3.4-/..
A x' d' Y

A .V* d^ Y

. , , — 1 T^ j\ T&c.wherethe

law of continuation is obvious, and requires no farther de-
velopement ; it muft, however, be remarked, that when A x
is negative, the terms of the above feries mull be taken plus
and minus alternately ; and it will therefore be more ge-
nerally expreffed by

A .v ^ Y ^ A^^d' Y ^ A x' d' Y
2"^.v'

AY

I dA

■S'lx

4- &c.

In order then to find the increment of any function of a
variable quantity, we muft take the fuccelTivc order of its
fluxions, by whirh means all the fiuxional parts in botli tlie
numerator and denominator will difappear ; and we (hall
have the value of A Y expreffcd in terms of .r and A x; and
this exprelhon will always be finite, unlcfs the function be
tranfcendental.

Let us propofe the funftion Y — ax + b x- -^ x' to
find the value gf Y', when * becomes x + S x.

ims theorem, and which is confidered the moil fatisfadory
of any that has yet appeared, is given by I'Huilier of Ge-
neva, in his work entitled " Principiorum calculi diff. et
integr. expofitio elemenraris,'' in 4I0. publifhed m 1 795.
INCROACHMEN F, m Law. See Accroching.
INCRUSTATION, the lining or coating of a wall,
either with glolTy ftones, ruftics, marble, pottery, or ftuc-
co-work ; and that either equably, or in panels and com-
partiments.

Incrustation, in Natural Hijiary, is one of the modes
in which organic remains are preferved in the earth : the
petrifying or incrulling matter, forming fo thin a coat or
crull around the extraneous foiTii, that its external form is
nearly preferved on the ftony incruilation. Mr. Willian»
Martin claffes thefe among the artificial genera of reliquia,
and obferves, " Outhnes," p. 177, note, that "the common
calcareous incru Rations of our rivers, &c. have been ranked
as petrifaftions ; but, with more propriety, may be con-
fidered as incipient matrices.'' If the coat of mineral matter
be too tliick to exhibit externally the exact figure of the
foflil which it covers, fuch are called by this author fub-
incrulling matrices^ of wliich irontlone nodules inclofing
leaves of plants. &c. are well-known examples. The petri-
fying fprings of Derbylhire, (for a lill of which, fee Mr.
Farcy's Report on that county, vol. i.) and other calcareous
dillricls, are wall known for the curious and whimfical in-
cruflations which are there in a (liort time produced.

INCRUSTED, or iNCUusTATi-n Column. See Incruf.
tattd COLL.-UN.

INCUBATION, in Comparative Anatomy, is the term
applied to the coi.dudl of molt birds in relling or fitting upon
their eggs, in order to communicate to them the iieceiT.iry
degree of warmth for the excitement of their internal parts,
and the developcment of tlie foetus.

The phenomena produced by incubation are fo interefl.
C a .oit.

INCUBATION.

insr, on account of their exhibiting in a palpable manner
the progrefs of fcttal cxiftence, that they have been lludicd
by almolt every refpcctable phyfiologiil. Writings have
been left upon this fubjeft by Ariftotle, Hippocrates, Fa-
isriciuS ab Aquaoendente, Aldrovandus, Coiter, Veiling,
Harvey, Langly,' Schrader, Theod. Aides, Stenon, Need-
iiam, Malpighi,' Maitre Jan, Haller, Hunter, Monroe, &c.
befides fome later obfervations by Llumenbach, Levcille,
and other continental anatomilU. Notwitliflanding the
labours of fo many eminent men, fome of thenioft important
points in the hittory of incubation remain ilill undetermined.
The beft treatifes arc thofe of Malpighi, Maitre Jan, and
Haller, but even in thefe authors there are many errors to
correft, and, except fome detached figures that have been
p'.ibhfhed to illuilrate particular parts of this fubjeCt, we do
not poITcfs any tolerably good plates.

The deficiency and doubts that ftill reinain, with refpeA
to feveral parts of tlie hiilory of incubation, prove how
diflicult it is to invcftigate the fubjeft.

The membranes of the egg, and the organs of the chick,
are in general fo tender, that they do not admit of being
eafily or fatisfaftorily examined ; and when prepared by
inimerfion in fpirits,' acids, or other aftringeiit liquors,
their natural appearances and connefiions arc much ob-
fcured.

The progrefs in the growth of the membranes is found to
be in many circumftances unhkc what would be expefted,
and what it appears to be ; and the attachments of the mem-
branes to each other are extremely intricate and perplexing.
This part of the anatomy of the incubated egg, therefore,
principally requires improvement. In the following article
ve have endeavoured to fupply, by our own obfervations,
what was deficient in the hiilory of incubation, but, we mull
confefs, not with as much fuccefs as we could wifh ; there
are feveral anatomical points upon which we are obliged to
fpeak doubtfully, and we have not been able to fatisfy- our-
•felves rcfpeding the ufes attributed to fome of the parts of
the incubated egg, although we believe others will be found
to be elucidated by tlie experiments we have made, and which
are here related.

Moll writers upon incubation, appear to us to have paid
too much regard to the dates or periods at which they have
obfcrved the different events of incubation to occur. Much
exaftnefs with refpeft to dates is not of material confequence,
and if it were, it is not prafticable, for the progrefs of in-
cubation depends fo much upon climate, feafon, and tlie
dihgence of the parent, with many accidental circumftances,
that hardly any two eggs agree precifely in their ftate of
growth, at any given period of incubation : we are not, there-
fore, to wonder at the dift"erence amongft writers upon this
fubjeft with refpcdt to chronology.

The proper heat for the hatching of hens' eggs is 104° of
Fahrenheit, to which degree the furface of the body of the
hen will raife the thermometer when fhe fits upon her eggs.
In thofe birds that do not fit conftantly, but trufl to the
heat of the fun, the temperature of the eggs is probably /o//)V/c of Halli
below 104 degrees.

The full period of incubation by the hen, in this countrv,
19 well known to be 21 days. In warmer climates it is faid
to be a day or two lefs. The periods of incubation vary
much in dilTerent fpecies of birds : we introduce the follow,
ing table, which has been compiled from different authors
by count Morozzo, in a letter from him to Laclede, to
fhew the periods of incubation compared with thJfc* of tlic
life of certaia birds.

Ni«.e.ol- Birds

I'eriodsof their

Duration of
tlirir Life.

Authority.

Days

Y-ar..

S'wan

4»

about :so

Aidrovandi.

Parrot

40

100

Wolmaer.

Goof,-

30

80 or more

WiUoughby.

£,i'-!r

lO

\

'Bujlard -

30

period of life

\DuA-

30

\

not known.

Turhy .

3°

Peacock

26 to

27

i? to 28

f Ariftotle and
1 Pliny.
J A Treatife on
\ Pheafants.

Phcajant ■

20 —

25

iS — 20

Croiu

20

ICO or more

Hefiod.

Ni"hlln''ak -

19 to

20

17 to 18

Buffon.

Hm

'9

16 — iS

BiifFon.

Pigeon

17 —

18

16 — 17

j" Several obfer-
t vations.

Linmt

14

13 — 14

WilloughbT.

Canary

13 to

14

13 - 14

f A Treatile on
1 thefe Birds.

Goldfinch -

«3 —

14

iS _ 2 =

BufFon.

Crane and heron, as well ,
by the heat of the fun. Jou

ojlrich, hatch their eggs chiefly
. de Phyfique Ventos. an. 10. '

The ufual mode of exainining the progrefs of incubation,
is to gently frafture the fiiell, and pick it carefully off in
pieces with a p.iir of forceps. This fhoitld be done at the large
end, as it is there the changes of incubation commence, and
at all periods it will be found the moft convenient place for
breaking the fhell, on account of the air-cell being inter-
poled between it and the fluids of the egg. For particular
purpofes other modes of preparation mult be employed. If
it be our objeft to iludy the formation of the membranes,
thefe muft be feparated from the humours, and after being
cleanfed by being pafTed through feveral wtiters, th.ey are to
be floated in weak fpirits over a blue paper, or fome other
dark coloured fubftance. The ftrongeft fpirits, diftilled
vinegar, or a folution of alum, are neceffary to render the
organs of the foetus fufBciently plain for examination. The
only ufe of boiling the contents of the egg, is to fliew the
relative fituation and magnitude of different parts.

In many obfervations, it is necelTary to magnify by glafTes
the fubjefts of inveftigation ; we would however recommend,
that the fight be only affifted by the fingle lens. When a
higher power is employed it is liable to deceive.

After the egg has been fat upon for 12 hours, the quantity
of air contained between the two layers of the membrane
that hnes the (hell, is found to be a little increafed.

No evident cliange is yet to be obferved with rcfpcft to
the bulk or cimfillence of the humours.

The ivhtle fpot on the fupcrior furface of the yolk, which
contains the cicatricula of the ancient anatomifts, or tiie
is now fomewhat enlarged. There appears,
in its interior, a fmiill white body of an elongated and in-
diftiiift figure, which is furrounded by a line of a deep yel-
low or greenifii colour. If this part of the membrane be
removed and examined with a lens on the under furface,
after being a fhort time immerfed in fpirits or vinegar; it will
be difcovered that the elongated white body is the rudiment
of thc_/ar/uj, which is already inclofed in the itmnks. Tlic-
greenilh appearance would ieem to depend partly upon the
cxifteuce of the wnnios, and partly upon a deprclFion on the

fubftance

INCUBATION.

fubftance of the yolk, which is the origin of tlie bed of the
chick. We cannot determine whether this depredion con-
tains a fluid or not. The part of the white fpot which fiir-
roundi the deprcflion that contains the foetus, is occafioned
by the fiibftaiice of the yolk liaving a pecuUar organiza-
tion. At that point it is white, and has a curdy or
coaguhited appearance. Malpighi bcheved tliat lie could
difcern the foetus as early as the fixth hour, and even before
the egg had been fat upon ; but mod other obforvers have
not been able to fee any appearance, which they thought
deferved to be conlidcred as the fcetus, before the 1 2th hour.
It is, howevt-r, probable, that the embryo of the chick is
formed after impregnation, although from its extreme ten-
dernefs and obfcurity of figure, it cannot be detected until
it is a little developed by incubation.

The amnios appears to be coeval with the chick.

The rin^s or circles [ha/oncs) that furround the cicatri-
cula, are now fomesvhat enkrged, and more deiined in their
o\ithne. They alfo affume a httle of an oval figure. The
external circle is undulating, or forms wave?, through which
the colour of the yolk appears. Maitre Jan defcribes four
halones, Halleronly three; we have found the number van'.
This appearance of circles is not eafily accounted for. We
have thought it arolc from the feparation of the membranes
into their proper layers.

F:r/l Day, or after 24 Hours. — Upon opening an egg at
this period, it is perceived that the fpace formed for the
admiflion of air between tlie layers of the external membrane
is a little more enlarged.

The external '^kite appears fcarcely diminiflied ; it is fluid
and tranfparent, and runs out at tlie opening if the egg be
inclined to that fide.

The yolk is found to float higher \n the principal white than
before incubation, and appears a httle flattened upon the
upper furface.

The halones are more extended, particularly the outer one.
The internal one has acquired a little of a heart-lhape, and
is furrounded by a more defined line of a greenifli colour,
ivhich is the firll appearance of the outline of the veinous
area. There arc alfo lome faint and imperfecl traces of
green veiTels, or rather elongated points, to be dotecled in
different parts of the fpace inclofv;d by this line, which are
the rudiments of the veffels that are to compofe the area.

The amnios is well formed, and compofed of two circles
■which unite two ftraight lines, refembling the figure of a
peftle.

The Jalus has a more determined figure ; it is larger at
both extremities than in the middle ; but the end which cor-
refponds to its head is larger than the other, and forms an
oval mafs. Maitre Jau Hates that if an egg, after being under
the hen for 24 hours, be put into water, it will float with the
fmall end downwards, which is a proof that a part of its
fluids is loft, and replaced by the admiflion of air into the
air-cell at the great end of the egg.

After 36 hours we have found the greenifli line, already
mentioned, to have Hill more plainly the appearance of a
veflitl. Ii encompalTes a larger area, and afl"umes more com-
pletely the contour of a heart. The greenifli points alfo
now are continued into each, and put on the appearance of
veflels, which are moll numerous next the circumference of
the area, but prefent no evident conneclion with the foetus.
Some of thefe veiTels are fecn to contain red blood, more par-
ticularly thofe which pafs between the head of the chick
and the upper part of the veflel in fliape of a heart. In fome
cgg'» a- this period, we have found thefe red veflels approach
the chick but not join it :• in others they were coUefted by
a finglc branch, wliich palTcd behind the head of the chick.

This branch Levellle has called the meningo-cardiac vein,
and others the vena afcendens. There is confiderable va-
riety with refpeft to the period at which red veflels begin
to appear. We have feen them before the 36th hour, but
oftener, perhaps, not before the 40th, or even later. Authors
differ extremely on this point. Malpighi reprefents the
commencep'.ent of the veffels at the 30th hour (Append,
figs. 18 and Tf). ), and even delineates them at the 12th hour.
(Epift. 1. fig. 5.) Stcnon obferved them at the yiil hour ;
Vefling at the 43d, but f iw the points at the 42d hour.
Aldrovandus found them the third day. Maitre Jan de-
fcribed the firft appearance of veflels at the 38th hour,
and reprefented them dillinftly formed, and carrving ret!
blood at the 44th hour. (P'. 53 and 58, and fig. 10.)
Haller noticed lome reddidi points at the 36th hour, and
to the 48th, but did not perceive perfect red veflels before
the end of the third day. Memoire 2d fur la Formation
du Cccur dans le Poulet, &c. p. 23.

Thefe contradictory accounts depend in fome degree upon
their authors not having fufficiently attended to the exiilciict?
of colourlefs points and veffels before the formation of red
blood.

Haller ftates, that he obferved, at 31^ hours, the head of
the fatiis to have the appearance "of being fplit, which he
attributed to the vcficles of the brain having a fmall degree
of opacity, wUilll the membranes compofing the cranium
were fo tranfparent as to be feen through. Malpighi alii)
reprcfented this appearance. We have not noticed it.

Haller likewile defcribes the head of the chick to begin
to form at a right angle with the tail at the 40th hour.

After 48 hours, or tzvo days, the external halones occupy
a confiderable extent upon the furface of the yolk, and be-
come fainter in their appearance-

The liquid or external luUle is fomewhat diminiflied.
The principal -while begins to fubfide to the bottom and
fmall end of the egg.

The yolk-bag appears flatter upon the upper furface, and
its contents are a little more fluid than before incubation.

The chalaza, wliich were originally fituated at the two
poles of the yolk-bag, are now found fomewhat below them,,
and confequeiitly rather nearer to each other.

The -vafcular area (figure veineufe of Haller) is now in ge-
neral completely formed with colourlefs and red veffels. The
number of the latter is very variable. We have found them
at this period in very different flates of advancement, but
always difcoverable by the greenifli veffels which precede
them. The area has very perfetlly the figure of a heart,
except that the part correfponding to the bafis is formed by
the outline of the two fides being confiderably curved before
their junftion in the middle, at which place the outline of
the area forms a pointed projection downwards, which
nearly reaches to the head of the foetus. It is this part of
the area which receives the branches of the meningo-cardiac
vein already mentioned. The veffels are now alfo conneded
with the chick by means of their principal trunks.

The pulfalion of the heart is evident at this period, and
even in fome hours before, according to Maitre Jan's ob-
fervations. It appears to be produced by the alternate
conti-aftion and dilatation of two or fometimes three veficles.
This appearance is the punelum fa/iens of ihc older anatomifls,
and has been commonly, but erroiieoufly, reputed the firil
action of life.

One mode of preparing eggs for examination is to remove
a portiM^f the membranes including the foetus and vafcular
figure around it, and having waftied oft' any pieces of the yolk
that may adhere to them, immerfe them for a fliort time
in Ihong fpirils or dillillcd vhiegar, by wliicli means th»

pulpy

INCUBATION.

/pulpy fubftance that compofes the chick is rendered opaque
■ and vifible, and the ilrufture of the membranes more dif-
-tinguilhable.

If tliis Itep be taken with the egg at the prefent period,
■or even before it, a fine glofly tranfparent membrane will
be found upon the external furface of the yolk-bag, which

The vafcular arta is now generally found to be perfefled
with red velFels. The contour of the area is more extenfive,
particularly in the tranverfc direttion. The diameter being
now about an inch and a quarter, it has therefore lefs the
fliape of a heart : the pulfation of tlie three veficles, and
diftribution of the blood-veflels, are very clearly feen through

very readily detached, leaving the foetus and the vafcular the tranfparent membrane which covers them.

The amnios begins to affume the figure that it is after-
wards to poiTefs. T!ie two circles which encompafs the
head and the tail of tlie fatus become enlarged, principally
on the fore-part, or the fide next the right-hand of the ob-
fcrver ; but the fac is a little contracted on the fame lide
oppotite to the umbilicus of the chick, thus tending, in a
degree, to give the amnios the form of a kidney.

The fatus has a curved pofition forwards, and its body
appears larger in proportion to its head, than on the pre-
ceding day.

We have forborne to defcribe particularly the heart and
llood-veJfcU of the chick and area until the prefent period,
when they are more diftinclly feen.

In order to difcern pcrfcdlly thefe parts, the membrane

including the foetus and vafcular area (laould be removed from

the yolk-bag, floated in clear water, and examined with a

lens. The vafcular area contains four or five principal

branches, which ramify upon the membrane, and

beneath. This membrane, we conceive, is the fame
which, llrengthened by the veficila umbilicalis, becomes the
one which at lall entirely envelopes the contents of the incu-
bated egg.

The membrane, containing the vnfcular aira at the fecond
day, may be dillinguifhed to be conipofed of two layers ;
the external is fmooth, and receives the veflels ; the internal
.is a little thickened and fpongy. The remaining portion of
the yolk-bag is not feparable into diiferent layers. From
lience it would appear that the divifion into layers is the
confequence of veiTels being diilributed to the membrane.

The amnios is now found a little larger, and the tranf-
parent fluid with which it is filled in greater quantity. The
fuperior circle alfo, or that which inclofes the head of the
chick, is larger than the lower.

The futus has altered its fhape a little. The head has
acquired fomething the figure of the ace of clubs, the an-
terior prominence of which correfponds to the nofe and
mouth ; and the two otiigr projections are the velicles con-
taining the brain in a very foft pellucid ftate. Maitre Jan produce a very clofe and intricate net-work towards the cir-
ftates that the eves alfo are vifible at this period. (P. 77.) curafcrencc of the area. Thefe branches appear, when the
Haller did not fee the eyes before the 5 1 R hour, at which chick is in the natural fituation, to be lo many dUbna trunks.

Two of them are feen to come from the fides of the chick,
ther parts of the head, by their'promin'ences a third from under the tail, and one, or fometimes two,

^ branches from under the head of the chick. The two firft

oommonly called the vmbilical veflels, as they come out

time they had not any colour, and were merely diftinguilh

able from th "

and fituation. Seft. sii. Second Memoir

The /jf^ir/, before tl;e chick is removed from the membranes

and rendered opaque by immerfion in fpirits, appears to be of the chick at the umbilicus : they would, perhaps, with

ituated on the outfide of the body, and the pulfating points
feem unconnefted w th each other ; but upon a clofe exami-
nation it is feen that the heart is not uncovered, although,
from its projection, and the natural tranfparency of the
parietes of the chetl, it had every appearance of being fo.
The heart altogether refembles a horfe-fhoe in form, or a
portion of a circle, of which the convexity is turned for-
wards, and the limbs backwards, one being directed to th

more propriety, be called mefenteric veins, as we have much
reafon for fuppofing that they are t'je fame which are fo
plainly branches of the mefenteric vein in the latter ftages of
incubation. At the prefent period they terminate in the
vein which correfponds to the vena cava and vena ports.
Both the branches which emerge from undei the tail and
head of the foetus are found to be given off from the umbi-
lical veins jult ouifide the body of the chick. This origin is

upper part

of the cheit, and the other to the lower. The concealed from view until the lower furface of the membranes

heart at this time coniills of an auricular canal, a ventricle
and a bulbous enlargement belonging to the aorta. The twc
iall are the falieiit points, and when the chick is fo far ad
vanced that the auricle is formed and pulfates, which is fome.
times the caic at the 4Sth hour, there are three falient points

nd chick are carefully examined. Several anatomifts feem
to have publifhed errors with refpeft to the fuperior or
afcending vcfiels of the vafcular area. They are often de-
fcribcd as diftintt branches, which are lull on each fide of
the notch or chink, which has been already mentioned to

be feen. Maitre Jan defcribes four falient points, and exilt during the firll days of incubation in the contour of

fuppofes that they are the rudime;its lof the two ventricles

and two auricles of the heart. At other times, he fays he

has fo;;ietimes feen but three pulfating points, or perhaps

two, or only one. Haller, who paid particular attention to Malpighi, Maitre Jan, Haller

the developement of the heart of the chick, contradicts branches always unite into

the vafcular area. They were, therefore, fometimes fuppofed

to be feparate vefTels. Langly reprefented them to be at

firrt diilindt branches, which united at the 6il'c hour; but

&c. ftate that thefe two

behind the head of the

Maitre Jan's account. At the 4Sth hour he could difcover foetus w
but two falient points ; at the joth hour he faw three, but
on no occafion more than that number. He fuppofes that
when there arc two falient points the auricle does not pulfate,
and when only one the bulb of the aorta is without motion.
Me.noire !. p. S3.

The End of the third Dny, or Seventy-two Hours. — This is
a very important period in tlie hiilory of incubation.

The reparation of the layers of the external membranes
for the admifTion of air continues to increafe.

The ha/ones are fcarcely to be difcovcred. The yoU is ever, reprefented it as being compofed of an intcrtexture, or
more extended, and the white continues to graviiate to the plexus of the ultimate branches of the veins which are fpread
lower parts of the egg, over the vafcular figure. There appears to be fome founda-

tioQ

they do not fooner. Malpig!ii, Maitre Jan, and
others, however, rcpref nt this veflel as coming from the
heart : Maitre Jan even fuppofes it may be the afcending
aorta. Our obfervations, neverthelefs, lead us to agree with
Haller refpedting this veflel, who ftates it to be a branch of
'the umbilical vein. It is this veflel to which Leveille has
given, as we conceive improperly, the name oi meningo-cardiac

The veflel which forms the contour of the vafcular area
has been commonly defcribed as a fingle vein : Malpiglu, how-

INCUBATION.

tjon for both thefe accounts, according to our obfervations :
tlius we have fometimes fccn with a lens the appearance de-
fcribed by Malpiglii, and at the fame time the fingle trunk
nearly traiifpareut from wanting red blood, and enveloped
and concea ed by the intricate ; iid clofe plexus formed by
the extremities of the veins of the external part of the area.
We believe, however, that there is in every cafe originally
a fmgle veffel which makes the outline of the veinous figure
or area, and which exifts previosifly to the vefTels which com-
municate with the chick. It is not uncommon to find this
veffel deficien: at fome parts of the circumference of the area,
more cfpecial y at the fuperior part, where the outline makes
the pointed projection inwards towards the hei-d of the chick.
Sometimes a vein is feen to pafs acrofs the chink formed by
the outhne at this part.

The arteries which go to the vafcular area bear no propor-
tion to the veins. They are fo fmall that they are not eafily
feen, and even have been by fome fuppofed not to exill.
The left umbilical artery is in general much more coniiuer-
able than the right ; indeed we have fometimes doubted
whether the latter cxiited or not. They accompany the
veins in their courfe, but are not fuppofed to have any in?.me-
diate conneftion with the veffe! winch forms the contour of
the area. Befides the fmail lize of the arteries at this period
of incubation, they are difficult to difcover on account of all
the blood-veffels of the egg caiTying blood of the fame co-
lour. During the firfl: days the blood is a bright fcariet,
or pofTeffes an arterial charafter. The parts compofing the
heart of the chick, although formed feveral hours before,
are now particularly evident. The vein, which in the firll
periods conveyed the blood from the vafcular area to the
horfe-ftioe dilatation correfponding to the heart, is now feen
to be the vena cava, or rather it {hould be coniidered as the
vena port;e and cava together. At the fuperior part of this
vein a dilatation is formed, which is prolonged tranfverfely
forwards, and inclines a little downwards. This dilated part,
in which the vena cava ends, is the origin of the fingle auri-
cle of the heart of the fa;tus, and is the firll veficle in order
which is feen to pulfate.

Towards the end of the third day, according to Haller,
the enlargement of the head of the vena cava becomes greater,
and is diltinguiflied from the reft of the vein by a whitilh-
coloured interval ; it is llill, however, but a fingle cavity :
its greateft diameter is acrofs from the right to the left fide
of the fcetus. The canal which conveys the blood from tlie
auricle into the ventricle {le cnnd aurkulmre of Haller),
exiils, as already mentioned, before the vena cava becomes
dilated to form the auricle, at which time it might be con-
fidered as the continuation of the cava. This canal is, there-
fore, one of the firil formed parts of the heart. It is moll
long and Header when it firil appears, and gradually con-
tracts in length, until it is loll in the fubilance of the heart.
It is fmallelt where it arifLS from the auricle, and wided
where it opens into the ventricle : its diameter, however, is
always lefs than that of the latter. It enters the ventricle
on the left fide, for which purpofe it defcends a little, and
therefore erodes the aorta, which arifes from the ventricle
en the right fide and afcends backwards. There arifes from
the dcculfation of thefe two vefTcls the appearance of a kind
of knot, and the auricular canal feems to double upon itfelf,
in order to be continued with the aorta in the oppofite and
concealed fide of the knot.

When the auricular canal is viewed on the right fide, its
extremity is concealed, and the manner in which it opens
into the ventricle cannot be perceived : it feems rather as if
fe^aratedfro.Ti the ventricle by a line which is the border of

the heart. But if it be- viewed on the left fide, there is na
difficulty in difcovering its communication with the ven-
tricle.

The ■ventricle is a fingle cavity during the firft four or five
days of incubation ; or rather, the left ventricle exifls only at
that period. When the two ventricles make their appear-
ance, it is in confequence of the right ventricle being added
to that which had already been formed. The left, or fingle
ventricle, arifes out of the ring-fhapcd veffel, which con-
ftitutes the firft appearance of the heart, and probably is the
firft point which pulfatcs. It is an oval veficle, with tranf-
pareiit parietes in the commencement ; but it foon acquires-
more of a conic figure, with a pointed apex, and greater
thicknefs and mufcular power : it is, however, very nearly
oval at the prefent period.

The aorla, as already mentioned, is coeval with the firft
appearance of the heart, and exijls before the formation of
the auric'.e. It is then very long, and its arch is mucii
greater in proportion to the length than in the fuccecding
periods of incubation, as in the adult bird. It miikes an
extenfive curve backwards, in order to enter the cheft, im-
mediately under the head, and compofes a confiderable part
of the ring winch reprefents the heart. On the left fide
this artery appears as if cut off" by a line which terminates
the heart. The auricle, when formed, is furrounded bj-
the arch of the aorta, which is fuperior, and more for-
wards.

A few hours after, the part of the aorta which appears to
be out fide the cheft, becomes fhorter, and fome inequa-
lity is perceived in its diameter. The pnrt of the aorta,
which immediately arifes from the ventricle, is more con-
tracted than any other ; and the wave of blood which is
feen to pafs through it is very (lender. Haller gives the
name oi\hs J!i\vt [leJdroit) to this part.

The next pai-t of the aorta is a dilatation, to which Haller
has given the name of the luib of the aorta. This portion
of the velTel, as already mentioned, conftitutcs one of the
pulfating points, and is iecn to beat even before the auricle.
The bulb of the aorta has been milhikcn by Malpighi for
the left ventricle, which, confidering its lively and early pul-
fation, was not unnatural. He likewife was led by the
fame error to take the fingle ventricle, which is atlually the
left for the right, or pulmonary ventricle of the heart.

The third portion of the aorta is cylindrical ; its direc-
tion is changed, and it repretnts with the preceding a point
or beak. It is fmaller than the bulb, but larger than the
branches which go to produce the dorfal aorta. Haller calls
this part the bee de I'aorte.

Soon after the prefent period, and before the end of
the fourth dsy, there are branches feen to arife from the
beak of the aorta, in order to form the dorfal portion of that
veffel.

The three parts -ivhich compofe the heart of the foetal
chick pulfate fo rapidly, when examined immediately after
the egg is opened, that the eye cannot follow them; but in
proportion as the chick becomes cold and feeble, the inter-
vals between the pulfations become longer. Th.e pulfations
may be thus gradually reduced to fifteen, to ten, to five, i;r
two, or at laft even to but one in a minute ; neverthelefs, th*
celerity with which each contraftion is performed is fcarcely
diminifhed.

When the pulfations of the heart are rendered fufficiently
flow to be counted, they are perceived to follow each other
in a regular fucceffion. The auricle always beats the firft of
the three veficles. In its lyftole the point defcends, and the
fides are approximated : it fcarcely ever appears to expei
J cutitelj-

INCUBATION.

entirely the drop of blood it contains, and therefore it re-
tains almoft conftantly a degree of red colour.

The wave of blood whicli proceeds from the auricle ap-
pears to vanifh, as one cannot fee its courfe into the ventricle
unlefs the heart be beheld obHquely from above : then the
blood will be feen to pafs along through the auricular canal,
which, as before obferved, is concealed by the ventricle.

The contraftion of the ventricle fucceeds to that of the
auricle : it approximates its fides, and becomes narrower and
ftiorter. The ventricle frequently becomes quite pale during
its contraftion, owing to the entire expulfion of its contained
blood.

After the contraftion of the ventricle follows that of the
bulb of the aorta, which pulfatcs as quickly and perfeftly as
the ventricle itfelf It empties itfelf completely at each
contraftion, and therefore appears quite pale at thefe
moments.

The pulfatory movement terminates at the origin of the
three veifels which go to form the dorfal aorta, and this vef-
fel declines very much in bulk oppolite to the umbilicus ;
the branches which go to fupply the inferior parts of the
foetus being very infiguificant.

The different membranes become more diflinft at the end of
the third day than they were before. At this period alfo
the firft appearance is feen of that remarkable membrane,
which is called by fome aHantois, and by others veficula urn-
bilicaltj.

When a portion of the membrane is removed containing
the vafcular area and the chick, and watlied and fpread out
in clear water, it is found to contain four layers. The firfl
is thin, tranfparent, and iliining, and rcfembles that which
forms the yolk-bag before incubation. It very readily fe-
parates from the other layers. The fecond is alfo tranfpa-
rent, and ftill thinner than the firft, but is more adherent to
thofc underneath it. The third is the membrane in which
the blood-veffels are diftributed that form the vafcular area ;
and the fourth is the internal or fpongy membrane of the
yolk-bag. The third membrane feems to grow with the
vafcular area, by which it appears to be bounded : the inter-
nal membrane of the yolk-bag is at this period a little
fpongy or villous at every part, but much more fo under the
vafcular area than .it any oUier place.

The chick inclofcd in the amnios is fituated between the
two firft and two la ft of thefe membranes.

The vefcula uml/ilicalis, when firft difcovered, makes its
appearance as a fmail fpherical tranfpareut bag, which pro-
jects out of the opening into the abdominal cavity of the
chick, that is left by the reflection of the amnios inwards.
At this period, and for fome time afterwards, it is diftended
by a clear fluid.

The end of the fourth day, or ninely-fx hours, the ap-
pearance of halcnes is in general no longer to be perceived.

The vafcular area is fo much extended that it occupies
near the half of the fuperficies of the yolk : the outline lias
no remains of the heart fliape, but has affumed an oval
figure, the greateft diameter of which is in the tranfvcrfe
direction of tlie chick.

The air-cell continues to enlarge at the great end of the

. The external or liquid ivhite appears to be all confumed.

The principal tvhlle is chiefly to be found in the lower
parts of the egg, <md when poured out is feen to adhere a
little to the internal layer of the membrane of the fhell at
the fmall end of the egg.

The yoli-iag k ilill flatter in its figure than before, and
its contents are evidently more fluid than they were previous
to incubation.

The chalatit continue to approach each other below the
poles of the yolk-bag.

The amnios is confiderably increafed, contains more fluid,
and forms a deeper bed for the chick on the membrane of
the yolk-bag.

The ivficula umbiHealis has made a rapid progrefs fince the
end of the third day. It now projcfts confiderably beyond
the fcEtus. It appears flatter, and lefs full of fluid than at
firft ; and at this period, by examination with a magnifying
glafs, a veflel may be feen to ramify upon it.

Upon opening the yolk-bag, and waftiing off the yolk, the
fpongy coat is feen to be elevated in the courfe of the blood-
veflels of the vafcular area : this is the firft appearance of
the valvular ftrufture of the yolk-bag, of which more here-
after.

The fatus is ftill more curved in its form, the prominence
corrcfponding to the bill being bent down upon the breait.
The rudiments of the upper extremities are apparent : they
are two white buds or Jhort projeftions. The lower limbs
are hkewife produced, but without any more form. The
cerebral veficles are more eminent ; and, when opened, their
contents are found, though ftill pellucid, to be mixed with
fome whitifh fibres, which form opaque clouds, and are the
commencement of the brain.

Haller found the heart beginning to undergo fome changes
about this period. The auricle, when viewed in the ufual
manner on the right fide of the foetus, is feen to contain two
femicircles. The moft poftcrior of thefe, or the one neareft
the vertebrae, is the largeft, and terminates the auricle. The
anterior femicircle is fmaller, and divides the auricle as a kind
of feptum. This is the firlt appearance of the diftinftiou
of the auricles into two. That which is to be called the
left is the larger, and projefts over the right pofteriorly.
The latter, which is the fmaller, has a femilunar termination,
which is comprifed in the breadth of the left auricle. The
Tcna cava and the auricular canal are inferted in the interval
of the two auricles.

The diftinftion of two auricles is likewife to be feen on
viewing the heart on the left fide. That which is to become
the left is oval, wider than the other, and paffes beyond the
auricular canal.

At the end of the fourth day, or foon afterwards, the
two auricles become more feparate from the vena cava and
the auricular canal. They projetl over thefe veflels, and are
elevated from the two fides of the bafe of the heart into a
pointed top. The whole of the auricle, or the united refer-
vuir of tlie right and left auricles, appears then as a fac with
two pointed horns : each of thefe pointed tops has a fepa-
rate drop of blood. The border of both the auricles ap-
pears at this time notched. Mem. 2d fur la Formation du
Coeur dans le Poulet, &c. par M. de Haller, p. 70.

The auricular canal, towards the end of tlu; fourth day,
paffes more in a direction from above downwards than for-
merly.

According to Maitre Jan, the rudiments of the lungs are
vifible at this period ; but Haller afferts that they do not
appear before the 138th hour. The former author defcribea
at this time, in the neighbourhood of tin- heart, little ieddifl\
clouds, apparently of a fpongy r.ature, winch iippear more or
lefs red, alternately, as the heart moves, and which remain of
an uniiorm colour when the heart has ceafcd to beat. Maitre
Jan admits that the pulmonary veflels cannot yet be difcern-
cd, but fuppofes from the above effeft of the heart's motion,
that tiicy do exlft, although they are not vifible. (Obfervat.
fur la Formation du Poulet, par Maitre Jan, p. 1 15 and 1 22.)
— Not having examined this point, we cannot decide between
thefe aOtlioritits, but we fliould judge it improbable that the
0 pulmonary

INCUBATION,

pulmonary vefle's could regularly tranfmit blood to the lungs,
and yet pot be vilible.

Botli Hallcr and Maitre Jan agree that the liver makes its
appearance towards the end of the fourth day. It is feen as
a vifcous cloud of a reddiih yellow colour, fituated between
the umbilical veiiels and the defcendiiig aorta. It is render-
ed nioi-e vifible and opaque by moillening it with dilliiled
vinegar.

The eye of the fcctus appears black, the choroid coat
being forrntd ; and the fuperior part of the eye cliicfly pre-
lenting itfelf to \\c\~, the pupil is fituated in the inferior
portion of the i ye.

The tm! of the fifth Jay, or i2o hours, the vafcuhr area
is fo much extended as to cover generally more than half the
fuperficies of the yolk-bag. The trunks of the veffels are
proportionally increafed in fize, but the branches near the
circumference are not fo much advanced. Some additional
vefTels are feen to proceed from the umbilicus of the chick
towards the left fide of the area. Thefe a]>pcrtain to the ve-
ficula umbiiicalis, as will be better underllood hereafter. All
the blood-veffeis of the area, which were in the firft days of
incubation of a fine fcarlet, are now commonly found of a
dufky red colour.

The air.iios continues to increafe in magnitude, and con-
tains fo much fluid, that the chick appears to be furrounded
by a green liquor.

Tiie ch'ich, efpecially when excited by a little external heat,
can be perceived to move its limbs.

When the external membrane is removed, the vcftcu'a
umhiUcalis is found to be confiderably larger than it was the
preceding day. It is likewife perceived to have contrafied
fome adhefion with the external membrane, which however is
undone by a flight force, particularly after the membranes
have been a (horc time immerfed in vinegar or fpirits.

The branches of blood-vefTels which are dillributed upon
the veficula, belong to a trunk that comes out through the
opening of the abdomen at the umbilicus of tiie chick. The
veficula is connefted with the fcEtus by means of a neck, or
contrafted part, which is likewife received into the abdo-
men at the umbilicus.

M.iitre Jan defcribesat this period a numberof fine branches
of blood-ved'els upon the (kin of the chick : we have not,
however, obferved thefe fo early.

When the internal furface of the yolk bag is examined, it is
found that the eminences upon it, already mentioned, have
affumed the form of veflels ramifying from the centre, where
the ch:ck is fituated, to the circumference of the vafcular
area. This appearance has been miilakcn by many of the
older anatoraifts for real veffels dillributed upon the inner
furface of the yolk-bag, and were fuppofed by fonie to be
defigned to convey tlic yolk to the chick. When the appear-
ance of the yellow veffels of the yolk-bag is firll prefented,
it is very difficult to detect the realocca(ion of it, but as it
advance.s, it becomes plain that the effect is produced by the
inflexion or doubling of the inner membrane of the yolk-
bag, ill the courfe of the real blood-veffels of the bag. By
a careful examination o: the matter w ith a lens, even at this pe-
riod, we have always perceived the .ippearance of yellow vellcls
to arite from the blood-veffels running in grooves, or refledlions
of tlie inner membrane. When the two tunics of the bag are
feparatcd, the blood-veffels are found to belong to the exter-
nal, upon the inner fide of which they appear as emineiit
lines ; wliile upon the external iide of the inner coat there are
correfponding grooves or Lmpreffions.

The hear,' Al this period begins to undergo the changes by
which it approximates in ftruclure the heart of the adult
bird. It becomes perpendicular, or in the line of the foetus,

Vol. XIX.

from being placed in a tranfverfe direftion. The point is re-
curved between the two lobes of the liver.

The auricles become more diflinft, and the interval be-
tween them white.

The auricular canal is confiderably fliortcned.

Thi ficond ot right ventricle begins to be forced before the
termination of the fifth day. It appears as a little fac under
the bulb of the aorta. It is much (horter than the original
ventricle, above which it is placed. Its figure is oval, and
it has a red colour. In a fliort time the new ventricle is feen
in its proper fituation, that is, on the riglit fide of the heart.
Haller Hates that he found it placed on tlie rigiit as early as
the 1 1 7th hour. There are tl.en two dillindt drops of blood
in this part of the heart of the foetus, and a white line is per-
ceived between them.

The aorta arifes from the left ventricle. The branches,
which are furnifiied in order to form the dorfal aorta, have an
inclination downwards, and unite in an acute angle. At
this period alfo the bulb sf the aorta begins to diminifti, and
to retire into the flefli of the heart.

The liver is more diilinft than at the end of the preceding
d.iy ; it is divided into lobes, and is of a pale or yellowifn
red co'our. Its veffels receive blood.

Haller firfl perceived the redum at this period, although
the Itomach and other intellines were not yet formed. It ap-
pears in the (hape of a trident, the lateral proceffes of which
arc produced by the rudiments of the tv.-o cosca.

The End of the 6lh Day, or 144 Hours. — Eggs placed fo
long under the hen are confiderably diniiniflied in weight,
which is even perceivable on taking them into the hand. The
facll begins to appear more dry, and opaque coloured, and is
more fr.igile than before incubation.

The diminution of weight depends upon the enlargement
of the air-cell, which now extends over a confiderable part of
the great end of the egg. Miitre Jan has taken fome pains
to prove that the air contained in he e'g<g is not derived from
the atmofphere. He luppofed that the fluids filtered through
the inner layer of the membrane which lines the fhell, and
that by the a£lion of heat, they were volitili/.ed or
converted into air. This opinion is not only improbable,
but refuted by particular fafts. On opening the air-cell, we
do not find its furface to poffefs any moifture ; that layer of
the membrane which lies next the humours of the i<g%, al-
tliough lei's thick, is fmoother, denfer, and lefs porous than
the layer immediately in contaft with the (hell, and therefore
lefs fitted to admit the tranfpiration of either fluids or air.
The chemical properties of the gafeous contents of the air-cell
feein to put it beyond all doubt that the atmofphcric air paffcs
into the egg. (Seethe article Egg.) We rtial! only add,
that when we have varniflied the external furface of the flicll
the air-cell no longer increafed in fize.

Upon opening an egg at this period of incubation, it. is
not unufual to fee the chick turned upon its back, inllead of
lying, as before, upon its left fide. This circumftance feems
to depend upon the amnios having fo much increafed in fizc
that the fuctus may roll round within it.

Tiie membranes around the chick begin to acquire more
ftrcngthand firmnefs, which is the confequcncc of the vefi-
cula umbilicahs becoming more clofely and exttnfively •
united to the external membrane.

The veficula is now found to be very much increafed in mag-
nitude, and to cover a confiderable portion of the volk-b'jg.
When the membranes furrounding it are cut open, and the
veficle expofed, its neck or peduncle may be traced as a fine
tranfpavent tube to the reiitum, by a cartful examination,
particularly if the parts have been rendered opaque, b)'
D being

INCUBATION.

being a fhort time fteeped in vinegar or (Irong fpirits. Where have been dcfcribed in the preceding dars as contributing
it opens into the reftum it is dilated. to form the dorfal aorta. The right diiift is la-er in ap-

The connexion that exids between the veficulaumbilica^is, pearing than the other, and hence, when the aorta is firit
and the end of the rectum, b)- means of a tube analogous to difcovered, it is obferved to be onlj- formed by two, branches.
the iirachus, has induced Haller and others to confider this About this period the liin^s have fiifSci'nt confidence to
bag as the refervoir of urine. be viiihle. ^Vhen they are rendered opaque by vinegar.

We fhall find in tlie fubfequent periods of incubation, that they are found to be not to fmall, that they might not have
the veficula umbilicalis performs very important and other been feen fome time before if their tranfparency had per-
funftions than thofe of a refervoir of urine, in which, never- mitted it. Their figure is cylindric Miey are attached
thelcfs, it does not perhaps materially differ from the allantois polleriorly to the back, and connected with the two fides of j
of quadrupeds. the heart. :

It is necefTary here to notice an error which two of the bell The Ussr has acquired more of its future form than it had 1
writers upon the fubjeft of incubation have fallen into with the preceding day. i

refpcft to the veficula umbilicahs. Both Malpighi and The y/om.w/i is apparent at this time. It is very thin and
Maitre Jan fuppofcd it to be a part which afterwards be- tender, and refembles a good deal the forn of the human
came the ftomach of the chick. This miitake appears to ftomach ; its orifices are, however, nearer to each other,
have been occafioned by the veficula becoming, as we Ihall The llomach is received between the lobes of the liver,
afterwards defcribe, fo much extended as to lofe the figure of The fluid contained in the csrelral v^Jicks has acquired by
a bag, and from being united to other membranes, only to this time fome confidence.

be diitinguifiied with difficulty. Its being wifible nearly three The /(■(V/a/V.f ai-e difcovered during this day as long rcddifli
days before the ftomach ; acquiring even then a much greater granulated lines or traces in the loin<;.

ftze than that vitcus pofieOes, and differing effentially in The End of the "Jtli Day, or l6i Hours. — Upon opening art
figure and texture, fliould however have preveiited thefe two egg at this period, we perceive thac the changes already
parts from being confounded with each other. mentioned in the form, confidence, and fituation of the hu-

The chick, on the fixth day, has aiTumed a good deal of its mours have continued to increafe.
natural form. The exti-emities are fo much developed, that The 'white tends more towards the lower part and fmall
the divifions of thefe members are vifible. The wings have end of the egg : it continues to diminifh, and to become
their bent figure, and the legs are added to the thighs. more tenacious in its compofition.

This period ishkewife marked by the firil appearance of The j'»/i is more fluid, more fpread out, and apparently-
mod of the important org.aus of the body, befides fome of a larger fize than before. Haller neverthelefs found it
changes in thofe already formed. at this date to poflefs its original weight.

Haller ftates that he could difcern xht pericardium at this The i/oo(/-i'^/r which are diftnbutcd upon the membranes,

time. and which were in the firll dap, as before meut^ncd, of a

The two auricles are ftill more diRinft than at the end of brilliant fcarlet, are now in moll eggs found to be all of

the preceding day. , the purple or venous colour. The uniformity of colour

The auricular caiuil, which had before begun to retire makes it difScult to diftinguiih the arteries : ihey can in-

tvltliin the flefli of the heart, is now not vifible. deed be only afcerta'ned by diuefting the membranes and

The -venlricks are better formed, and broad at their purfuing the courfe of the velTels into the body of the

bafe. chick.

The lulb, ^ejlrait, and the leal of the aorta, which gave ' The amnios is ftill larger at this tlian any previous pe-
ovigin, in the early periods, to the princi;>al arterial trunk, riod; it prefervcs its kidney form, and its fluid is tranfparent,
are in general not apparent at the end of the fixth day. and cannot be rendered opaque, or -coagulated by vinegar or
This veffel is feen to come forth from the bafis of the heart fpirits.
itfeif. The -officula umhilicaUs goes on incrcafing in fize, and its

"VIk pulmonary artery was fccn by Haller firft, about the veflels acquire ftrength.
middle of the fixth day. This veffel is lei's firm and opaque The chick has its members more dev^hiped. The feet are
than the aorta ; it arifes from the L-ftfide of liic bafis of the added to th.e poderior extremities, and even the tots can be
heart with a little bulb. It is ufu.^lly of lefs diameter than difcerned. O.Tification has commenced. Haller ftates that
the aorta. Almeft at its exit from the heart it divides into he prepared i[\(i femur and tibia at the 146th hour. The
two brandies. fa-o mandibles begin to form at the under part of the head.

The branch on the left fide forms an arch, in order to leaving an aperture between them, which is to be th?
reach the lung cf that fide in pafiing behind the bronchia : mouth. _

it joins the aorta, towards the thud vertebra of the back. Haller at this period obferved the firft convolutions of
The branch of the pulmonary artery, which is inferted the fnufl infe/lines, which were fo extremely tender as not
into tl:e dorfal aorta, is longer than the di:c!ar arteriofus of to admit of being touched, although the reAum was appa-
quadrupeds, to which it is analogous. It fliould, how- rent two days before.

ever, r.ceive the name of left, as birds have a fimilar ar- The fpL-en now firft makes its appearance. Haller fup-
ferial duft upoo the right fide. The left lung receives aeon- pofcd that he could likewife difcern the renal capfules and
Uderabk branch from the dudus while on its way to join the ow.ries.

aorta. The intermediate of the three veffels which arife from tlifi

Tiie other principal branch of the pulirionary artery heart to form the dorfal aorta, is, about this time, feen to-
paJjTes tranfverfely to the right fide, under the aorta ; to furniih the /oto carotids ; it is the fame velTel wliich be-
which it adheres. It furnillies the artery to the right lung, comes the defending au-ia, when the ftrutiure of the pul-
and defcends behind the bronchia, in order to open into monary artery is completed. Haller dates that the puifa-
the aorta, higher than the left branch already mentioned, tion of the aorta ceafes after the 154:!! hour.
The right arterial duft is much fmaller than the left. The eye of the foetus is confideiably developed at the-

Thele arterial du<;ts arc two of the three branches, which prefent period. The three huniours exift : the r/.'rfouj iff

3 extremely^

INCUBATION".

- -loly abundant, upon whicli depends tlie great bulk of
,.■3 of the chick about this time. The h-ris is fmall.
'. .: • irit h formed, but is very tranfparent. The trunks of
the op:ic n;rves and retina are %-ilible. The latter is tran-
fparent and plaited, and feems to go as far as the lens. The
radiaad black lines whicii form the corona cUinris are feen
through the retina, placed around the external part of the
Ions.

The End of the 8th Day, or 1 92 Hours. — The vnfcular area
has incrcafed fo much by this timej that it very nearly
covers all the fuperticies of t!ie yolk-bag, ■except what is
in contail with the white. The branches of vefiels, how-
ever, begin to decline or difappear in fome parts, particii
larly towards the circumference, although the trunks are
larger than at any former period.

The blood-vefll-ls belonging to the veficula umbilicalis are
conliderably enlarged and extended, and are now feen to
turn backwards, or be refleftcd upon themfelves in the di-
reftion of the chick. The reilecled portion of the vefTeis
of the veficula appears to be diiiribnted to the fup':rior half of
that bag which is now in contaft v.ith the external membrane.
This ir.enibra:ie, v.Iiich was in the firft perit;ds of incuba-
tion, as already mentioned, perfectly tranfparent, by its con-
Tieftion with the veficula becomes vafcular, and acquires
ftrength, and contributes to form a complete fac, which en-
velopes in the latter d.-,\s all the humours and the chick, as
will be hereafter defcribed.

The veficula umbilicalis is found at the prefent period to
have a coniiderable extent, according to our obl'ervations
much greater than has been reprefented by anatomiRs in
general, who do not feem to have been acquainted with
the ufes of this bag in the later ftages of incubation.

The chlcl is a very palo pink coloiu-, or white flightly
tinged v/iih red, in confequcncc of the vafcularity of the
furiace p.^eparatory to the formation of the fliin and feathers.

When the head of the chick is viewed pofteriorly, it pre-
fcnts the appearances of four eminences, which are an opaque
white, and are joined to each other by tranfparent mem-
branes. Maitre Jan confiders them as the rudiments of the
bones of the craninm in a cartihginous Uate, and the tran-
fparent parts as correfponding to tlie futures and fontanel.
H.iUcr fpeaks of thefe eminences as four lobes of the brain.
We conceive the account of Maitre Jan to be more corrcdl.

The head being opened at this period by Maitre Jan, he
ftates that he diitinguifiied ihe membranes, xhe Jinufes, and the
v^e's of the brain, and that the fubllance of the cerebrum
and cerd'ellum was well formed, the convolutions even bein^r
apparent. Tiiis obfervation, according, to our experience,
is premature.

Tiie (IrucViire of the eye is more perfect tlian before.
The ci!i:iry •z.one, according to Halicr, is as perfcA at the
prefent period as at any time afterwards. Its defcription,
h jwever, is eafier fome days later.

The bill of the chick is cartilaginous. The animal oc-
cafionally opens it in the water of the amnios as if attempt-
ing to fivalio-.v.

The broail of the fcctus, which was covered by a thin
membrane, tiiat in the firll days was fo tranfparent, as to
give ri;e to the miilake of the heart being outfide the
chel^, hajat the prefent time fome fle(h upon it. About
this period alfo the rudiments of i\\<: Jlernum and of the
rilit may be difcovered.

The gal'-lifjMr makes its firft appearance towards the
end of the eiglith day, at which period, and for a few days
aft'Twards, it is very fniali and without colour.

.;'. ,.it this lime the refleftions of the inner tunic of the

yolk-bag, wliich we have defcribed at the end of the fifth
day,-as putting on the appearance of yellow vefiels, acquire
more decidedly the form of valves. They lUU preferve the
fame fituation and courfe, coinmenciiig under the bed of
the fcctus, pnd extending outwards in a radiated manner to-
wards tlie circumference of the vafcular area, where they
termin.'.:e. Tliey are made of a number of ]>laits or folds
which have a tranfverfe direction, and whicli are more
prominent, or have deeper fojds in proportion as the val-
vu'ar li'.ses approach the circumference of the circle. Thev
form merely waves where they commence, and at the prefent
period they are on ev.ry part of the yolk-bag much lefs
marked and ilriking tlian they become towards the end of
intubation.

The End of the gth Day, or 2 1 6 //(7ur/.— Maitre Jan mer-
tions the appearance of fome new parts at this period which
we have not met .with fo early. He defcribes the iidnies as
fecreting a miiky fluid, wl-.ich he faw diftending the ureters.
He diicovered about this time the crop and the trach a
aiid was not only able to diilinguilh th-i principal divifions
of the brain, but Hates that he could difcern the ventricles
with the eminences they contained, and even the plexus
choroides. He likewife faw upon the bafis of the brain
the greater number of the nerves that arife there, more par-
ticularly the optic and auditory nerves, and found the fpinal
marro'U) to be fplit or corapoled of two parts at its orio-in.
He difiected the nerves of the fpinal marro.v, which, al-
though very fmall, lie flates to be much more firm than
tho(e which take their origin from the brain. Obferv. fur
la Formation de Poulet, p. 1S9.

The furface of the foetus exhibits now a number of pores ;
thefe are principally fituated upon the thighs, the back, the
neck, and the wings, and are the apertures of the cells in
which \\\(i fiiilhsrs are formed.

The eyes are larger than the veficles of the brain ; their
form is not fpherical, but flattened upon the anterior and
poflerior fides.

Tiie iris is flill thin and tranfparent ; but there are ffeen
throajh it and the tranfparent cornea five or fix white points
which- form a circle. When the eye is opened carefully
witli a lancet, thefe points are found to be elongated, and to
form httle lines, or ciliary fibres, which at this period are
white.

Maitre Jan ftates the eyelids to be formed at this time,
but to be fo tranfparent as to be iuvifible, unlefs after pre-
paration by a ftrong acid.

The htejlines are now fo firm, that they can be examined
without danger of breaking them.

The yJk-bag, according to Maitre .Tan, begins to form
two lobes, a larger and a I'maller ; but we h.ave not obferved
this change to take place before the nth or i2lh day.

Maitre Jan made the e;:periment of boiling an egg at
this period, after having fixed it upon a plate of lead whh
its" fmall end downwards. \\'hen defpoiled of the fliell, and
the chick renioved, the deprefiiou in which the amnios lay
v/as fully expofed, and found to be very coniiderable. He
then made a feftion of the egg in the vertical direction, di-
viding the depi-eflion of tiie yolk through the middle, when
thev; appeared a round fpace about the eighth of an inch iij
diameter, filled witii a whitilh curdy matter, and another
fpace around this of a larger extent, containing a" firmer
matter than the firll, and of a paler yellow than the rcll of
the yolk. Maitre Jnn, very erroneoully in our opinion, fup-
pof-d the white ciu-dy fubllance to be tlic inteftines of the
foftal chick. Thefe do not projeft from the abdomen in
fuffi .lent quantity to account for the appearance, admitting
that they had been leparatod from the chick, and Lad ad-
i) i here J

INCUBATION.

hered to the yolk during the boilincr of tlie egg. This
appearance, we believe, arifes from the fame change of orga-
nization in the yolk being continued, which in the early
periods of incubation produced the whitifh appearance under
and around the bed of the chick. The firm, pale yellow
texture of the yolk which encompafTes that juft mentioned,
Maitre Jan accounts for by fuppofing that the fluid parts
of the yolk in the neighbourhood of the chick had pafTed
into the amnios. There can be no doubt that different parts
of the fubllance of the yolk are differently conftituted,
which difference is prefcrvcd notwithflanding the motions
that eggs may experience ; a fadt that cannot perhaps be
fully explained, but which proves that animal fluids have
their peculiar organization, which they can maintain as well
as the folids. When tlie fluids change this compofilion, it
is often by fome vital aftion in themfelves, inllead of a fer-
mentative proccfs, or the mechanical operation of the folids
upon them, as is commonly fuppofed.

In making the experiment of boiling eggs at this period,
Maitre Jan did not find that the amnios was coagulated, al-
though Haller Rated that the liquid of the amnios is coagu-
lable at the 198th hour.

The valvular ^niSurc upon the internal furface of the yalk-
bag is more prominent, and when minutely examined, it is
found to receive branches of t)ie blood-veffcls which are
given off at right angles with the plane of the furface of
the bag, and having penetrated towards the edge of each
valve, there unite and form a fingle vefTel, which runs
within that edge. This ftrufture is better feen a few days
afterwards.

The End of the 10th Day, or 240 Hours. — The I'ljicula
vmb'tHcaHs has now a very coniiderable extent, occupying the
greatell part of the furface of the vafcular area, v.hich laft is
fpread over almoft the whole of the yolk-bag. The portion
of the bag that is applied to the white, is not at this date
the |th of the whole. The chalazce, therefore, are much
nearer to each other than when we laft mentioned them.
The while is confined almoft entirely to the lower part of
the egg, and its mafs continues daily to diminifh, while, on
the contrary, the bulk and quantity of the yolk appears to
be increafed.

The exterr.al memlrane is firm and flefliy where it is
ftrengthened by the velicula umbilicalis. Some of its vef-
fels are feen to extend to the white, upon which a fine
pellicle may be obferved to grow, and which is the firll ap-
pearance of a membrane to this humour, notwithllandiiig
fome authors fpeak of the membrana albuminis as an original
ftrufture, and others, amongll whom is Biumenbach, dc-
fcribe the membrane wliich lines the fliell as belonging to tlie
white.

The amnios is larger, its membrane more firm, and the
fluid lefs clear and limpid than before. It has contraded
fome adhefions with tie vcficula umbilic;.lis, and by that
means, with the external membrane. Thefe adhelions are
particularly in the courfe of the blood-vcflcls, that are
dillributed to the veficula and external membrane. One of
thefe veiiels is always feen to pafs acrofs the back of the
chick, at which place it is involved in a rcfleftion of very
fine membrane, which is connected with that of the amnios.

The chick is very much curved at this period : its heak is
ufuiliy doubled down between its feet. The feathers are
apriarent.

The external form of the head bears a greater refembbnce
to that of the full-grown bird, except that the eyes are P. ill
enormouny large.

The eyelids are evidently formed, and are occafiosaUy

moved by the chick. The membrana niSitaiu is likewife to
be feen.

Haller prepared at this period the ciliary zone and radiated
appearance called the crozun, with the membrane on whicii
the latter is fuftained, although he ilates that thefe parts are
formed on the 8th day, or before it.

He fuys he has feen on the 7th day the corona ciliaris, or
corpus ciiiare of Morgagni. At this epoch the retina, which
is in thick folds, appears to go as far forwards as the cryf-
talhne lens, behind the corOna ciliaris, with which it is co-
vered, and which is dimly feen acrofs it. He believes, not-
withitanding, that the retina does not proceed to the lens ;
that the appearance of its doing fo arifes from its thicknefs
and folds leaving fo fmall a fpace between it and the lens,
and that the membrane wliich fupports the ciliary zone and
crown, and is attached to the cryllalline, is different from
the retina.

The corona ciliaris is a row of black lines arranged alter-
nately, long and fhort, in fome degree parallel, but con-
verging as ravs proceeding from the external circumference
of the uvea to the cryflalline lens. The ciliary crown is-
not formed entirely in tlie fame manner in quadrupeds and
birds. In the former it appears, when examined by a micro-
fcope, to be compofed of a plicated membrane, upon which
fome rami.fied veffels advance towards the cryllalline. la
birds there are only fome ferpentine lines folded upon them-
felves, which are very numerous in the contour of the ciliary
crown, and of wliich many unite to form fingle ones : they
are joined toget'ier by thefe branches, aad arc covered with
a black pigment.

The figure of the ciliary zone and crown is not a perfeft
circle, but it is broader on one fide than the other.

The greater number of anatomilfs have defciibed the co-
rona ciliaris as relHng immediately upon the membrane of
the vitreous hurhour. Others have beheved that the retinal
extends to the cryftalline, and that the corona is fupported
upon it. Since Zinn's pubhcation u;)on the anatomy of the
eye, the ftrufture of the ciliary body in man and quadrupeds
has been well underftood ; but in birds the lamina, which
ferves for the bafe of the corona ciharis, does not come from
the membrane of the vitreous humour.

The membrane, which is placed under the corona ciliaris in
birds, is to be feen from the Sth day. It is radiated, opaque,
and a little alh-coloured ; more thin than the retina, and
thicker than the membrane of the vitreous humour, it is
of the fame dimenfions as the corona ciliaris, and in a degree
attached to llie corona, aad much more firmly united in the
latter days of incubation ; and after the exllufion of the
chick, it adheres by its psltericr extremity to the great
circle of the retina, and by the other to the cryllalline
lens.

The retina terminates by a diftinftly formed circle, which
is a little llrengthened at the circumference of the corona
ciliaris, and at that of the zone. The plane of the retina is
continued with that of the corona ; the zone is placed more
polleriorly than the retina. Its external part, which reils
upon the vitreous humour, is nearly horizontal, and its in-
ternal part becomes llraight again in order to be attached to
the cryftalline lens. It does not adhere to the membrane of
the vitreous humour when the chick is but little advanced.
It remains often placed upon that membrane without being
attached to it, and wlien the chick is more formed, or after
incubation is finifticd, it quits the membrane of the vitreous
humour, in order to remain connefted to the corona ciliaris,
with which it becomes infeparably united in the ond.

The circumference of the cihary zone, in the latter days
of incubation, can be feparated froia the membrane of the

vitreous

INCUBATION.

Yitreous humour without leaving any (hrcds. It is dillin-
cuidicd from the retina by its linencfs and being feparable
from tlie latter without being torn ; but it is continued with
the pofterior and inferior part of tliat membrane. It differs
ttill more from the membrane of tlie vitreous humour ; it
is thicker, it has more brown and lofs blue in its colour.
Acids, when applied to it, atfeft its colour more than they
do that of the vitreous membrane. It is fituated anteriorly
upon that membrane, in another plane, and evidently fui^-
tained by it, and confequently ought not to be confounded
with it.

The canal of Petit does not exift. The membrane of the
vitreous humour proceeds, without (lopping behind tlie cihary
zone to be attached to the cryitalline lens, that it fuftains,
and which remains in its place even when the corona ciliaris
has been i ailed.

The cihary zone is eafy to prepare even in the chick but
little advanced. One method is to cut off the cornea and iris ;
and having wafhed away the black pigment with which the
corona ciharis is covered, it will appear between the intervals
©f the ciliary rays ; and if iome of thofe rays be elevated, it
will be feen in its proper place. It is practicable to make
the leas come forth from its deprelTion, and to elevate it with
the corona ciliaris, « ith which it is connected ; and fometimes
it may be poffib'e to leave the zone relHng upon the mem-
brane of the vi'.reous humour.

An eafier mode of preparation is to cut the fclerotic c:5at
through the middle, and to plunge the anterior half of the
eye into vinegar. After fome hours immerfion in that fluid,
if the back of a fine fcalpel beinfiiiuated between tlie retina
and the choroid coat, and the vitreous and cryftalline humours
be removed, one fometimes fucceeds in obtaining the ciliary
zone alone, the corona remaining attached to the choroid. It
is rare to have the zone entire, but a conliderable part of it
is commonly preferved, ai.d particularly the whole of the ex-
ternal circle. When the experiment fails, it is the interior
circle which remains attached to the corona.

In the above account of the ciliary zone and crown, we
have anticip.ited many facts that are obfervable during the
laft days of incubation, and even after that procefs terminates,
in order to render the hillory of thofe parts more intelligible.
We have alfo been induced to borrow the preceding deicrip-
tion from Haller, who made the llrudure of the ciliary zone
and crown in the cluck a particular fubject of inveiligation,
as we have not much attended to the progrefi; of the eye dur-
ing incubation. See Mem. fur la Format, du Cosur dans le
Poulet, furTGEil, &.c. Obferv. i8o, i8i, 1S2, 191, 192,
153, 215, 216, 226, 228, 231, 239, 240, 247, 249, 25^,
254, 256, 261, 262, Sec. and feCl. xii. jSlem. i^ecoud par I\I.
Haller. The f mall tubercle, from whence the aorta and pul-
monary arteries arife, and which appears to have been a
remnant of the bulb of the aorta, entirely difippears abt)ut
the prefent period.

The right ventricle of the heart is dill about the one-fourth
of Its length Ihorter than the left.

Thofe bones of the chick, according to Hallcr's obfcrva-
tions, which are nov.- formed, are merely in a cartilaginous ftate ;
even the cranium, which was apparent fome time before the
prefent.

The umbilical opening, through which the urachus and the
blood-veffels communicate with the interior oi the body of
the chick, forms a projection, or a fort of tube, which in
a few days becomes more ilriking. Some of the convolutions
of the inte!iinesmay be feen in this opening, but the grcateil
part of the intellines is contained in the body of tiie foetus.

The end of the nth day, or 264 h'yurs, the external mem-
brane goes on llrcngihenmg, by its connexion witli the vejii^u-

la umbilicalis. This lafl is now fo extcnfively u.'iited to the
external membrane and the amnios, that it is only by great
care, and after being macerated in fpirits, that it can be li-
berated from its connections, and cxpofed as a dHlindt bag,
pendent from the umbilicus. AVhen thus feparattd by dif-
feftion, it is feen to be a large fac, compofed of a thick Iflefhy
membrane and hardly containing any fluid. The Urength
of the bag appears to depend upon a rcfledlion of fome of the
other membranes covering and being infeparably adherent to
it, for at the umbihcus tlie velicula is thin. Haller traced the
urachus from the velicula to the reftum after tlie prefent
period, and even until the lafl day of incubation ; but in. our
obiervations it has appeared that the connection of the vefi-
cula with the chick, except by means of the blood-vefTels,
after this time, is verv obfcure.

The whole of the body of the chick is now feen to be
covered whh feathers.

Haller at this period firft difcovertd the tongue.

The fubftance of the brain is Hill found to be a very foft

The liver, in moft inftance?, has a yellow colour, but in
fome the red predominates.

L'ik ii evidently fccreted : the gall-bag is green, and a
grccnifh or yellow fluid is commonly found in the ilomach.
The inteftines hkewife appear to contain bile, or at lealls a
bitter fluid.

The retial capfules are evident ; they have, accordinc: to
Haller, the form of an S.

The tube or fheath which projects at the umbilicus is bet-
ter formed.

T\\e blood-vejfels, which come out at this place, are eafily
traced from different fources. Thofe which are diltributed to
the external membrane and veficula come from the loins, and
thofe belonging to the yolk-bag are from the abdomen.

The end of the 12th day, or 2S8 hours, the chick has more
of the figure of the adult bird than at any preceding period.
The extremities are larger, and the head fmaller, in proportion
to the reft of the body. The bill is more pointed, and of a
harder fubllance.

Thejlomach has gained greater ilrength ; it contains a
■white coagulated or curd-like fubftance.

There is bile found in all the inteftines, whicli is very
bitter.

On the outfide of the umbilical fheath there are fome
folds of the inteftines, with one of which the yolk-bag is feen
to be connected by a (hort procefs, which is evidently the
continuation of tiie alimentary canal into the yolk-bag.
This part has commonly, and as we fliall hereafter' fee very
defervedly, received the name of duSus vltello-inte/linalis. Al-
though we have not obferved the duft before the prefent
date, there is every reafon to fuppofe that it is coeval witlu
the inteftines.

iVIalpighi ftates that he faw the Jlomnch of the chick
on the outfide of the umbilical ftieath : but this would fcem
to be an error. The ftomach, it is true, is fituated low down
in the belly, but, as far as our obfervation goes, it never is
protruded from that cavity.

The ftrufture of \.\\(i eye is the fame that is defcribed on
the nth day. It is proper to remark, that at no period
is there to be found in the chick a membrana pupillaris.

The yoli-bag, according to our obfervations, begins in
general to alter it s figure. Before this date it was an irregularly
round mafs, containing two deprelTions ; one for accommo-
dating the chick and amnios at the upper fide, and another
at the lower part of the yolk, in which the white is partially
lodged. The latter is a regular dcprt (Tion, and before- this
period contracts in breadth, although it becomes fome what

greater.

INCUBATION.

g;reatcr in depdi; an alteration wliicVi arifes from the diminu-
tion of the white, and from the chalazx tending to ap-
proach each other, and thereby to bring the two poles of
t!ie yollc, at which thefe bodies were originally attached, to-
gether on the lower fiirface of the yolk.. The approxima-
tion of the chalazx feems likewife to occafion, in the firft
inllance, the divilion of the yolk-bag into lobes. At the
profcnt period the bag forms two lobes, one large and one
fmall. Tliefe afterwards, by the compreffion of the chick,
are ufually moulded i;)to three, but in the egg of fome other
birds into a greater number: thus the yolk-bag in the Guinea
jo'-jjl is divided into li\ or feven lobes.

The End oj thi- \yh D,iy, or 312 Hours Upon opening

an egg at this period, and removing the contents from the
Ihell, tlie tvbhi is found to have affumed a greenifh hue,
and to liave more contillopce than at any of the former
p.riods ; and it is inclofed entirely by a fine film, which
retains it in one pofition, and in llrict conneflion witii '.he
depreffion on tiie inferior furface of the yolk-bag- The
external vefTels are diitribnted over the whole white.

The yolk-bag has, ft ill more of the lobulated figure, ar.d
the chick lies obliquely acrofs the bag in the fuperior dc-
prefiion between tlie two lobes.

'I'lie valviihir llru(ftiu-e on the internal furface of the
volk-bag, which we have noticed before, has now arrived
at perfedion. The valves arc more eminent, form numerous
folds or coils, their edges appear to be covered by tubes
whicli are convoluted upon tiiemfelvcs in the manner of
intellines. Thefe have been called by Haller the I't-rmi-
Jorm and hiteJVnnform Ink's, and h;ive been defcribed both by
him and other anatomills as real vefiels : but they have al-
ways appeared, ii> our examinations, as reflections or pro-
celibs of the valvular ilruilure, in the fubllance of which
tlie real blood-velT.-ls ramify. Maitre Jan fpeaks of them
as vefiels which collect the fluid of the yolk, and which
afterwards terniinate in tlie blood-veficls. Haller confiders
the blood-vefi'els which run in the edge of the valves as a
tlillinft order of veffds, that end in the trunks of the veins of
the yolk-bag, and which take their origin at the circle, that
exifts in the latter days of incubation around the line wliere
the yolk and white are joined to each other. We have
already faid that the vefiels upon the edges of the valves
have numerous communications with thofe that run along
the roots or bafes of the valves, and which belong to the
external tunic of the yolk-baL--, and were originally the
fame veffels that formed the vafcular area. The venous
circle of the yolk-bag, we have no doubt, is the fame
that in the early llagcs of incubation has been defcribed
as the contour of the vafcular area : and the vermiform tubes
appear to be the villous or fpongy procefTes of the external
furface of the yolk-bag, which appeared in the firlt days
greatly extended, and grown into tiie form now defcribed.

The c/jici, at the prefent period, has ftill more of its
perfed form ; its head is much curved, and the bill is placi-d
under the wing, 'whicii pofition is prefcrved throughout in-
cubation.

The ii/l is pointed and has its natural figure. Haller
ftates, that tiie chick is often perceived to open and fiiut
the bill i-bout this period and afterwards. Maitre Jan, on the
contrary, although the chi^k moves its limbs frequently and
ilrongly, afferts, that it does not open its mouth. We have
not attended to this circumllance, from confidering it of
little confequcncc, and no way explaining the mode in which
the chick is nouriflied.

Tiie itUtrnal organs of the chick are confiderahly advanced
to . irds perfcclion. The brain, although Itill foft and pulpy,
u well formed. Tlie tiilnies and tejes are completed in their

figure. The jji/^cn refembles a conglobate gland. The /.■.•■>
are of greater fi/e than the heart.

The firll branch that the aorta gives after its exit frim.
tlie heart is the left carotid, which gives off X.\\e fitbclainan ar-
tery of that fide. The trunk of the aorta then forms
an arch, which turns to the right. It feuds off the ri^ht
carotid, and approaches the vertebrje in paffing behind llie
rio-ht lung : it is united to the dudus arteriofus above the
liver.

The right ventricle of the heart is Hill fiiortcr thin the left ;
it is of an oval figure, but the latter ends in a point.

The end of the l^jh day, or 336 hours, the changes in the
humours and the formation of the organs of the chick are
found to have made progrefs fince the preceding day.

We have already llated that the membrane which is ex-
ternal to the chick and the yolk-bag, and which is fcarcely
palpable in the firft days of incubatuni, gains llrengtli and
receives vefiels after the veficuia umbilica'is has acquired fome
fize, and has adhered to it. The magnitude of the vefiels,
and the thicknels of this membrane, incrcafe in propovtion as
the veficu'a umbilicalis grows : we therefore conceive that the
develope.nent of this membrane depends upon its connedior>
\vitli the veficuia and the b'ood-veirels which it derives from
thatbag. We have obferved, thatfome days beforeihe prefent
period, the externa! membrane begins tocxtend over thewhite,
which it uUialiy cnclofes about the 14th day : it therefore
forms a perfect fac, containing the chick in its amnios, the
yolk-bag, and the white.

The veficuia umbilicalis about this period has arrived at a
very great i\/.e ; its extent cannot be eafily afcertained, as it
is fo much incorporated with the external membrane, that
they cannot be fcparated or accurately diftinguiihed : but w-e
fiiould conceive that the veficuia exceeds in fize the yolk-bag,
as tliere is the appearance of the external membrane being
thickened and ftrengthened by one under it as far as the
yolk extends.

The manner in w^hich the veficuia concurs to form a mem,,
brane which in veils all the contents of the egg, appears to be
fimilar to the refledion of the'ferous membranes of the thorax
and abdomen, in order to cover the vifcera and lino the parietcs
of thefe cavities. It fiiould however be oblerved, that when
it is opened, there is no appearance of its forming an imme-
diate tuiiic iimilar to the pleura puhnonalis, but it feems to
be a fimpic bag, holding the contents of the egg, and only
united to them by fome refledions of very fine membran?,
which are chiefly attached to the back of the amnios, and in
the courfe of the trunks of the blood-vefPels. This circum-
itance has embarrafied other obfervers, and has led many
to overlook the ftiare that the velicula iimbil xalis has in tlie
formation of the common membrane of the parts of the
egg.

The blood-veffils wiiich are dillributed to the external mem-
brane are, even at the prefent period, much larger tlian tlioi'e
of the yolk-bag. There are four long branches, wlilch fend
out numerous ramifications, that become fo minute as to evade
the fight ; but when this membrane is viewed with a mag-
nifying glafs, it prefents a beautiful fpedacle. The fituation
of the four great branches is not conliantly the fame ; as
tiiey arc difperfed upon a loofe membrane, winch varies iii
■ fome degree its pofition according to circnmftances : one of
them, if not two, is always feen, however, to crofs the back
of the amnios. The four branches are arteries, and are
formed immediately on the outfide of the umbilicus of tiie
chick from the two iliac arteries; they, therefore, correfpond
to the umlilicd artcri s of ijiammiferous animals. The left
iliac artery is always of much greater iize than the right ; it
even appears larger than the aorta, of which it is the term;-

INCUBATION.

nation. The right iliac artery is often a mere fiiament, and
in fome in/lances it feems to be waiitintf altorretlicr.
. The venous branches which accoiripany the uiroilical ar-
teries are fo fmall that they are hardly diilinguiihvble, al-
though the former are of fufficient magnitude to be injected,
and have a vifible pulfation. Tliere is, tlierefore, a quantity
of blood fcnt to this membrane which is not returned to the
fixtus. The colour of the blood, botli in the umbilical ar-
■ teries and veins, is a purple.

The vafcular membrane, above defcribed, has received
different names. By the older anatomies it was ufualiy
called the chorion, to which perliaps it is moll analogous.
Hallei- gave it the name of the umbilical membrane, and Le-
veille has lately called it the hag-foaptd membrane (membrane
faccifcrme), from tlie circin:nilance of its envc'oping all the
parts of the egg. We have hitherto called it the external
meinbrnnc; until it fi:ould be defcribed ; but hei-eaftcr we
fliall fpeak of it as the chorion. In the account of the unin-
cubated egg, the membrane, on which the fhel! is moulded, is
called theexteniai, wliich it (Iridiy is. It fliould not be con-
founded with the chorion, from which it differs fo much in
figure, ftrufture, and ufe. See Egg.

Haller appears to have not diftinguifhed the chorion from
the membrane of the yolk-bag, which contains the vafcular
aica. The progrefs of thefe two membranes is exceedingly
difl'erent, and the fydem of vefTels belonging to each is
perfectly didincl. The valvular area is confined to the
furface of the yolk-bag, and is intimately connefted with
its membranes, and the valvular apparatus already defcribed.
The veffels of the area are chiefly venous, and are formed
independently of the heart of the chick. They are mod
numerous in.the ear'y periods of incubation, although they
increafe in fize along with the other parts of the chick.
They go to terrhinatcin a large vein which proceeds directly
to the auricle of the heart in the firrt days, but, after the
liver appears, is feen to pafs behind it, and when the inteflines
are forraedMs found upon the mefentery, and conlUtutes the
largeft b;-anch of the vena porta:.

The arteries of the vafcular area are infignificant, until
towards the end of incubation. When firll perceived, they
are given ofT from the dorfal aorta, and after the deve!o])e-
nicnt of tjie intcftines they are difcovcred to be branches
of the mefenterlc artery. The vcifels dillribuled to the
Srea appear, therefore, analogous to the omphalo-mefentcric
arteries of quadrupeds, although theii- deflination and func-
tions may differ.

The -oiife's of the chorion, as we have already faid, are
branches, or rather, in the fcetal ilate, the trunks of the
iliacs extended upon this membrane. They do not exift pre-
vious to the appearance of the veficula umbilicalis, with
the growth of which they keep pace. The arteries of the
cliorion exceed the fize of its venis in the fame proportion
as ths veins of the yolk-bag exceed the arteries of that pait.
The vafcular area, therefore, collefts and tranfmits the
b'ood to the fcctus, while the arteries of the chorion difpofe
of a great portion of it in an extraneous circulation, and iu
the formation ofa thick and e.Ktenlive membrane.

Halier and otheishave defcribed, at this date, an appear-
ance of white veffels upon the albumen. Maitre .Ian recki ns
feven of thefe white lines or veffels. They arifc from a little
circle which is in the centre of the white ; they divide into
branches in advancing towards the vafcular circle of the yolk-
bag, which forms at this time the boundary of the feptum
between the yolk and the white. Maitre Jan defcnbes
. them as paffr.g beyond the feptum and extending to the
yolk. Hullcr conjectures that the uL- of Uiefe veifels ir.ay

bo to abforb the white and convey it into liic yolk. Obferv,
226. Mem. I.

We have not made fuch an examination of thefe white
lines, as to enable us to pronounce whether they are .vefi'els
or not, or what their ufe may be.

The 'water of the amnios appears to diminifh about this
period of incubation. It alfo becomes gradually iefs pure.
It is Hated by Maitre Jan, that when the fluid of the am-
nios is boiled at this date, the greater portion of it acquires
the hardnefs that the white of "the egg poflefies after being
boiled, although previous to the experiment it is much more
fluid than the albumen ; from wiience Maitre Jan conjectures
that fome of the fluid of the white is conveyed into the fac
of the amnios, but he does not pretend lo explain the means
by which this iseiFecled.

The curd-Uhe fubjlance, already mentioned as being found
in the Komach and intefthies, is now met with alio in the
crop and ocfophagus. According to Haller, boihng water
makes this fubftance hard in the fame manner as it does the
white of an egg.

The end of 15 days, or 360 hours, the membrane of the
chorion continues to increafe in llrength, and its arteries
in fize. Haller fpcaks of having fometimes found the latter
of a lighter red than the vein.s, which does not accord with
our oiifervations. We have generally perceived the arteries-
and veins to be limilar in colour, or at leail when a difference^
did cxi:l it was immaterial, and fometimes the arteries, and
fometimes the veins were the lighter coloured velTels. The vef-
fels of the chorion have always appeared darker in our obfer-
vations than thofe of the yoik-bag, but the character of all
the blood is venous in the incubated egg during the latter
periods. The reflections of membrane which accompany
the principal veffels of the chorion, are now more firm than
before, and continuous with them appears a fine tranfparcnt
membrane that envehipes the yolk as far as the vafcular
circle on the edge of the white, and extends over p.-u-t of the
amnios, to which membrane it adheres, fo r.s to cover an.
irregular triar.gular portion of the chick in its amnios, and
inclofe more loofcly the im.bihcal /heath with the convolu-
tions of the intedines which proje£t from it and the neck of
the yolk-bag. This membrane does not appear to have beea
well undericood by the older anatomiits.

They fometimes fpeak of it as a layer of the yolk-bag,,
and at others as the veficula umbilicalis, or allantois. The
belt defcription of it kas been given by Leveilie, who has alia
named it very appropriately entero-clorilyme, or tJje membraui
containing both intcfiines and yolk.

The origin of this membrane is Hill involved in a degree oF
obfcurity. Leveille defcribed it when jjerfettly formed, but
has thrown no fight upon the hiflory of its growth. The
prefent date is the firil at which it lias appeared to us to be
perfected, but we conceive that it is one of the original
membranes and the fecond layer, that in the firfl days comes
off the vafcular area as a very fine pellicle.. It feems to
be COP- ■ °-ed, or rather continued into the peritoneum, lining_

the a„ 1 in the late periods of incubation, of which we

fliall fee farther proofs hereafter.. There is no reafon for fup-
pofin_g this membrane to be the veficula umbilicalis, orallan-
toi.s, as the veficula is a fironger membrane in the middle of
incubation than this membrane is fevcral days afterwards,
when it is completely formed.. The proper contents of the
allantois alfo are found, throughout mcubation, within the
cavity of the chorion, to the formation of which we have
fuppofed that bag conlributcs, but never under the membrane
that inclofes the intelline and yolk-bag..

Haller Hates that he examined the -jalves upon the inner
fiirface of the ycli-Lrg with a lens, and djitiiidtly faw the

iatcfliuifjurm'

INCUBATION.

intclliniform tubes upon the edges of the valves mofl beauti-
fully curled and folded upon themfelves. He failed to fee the
aperture of thefe tubes. By maceration in water they were
detached from the valves, and fwam in the water. The
valves theinlelves, by a longer maceration, were alfo fepa-
rated.

The chid inereafes regularly in fize, though not fo rapidly
as during the early part of incubation. Haller obferved tlie
feathers upon the eye-lids at this period, and that the J]>leen
had acquired the figure it preferves through life.

The curiiy, or cca^iilated fiib/lance is now found in the cefo-
phagus and the crop, as well as in the ttomach and inteftincs.
Harvey found this fubllance principally in the ftomach : this
appears to be the cafe, and when met with in other places,
it would feem to have proceeded from the ftomach to
them.

The end of 16 days, or 384 hours, the fpace between
the two layers of the membrane lining the Ihell, for contain-
ing air, is much increafed fince the periad at which we have
lall mentioned it. About one-iixth of the whole cavity of
the egg is occupied by air.

This circumllance depends upon the diminution of the
fubftance of the white, which is at prefent reduced to a very
fmall iize.

The texture of the white continues to become firmer.

Upon removing the chorion, which now completely en-
clofes the white, that humour is found to poilefs a thin
tunic, which is proper to it. This membrane is evidently of
a late growth, and appears to be formed by the vefFels of the
yolk-bag extending beyond the feptum, or that portion of
the bag which is bounded by the vafcular circle, and wliich
is in contaft with the white.

The fluid of the amnios is fomewhat'diminifhcd.

The yolk-bag in the egg of the hen is generally formed into
three lobules, although many authors fpeak only of two
lobes at this time ; one, which is tlie moll; dillinct, but the
fmalleft, lies upon the fide of the body of the chick, between
the head and the thigh : the two others are placed at the two
ends of the chick.

Maitre Jan defcribes the yolk-bag as being formed only
into two lobes, but ready to enter the abdomen, of which
he gives a figure at this period, and of a fiffure that afcends
from the umbilicus, between the two redi mufcles of the
belly of the chick. He likewife defcribes the duftus vitcllo-
inteftinalis for the firll time, which, with the yolk-bag, he
fucceeded in inflating from the crop of the chick ; and he lays
this part is not to be demonllrated at an earlier period than
the end of the i6ih day, on account of its extreme tender-
nefs ; but, as already mentioned, we have found the duft on
the 13th day.

Haller found the inteftines before this period to be irritable.
When ftimulated, they contrafted into knots.

The blobd-veflels of the yolk-bagappear fewer and fmallcr,
owing, in part, to their being fo much more involved in the
valvular coat than they were in the middle periods of incu-
bation. The branches of the blood-velfels of the yolk-bag
are larger than the trunks, and the veins are llill vaftly
greater than the arteries. Haller ftates that the vein going
upon one of the valves, is a larger velfel than the trunk, from
whence all the arteries of the yolk-bag take their origin.

The End of 17 Days, or 408 Hours — Haller admits the
appearance of tlu-ee lobes of the yolk at this date, which we
have fcen before.

The arteries of the chorion are extremely large ; we
have fucceeded in introducing a ; ipe into them, and injeft-
ing them with coloured fize, which makes a beaut ii'ul prepa-
lation. Haller, in his obfervation of this date, found both

the arteries and veins of the chorion to be a purple colour,
and the veins more violet than the arteries.

It now appears that there are two feries of vctTels belong-
ing to the yolk-bag. The branches, which arc fpread upon
the external membrane of the bag, appear to be the fane
whicli formed the vafcular area in'the early periods of incr-
bation. The veflels of the internal coat are dillributcd :-)
the valves. Both feries contribute to the vafcular cirtl ■,
whicli, as we have before ftated, is the remains of the v. 1 1
that formed the contour of the vafcular area. Maitre J~n
fays there are fcveral layers of the membrane which contaiis
the yolk, but it is probable that he miftook for one that
membrane which inclofes the yolk-bag, tiie inteftines, and .1
part of the chick.

Coiter has found the yoli-bag within the belly of the chick
at the 17th day ; but the ingurgitation of the yolk is a later
event, according to the obfervation of other writers.

There is now a circular arrangement of mufculnr fibr-^i
around the opening into the belly of the chick at the umbi-
licus. This fphintler was not apparent before, and, as wi>
flrall foon find, is a very efiential llruclure in the lall periods
of incubation.

If the yoU-bag be opened, and the valvular membranr;
cleaned by frequent ablution and floated in clear water, ihc-
fides of the valves will be found to be perfo.atcd by a great
number of foramina, fo as to give the valves the appearance
of lace. The inteftiniform tubes alfo upon the edges of the
valves will be partially detached ; the portions that remain
refemble pieces of cy!indric tubes.

Many of the blood-velTels upon the external furfacc of the
yolk-bag contain apparently but little blood, and have a
grecniih colour, as if conveying a yellow or green fluid.

The End of the 1 8//6 Day, or 4J 2 Hours The two layers

of tlie external membrane, which immediately fines the fhell,
are feparate for about one-third of their extent, and can with
little pains be detached from each other until near the fmall
end of the egg. The quantity of air contained between
thefe layers, although much increafed, is lefs than might be
fuppofed, as the layers are not far afunder, except at the
great end of the egg.

The '•jjaltr of the amnios is a good deal diminiflicd, and its
membrane is apphcd in folds to the furface of tlic chick.

The chorion has attained a very confidcrablc ftrength, ad-
mitting of examination and diffccftion, without being prc-
vioufly hardened by fpirits or vinegar. When this mem-
brane is laid open, there is fome tough lymphy fubftance
found under it in layers or llreaks, which has been miftakcn
for a membrane by fome anatomifts. There is generally mixed
with this fubftance a ceitain quantity of calcareous matter.
It has, therefore, been fuppofed to be a kind of excrement, or
the fecretion of the kidnics. Thefe white flakes are what
have been called^y?)-/',? retictdata urinir by Malpighi, and were
defcribed by him as being found in the allantois.

When the chorion is opened and turned down off the con-
tents of the egg, it appears to be a diftinft bag, and only
conneifted to tlie other parts by refleftionsof fine membrane.
Tiiefe are chiefly in the courle of the trunks of its blood-
veflt'ls, and at the junction of the yolk and white.

The yoli-tag is now often found gathered into more lobules
than three, fome of which have entered the abdomen of the
chick, through the aperture at the umbilicus. The forming of
the yolk-bag into lobes and lobnles, appears to be o»ing to
the contraction of the membrane that contains it, and the in-
teftines of the chick ; for, when the yolk-bag is taken out of
this membrane, it fpreads out into nearly its original figure,
except that there is a marked deprefTion where the white is
joined with it, and that the neck of the bag is fomev\ hat elon.

ffatcd

membrane which urges the yolk-bag into the cavity of
abdomen of the chick.

INCUBATION.

gated. It feems likewife to be the contra(Sion of the fame form curves j thefe elongate and expofe the interval of their

two curvatures. Tiiey break at the end, and the two ends
become nearly ftraight, remaining attached to the edge of
the valve. The breadth of thefe little membranes appears
alfo covered with cylindric tubes, fometimcs branched and
feparated by the reticular intervals. The day after, the
yolk-bag having been fteeped in water, he faw the appear-
ance of cylindric tubes forming a net-work upon the mem-
brane which makes the breadth of the valves, and continuous
with the vermiform tubes of the edges. He further faw
that the vefFels of the valves, having arrived there, were co-

Thejo/i appears to be fomewhat lefs than in the preceding
days ; but on the clofefl examination we have not been able
to difcovcr any of it in the inteftinal canal. We have ob-
ferved at this period, although it probably exills much fooner,
an appearance of yellow vefTcls accompanying on each fide
the blood-veffels of the yolk in the fame manner as tiie fmall
veins generally attend arteries. We have not been able to
determine whether this appearance be caufed by real veflels

filled with a yellow fluid, or bv the inner coat of the bag ^'^''^^ "'"•' fo™<^ ^'^■'y fine fmall tubes refembhng a powder,
being feen throuo-h the outer, p'roducing on the edge of the The following morning, he faw fome of the tubes which
traft of the rearblood-veffels an appearance of yellow lines, ascended from the bafe of the valves, and which were con-

The chkh has now attained nearly the utmoft fize that it ''""^^d with the tubes of the edge. They were cylindric as
will polfels while in the egg. Its form is entirely that of the )f' ^^^^ .'^""•'^ perceive, and jouied m form of a net-work.
excluded chick, except that its abdomen is enlarged in pro- ^.^'\ ^"'g^' ^fff ^ ^^''="' evidently as tar as the vafcular
portion to the quantity of the yolk-bag which is admitted ''"■'-"''' °^ ^^^ yolk-bag.
into that cavity. The fourth day many of the tubes had difappeared, and

The different organs of the chick are very perfed. The ^^^'^'^^ °^h' remained on the edge of the valves the membrane
convolutions of the inlejlhiei which were outfide are taken which covered the trunk of the vefl'el. With refpeft to the
into the belly with a portion of the yolk-bag, as before men- 'i^turc of the tubes on the fides of the valves, he found it
tioned. Maitre Jan Hates that he found about this period difficult to pronounce with certainty. By examination with
the tympanum and the labyrinth of the car hard, and nearly of a ftrong lens he perceived that there were fome real tubes
their full fize. All the boTus have acquired ofFeous matter "P°" '^^

green,

and

their full fize. All the bones have acquired
and confiderable hardnefs.

The lilc contained in the gall-bag is an intenfe
gives that bag a blue colour.

The end of the lijth day, or 4J6 hours, the air-cell ex-
tends round one-half of the cavity of the egg.

The amnios is in fome inftances found to be ruptured by
the bill of the chick.

According to Haller, the chick begins to cry about this
period. Harvey and Langly alfo heard the piping of tlie
chick at this date. Some other authors have not noticed
the chick to cry until tlie twentieth day, which agrees witli
our obfervations. Still, however, the time at which the
chick begins to cry is fubjedl to vary, according to the de-
gree of heat to which it is expofed. Thus, in an egg from
which no found ifl'ues while it is in the nell, if placed upon
warm water the piping of the chick will be heard.

The chorion begins to appear a little faded, the circulation
of blood upon the membrane being carried on more fiug-
gifhly. This change feems to be preparatory to the deftruc-
tion of that membrane which is about to happen.

More than two-thirds of the yolk-bag and its contents
have been received into the abdomen. If that cavity be
opened, it will be feen that the bag is pretFed in aniongft the
different vifcera, to which its figure is capable of being per-
fectly accommodated in confequpnce of its folds and lo-
bules.

The -white is reduced to a few irregular-fhaped knots,
which generally contain fome calcareous matter that appeai

fides of the valves, which afcended in a ferpe
manner; but thofe which are the moll numerous, and which
f(n-m the net-work on the breadth of the valves, were not
determined to be tubes, although they are moft probably fo,
as they appear cylindric under every point of view, and are
continuous with the tubes of the edge.

The fifth day, the veffels of the edge appeared all unco-
vered : thefe veffels preferved fome breadth, and a round
figure at the edge, and an undulating courfe. It was more
eafy to diftinguifh the real veffels which defcend from the
edge in a ferpentine manner, and traverfe obliquely the
breadth of the membrane, in order to return into the plain
between the valves. Haller alfo faw very evidently fome
branches whicli proceed from the veffels between the valves,
and which afcend in a ferpentine manner by the fide of the
valves, and communicate with the trunk which runs along
the edge. The remainder of the valve was become an open
net-work of extreme beauty.

The fixth day many of the valves had difappeared, and
others prefented only a plaited border, like a mefentery, from
which the intefiines had been removed. Mem. r. p. 379.

The chick at the prcfcnt date is about the fize that it is
immediately after exclufion from the fhell. It lies coiled
round with its head under the right wing.

The blood-veJlels in the interior of the chick have attained
more of their proper fi/e in proportion to the parts they
fupply. The left branch of the aorta, however, which
forms the principal umbilical artery, is lUU nearly equal in
magnitude to the aorta itfelf.

Haller obferved at this period the vena cava beat between

to remain after all the liquid parts of the albumen have been

removed. The knots are compofed of the chalaz:e, and the the lobes of the liver

membrane of the white compreffed together. The end of the 20th day, or 480 hours, the Jhell is ex-

Maitro Jan very readily fucceeded in diftending the yolk- tremely dry, and very fragile, which is occafioned by the
bag and the duilus viteUo-intcflinalis, bv blowing air into more extenfive detachment of the membrane which is imme
the oefophagus, bat did not yet perceive that any of the diately under it. The brittlenefs of the (hell is a very con-
yolk had p.iffed through the du£t into the intelline. vcnicnt circumllance at this period, when it is about to be

Haller defcribes at this date the effeits produced upon tlie ruptured by the eflbrts ol the chick,
valvular ftructure of the yolk-bag by maceration in water It is ufual at the prefcnt date to find the greaternumber of

for fome days.

the eggs in a hen's nefl cracked or chipped near tlie gr

Having firft wafhcd the fac containing the yoik with fe- end. This is attributed by common people to the parent, who

veral waters, he found the edges of the valves covered with is fuppofed, by a particular inftinft, to know the proper pe-

the vermiform tubes before defcribed, which ieparatc and riod for the liberation of the young cluck. Malpighi likewife

Vol. XIX. E fuppofed

INCUBATION.

fuppofcd that the fhell was brolcen by the hen, in which opi-
nion Haller fvems to concur. He ftates tliat he found a (iffure
in the lliell, and the mciiibranes which inclofcd the chick, at
the fame time entire. Maitre J;in, on the contrary, afcrihes
the fraciure of the fhell to the chick. He found the beak had
lacerated the membranes befere the fhell was broken ; and
having watched the eggs at the time the chicks began to
crv, he did not perceive the hen touch them with her bill,
but that the fhell was ruptured from the infide, and the
fractured portions were pulhed outwards. This account of
the mode in which the fhell is opened, exaftly accords with
our obfcrrarions. We have fecn the fhell evidently broken
from within ; beiidcs, the fuel of birds being hatched by arti-
ficial heat, proves decidedly, that the afliflance of the hen is
not neceffary for the frafture of the egg.

After the fhell is broken the chick is always heard to cry,
and the point of its beak is feen to projcft out of the egg
for feveral hours befoi-e the chick attempts its liberation.

It is reported by common people who have the care of
fitting hens, and it is even afferted by fome anatomifts, that
the cries of the chick are heard before there is any aperture
made in the fhell. Haller relates that he took an egg, in
which he difcovered the piping of the chick, and which was
at the fame time unbroken, and having carefully removed the
ftiell, piece by piece, he found that the opaque membrane,
■which Hues the fhell, was alfo entire, but that there was an
opening in the chorion oppofite to the beak of the chick.
He does not ftate whether the bill had penetrated into the
air-cell, but it moll probably did, as at this period the two
layers of the membrane hning the fliell are feparated beyond
the fituation of the beak of the chick. In another obferva-
tion Haller found the chorion entire under the iilTure in the
fhell, which was on the oppofite fide of the egg to the bill of
the chick; and therefore he fuppofes the (hell to have been
cracked by the hen. We cannot pofitively contradict the
alTertion of the chick uttering found before it has the means
of freely refpiring, but we fliould conceive it extremely im-
probable; and upon every occafion where we have heard the
piping of the chick ilTue from the egg, we have found that
tliere was a crack or frafture in the fliell.

Where the chorion is lacerated by the beak of the chick
there is always fome blood fhed, but the edges of the mem-
brane foon dr)-, which prevents any farther hjemorrhage ; for
the circulation is not yet interrupted in the chorion by the
contraftion of the fphinfter at the umbilicus, although Maitre
Jan defcribes the paiTage of the yolk, and the deftruclion of
the chorion, as events of the fame date.

When incubation has proceeded regularly, the whole of
the yolk-bag at this period is found within the cavity of the
abdomen, which is clofed by the contraftion of the circular
fafciculus, of mufcular fibres placed around the umbihcus;
but, as already mentioned, this does not, until near the exclu-
iion of the chick, comprefs the umbilical veffels, fo as to de-
ftroy their circulation.

The ingurgitation of the yolk caufcs a great tumefatlion
of the belly of the chick. The animal refembles one in a
gravid Hate, but the belly is lefs fwoUen than might have
been fnppofed from the bulk of the yolk-bag. The latter
does not lie in the front of the cavity, but is prefTed in be-
tween all the vifcera, and therefore occupies the leall pof-
iible fpacc.

It is remarked by Maitre Jan, that more chicks die about
this period than at any other of incubation, which he attri-
butcb to the dillention of the abdomen by the yolk-bag ;
but we fhould fnppofe that it is the ceffation of the external
circulation upon the membrane of the chorion, which caufes
the great fatality towards the end of incubation.
7

Maitre Jan ftates that he difcovered the fluid of the yofi'
at the 484th hour mixed with the contents of the fmall in-
teftines ; but fome other anatomiils, who admit the paflage .
of the yolk through ^he ductus vitello intefiinahs, do not
pretend to have detefted it in the inteftine fo early.

The f/'/Vi', about this period, is fametimes obferved tore-
main for a whi'e perfeftly motionlefs. Harvey fuppofed
that it was afleep on thefe occafions. How far he was cor-
reft we cannot pretend to fay.

According to Haller the weight of the yolk is not fcn-
fibly diminifhed before its entrance into the belly of the
chick. He weighed the entire yolk-bag at the joodth hour,
and found it to be three drachms and two grains. He flates
that the weight of the yolk, before incubation, was three
drachms and ten grains. This diminution of weight is,
therefore, not greater than might have been espefted frojB
evaporation, or from an original difference in the bulk of.
the two eggs that were the fubjecls of the experiment.

Haller, in feeking for the allantcis, or -vefctda timlilicalh, at
this period, ftates, that he could net diftinguifh it from
the chorion, or rather from a fine membrane he raifed from
the internal furface of the chorion by inflation ; but he found
a little fac in the form of a pear, extremely vafcular, full of a
yellow mucus, and terminated by a peduncle which was not an
inch long. We have already defcribed the veficula umbilJ-
calis as being loft in the formation of the chorion long before
the prefent period. Malpighi, likewife, fuppofed this part
to have the fame deftinalion in the latter periods of incu-
bation : and in none of our obfervaiions have we met with
the pear-fhaped bag mentioned by Haller. We have turned
"back the chorion at the prefent date, and have found it to
be a perfect fac, fuch as we have previoufly defcribed it,
and connefted with the adjoining membranes by refleSiors
of a very delicate texture. Thefe were readily detached,
and left the chorion pendent by its vefTcls from the umbi-
licus of the chick. Befides the blood-vcffels, we could di(-
cover a tranfparent filament pafling to the inverted bag, whic ii
appeared to be tubular, and perhaps was the uracluis.

Tie End of 2 I Days, or the full Period of the Jncubntion

of the Hen When the progrefs of incubation has been

regular, the chicks are now generally found to have aban-
doned the eggs, leaving the fhells with the fhreds of the
chorion and amnios behind them. It happens, however,
occafionally, that fome of the chicks have been backward
in their growth, from the unfavourable pofition of the eggs
in the nert, or the negligence of the hen. Thefe are fomc-
times found about this period within the broken fhell, having
the remains of the membranes ftill attached to the umbi-
licus.

The reparation of the membranes docs not appear to be
effefted by a procefs of flough or of ulceration. They
appear rather to be torn off, as fome flireds and a fhort
portion of the trunks of the blood-vefTels are feen to pro-
ject at the umbilicus. The hemorrhage from thefe veffels
alfo is not entirely fuppreffed by the conflridtion of the
fphinfter mufcle, but in a degree by the afTiftance of a clot
of blood, which forms in the ends of the torn veffels.

We have "not been able to obferve whether the complete
fradlure of the fhell, previous to the exclufion of the ch:ck»
and the detachment of the membranes, are acconiphfhed by
the efforts of the chick alone, or with the affiftancc of
the hen.

The belly of the chick, after exclufion, is much enlarged,
though lefs tumid than it was when the yolk-bag was firfl
taken into the abdomen. It would, thertfore, appear that
the yolk begins to diminifh immediately after it is admitted
into the belly of the cliick, although fome obfervations of

Haller

INCUBATION.

Haltr wtuld lead to a different conclunon. He weighed
the egg and its different contents at thr J26th hour, and
found the entire egg to be i ; drachms and as many grains ;
the weight of the yolk, with fome light membranes tiiat
adhered to it, was four drachms. The foetus weighed five
drachms and 14 grains. In an egg which had not been fat
upon, he found the weight of tlie entire egg to be to
drachms and three-fixths, and that of the yolk tliree drachms
and 10 grai'is. This account of the weight is obviouily
incorred. See Egg.

Manv anatomies ftate that they have been able to deteft
the fhiid of the yolk in the inteftines at this period, and fome
fuppofed that tliey found it had pafTed into the alimentary
canal, even before the exclufion of the chick. JJallcr found
yolk in the inteftines at the end of the 2ni day, in one iii-
ftance where the chick had not left the egg. Maitre Jan
faw it after 20 days and fix hours. Needh^.m delcribes tlie
gradual paflage of the yolk into the inteiline at the end of
incubation. Langly aL^o found it in the iiilefline at the
fame time. Theod. Aides ftates that before the chick was
excluded, he could not prefs the fubftance of the yolk into
the gut, but that immediately afterwards he was able to do
fo. Stenon fucceeded in prefling the yolk through the
tluftus vitello inteliinalis.

Notwiihiiauding the teftimony of fo many anatomills, we
are inclined to believe, that the fubftance of the yolk is not
conveyed into the inteiline. We have fcrupuloufly examined
the inteftines of chicks, both before and after the exclufion
from the egg, and in no inilance could we dilcover with cer-
tainty any yolk in them. In the la!l periods of incubation,
and until the chick has taken its natural food into the (lo-
mach, the alimentary canal is filled with a yellow fluid, which
it is fcarcely poffible to dillinguiih from the yoUc ; tliere-
fore, all direfi obfervations reipefting the paOage of the
yolk into the intcllines mull be attended with a degree of
doubt. There are, neverthelefs, many reafons befides ac-
tual examination ; for fuppofing that the yolk is Bot con-
veyed into the fyftem of the chick by palling firil into
the intellinal canal, which we (hall ftate in fpeaking of the
ufes of the different parts of the egg, we are further
fupported in our opinion by the authority of Blumenbach,
who afferts pofitively, that the yolk does not pafs into the
inteftine. We might alfo quote the fame opinion held by
LeveiUe ; but he advances it upon falfe grounds, as he de-
fcribes the duAus vitello inteftinahs as a hgament, by which
the yolk-bag is fufpended to the body of thc,cliick, notwith-
ftanding the tubular ftructure of this part is fo palpable.

The fubftance of the yolk at the end of incubation is
extremely tenacious or gluey in its confiftence, and of a
deep green colour, particularly in the centre.

The net-work of the valves upon the inner membrane is
very vifible at this period. ^Ve have thrown coloured fize
into the blood-vcffels of the yolk, and afterwards foftened
by maceration, and by frequent ablation detached the inner
membrane ; when we found that the bafis of the lace-like
or reticulated Itruclure of the valves was formed by real
blood-veffels, which prefented the moft beautiful vafcular
apparatus that we have ever feen. This mode of prepa-
Tation (hews, that the organization of the internal membrane
depends upon the growth of the blog4-ve(rels of the ex-
ternal membrane of the yolk-bag, and confirms the account
we have already given of the formation of the valves. Haller
conCdered the veffels diilributed in the valvular ilru<fture of
the bag as being chiefiy, if not enturely, venous ; but we
found them molt eafily injefted from the aorta of tiie chick.
In the early periods of iacubation we kcovv that the branches

of the veins of the yolk-bag are larger and miirc, nwae..
rous than thofe of the arteries, b\it we are inclined to
believe the arterial branches predominate towards the end
of incubation. Further obfervations, however, arc necef-
fary to explain the vacAdar fvflcm of this niombrjne.

Several anatomills fpcak of a new membrane beiiig found
upon the yolk-bag towards the end of incubation, which. U
continuous with the (l<in of the chick. Haller, ni fouie.o|(-
fervations, delcribes this membrane in a manner which ieay«$
no doubt of its being the fame that we have already no-
ticed as including the yolk-bag and intellincs of the chickj
when they are on the outlide of the body.

We, as well as others, have found the appearance of a
new tranfparent membrane covering the yolk-bag after it haj
entered the abdomen of tlie chick. This membrane leeins
to be the continuation of the peritoneum. It adheres to, tlie
iniide of the umbilicus, and to that point of the yolk-bag
where the white and clialazsc were attached. We liaye not
had it in our power to invelUgate completely the connections
of the yolk-bag with the peritoneal. coat ot the parietca ot
the belly, but we believe at prel'ent that any appearance ol
3 third tunic to the bag is derived from the peritoneum.

Haller ftates obfervations made upon the alLinlois or vf/i-
cula umLUlctiHs, even to the lall day of incubation. He men-
tions that he found under the chorion an extremely tine mem-
brane which was incorporated with the tiil'ue of white fila-
ments or ftreaks that we have fpoken of before. He
defcribes this membrane as giving an immediate covering to
the chick : it wa ; fo tender that inflation buril it. He fup-
pofes it to be either the amnios or the allantois. In the next
paragraph he fays, he fought the centre of the yolk, and
found the urachus there without having any connection with
the allantois. He inflated it, oiie part of the air went out
at the anus ; another elevated the membranes of the reilum.
He next paffed an extremely fine probe into the urachus, and
found an orifice on the left fide, between the anus and that
veficle that the urachus produced by inflation in the reftum :
the probe would not enter the plicated mufcular fac, which
is behind the rectum and at the fide of the vagina.

This account appears to us to be very inaccurate in fome
points. The membrane which Haller took for the allantois
was moft probably that which envelopes the yolk-bag and
inteftines. The urachus at the periods of uicubation, when
it can be found, has no connection with the yolk-bag. The
foramen on the left fide of the anus appears to have been
made by the probe, and the mufcular fac he fpeaks of was
the burfa Fabricii.

Changes -which take place in the Slrudurc of the Chick afkr
Incubation. — Thefe chiefly relate to the difappearance of the
yolk, and the degeneracy of , the arterial duc^s, which in the
fcetus conveyed the blood from the pulmonary artery into
the aorta.

//; fwodays after cxchifion from the egg, \\\tytilk is very fen-
fibly diminiihed in quantity, and its confilleucc is even more
tenacious or gluey than it was before.

The right du8us arteriofus, which is the firft obliterated,
becomes as fmall as a filament. The left is, according to
Halier, diminiihed three times the lize it had during incuba-
tion.

In four Jays after exclufion, the joih is found to be re-
duced two-thirds of its bulk. In proportion as the fubftance
of the yolk difappears, the membranes forming the bag
alfo diminiih. The adhelion which we have meulioned.the
yolk-bag to have with the ii;ternal part of the umbjlicus,
after its admiffion into the abdomei>, is now undone. Jt
■wouid appeaf that this attachment is produced by tjic con-
l' .^ ■ iradion

INCUBATION.

traftion of the fphinfter mufcle upon the remnant of the
refTels and of tlic membrane* connefted with the centre of
the yolk-bag.

It is now particularly eafy to fee the origin and courfe of
the proper bhod-vejfeh of the yolk. The veins belong to a
fingle trunk, which is continued along the mefentery, and
ends in the vena ports ; it is evidently a branch of the
tnefenteric vein. The arteries are alfo derived from a fingle
trunk, which is the principal branch of the mefenteric ar-
tery. This trunk, in fsme points of view, appears to be
double ; it divides, pafles on each fide of the inteftine, and
then unites to form a fingle vefTel previous to its dillribution
in the membranes of the yolk-bag. Thefe veffels, and the
duftus vitello inteflinalis, are connefted together by fome
fine folds of peritoneum, which are the continuation of the
mefentery.

The cavity of the right duSus arteriofus is completely ob-
literated, but the left is fcarcely more diminifhed than it was
on the fecond day.

In eight days after exclufton, the yolk is reduced to the
fize of a hazel nut. The duflus vitello inteflinalis becomes
thicker, and more refemblcs the inteftine than it did be-
fore.

The valvular ftrufture upon the internal fiirface of the
yolk-bag is no longer apparent.

The right dudus arteriofus, although reduced to the fize of
a filament, is enlarged where it enters the aorta.

The left duS is hkewife obhterated at its origin from the
pulmonary artery ; it is a filament, but is inferiorly white,
opaque, and larger. Both thefe dufls, therefore, decline firft
at the fuperior part, where they come from the pulmonary
artery.

The gizzard of the chick, efpecially if the animal has
had the opportunity of picking up fmall ftones with its
food, is thick and mufcular ; and the internal coat, which
during incubation was foft and fpongy, is now become firm
and dry.

In i6 days after excliifwn, according to Haller, the fub-
flance of xhe yolk is entirely confumed ; there remains but a
fmall thin fac, lefs than a pea, containing a granular fiibftance,
which is partly of a calcareous nature, and which is the dregs
of the fubftance of the yolk.

Twenty fex^en days after exclufton, Haller found both the
right duSus arteriofus, and the left, ftill remaining in the form
of filaments. The right was fmaller than the left. The
latter was ftill open at its junftion with the aorta.

In three months after exclufton, the diiaus -vitello inteflinalis is
found to be turned down upon the fide of the inteftine, to
which it evidently forms an appendix. At its extremity may
ftill be feen the remnant of the yolk-bag, reduced to nearly
the fize of the head of a pin. It is ufually dark coloured,
from the nature of its contents.

In the adult bird, Stenon, Ncedham, and Maitre Jan, have
recognized the ductus vitello intflinalis in the form of a fmall
c^cum. It is fituated on the alimentary canal, about midway
between the ftomach and the anus.

Needham defcribes it as being half an inch long, but this
is incorreft with refpeft to any of the gallinaceous tribe, but
in fome other birds we have found it of a very remarkable
fize.

In the fnipe it exceeds in length the caeca of the large in-
teftine.

In the curlew it is about an inch long, and very capa-
cious.

In the woodcoei it is nearly as large.

It 18 above an inch long, and very (lender, in the tlaci

Coot : the cseca of the great inteftines are alfo fingularly lon^
and flender in this bird.

In all the paflerine birds it is fmall.

In theftvan, goofe, and duci it is of a moderate fize.

It is remarkably fmall in the heron and in the kaiul.

In all the birds we have examined, there exifts during life
fome remnant of the yolk-bag at the end of the cxcun.,
formed by the duftus vitello inteftinalis. This is more par-
ticularly remarkable in the paffcrine and accipitrine birds. The
nightingale has a little fac, about the fize of a fmall pea, at-
tached to the end of this procefs of the inteftine.

Although there is fo much variety with refpedl to the
figure and fize of the caecum of the fmall inteftines of birds,
the ftrufture of this part is conftantly the fame in every
fpecies. It appears to pofTefs but two coats ; one is the
continuation of the peritoneum, covering the inteftine ; the
other correfponds to the mucous membrane of the gut. The
internal furfacc of the Cfccum exhibits fmall cells fimilar to
thofe points of the alimentary canal on which the mucous
glands are congregated. This ftrufture exifts whether the
internal membrane of the inteftine be plicated or \-illous.

We have not fonnd the appendix produced by the dnftus
intello inteftinalis to receive, in any inftance, the contents
of the alimentary canal. It is filled with a mucous fluid,
which appears to be fecreted from its internal fiirface. There
is, therefore, ever)' reafon to fiippofe that this appendix per-
forms the office of a mucous gland in the adult bird. The
great fize which it pofleffes in the fnipe, curlew, woodcoei^
and coot is probably dependent upon the nature of the food
of thefe birds, although we cannot at prefent perceive in
what manner this part is fo particularly ufeful to them. See
Phil. Tranf. part ii. 1811.

In the Ptet-defigned to illuftrate the incubation of the egg,
fig. I. exhibits an egg with a portion of the ftiell and the mem-
brane underneath it, removed at the great end : a is the firft ap-
pearance of the foetus as it is feen in the cicatricula, through
tlie membrane which covers it ; around it are the concentric
circles or waves (halones).

Fig. 2. reprefents an egg opened in the fame manner in
order to expofe the foetus when it is a little more advanced,
with the commencement of the vafcular area ; a, the foetus
fomewhat formed with the head hke the top of a club ; i, the
contour of the vafcular area affuming the heart-ftiape :
it does not yet circulate red blood, but within it are
feen the rudiments of veflels containing a greenifti fluid. Some
of thefe points are of a darker colour, and are the firft ap-
pearance of the real blood.

Fig. 3. is an egg alfo with the fiiell of the great end re-
moved ; a is the fo:tal chick ; i refers to the pulfating points
that conftitute the heart ; c reprefents the appearance of the
vafcular area after the circulation of blood is perfeited in it.

Fig. 4. exhibits a magnifitd view of the portion of the
membranes at the great end of the egg, including the chick
and vafcular area about the fourth day of incubation ; a is
the thin gliftening membrane which readily feparates at this
period from the reft, ti:rned back ; ^is the fine tranfparent
membrane immediately under the firft, alfo turned a little
off^; c the chick contained in the amnios ; dthc veficula um-
bilicalis attached to the chick ; fthe external membrane of
the yolk-bag on which the vefTels compofing the vafcular area
are feen to fpread ; / is the internal pulpy membrane of the
yolk-bag which afterwards produces the valves, tlie pre-
ceding membrane being partially removed to expofe it.

Fig. J. exhibits a portion of the yolk-bag witli the chick
and veficula umbilicalis confiderably magnified ; a the chick ;
6 the amnios ; c the membranous connedion the amnios ha»

with

INCUBATION.

*ith the veficula umbilicalis ; J the veficula, the neck of
which i> feen to enter the opening at the umbilicus of the
chick.

Fig. 6. is a magnified view of the heart of the chick as
it appears when hrft formed ; a indicates the horfe-fhoe
dilatation mentioned in the defcription of that organ on the
fecond day.

Fig. 7. fhews the heart, and large veffels of the chick
magnified after thefe parts are more perfeAly formed ; a is
the vena cava ; i the auricle ; c the auricular canal ; d the
fingle ventricle ; e the bulb of the aorta ; f the principal
artery.

Fig. 8. is a view, alfo magnified, of the heart, pulmonary
arteries, lungs, and aorta of the chick ; a is the heart feen
on the pofterior fide ; 6, b, the two arteries which fend off
the pulmonary arteries, and afterwards concur towards the
formation of the abdominal aorta. Thefe veifels, after part-
ing with their branches to the lungs, are analogous to the
dudlus arteriofus of mammalia 5 c, c, are the pulmonary
branches of the veffels lad mentioned ; d the third vefTel
of the heart, which correfponds to the fuperior ■part of the
aorta ; e the abdominal aorta, formed as already defcribed ;
fyf, the two lungs.

Fig. 9. is a view of the internal furface of the yolk-bag
after the valves have begun to form upon it.

Fig. 10. (hews a fimilar view of the internal membrane
of the yolk-bag, when the valvular apparatus is completely
formed ; a, a, a, indicate fome of the inteftiniform tubes upon
the edges of the valves ; i, b, the appearance of ved'els in
the intervals between the valves. The valvular projeftions
themfelves are fufEciently evident.

Fig. II. (hews a portion of one of the valves of the
yolk-bag magnified ; a the bafis of the valve, where the
principal veffel runs ; b the plaits or folds upon its fide ; c
the inteftiniform tubes upon tlie edge of the valve.

Fig. 12. is a magnified view of a portion of a \tilv<; of
the yolk-bag after it had been converted into a fine lace,
the veffels injeiSled, and the internal membrane wafaed, fo
that the real blood-veffels alone remain ; a is the principal
veffel that runs along the bafe of the valve ; b the one which
goes along the free edge ; c the lace-like ramification of
veffels between thefe two.

Fig. 13. reprefents the yolk-bag, and the portion of the
inteftine with which it is conncdled, taken out of the chick
a few days after incubation ; a is the yolk-bag very much
reduced in fize, and of an ii-regular form ; b the piece of
inteftine to which tlie yolk-bag is attached ; c the duftus
vitello inteftinahs imperfeftly feen, as it is partly covered
by the blood-veffels of the yolk-bag ; d the branch of the
mefenteric vein, which furni(hes, in the early periods of
incubation, the veins of the vafcular area ; e the branch of
the mefenteric artery, which goes to the yolk-bag. It di-
vides, paffes on each fide of the inteftine, and unites again
before it ramifies upon the yolk-bag.

Fig. 14. (hews the chick after the yolk-bag had been
taken into the belly ; a the umbihcal opening furrounding
the aperture, which is clofed, in the prefent inftance, by
the contraction of this mufcle ; b fome lacerated veffels,
and a portion of the chorion hanging from the umbilical
aperture ; c the belly of the chick diftendcd in confequence
of the admiffion of the yolk-bag.

Fig. 15. is a plan of the relative pofition and magnitude
of the contents of the egg about the ninth day of incuba-
tion. The view is procured by firft boiling the entire egg,
and afterwards making an equal fedion ; a the edge of the
fhell ; b the cavity left between the two layers of the mem-
brane that lines tlie (hell to contain air. This cavity is

confiderable at the prefent period ; e the chick in its am-
nios ; d the yolk ; e the cut edge of the yolk-bag ; /
the white which has defcended to tlie fmall end of the egg
and diminiihed ; g the chaiazat, much nearer each other
than they were before incubation.

Fig. 16. exhibits a view of the contents of the egg,
with the chorion cut open and turned down off the other
parts ; a tiie chick feen obfcurely, as it is in fome meafure
covered by the membrane that includes the yolk-bag and
intellines, befides being furrounded by the amnios, the fluid
of which, at the prefent period is greeni(h ; i^the amnios
feen at each end of the chick ; c indicates tlie yolk-bag,
which is divided into three lobes ; one of tliem is feen to lie
upon the fide of the chick ; the blood-veffels cf the yolk ap-
pear fmall, and are indillinftly feen; ^ fome folds of the mem-
brane which invelopes the yolk-bag, inteftines, and a part of
the chick ; e the white contained in its proper membrane,
and very much reduced in fize ; y the chorion turned down,
and therefore the furface that is feen is the internal ;
gigigi refledlionsof iine membrane wliich attach the chorion
to the other membranes; A, />, the two trunks of the umbi-
hcjJ arteries, which each divide into two branches, and are
diftributed to the chorion.

Fig.- 17. is intended to explain the formation of that
membrane which includes the yolk bag and the inteftines
of the chick, and for this purpofe the chorion is iiitirely
removed ; a is the chick contained in the amnios ; b indi-
cates the membrane of the yolk-bag and inteftines ; it is
feen to cover a certain extent of the amnios and chick ;
it defcends pofteriorly to be connefted to the feptum, be-
tween the yolk-bag and the white : anteriorly it is laid
open, in order to turn out th? yolk-bag, which was before
contained in this membrane. Within the chink made by the
incilion are to be feen the inteftines of the chick perfeftly
uncovered and defignated by ,:. The yolk-bag hangs by the
duclus vitello inteftinalis and its blood-veffels, and is marked
by the letter d.

Fig. 18. (hews an egg with the great end fradlured pre-
vious to the exclufion of the chick : fome more pieces of
the fliell are removed in order to bring into view the
membranes that are lacerated by the bill of the chick ; a is
that portion of the membrane under the (hell which forms
the air-cell, and in which there is a fmall aperture. The
chorion and amnios are torn to a greater extent to permit
the bill of the cliick to appear on the outfide of the (hell ;
b the bill of the chick : befidc it are feen fome points of fea-
thers projecting out of the opening made in the outer
membrane.

Fig. 19. is a portion of the fmall inteftine taken from the
adult bird, on which the appendix is placed, that we have
defcribed as the remnant of the duftus vitello inteftinalis ;
a the inteftine ; b the appendix or cscum ; f is a little
knot which was, during foetal life, the yolk-bag.

In fom.e of the preceding figures, the form of the chick
is reprefented at different ages, which the reader will under-
ftand without the letters of reference.

Of ihs Ufes of the different Parts of the Egg during Incuba-
tion, and aft^r the E>.dufion of the Chick. — Although there
can be no doubt that the chick derives its nutriment from
the humours of the egg, the mode in which this is effefted
is involved in confiderable obfcurity. Anatomifts have
entertained very different opinions upon the fubjeft. Some
have fuppofed that both in mammiferous animals and
birds, the foetus is nourilhed by fwallowing or abforbing tlie
hquor amnii.

Heifter, in his Compendium of Anatomy, ftates, that after
the contents of the uterus of the covi were frozen, he found

a piece

INCITBATION.

a piece of ice oF the ihicknefs of a linger extended from the which reafon it appears Iffs than it did when the chick iv.--

congealed amnios into the mouth of the foetus, and down the fmall. Tlie quantity of the liquor amnii ?t any given tin,;,

cefophagus as far as the Iloinacii. even admitting that it is not fecrcted by the fetus, wonit:

There have been fometimes feen alfo in the ftomach of be quite infufficient for the formation of the latter, 'lit

the fatal calf' the fame kind of fatty concretions, that ufu- principal part of this fluid alfo is loft wlicn the membran-

ally exift in the amnios of this animal. The hairs of the that contains it is ruptured, previous to the liberation of the

calf have been difcovered in tlie meconium. New-born in- young animal from the uterus or the egg. We fhould, on ali

fants have been obferved to vomit a iluid refembling the thefe grounds, deny that the liquor amnii is deftined to fuftair.

liquor amnii. the foitus in any circumftances.

It has been remarked by Harvey, Huller, :<nd feveral other In all oviparous animals, there is no necefiity for fuppofin .;

writers upon incubation, that tlie fcctal chick frequently the liquor amnii to l)e a nutritive fluid, as there are oth.:

opens and fliuts its mouth while incloied in the amnios, as if humours provided for the purpofe of nouriihing the foetu-

it were performing the act of fwailowmg. The fources of nutriment, during fostal life, are particulai-

The preceding tadts leaw-. no doubt that the water of the evidentin the ovum of birds.
amnios pall'cs into the ftomach of the foetus, but by no In the hiftory of incubation it will be found, that l'

means proves that it contributes to tlie nouriiliment of the albumen begins to diminiih as foon as the fcetus become;; ;

young animal, but i-alher the contrary, as if it were either parent, that it continues to decreafe regularly as the clr

digefted in the ftomach, or confumtd by abforption, it grows, and that this fluid is entirely confumed at the end i

eould not be found towards the end of geltation, or after- incubation : there is, therefore, no doubt that the white

birth, in the quantity reported. the egc is the fubiiance from which the chick is form

Thofewho give credit to the nutrition of the foetus by It has been fuppofed by fome writers, that the yolk :-

the hquor amnii, cite fome remarkable cafes in wiiicli the contributes to the fnpport of the chick while in the e,

umbihcal cord is faid to have been deftroyed before birth, This opinion refts cliiufly upon the circumftance of the y •

or in which the infant has been born with the cicatrix at becoming larger and more fluid after the while begin?

the urabihcus pcrfcdfly formed. See Obferv. rarior cent diminifli, which has been attributed to the albumen pall

poft pars I. obf. 32. — Journal des favans, annce 1673, into it, that the two fluids might be mi.scd together, ai-a

p. 69. Obiervat. communiq. par Chn.tton.— F. Hoffmann & afterwards converted into the fubftance of the chick. Mai-

Triller Didert. de pinguid e fucco nutr. fuperfl. p. 10. and tre Jan, I.pvpille, and others believed, that the white is ab-

Rommel Ephemer. nat. cur. die. 2 "a 7, obf. 209. forbcd h- •' ■ ,'■ ' ■ -. t -? ''•■•? conveyed into the yolk-bag.

It fliould be remarked, that of thefe obfervations, fome and Lf < ' to demon ftrate the tubular

are related in a manner which makes their accuracy very ftruftti;.' We have already ftated,

doubtful; and otliers, even if corredtly ftated, do not that by 11 - ij 1 we could not perceive the

prove the point they are propofed to eftabhih. Thus ftrufture d<:i;:iihed by Lcvc.iie ; ue arc therefore led to goi|-

the infant with the cicatrized navel was not feen by Chat- elude, that the fluidity of the yolk, during incubation, is oc-

ton until five months after birth ; and in fome of the cafes cafioned by the organization of that humour undergoing a

where the cord was faid to be injured or putrid while the change fi-om the application of heat. We have found alfo

child was alive, it does not appear that the circulation had the yolk become fluid when eggs were fat upon, which had

been deftroyed. not been fecundated by the cock, and in which the white

We ihould not have noticed the doftrine of the nutrition vi'as not fenlibly diminiflicd. The wei^jht of die yolk at

of the ftetus from ihe liquor amnii, as it is generally dif- the end of incubation, almoft proves that it is not concerned
credited, had it not been advanced with foine limitation by in the ncurifliment of tlie chick, until after the animal is

.Lobltein in a modern publication. This author does not excluded from the egg,

pretend that the foetus fwallows the liquor amnii, he allows We canfefs, huweur, that we are unable to form a decided
that the young animal exills and increafes in growth, before opinion with refpeft to the manner in which the albumen is

the digeftive organs or even the mouth are formed. He is carried into the body of the chick. Throughout incuba-
alfo aware, that there have been monfters produced in whom tion the white tends to the lower and fmall end of the egg ;
the head was w^anting. He therefore fuppofts, that the the chick is placed at the upper and grctit end. There is,
fluid of the amnios is taken into the body of the foetus by therefore, no diredi communication between tlie chick and
the abforbents of the flvin, which opinion he grounds upon the albumen. The blood-veirds of the egg have apparently
the following circumftances : Many of the cold-blooded ani- no immediate conneaion with the white, until its proper
mals, he fays, have no placenta, but in every fpecies the membrane is formed, at uhicii time this humcwir is already
foetus floats in a clear liquor, analogous to that of the amnios, much reduced, and even then there are only a few wander-
Tliis fluid, he remarks, diminiflies in proportion to the growth ing vefli^ls fpread over its membrane. Thefe fafts afford
of the foetus ; it likewife remains uncorrupted during foetal reafon for the fuppofition that the white pafles into the yolk-
life, which fact, he thinks, can only be explained by its bag, through the chalazse ; but, on the other hand, it is
pafling fucceflively into the body of the young animal, fcarcely credible that the white, after being mixed with the
(Lobltein fur la Nutrition du Pectus, § 88.) Our reply to yolk, (hould alone be abforbed during incubation, and the
this reafoning would be, that the liquor amnii is not a nu- latter fluid left undiminiflied.

tritive fluid perhaps in any inftance ; that when lirll perceived. The chalazoj, v.-licther they perform the office of abfor-

it is in a very fmall quantity : it is, in the higher clalfes of bents or not, aft as ligaments to the yolk-bag, and have the

animals, contained in a membrane which is continuous with cffcft of keeping, throughout incubation, that furface of the

the ll<in of the foetus, and which membrane further derives its bag uppermoft on which the chick is iituated, in order that

blood-vefl'els from the foetus. It is, tiierefore, a fecretion of it may receive heat from the hen. See Ecu;,

the young animal. During feveral days of incubation it The ufe of the veficula umbilicalis isa fubjtd on which no

increafes as the chick grows, and in the latter periods does fatisfaftory theory has been yet made out.

net perhaps aftually diminifh in quantity, but ceafes to in- The older anatomifts fuppofed tliis part to be a refervoir

creafe in proportion to the developemeut of the chick ; for of urme, a.^d gave it the name of allantoii. Lobftein conli-

ders

INCUBATION.

the fluid of the vcficula and the allantois as the nutri-
t of the fcEtiis during the iirll periods of its exiitence.
•imerriiigand BUmienbachfuppofcthat thevcficnlallmbili-
^ IS intended for the nourifhmont of the fcetiis in the hn-
lubj^ft. Although it does not appear that this ufe of the
' Kula or allantois lias been in any degree proved, the argu-
ments employed arc conclufive againlt it being a refervoir for
urine,- and particularly fo with refpeft to birds and the liuman
fubjea.

The veficula umbfiicalis attains a confiderable fize, and is
filled with its proper fluid before the kidnies cxiil ; and
although the membrane continues to increafe, the quantity of
fhe fluid it contains by no means keeps pace with the growth
of the kidnies. \v'e cannot admit tlic ivafoning of Haller,
^^'ho concludes that the exiftcn>.v> of fluid in tlie allantois is
a proof that the kidnies fecrete urine before they are vifi-
ble. It has not yet been afcertained that the fluid contained
ill the allantois is urine even in quadrupeds, 'r'lerethis bag
communicates fo plainly with the bladder. Lobllcin found,
after the allantois had acquired a very confiderable bulk, that
the kidnies were fmall and pale, and refemblcd organs which
had not yet been called into aftion. The bladder alfo was
contradled. He very jnc'.icioufly remarks, that if the allan-
tois were diftended to the fi/.e that it is known to poffefs in
the early periods of geltation and incubation by the fecre-
tion of the kidnies, it would become before birtli a moit
prodigious fac. It is extremely improbable that the fecre-
tion of urine fliould dimiuifli or be fufpended after the kid-
nies were perfedly formed, by which fuppofition alone the
fmaller relative iize of the allantois in the latter periods of
foetal life could be explained

We may further obferve, that there is no refervoir provided
for any of the other fecretions of the fostiis, and iliat even
the gall-bag is not remarkably dillended, although it evi-
dently contains bile fome time before birth, and notwith-
itanding the liver is the largelt gland in the body.

In defcribing the progrefs of incubation, we have mention-
ed, that the veficula umbilicalis of birds contributes to
thi> formation of the membrane called the chorion ; that its
fluid dilappears, leaving behind it fome layers of a foft cal-
careous fubflance, refembling the excrement of birds, or
rather the folid parts of the urine of thofe animals. This
exorementitious matter has been coTifidered a proof of tlie
veficula being the receptacle of the urine, but it fliould be
obferved that the fame fort of fubftance is found after the
confumption of all the fluids of the egg.

The fuiiftions of the veficula umbilicalis in birds, if there
be any peculiar to it, are lofl; in thofe of the chorion.

By recurring to the hi'.tory of incubation, it will be found
that the external membrane of the yolk-bag, on which the
vafcular area is fpread, and the chorion, receive a vaflly
larger quantity of blood than circulates at any one moment in
the body of the chick. The chorion is not originally a vaf-
cular membrane ; its vefTels arife with the veficula umbilicalis,
by which they are condufted from the body of the foetus.
The vafcularity of the chorion in fome degree fucceeds that
of the vafcular area ; it appertains chiefly to the arterial
fyftem, whilft that of the area is almoft entirely produced by
teins.

The ufe mod commonly afcribed to thefe two great fyftems
of extraneous veflels, is the oxydation of the blood of the
fcetus, for which purpofe it is alio believed that the air is ad-
mitted into the great end of the egg. We have, however,
been led to entertain a different opinion of the offices of the
Vafcular area, chorion, and air-cell, in confcqiience of fome
experiments we have made, which we fliall lay before the
reader.

Experiment I. — Two eggs of a hni were opened at the
great end by deilroying the (hell and outer layer of the
membrane compofing the air-cell. The blood-veflbls were
feen through the membrane of a deep purple colour.
Being expofed to the atmofpheric air, they became, in a
few minutes, a vivid fcarlet. The fame eggs were then placed
in a jar filled with fixed air, and their blood very foon re-
afl'umed its original purple colour ; and upon the eggs being
again brought into the common air, the fcarlet colour of the
blood was fpecdily revived. One of thefe eggs had its
blood rendered venous and the other arterial, in the manner
above-mentioned. Both were then placed in a vefl'el of water,

they remained all night, and on the next

morning

each continued to preferve its proper colour.

Ex. 2. — We took an egg which had been fat upon i8
days, and having removed a fquare portion of the (hell and
membrane forming the air-cell, about a quarter of an inch in
fize, it was placed in ajar of carbonic acid gas, over a bath
of quickfilver, which was kept throughout the experiment,
as nearly as poffible, at the temperature of 104 Fahrenheit.
The motions of the chick caufe an egg to roll upon a fmootii ■
furface, but in this inftanc^ no motion wns perceived. After
the egg had remained an hour in the fixed air it was taken
out, and the aperture of the flicll was carefully clofed witk
paper and glue, and two hours elapfed before the eeg began
to roll upon the furface of the mercury. Upon this occa-
fion, therefore, the chick appeared to have been fubmitted
three hours to the influence of carbonic acid gas without-
being deftroyed.

E^\ 7,. — An egg, at the iSth day of incubation, was
deprived of the greatefl; part of the (hell, and of the mem-
brane that lines the (hell, fo that the velfels of the chorion
were fully expofed. The membrane of the chorion was
moiftened to increafe the effeft. The egg was fuftered to
remain for 25 minutes in the fixed air, during which time
the chick (hewed no motion ; but upon being removed into
atmofpheric air ifftruggled as ufual.

Ex. 4. — The air contained in the cells, during the latter
ftages of incubation, was collected from a number of eggs,
and fubjefted to experiment in a graduated glafs tube. It
afforded, as nearly as may be, the fame produdls that are
obtained from atmofpheric air, after it has been fpoilcd by
relpiration ; from which it would appear, that it was the
prtfence of undiluted fixed air in the 2d and 3d experi-
ments that caufed the motions of the chick to ceafe, and
not the ab fence of oxygen gas

Ex. 5 — Being aware of the fatal effeifts upon the
chick, which have been reported to follow covering the
fhell of the egg, fo as to llbp the further admiffion of air
into it, we varniihed the furface of feveral eggs ac different
periods of incubation. The refult of this experiment was
nearly the fame in every inllance. The chick always died ;
not, however, immediately, but in two, three, or four days,
and apparently not in confequeiice of being uiifupplied with
frclh air, but from being unprovided with any kind of air
to occupy the fpace caiifed by the expenditure of the fluid
contents of the egg in the formation of the chick : for, in
thefe cafes, we found the yolk more or lefs diforganized, the
membranes fometimes ruptured, and the fcetus always mal-
formed or imperfcftly developed. If the death, of the chick
had been occafioned by the deprivation of oxygen, it would
have been immediate, and unattended with any change in the
flrufture of th.e foetus.

The gradual admiflion of air into the eggs of birds takes
place as a matter of neceffity, becaufc the (hell, being hard and
unyielding, cannot accommodate its form to the bulk of its
contents in proportion as they dimini(h ; for the parts origi-

naUy

INCUBATION.

nally contained in the egg occupy a much larger fpace, as
already mentioned, than when the chick is fully formed.

The preceding experiments prove that the air does not
pafs into the egg for the purpofe of efFefting any change in
the blood of the fcetal chick, fimilar to the procefs of refpi-
ration, as has been generally fuppofed. It is true, ncver-
thelefs, that when the blood is firll expofed to the air con-
tained in the great end of the egg, it becomes oxydated by
it ; and hence, during the firfl: days of incubation, all the
blood-veflels of the vafcular area are obferved to be of an
arterial colour : but as there are no means of expelling the
air as it becomes fpoiled, and as the fupply of pure air after-
wards is too fmall in quantity to produce any effect upon
the blood, all the veflels are of the purple or venous colour
in the latter periods of incubation. This appearance of the
blood has been obferved to exift by many %vriters upon in-
cubation, and coincides with the experiments we have re-
lated above.

It may be aflced, what end is anfwered by the diftribution
of fo much blood to the membranes of the egg, if it be not
for its expofure to oxygen gas ? This is a queftion wliich,
perhaps, cannot be folved by direft experiments.

We conceive, however, that it is neceffary, during foetal
life, to have a greater quantity of blood formed than is em-
ployed in the organs of the young animal. The funftions
of the blood-vefTels of the fcetus are almoft confined to the
creation of its body ; but in the adult animal the principal
part of the mafs of blood is confumed in furnifliing the va-
rious fecretions. The vafcular membranes of the ovum may
be confidered as performing the office of the various fecretory
organs, the actions of which are dormant, at lead during
the early periods of foetal life. By this means alfo the or-
gans of the body are accuftomed to the preparation and
prefence of a quantity of blood which is wanted immediately
after the young animal leaves the uterus or the egg :
indeed, without fuch a proviCon, it would feem to be
impoffible for the foetus to aflume, in a moment, the func-
tions of an independent ftate of exiftence.

Further, the extraneous circulation on the membranes ap-
pears to be the means by which the nutritive fluids of the
egg are converted into blood. This is almoft demonftrated
in the vafcular area, in which the red blood appears before
its veflels have any vifible conneftion with the body of the
chick.

The membrane containing the vafcular area, therefore, we
deem the organ of nutriment and affimilation. It corre-
fponds to the different vifcera which convert the food into
blood in the full-grown or perfect animal. The chorion
of birds fupplies the place of the vifcera, which return the
particles of the adult body to the common ftock of nature.

We could draw many arguments in fupport of this theory
from the anatomy of the lower claffes of animals, and from
the ftrufture of the vafcular fyftem in particular animals of
a higher rank ; but it does not feem confiftent, with the
nature of the prcfcnt article, to enter into an extenfive phy-
fiological difcuiTion.

If it be admitted that the blood of the foetus does not re-
ceive that efieft from the air whicli gives the arterial cha-
rafter, it becomes delirable to afcertain the power of the
foetus for generating animal heat. With this view we have
inftitutcd the following experiments.

Ex. 1. — An egg, on which the hen had fat i; days, was
placed upon a bath of mercury heated to 104 of Fahrenheit,
and kept at that temperature for feveral hours. The heat
of the room was 75' . The upper furfaceof the membranes,
when the fhell was broken to admit the thermometer, raifcd
he iHftrument to 92 . The interior of the egg was 95', and

on the inflrument being thruft down fo as to touch that part
of the fhell in contaft with the mercury, it did not rife liight-r
than 100°. From this experiment, the ftandard heat of the
chick appeared to be about 95^.

Ex. 2. — An egg, at the fame period of incubation as tin-
lafl, had the lliell entirely removed, and was placed upon a
mercurial bath at the heat of S3", the air of the apartment
being 75". The centre of the egg preferved the inftrumoni
at 8S , and when pufhed down upon the membranes next the
mercury, it did not fall below 85".

Ex 7, . — A chick, about 1 8 days old, was removed from the
egg and its membranes, and expofed for fome time upon
the furface of a bath of quickfilver at the temperature of
79", and becoming gradually cooler as the heat of the fur-
rounding air was 75 . The thermometer was introduce J
into the thorax of the chick, and flood at So" for a fhorc
time, even after the chick had died.

The heat of the different parts of the incubated egg can-
not be expefted to correfpond with each other as luiu
as external heat or cold is applied to one furface o:
but the three laft-mentioned experiments, notwithtlanc.
appear to us conclufire, with refpecf to the foetal chick ft -
fefiing an independent temperature, and being capable of
reiifling, to a certain extent, both foreign heat and cold.

It is proper to obferve, that we have made lom.e experi-
ments with refpeCl to the oxydation of the blood, and the
animal heat of the foetus in mammaha, which entirely cor-
refpond in their refults with thofe above related ; and, there-
fore, fortify our opinion with regard to the abfence of any
procefs analogous to refpiration during foetal exiftence, and
likewife prove that the young animal has an independent
temperature.

We have already mentioned that the yolk lofes very
little, if any, of its original weight during incubation ;
but that after the chick is excluded from the fhell it is
fpeedily confumed. This humour, therefore, is obvioufly
defigned for a provifioiial nutriment to fuftain the chick
until it is able to procure a fufficient quantity of its natural
food. This difpofition of the yolk is particularly necef-
fary to thofe birds that live in a wild ftate, but is ufeful
to all.

Anatomitls are divided with refpeft to the manner in
which the yolk is conveyed into the fyifera of the chick.
Some affert that it pafles into the alimentary canal, through
the duftus viteilo inteftinalis, where it is digefted previous to
its being abforbed by the lafteals. Others deny that it is
to be found in the ftomach or inteftines, and believe that
it is abforbed immediately from the yolk-bag. We are
difpofed to adopit the latter opinion, both from never having
being able to difcover any yolk in the inteftinal canal, and
from a number of reafons, which indireftly go to difprove
the patTage of the yolk through the duftus viteilo intefti-
nalis.

In the firft place, there does not feem to be any power
by vvhiih the yolk can be tranfmitted into the inteftine.
The yolk-bag itfclf has no mufcular coat, and the mere
preffure of the parietes of the abdomen of the chick, even
if fufiiciently ftrong, would be exerted as much upon the
inteftines as the yolk-bag, and might therefore as readily
urge the contents of the former into the latter, as the yolk
into the gut ; for the duAus viteilo inteftinalis does not
penetrate the coats of the inteftine obliquely, fo as to pro-
duce the effeft of a valve, but has merely a flight contraftion
at tlie orifice, which muft operate equally on both fides.

There would appear to be no neceffity for tlie yolk to
pafs into the alimentary canal, or to be fubjecled to any
procefs of digcftion or afTimilation previous to its entering

the

I N C

the fyilem of the chick. It is already a vital fluid, wKich
is proved by Mr. Hunter's experiments upon the tempera-
ture of eggs. (Sec Egg.) If the humours of the egg did
not podefs vital properties, they would very foon become
putrid from the heat of incubatioa.

Wl'.cn we contemplate tl»c ftruftiire of tlie volk-bag, it
mud be perceived to be not only continuous with the iutef-
tinal canal, but to refemble the latter in organization, ex-
cept tint the mufcular coat is wanting;. The external
membrane of the bag differs in no refped from the peritoneal
coat of the inteftines ; and the internal membrane is fo
analogous to t!>e villous coat, that wc cannot liefitate to al-
low them the fame funilions. No advantage, therefore,
would be gained by the pailage of the volk into the in-
teftine.

The abforption of this humour, by the valvular or in-
ternal membrane of the yolk-bag, feems proved by the
organization of the yolk undergoing a chan^'e upon the
furface which is in contact with the membrane, while the
central part is unaltered. The circumllance alfo, of a con-
crete fubdance, rcfembling the refidue of the albumen, being
left in the yolk-hag after the nutritious parts of the yolk
are confumed, affords a ftrong evidence that the latter are
removed by a procefs of abforption ; for if the yolk pafled
through the duftus vite'.lo inteilinahs, it would difappear
vithout diftindion of parts.

The authors who believe that the yolk is carried into
the fyftem without a previous preparation in the alimentary
canal, attribute the office of abforption to the red veins.
In proof of this opinion Btumenbach and others ftate that
they have detected upon fome occafions a yellow fluid in
the veins of the bag, which they have fuppofed to bo the
yolk in its paffage. Notwithftanding this appearance, which
we have fomctimes alfo fcen, it appears to us moll probable
that the yolk is abforbed by the fame fyilem of veifels
•which take up the chyle from the fmall inteilines. The
■yolk-bag and inteftinal canal, as already mentioned, are
continuous parts, and fimilarly organized. The yolk-bag
is, in facl. a procefs of the inteftines, and fliould be con-
fidered as a portion of the body of the chick. It is fup-
pliedby the fame blood-vefiels as the inteftines ; why (liould
we therefore deny it the ladleal veffels ?

Another argument againft the abforbing function of the
veins of the yolk-bag may be deduced irom the fize of
thefe veftels at different periods. During the early part
of incubation they are large and numerous ; but after t)ie
yolk-bag paffes intoihe abdomen of the ciiick, where their
abforbing funftion chiefly, if not entirely, exift s, if it does at
all, they become fmaller and fewer llian tlie arteries. The
veffels of the yolk-bag, when they conilitute the vafcular
area, are the organs of fanguification for the chick. After
incubation they appear to become the nutritious veffels of
the bag itfelf.

It may feem not eafy to aflign a ufe for the dudus vitello
inteftinali?, ilnlefr. we grant it to be for tranfmitting the
fubftancc of the yolk into the alimentary canaL If, how-
ever, this (hould not be the cafe, ftill a communication
would probably exill between the yolk-bag and the in-
teftine ; for it is wiihout example, we believe, for the con-
tinuity to be interrupted by two adjoining cavities that
have' a fimilar organization. The duftus viicUo intellinalis
ve think, therefore, would exill as a matter of courfe,
independently of any offices it might perform. We have
defcnbcd the purpofcs this part fcrvis in the full grown
bird ; it is not, therefore, without its ui'es.
. Vol. XIX.

I N C

For the hiftory of foetal life in oviparous animals in ce-
neral, feeOv.M. ^

INCUBUS, in Medicine, from the Latin incubare, to
lie ot fit ii^on, the fame with the Englilli night-mare, fignifiei
a ftate of imperfect lleep, accompanied with an oppreffion
of the breathing, and frightful dreams.

By the Greeks this alTedion was defignated by a name
of fimilar import, \Zti\-r,:, ephialles, from the verb 'f(aX\^fj:a.t,
I leap upon ; and it has received various otlier appellations
expreffive of the fenfe of weight and oppreffion of the
chefl, the laborious refpiration, &c. as well as indicative
of the hypothcfes by which its occurrence was explained.
Thus it has been called l-r^Srj.r, -^nyixi;, epilepfia neffurna,
ajlhma noftiirriwi, SiC. ; and by piiny, ludibria fauni, from
the fame notion wliicli dictated the more modern appellations
oi hag-ritiirig, 'u.'iz.ard-prejfwg, mare-riding ; dier truth r, ot das
reilen der tnahr, of the Germans ; cochanar of the French ;
night-mare, &c.

This diforder feizes perfons, while fleeping, who imagine
that tliey feel an extraordinary comprefiion or weight about
the breall and ftomach, wliich they cannot by any eilbrt
fhake off. In this agony tliey figh, groan, and utter in-
diftintl founds ; fometimes they cry out, but more fre-
quently they attempt to fpeak, or to move in vain. Thefe
feelings give rife to various frightful fuggeftions of the
imagination : the patient fancies himfelf to be ftruggling
with ftrong men or devils, or to be in a houie on fire, or
in danger of being drowned in the fca or fome river ; and
in attempting to run away from danger, or climb up a hill,
he fancies he falls back as much after every flep as he had
advanced before. At length the fenfations of oppreffion
become intolerable, and the patient awakes ; but the terror
excited by the frightful ideas attending the night-mare,
leaves often a palpitation of the heart, with great anxiety
and languor, and fometimes a tingling of the ears, and a
tremor over the whole body.

It is altogether uuneceffary to attempt an enumeration
of the numerous hypothetical explanations which have been
attempted to be given of the phenomenon of incubus, and
which have been detailed by Aweii, Bond, and other ivrit--rs.
(See Awen, Pofit. iiiaugur. de Inrubo. Argentorat. 1676.
Ijond, Effay on the Incubus or Night-mare, 1753 ) 1"''^
dilorder has commonly been fuppofed to proceed from a
llagnation of the blood in the finufes of the brain, or in the
veffels of the lungs', or from too great a quantity of blood
being fent to the head. The horizontal pofture, in time of
fleep, and the preffure of the ftomach upon the aorta, in a
lupine fituation, have been tiiought fufficient to occafion a
more than ufual diftention oi x.\v± fmufes and other vefels of
the brain ; and the weight of the licart, preffing on the left
auricle and large trun.ks of the pulmonary veins, nr.ay, it is
fuppofed, prevent the eafy return of the blood from the lungs-,
and thus produce an oppreffion and fenfe of weight z^A futfb-
cation in thebreaft. (See Bond, chap, ii.) But without entering
into a p.irticular examination of thefe opinions, which are far
from being fatisfaftory, we may obferve, with Dr. AVhytt,
that, if they were true, fome degree of the night-mare ought
to happen to every body that lies upon his back, efpecially
after eating a full mcaL Further, if a horizontal fituatiou
could overcharge the brain with blood, fo as to occaJioii
the tiicubus, how comes it that people, who remain for fome
time in an inverted pofture, do not feel thisdifeafe beginning
to attack them ? And why does a fiighter degree of the
night-mare fometimes feizc people who fleep in an eredl
fituation in a chair ? a circumftancc which fometimes occurs,
not only after eating, but when the ftomach is out of
F order,

I N C

order, and troubled with wind. As t!ie weight of the
ftomach, even when filled witli food, can have fcarct-Iy any.
cffeft upon the motion of the blood in the aoyta, fo the
prefTure of the heart is by much too fniall to be able feniibly
to retard the motion of that fluid in the pulmonary veins,
otheruife, people exhauftcd by tedious difeafes, who gene-
rally lie on their back, would be conftantly alfedlcd with the
incubus.

We know that certain medicines or poifons, woi-ms, and
even corrupted bile, or other humours, by difagreeably af-
feftiiig the nerves of the ftomach, produce an opprefiion
about the bread, wild imaginations, frightful dreams, raving,
and infenljbility ; and there is no doubt that low fpirits,
melancholy, and difturbed ilecp, often proceed from a dif-
ordcrcd ihUeoFthe ftomach. It fecms, therefore, more pro-
bable that the feat of the night-mare is principally in that
organ. It is well afcertained that fome forms of epilepfy,
and of hyllerical fits, originate from diforder in tliat v'tfcus ;
and Galen confidered the incnbu^ as a nocturnal or flighter
epilepfy. People troubled with nervous and hypochondriac
alFedtions, and v.'ho liave delicate or flatulent llomachs, are
more peculiarly fubieA to tliis diforder ; and it is obfervcd,
that a heavy or flatulent fupper greatly aggravates the
night-marc, in thofe who are predifpofed to it. The fym-
pathy of the ftomach with the head, heart, lungs, and dia-
phragm, is fo remarkable, that tlicre can be no difficulty
in referring the feveral fymptoms of the incubus to a dif-
agreeable irritation of the nerves of the ftomach.

The incubus is raoft apt to feize pcrfons when lying on
their back, becaufe, in this polition, on accoimt of the fto-
mach and other abdominal vifcera prefTmg more upon the
diaphragm, we cannot infpire with the fame eafe as when
we fit up or lie on one fide. Further, in that fituation of
the body the food feems to lie heavier on the ftomach, "and
wind in it does not feparate fo readily by the ccfophagus and
pylorus, as in an erccl pofture, when thefe orifices are higher
than the other parts of the ftomach. The night-mare only
occurs in the time of fleep, becaufe the ftrange ideas excited
in the mind, in confequence of the difordcred feelings of
the ftomach, are not then correfted by the external fenfes
as they are when we are awake ; nor do we, by an increafed
refpiration or other motions of the body, endeavour to ftiake
oft" any beginning uneafy fenfation about the ftomach or
breait. Tlie incubus generally occurs in tlie firft ileep, and
feldoni towards morning, becaufe at the earlier period
the ftomach i« more loaded with food, and that in a more
triide and indigelled ftate than in the morning. A lefFcr
degree, amounting only to frightful dreams, is ahnofl; a
tonilant concomitant of overloaded llomacli in fome habits,
aee Dkh.a.m.

In fa6t, if the night-mare were owing to a ftagnation of
the blood in the lungs from the weight c^f the heart, or in
tlie finufes and otiier veftils of the brain from the horizontal
pofture of the body, it would become greater the longer it
continued, and would fcarcely ever go off fpontaneoufly.
But we know that this difcafe, after affetling people for
lome time, often gradually ceafes, and is fuccecded by re-
trelhing fleep ; for as fooii as tlie load of meat, or wind, or
other caufe difagreeably afi'ecting the nerves of the ftomach
is len'TJved, the oppreflion arid weight on the breaft, wild
iriiaginations, frightful dreams, &c. vanifti ; as all thefe pro-
ceed originally from the diforder of the ftomach. It may
be remarked, however, that, as neither flatulency, phlegm,
nor crudities in the ftomach, ever produce the fymptoms of
hypochondiiafis, unlefs the nerves of that organ be indifpofed ;
fo neither a liorizontal pofture, fleep, nor lieavy fuppers, ever

I N D

produce the night-mare, at leaft in any confiderable de-
gree, unlefs the perfon be already predifpofed to the com*
plaint, from the particular condition of the nerves of the
ftomach.

But although the ftomach is the part; commonly aff"c(l;ted
primarily in tht- cafe of incuJ.us ; yet fymptoms hke thofe of
the night mare may fometimes arife without any fault c£
llie ftor.iach, when the lungs, or even the brain, are afFedcd.
Thus Dr. Whytt obferves, that afthmatic patients, whofe
lungs are much obftrucled, are fometimes difturbed, in time
of fleep, with diftrefling dreams, and oppreflcd with a fenfe of
fuftocation. Startings and oppreflions about the prjecordia,
with painful dreams, are indeed common occurrences from
hyilrolhorax, chronic coughs, and other pulmonary obitruc-
tio:!3 ; but they are not ftridly analogous to the common,
night -mare. Dr. Lower mentions a patient, who, though he
could fleep pretty eafily with his liead inclined forward ; yet,
in the oppofite ittuation, he was always foon awaked witli
horrid dreams and tremors ;. the caufe of which appeared^
after his death, to have been a great quantity of water in the
ventricles of the brain. At all events, a pletlioric ftate of
habit, by rendering the circulation through the lungs lefs
free, may help to produce, or at leall increafe, the op.pref-
fion of the breaft in the night-mare.

The Cure. — As incubus, then, is only a fymptom of dif-
ordered or loaded ftomach, and arifes out of the irritation and
morbid feelings which are tlnis produced during fleep, the
relief of the difeafe, generally fpeaking, lies within a nar-
row compafs. Temperarme in eating and drinking, efpecialiy
at late hours \ taking, in faft, either extremely light fuppers
or none at all ; and when the dinner is fo late as to be only
a fupper with another name, being cautious that that alfo
fliould he moderate in quantity, and eafily digeftible and un-
ftimulating iu its nature ; drinking thin, fub-aeid liquors,
where thefe arc agreeable to the conilitution, — thefe are the
principal remedies required. Briftc adlivc exercife, by which
the digeftive powers may be aided and the ftomach ftrength-
ened, is alfo advifable. It were ufeful, too, to fleep with
high pillows, and to lie on the fide as much as poffible, in
preference to the back. If the funftions of the ftomach
are much difordered with flatulency, heart-biu-n, acidity, or
oppreflion, with pain, or naufea, after taking food, the re-
medies rccoramended for indigejlinn (which fee) muft be refort-
ed to. The bowels ihould be kept open. See Whytt on Ner-
vous Diforders, chap. vi. (i 18.

INCUMBENT, in La^w, a clerk refident on his benefice,
with cure.

He is called incumbent of fuch church, becaufe he
ought to bend his whole ftudy to difcharge his cure. See
Rector and Vicar.

INCUMBRAVIT. See Quare incumhravit.

INCURABILI, the name of one of the celebrated con-
fervatorios or muflc-fchools at Venice, whe.-e orphan girls,
or girls of worthy parents in indigence, ufed to be well
educated and regularly bred to muilc as a profeflion. Ga-
luppi was matter of this confervatorio in 1770, when the
conipofition and performance were exquiiite.

INCURVATION, the ad of bending a bone, or other
body, from its natural fliape.

Incurvation of the Rays of Light. See Light, aod
Retuactig-k.

INCUS, in Anatomy, one of the fmall bones contained in
the cavity of the tympanum. See Ear.

INCUSSU, in Geography, a town of y\frica, in the king>
dom of Congo ; 80 miles S. of St. Salvador.

INDAL, a town of Sweden, in the province of Medel-

pad.

I N D

pad, on a rivei" of the fame name. N. lat. 62* ^4'. E. long.
16° iV-

INDEA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Ycmina,
en a river of the fame name.

INDEBITATUS Assumpsit, in La'j.: See As-
sumpsit.

INDECIMABI-E, Inde«mabilis, is applied to things
not tithablo, or which by law ought not to pav tvthe.

INDEFEASIBLE, or Indefeazable, (ignifies what
cannot be defeated, or made void. As, a good and i'.idefea-
fible eftate. No one, who confiders our laws, conftitution,
and hiliory, witliout prejudice, and with any degree of at-
tention, will affcrt, that the doftrine of hereditary right
implies an indefeafiblc right to the Englirti throne. See
Ri^k of Crown.

INDEFINITE, Indeterminate, that which has no
certain bounds, or to which the human mind cannot affix any.
Des Cartes ufes the word, in his philofophy, inftcad of in-
finite, both in numbers and quantities, to fignify an incon-
ceivable number, or number fo great, that an unit cannot be
added to it ; and a quantity fo great, as not to be capable
of any addition.

Thus, he fays, the ftars, vifible and invifible, are in num-
ber indefinite ; and not, as the ancients held, infinite ; and
that quantity may be divided into an indefinite number of
parts, not an infinite number.

Indefinite is alfo ufed, in the Schools, to fignify a thing
that has but one extreme : for inftance, a line drawn from
any point, and extended infinitely.

Thus, w hat thjy call ett-rnity a parte ante, or eternity a parte
poj}, are indefinite durations.

iNDEflKlTE, in Grammar, is underflood of nouns, pro-
nouns, verbs, participles, articles, &c. which are left in an
uncertain indeterminate fenfe, and not fixed to any particular
time, thing, or other circumftance.

Indefinite Propofttlon, in Logic. See Proposition.

INDELAVOY,'Endelavoy, or Imlehai, in Geogra-
phy, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda, lying in the route
between the Godavery and Hvdrabad ; 75 miles N. of Hydra-
bad. N. lat. 18- 26'. E. long. 78-= 40'.

INDELIBLE, formed from e/flere, to blot, with the pre-
pofition in, taken negatively, that vyliich cannot be blotted
out, or effaced.

Thus baptifm, and the order of the priefthood, are faid to
convey indelible charafters.

INDEMNITY, formed from the negative in, and dam-
tium, lo/s, in La^w, an ad by which one promifes to guarantee,
or fave harmlefs fome other perfon from any lofs or da-
mage that might accrue to him on any particular ac-
count.

When a church is appropriated to an abbey, or college,
the archdeacon lofeth his induction money for ever ; in re-
compence whereof lie fliall have yearly, out of the church fo
appropriate, one or two (hillings, more or lefs, for a penfion,
as was agreed at the time of the impropriation ; and this
penfion is called an indemnity.

Indemnity, with regard to eftates. See Warranty.

Indemnity. See j4a of Grace.
• INDEN, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the
Valais ; 18 miles E. of Sion.

■ INDEN-HOTUN, a town of Chinefe Tartary, the ca-
pital of the Mantchew Tartars, where they began to eila-
blifli their empire over China. N. lat, 41" 46'. E. long.
124-' 36'.

INDENTATIONS of the Coajlof the Ocean,\n Geology,
«r the peninfulas, headlands, points, bays, gulfs, elluaneSj

I N D

S;c. which occur on the fliores of moft iflands and conti-
nents, are phenomena worthy the attentive confideration of
geological obfervers. M. de Lue.in his Geological Travels,
vol. i. p. 33J and 356, has confidered many of the circum-
flances attending the headlands and gulfs of the northern
coaft of Europe, and very properly reprcfents, that they
arife from the fyftem of vallies and hills, which arc fecn
inland, continuing down much brlow -the prefcnt level of
fea, even to thegreateil fathomable depths in fome inflanccs ;
and Mr. Farcy, who has remarked on this part of M. de
Luc's work in the Phllofophica! Magazine (vol.xxxvi. p. 7.),
obferves, that the hills all evidently ran out in headlands
into the fea, juft as they would into a fea at a level confi-
derably above the prefent, of which a perfeft idea may be
obtained by tracing an extended ki<el line in any country ;
and that the operations of the tides and v.aves have a power-
ful tendency, in moft inftances, to leflen the indentations of
the coafts, by wafliing away the projefting points of hills,
and throwing up the alluvial matters therefrom in the inter-
vening gulfs, where marfhes are accumulated ; and that the
coafts, where cliffs or precipices occur at the headlands
only, have not originated, in moft inftances, from faults or
deprefTiOMS of the ftrata under the fea beach, but are occa-
fioned by the falling and waftiing away of the points of the
hills. It is evident, that where rocky cliffs fringe the bor-
ders of the gulfs, as well as the headlands of a diftrift,
fuch cliffs have a different origin frnm thofe which are
confiRed to the headlands. See Encroachment of the
Sea.

INDENTED, Indentee, in Heraldry, is when the out-
line of a bordure, ordinary, 3cc. is notched, in form of the
teeth of a faw.

Indented Leaf. See Serrated 'L.^.-W.

Indented Line, in Fortifieaticn. See Redens.

Indented Medals and Wheel. See Medals and Wheei,.

INDENTURE, in LaiL<, a writing which comprifes
fume contraft between two, at leaft ; being indented at top
anfwerable to another part, which has the fame contents.
See Deed.

INDEPENDENT Company andTroop. See Company
and Troop.

INDEPENDENTS, in Ecchfaflical Hiflory, a fed of
Proteftants in England and Hfflland : fo called, as denying
not only any fubordination among their clergy, but alfo all
dependency on any other affemhly.

They maintain, that every feparate church, or particular
congregation, has in itfelf radically and clfentially every
tiling iicccfTary for its own government ; that it has all eccle-
fiaftical power and jurifdiction ; and is not at all fubjcfl to
other churches, or their deputies, nor to their aflcmblies, or
fyiiods.

Robinfon, the founder of the feci, makes exprefs ufe of
this term in explaining his doflrine relating to ecclefiaftical
government : " Ca:lum quemlibet particularem,'' (fays he,
in his Apologia, cap. j. p. 22.) " efl'e totam, intcgram et
perfeilam ecclefiam ex fuis partibus conftantcm, immediate
et indcperdenter (quoad alias ccclefias) fub ipfo Clirifto."
It may probably have been from this very paffage that the
title of independents was originally derived. The difciple*
of Robinfon. originally called Bro-wr.ifls (which fee), be-
caufe John Robinfon, the founder of this fed, was pallor of
a congregation of Brownifts that had fettled at Leyden, did
not rejeft the appellation of Independents. It was certainly
utterly unknown in England before the year 1640 : at leall
it is not once mentioned in the ecclefiaftical canons and con-
F z ftitutioiis,

I N D

ftitutlons that were drawn up during that year, in the fynods
or vilitations held by the archbilhops of Canterbury, York,
and other prelates, in which canons all the various feds that
then fiibrilled in England are pariicularly mentioned. See
Wilkins's ConciUa MagnK Britannije et Hibernis, vol. iv.
cap. 5. p. 548.

It IS true, that not long after this period, and more parti-
cularly from the year 1642, we find this denomination very
frequently in the Englith annals. The Englifli Independ-
ents were 10 far from being difpleaied with it, that they af-
fumed it publicly in a piece, which they published in their
own defence at London, in the year 1644, entitled " Apo-
logetical Narration of the Independents." But in procefs
of time, in order to avoid the odium of fedition and anarchy
charged on this feet, the true and genuine Independents re-
nouncfd this title, and called themfelves " Congregational
Brethren ;" and their religious aflemblies " congregational
churches.'' The lirll independent, or congregational church
in England, was fet up in the year 1616, by I^Ir. Jacob, who
had adopted the rehgious fentiments of Robinfon. The
Independents, though fprung originally from a congregation
of Brownifts, were much more commendable than the latter,
both in the moderation of their fentiments, and the order of
their difcipline. The Brownilts, as we have already men-
tioned under that article, allowed all ranks and orders of
men promifcuoufly to teach in public, and to perform the
other paftoral funftions ; whereas the Independents had, and
ftill have, a certain number of minillers, for the moil part
regularly educated, chofen refpeftively by the congregations
-where tliey are fixed ; nor is any perfon among tliein per-
mitted to fpeak in pubhc, before he has fubmitted to a pro-
per examination of his capacity and talents, and been ap-
proved of by the congregation to which he minillers. Tlie
charge alleged againil them by our hillorian Rapin, (Hill.
of England, vol. ii. p. 514. fol. ed.) who fays, that they
could not fo much as endure ordinary minillers in the
church, &c. is, therefore, evidently falfe and gronndlefs.
He was led into his millake by confounding the Independ-
ents and Brownifts. There are other charges, no lefs un-
juftifiable, that have been urged againil the Independents by
this celebrated hiftorian, and others of lefs note. Rapin
fays, that, with regard to the ftate, they abhorred monarchy,
and approved only a republican government. This might
have bees true with regard to feveral perfons among the
Independents, in common with thofe of other feels ; but it
does not appear from any of their public writings that re-
publican principles formed the diftinguidung charadleriltic
of this feil. On the contrary, in a public memorial drawn
up by them in 1647, they declare, that " they do not difap-
prove of any form of civil government, but do freely ac-
knowledge that a kingly government, bounded by juil and
wholefome laws, is both allowed by God, and alio a good
accommodation unto men." The Independents, however,
have been generally dillinguilhed by the denomination of re-
gicides, under a notion tliat they were chargeable with the
death of Charles I. Wliethcr this fact be admitted or de-
nied, and this is not a place proper for the invelligation of
it, no conclufion can be fairly drawn from the greater pre-
valence of republican principles, or from violent proceedings
at that period, that cas affect the diflinguiiliing tenets and
conduct of the Independents in general ; and efpecially of
tiic fe6l that bears this denomination in our times. It is
certain that our Independents are Heady friends to a limited
monarchy. Rapin is farther millaken, when he reprefents
the religious principles of the Independents as contrary to
thofe of all the reft of the world. It appears from two

I N D

confefllons of faith, one compofed by Robinfon, on behal£^
of the Englifh Independents in Holland, and publiflied at
Leyden in 1619, entitled " Apologia pro Exulibus Anglis,
qui Browniilse vulgo appellantur,'' and another drawn up in
London in the year l6jS, by the principal member of this
community in England, entitled " A Declaration of the
Faith and Order owned and pradlifed by the Congregational
Churches in England, agreed upon and confented unto by
their Elders and'Mefiengers, in their Meeting at tlie Savoy,
Oft. 12, 16^8 ;'' as well as from other writings of the In-
dependents, th^t they differed from the reft of the reformed
in no iingle point of any confequence, except that of eccle-
fiaftical government ; and their religious doftrines were al-
moll entirely the fame with thofe that are adopted by the
church of Geneva. During the adminiftration of Crom-
well the Independents acquired very conhderable reputation
and influence ; and he made ufe of them as a check to the
ambition of the Prelbyterians, who aimed at a very high de-
gree of ecclefiallical power, and who had fucceeded, foort
after the elevation of Cromwell, in obtaining a parhamentary
eflabliftimcnt of their own cliurch government. But after
the reftoration of Charles II. their caufe declined; and ia
the year 1 691, under the reign of king William, they en-
tered into an affociatiou with the PrePjyterians refiding in
and about London, under certain heads of agreement, com-
prized in nine articles, th:'.t tended to the maintenance of
their refpeclive inftitutions. Thefe may be found in the fe-
cond volume of AVhifton"s Memoirs of his Life and Writ»
ings ; and the fubllance of them in Mollieim, iibi infra.

At this time the Independents and Prefl)yterians, called
from this aflbciation the United Brethren, were agreed witU
regard to doftrines, being generally Calvinifts, and differed
only with refpeft to ecclefiallical difciphue. But, at pre-t
fent, though the Engliih Independents and Prelbyterians
form two diilinft parties of Proteftant diflenters, they are
diftingnifaed by very trifling differences with regard to
church government ; and the denominations are more arbi-
trarily ufed to comprehend thofe who differ ia theological
opinions. The Independents are generally more attached to
the tenets dillinguifhed by the term orthodoxy or calvinifm,
than the Prelbyterians.

Independentifm is peculiar to Great Britain, the United
States of America, where it was carried firil in 162c, an4
by fucceffive Puritan emigrants in 1629 and 1633, from
England, and the United Provinces. One Morel, in the
lixteenth century, endeavoured to introduce it into France;.
but it was condemned at the fynod of Rochel, where Beza
prefided ; and again at the fynod of Rochel, in 164+.

On the fubjeft of this article, fee Moflieim's Eccl. Hift,
by Madeane, vol. v. p. 398, &:c. 8vo. Neal's Hift. of th^
Puritans, vol, ii. p. 107, &:c. vol. iii. p. 547, &c. vol. iv,
p. 187, &c. Burnet's Hilt, of his Own Times, vol. i.
p. 46, &c.

INDERGEREE, in Geography, a river on the N. E,
coatl of Sumatr.i, which runs into the fea. S. lat. 0° 33',
E. long. 103 ■ 20'.

INDERGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in G.izsrat;
15 miles E of Damaiin.

INDERMAY Poi.nt, a cape on the N. coaft.of Java.
S. lat. 6° 12'. E. long. 108' 18'.

INDERSKAIA, a town of Ruffia, on the rirer Ural s
72 miles N. of Gurev.

INDERSOUL, a town of Hindoo.lan, in Baglanai
12 miles E. of Bshbclgong. .

INDER-TAUPL'ITZ, a town of the duchy of Stiria,

on tlie Enns; 14 miles W. of Rottenman. .,

INDERVA,

I N D

INDERVA, a fmall ifland in the Perfian gulf; co
/....usW. of Ormus.

INDETERMINATE, in Geometry, is underftood of a
quantity cither of time or place, which has no certain or
dL-finite bounds. See Indefinite.

Indeterminate Analyfu, is a particular branch of
algebra, in which there is always propofed a greater num-
ber of unknown quantities than there are equations; whence,
from what we have feen under the article Alcebra, the
quellions become unlimited ; but in this fpecies of equations,
tlie folutions mull always be given in integers, or rational
fraftions ; and this condition frequently fixes a limit to the
number of anfwers that an equation admits of, and even
fometimes renders the problem impoffible ; though, in the
generality of cafes, the number of folutions is indeii-
nite. When, amongll the unknown quantities, there are
none that exceed the fimple power, the equation is faid to
be of ihejirjl degree : when the fecond power enters into the
equation, it is faid to be of \.hs fecond d'gree : and when the
third power or cube enters, it is of the third degree ; and
fo on.

Every indeterminate equation of the firft degree, as
ax±by±cz±d±icc. = o
is folved by means of the more fimple equation

ap — bq = -V I.
And every indeterm.inate equation of the fecond degree has
its folution, if not abfolutcly depending, at lead intimately
connecled with the folution of the equation

^'-N?'=± I.
Before, therefore, entering upon the general folution of in-
determinate problems, it wall be proper to confider more
particularly the two equations above-mentioned.

Prop. I.

To find the values of x and y, in the equation
ax — by — iz 1.

Firft, it may be obferved, that this equation is al^^-ays
poflible under either condition of the ambiguous iign +,
provided that a and b be prime to each other ; and without
this, the equation is always impoffible ; becaufe, in that
cafe, the firft fide of the equation will be divifible by the
common divifor of a and b ; whereas the fecond fide, + i.
Las no divifor ; and, confequently, no equahty can obtain.
But when a and b are prime to each other, the folution may
always be obtained by the following rule : Divide the
greattft of the two given numbers a and b by the other,
and then always the laft divifor by the laft remainder, as in
the ufual method of finding the greateft common meafure of
two numbers, and let the fucceffive quotients arifing from
this operation be denoted by ^, /S, 7, 0, &c. See Common
Meafure.

With thefe quotients, placed in one horizontal row, make
the following calculation ; and t he terms of the laft frac-
tion but one will be the values of x and y required ; thus
quot'a ^ y S &c.

i' (3 ' y/3-l-i ' (y/S-i- i)i + /3
which may be othcrwife exprefled in words : thus, having
arranged tlie fucccfuvc quotients, as above, the firft fradlion
will have a for its numerator, and 1 for its deiioir.inator ;
the fecond will have k p -|- i for its numerator, and ,S for its
denoniinator ; and all the other numerators will be found by
multiplying the numerator of the laft fraSion by the fol-
lowing quotient, and adding thereto the preceding numera-
itti, and the denominators are found exactly in the fame

I N D

manner, as is evident in tlie foregoing fractions. See
Ratio.

Ex. I.— Find the values of x and j', in the eqisation

l6.r — 41 J' = 1.
Firft 16)41(2
'32

1)16(1
9

7)9('
7

~)7(3
6

,)2(2

fra£lions -j — ,

quotients 2, I, I, 3, 2
i 3 5^ i^^ 41
' 7 ' 16

Here the laft fraAion but one is — , and therefore this gives

the values of x and y ; that is, .i- = 18 and y = 7, which
renders 16 ;t — 41 j^ =; l, as required.

■Ex. 2. — Find the values of .v and _)•, in the equalioa

17*- ij^= - ,.
Firft ,5)17(1

'5

~)i5(7

~)2(2
2

Quotients I, 7, 2 •"

Fraftions J -, -, —
1 1 7 >5

Therefore x = 7, and_y = 8, which gives
17. r - isy = - I-

The demonftration of this rule belongs properly to con.
tinned fraftions, which the reader will find very ably treated
of, in the Englifh edition of Euler's Algebra ; and in moil
of the French writers on that fubjedt, particularly in tiie
»' Eflai fur la Theorie des Nombres, par Legendre."

Having thus fhewn the general method of folving the in-
determinate equation a.v — iy =z -r 1 ; it only remains to
make a few obfervations relating to it, and to fliew, that one
folu.ion being obtained, an infinite number of other folutions
may be deduced from the one known cafe.

In the above examples we found a .V — iy = -f- i, and
a .X — by z= — I, as th<- queftions required ; but we are
freq '.!•..':'.' ly led to the folution a .t — by — + i, when the
queftion requires — i, and thy contrary; which fcems at
fivft to 'leftroy the generahty of the rule; but this difficulty
is eafily furmounted from the following confidcrations.

Let aj> — b J =: + I, the values of/iand q being known,
to find, from this equation, the value of .x and y, in the
equation nx -~ by = — 1 .

Since ap — bq= I, wc have only to make x-=lm~f,

and

INDETERMINATE ANALYSIS.

end y =: arr. — q, and it is o'jvious that this fubililution will
give

„ {bm-p) -b [am -q) = - i ;
and here, by means of the ind terminate m an indefinite num-
ber of values of .■<; andy may be determined.

If from one known cafe, as «/> — iy =: + i, the general
values of a; and^' in the fame equation ax — by = -f i were
required j we fhould only have to make x =^ mb + p, and
y ::^ m a + q, and we fliculd have dill

a {mi + p) — b {ma + q) — ap — bq = + I,
where, by means of the indeterminate m, Jin indefinite number
of values of .\- aiidj' may be obtained. We will now illullrate
wliat has been taught by an example, -and then proceed to
the more general equations ; each of which, however, will
be found to depend upon the one we have been confidering.

Ex. 3. — Find the general values of .r and y, in the equa-
tion

1)6(6
6

Quotients i, 2, 6

r I ; IQ

Fraaions \ -, -, —

lehave therefore/ = 3, and(7 = 2 ; and this gives

Therefore the general values of x and v are

X = 19 w + /, and y = 13 w + ?. O""
x= igm + 3, and ^1= 13 m + 2.

AlTuming therefore m = 0,1, 2, 3, 4, &c. ; we have the

following values of

' and

m = o, i, 2, 3, 4, 5 &c.
* — 3, 22, 41, 60, 79, 98 &c.
y = 2, I3-, 28, 41, 54, 67 &C.
■which feries may be continued at p'eafure.

If the propofcd equation had been 13 .v — igy= — I.
then having found p — S' ^"^ ? = 2» as above ; we mull
have made

x= ignt — 3; ind y— 13m — 2 ;

and then, by affuming m as before, we (hould have

ffi = o. I. 2. 3. 4' 5 &c-

x = - 3, 16, 3,-, 54, 73, 92 &c.

J, = - 2, J I, 24, 37, 50, 63 &c.

where it may be obfervcd, that the fuccefiivc values of x

-ai.d y, in both cafos, form a feries of arithmeticals, and may

tlierefore be continued with great facility.

Pjiop. II.
"To find tiie general values of x and y, in the equation

ax — by = ± c.
In tlie firft place ive muft have either a and b prime to each
other, or if they have a common mcafure, c mt:ft have the
/ame, for olherwife the equation will be impoflil Ij ; and iu
this latter cafe, tlie whole equation may be divided by that
Asmiuon mcafure, and thus reduced to one in which a and b
4

are prime to each other: it will, therefore, only beneci :'
to confider the quantities a and b as prime to each o;
Alfo, after what has been taught in the foregoing prujj
tion, we may always fuppofe that we know the caie
ap — b g = + J ; it will therefore be fufHcient in tlr.i
p^ace to ihew how the general values of .\- and^, in the equa-
tion ax — by — + c, may be deduced from the known cale
ap — bq - ±1.

In the firft place it is obvious, that fince
ap - bq= + 1,
we flial! have

acp — hcq=: +c;
but this furnid.es only one folution, and in order to have tlir
general values of xsxidy, we muft fubilitute x=-mb^cp;
and y = ma +cq ; which give

c{mb±,p) - b{ma ± c q) = ± c ;
the ambiguous Cgn +, in the two values of *■ and ji, being -f-
when ap — bq has the fame fign with c, but — when it
has a contrary one.

Ex. I. — Find the values of x and ji, in the equation

9*- 13^ = 1°.
Firft, in the equation 9/ — 13 9 = + i. we have/ = 3,
and q ^ 1, which gives 9/ — 13 ^ = -(- i ; and this being
the lame fign with I o in the propofed equation, tlie general
values of jT and^ are

r.v=l3m + 3c,or , $y = ()m + 2c,0T
\x:^lim + 30; 13r = 9m + 20

And by afi"uming here m =: — 2, — 1,0, I, 2, &c. we
have the following values of x and^ :

rj = — 2, — I, o, I, 2, 3 &c,

J' = 4. 17' 30' 43. 5^. 69 &c.

J— 2, II, 20, 29, 38, 47 &c.

each of which values has the required conditions, for

9. 4 - 13 • 2 = 10

9. 17 - 13 . II = 10

9 . 30 — 13 . 20 = 10

9 • 43 - 13 • 29 =^ 10

&c. &c. &c.

Ex. 2. — Find the values of x and j, in the equation
7*- I2>= 19-

and(;

Firft in the equation 7/

3;

129

has a different

- I, we have/ = ^,
ilccn from 10 in the

propofed equation ; therefore the general values of x and y

are

fx=l2m-5..9; J f^=7m_3.l9.or
\x=.i2m- 95; |j, = 7m- 57

where, by taking m = 9, 10, 1 1, &c. in order that x and_)P
may be pofitive, we have

•■< = 13. 2J, 37, 49, 61, 73, 8j &c.

y — 6, 13, 20, 27, 34, 41, 48 &c.
and in a fimilar manner may any poffible equation ax — by
= + c be refolved.

Prop. III.
To find the general values of x and y, in the equation

ax + by ^= c.

In the foregoing propofition, where the difference of two

quantities was the fubjeft of confideration, we found that the

number of folutions was infinite, provided that a and b were

prime to each other ; but in confidering the fum of two

quantities,

INDETERMINATE ANALYSIS.

■ ;es, as in the prefent cafe, tlie number of folutions i?

limited, and in many cafes the cquati;)n is innpofiible ;

however be demonilrated, that the equation always

of at leaft one folution, \{ c > a b — a — i, a andi

lime to each other ; and it is propofed in the prefent

ion to afccrtain the exadl number of poflib'e iohi-

t'.j.ja that any equation of this kind admits of in integer

numbers, and to point out more accurately the limits of pofii-

bility.

The folution of the equation ax ->r iy =■ c, depends, like
that in the foregoing propofition, upon the equation ap —
A y = ± I , though its connettion with it is not fo readily per-
ceived.

Let ap — bq— I ; then we have alfo
a.sp — b.cq=^c-,
and it is eviJent thnt we (hall have tlie fame refult if we make

.X =: cp — mb ; and y := s j — 1:1 a ;
for this alfo gives

a [cp - mb) - b {eg - ma) = c :
affuming, therefore, for m fuch a value, that c 7 — m n may
become negative, while c^ — ot 3 remains pofitive, we fnall
have

a(cp—mb)+b{ma — cq)r=c;

and confequently x = cp — mb; and y — ma — c q ;
.but if m cannot be fo taken that cq — ma may be negative,
vhile c p — mb remains pofitive ; it is a proof that the pro-
j)ofed equation is impoluble in integer numbers. And on the
contrary, the equation will always admit of as many integral
folutions as there may be different values given to m, fuch
that the above conditions may obtain.

And hence we are enabled to determine a priori the num-
ber of folutions that any propofed equation of the above
f jrm admits of ; for fince we mull have c p > mb, and c q <
ma, the number of folutions will always beexprefled by the

greatcfl integer contained in the exprefGon ( f- — ~)'

as is evident, becanfe tn muft be lefs than the fird of thofe
fraiftioDS, and great. .- liian the fecond, and therefore, the dif-
ference between tlie integral part of thefe fractions wi 1
exprefs the number of different values of m ; except when

cefGvely 9 to the values of j', and fubtrafting ij from thofe
of .V ; thus
.r=2ij, 202, 189, 176, 163, 150, 137 &c.
y = 5' H. 23, 32, 41, 50, 59 &c.
that is ;

9 . 215 4- 13 • 5 = 20CO

9 . 202 -I- 13 . 14= 2000

9 . 189 f ij . 23 := 2000

9 . 176 + 13 . 32 = 2000

&c. &c. &c.

Ex. 2.— Given the equation 1 1 « -t- 13J' = 190, to find

the number of folutions, and the values of x zndy.

Firll in the equation 11^ — 13 7 = I, we have /i = 6, and
J =: J ; therefore

is a complete intege

i'hich is the i

,we mult con

and rejeft it, but not-, the reaf

for which is obvious.

£s. 1. — Required the values of .r and y, in the equation
9* + 13/= 2000,
and the number of pofPible folutions in integers.

Firll, in the equation gp— ISq = l> we have at orce
f=^, and q:zz 2.; therefore the number of folutions will be
cxpreffed by
2000 X 5
13
And thefe are readily obtair.ed from the fbrmulx

J^Jl = 9 Hi — 4000

2000 X 2 _

444

{::■

and

p - m

ooco —13m; Ly — 9

in which, affuming m = 445, 446, &c ; in order that 9 nj
> 4000, we fhaii have the following folutions, each of
which is deduced from the preceding one, by adding fuc-

whence it follows that the equation admits of only one in-
tegral folution, and this is obtained from the formuhc
f .V = cp - m b, or ^^j f^ = "' '' - ^ 7- "^
J^.x:=I90.6 — IjW; t_y=llm— 190.J

where, by taking m = 87, in order that ma — cq may be
pofitive, we have .v = 9, and ji ^ 7, which gives
1 1 . 9 -f 13.7= 1 90, as required.
Prop. IV.

To find the values of x,y, and s, and the number of in*-
tegral folutions of any equation of the form
ax+ by + cz= .A
In the firft place we may obferve, that if any one or more
of the co-efficients a, b, or c, be negative, the number of
anfwers is indefinite. For let b be negative, then the equa-
tion may be put under the form

ax + cz = by + di-
in wl.ieh, by means of the indeterminate^', ati infinite num-
ber of values may be given to the fecond fide of the etiua-
tion ; and confequently alfo to x and y. We need, there-
fore, only confider equations of the form above given, in
which the quantities are all connofted with the fign +.

Now in tliis equation, as in thofe of the two foregoing
pmpohlions, if a, b, and c, have each a common divifor,
which d has not, it becomes impoflible ; but if only two of
them, as a and b, have a common meafure, the equation ia .
llill poffible, as we fhallfee in what follows.
The folution of the equation,

ax + by-\-c%r=.(i,
is refolved by means of the equation

ap— bq = ± i».
as we have feen is the cafe in the preceding example?.
For let one of the three terms, as e z, be tranfpofed to •
the other fide of the equation ; then we have

0,1- 4- iji = d— c z,
in which the values of x. and y, determined as in the lall
propofition, will be

X — {d — c s)j^ — mb; and j' = ;na — [d — c %) q,
that is, by only fubftituting d — c a inftead of c, which
is the only refpcft in which this equation dilFers from that
in tlie foregoing problem : and here the only limits to be
obfervxd are,

ift, r z < rf; 2d, m * < (J — f =) / ; 3d, m a >((/ — f al y
by attending to ^vhich, all the poifible values of x and ji

may

INDETERMINATE ANALYSIS.

may be olitiined. But as thefe queftions generally admit
ct a great number of folutions, the objcft of enquiry is
not fo much to find the values of the i .termediate quan-
tities, as to determine a priori the number of them that the
equation admits of; and this, therefore, fliall form tlie fub-
jecl of our future invelligation.

Now we have feen, that in the equation
ax + by — c,
the number of folutions is generally expreffed by

b a'
f and q being firft determined by the equation

ap — bq = I.
If, therefore, in the equation

a .V + b y =■ J ~- c z,
■ive make fuccefllvely z = I, 2, 3, 4, ?cc. the number of fo-
lutions for each value of z \vill be as below ; viz.

, rr, ■ <^d-c)p {J-r)q
ax + by =d — c, number 01 lolutions — i

ferved, that when the number of terras do not confift of a^
exacl number of periods of circulation, the remaining
terms or fraftions mull be fummed by themfelves, which is
alfo readily effefted, as they will be the fame as the leading
terms of the firft period ; and it muft alfo be remembered,

that - is to be confidered as a fraction in the firft feries ;
b

but not - in the fecond, as is explained in the foregoing pro-

pofition.

Ex. I.— Given J v + 7 ^> + 11 z = 224, to find the
number of folutions that the equation admits of in pofitive
integers.

Here the greatefi limit of

20: alfo

+ byz= J— 2i
+ by-(l-^c

(J-2c)p _ {d—2c'q
* ■ ■ • b a

{d-i^_{d-3c)q

- • ' • i a

&c. S:c. &c. &c.

the fum of which will be the total number that the gi»-en

equation admits of ; and therefore, in order to find the

exatl number of folution? in any equation of this kind, we

ift firft afcertain the fum of all the integral parts of the

the equation 5/ — 7 j = i, we have/> = j, and q = 2,
alfo a =; 5, and b = y ; and therefore the two feries, of
which the fums are required, beginning with the ieaft term
in each, are

7 7 7 7 7

] 2. 4 2. i; 2.26 2.37 ^ ^___ 2. II,

c r-^^^'

arithmetical feries

{ld^^(!tLl±+i±:ii}P+i±:^^l)l+Scc-, and
J b b b b

I (illfl? + ^±:.^f}!} 4. (i=L3£)? ^ 'J^a£)J ^ Sec

the common difference in the firft. being - — —; and ia

the fecond — ; alfo the number of terms in each 20.

5
Whence we have 930 for the fum of the firft ;
and - - 868 for the fum of the fecond.
Again, the firft period of fraftions, in the firft feries, is

b ' b

and
be the cxaft number of

427
7 7 7

the difference of the two w
intregal folutions.

Now in both thefe feries, w3 knew the firft and laft
term, and the number of terms ; for the general term being

(d

)P

and

f./-

•z) q

we ftiall have the extreme terms by taking the extreme li-
mits of z, that is z = I, and s < — ; which laft value of z

alfo exprefles the number of terms in the feries.

Hence then, having the elements of the progreflions
given, the fum of the wliole leries is readily obtained;
and if therefore we alfo find the fum of the fractional parts
in each, we fhall have, by deducting it from the whole
Turns, that of the integral part of the feries as required.
The latter part of this problem is readily effefled, for the
dcnominatoi' in each term being conflant, the fraftion.';
.will neceftarily recur in periods ; and the number in each
can never exceed the denominator: it will therefore only
be ncceffary to find the fum of the fractions in one period,
which being multiplied by the number of periods, will give
the fum of the n-aftional part of the terms ; and thefe
taken frpm the total fum, will give the fmn of the in-
tegral part of the feries ; awd then, from what has been
b. fore obfcrved, the difference of the two fums will be the
jiuniber of integral folutious required. It may alfo be ob-

and in the fecond feries, the firft period of fraftions is

3 + o + i+i -f i=a;
5 5 5 5

— being confidered as a fraftion in the firft, but not

- in the fecond.
5

Now the number of terms in each feries being 20, we
have 2 periods and 6 terms in the firft feries = 2x4 +
the firft 6 fractions =11 for the fum of all the fraflions ;
and therefore 930 — 1 1 =; 919, which is the exaA fum
of the integral terms. And in the fecond, we have 4 pe-
riods = 4.4 = 8, and therefore 868 — 8 = 860, which
is the fum of the integral terms in this ; awd hence accord-
ing to the rule

919 — 860 = 59 ;
wliich is the number of integral folutions.

Remark. — Simpfon, in his algebra, makes the number of
folutions to this quellion 60 ; but he has evidently intro-
duced one (w'z. .v = 10, y = 14, and z = 14,) which
does not obtain.

Ex. 2. — Having given 7 a- + 9J1 -f 23 z = 9999, it is
required to find the number of its folutions in pofitive
integers.

Here the greateft limit of z < ^ ■ = 434 ; alfo in

the equation "j x — ^ p = ij we have / = 4) and q = $t

a =■ ,

INDETERMINATE ANALYSIS.

« = 7, and i = 9 ; alfo 9999 — 23 . 434. = 17 ; tkcrrfore Prop. V.

the feries whofe fums are required, will be u- • u r .■ 1 r .u .t.

^ Having given any number or equations, lets than the

., 4 ■ '7 4-40 4 • ^i . (. 4 ■ 997^ number of unknown quantities that enter therein, to detcr-

9 99 i-c.... ^ ^j^^ thofe quantities^

3.17 3 • 40 3.6' ^ . 0976 ^°' ''"-"'■'^ '^^ propofed the two equation*

*J- -7- + -7- + -^ + &c. . . . ---— t a X + t y + c ^ = d

•&\t common difierence in the firil being 1-1-il = 10 — ; '« fin<l tl^= values of .r, ji, and z.

9 9 Multiply the firil by a\ and the fecond by a, whence,

a.d in the fecond ^-^ = 9 ^ : alfo the number of terms ^^ f^btradion, we obtain

7 7 (a'i — a i*) j; + (y <; — a <:) 2 = a' </ — a rf'

in each 434 ; that being the grcateft limit of 2. Or, dividing each of thefe known co-efficients by their greateft

Hence we have the fum of the firft feries = 963769^ common divifor, if they have any, and reprefenting the refukt

9 by b\ c", and d", this equation becomes

and of tlie fecond ... - 929349 h'' jr + ^" z = d' .

Alfo the firft period of fraftions in the firft feries, is Find now the values of y and % in this equation ; and thefe

being fubllituted for them in the equation

579246813 ^ , ^,

999999999 x= ^

»nd— =48periods,and 2terms= J. 48 +~+ -=241 - will give the correfponding values of jf, of which thofe,

9 9 9 9 of courfe, mult be rejected that render x fraftional, and

And in the fecond feries, the firft: period of fraftions is alfo thofe that give (c a + by) > d.

£Ii 4.^4.!' Ill— J -^•'' Given the equations

1 1 ^^ 1 1 ^ n 1 ~^' (-3 *■ 4- 5/ +7 = = 560

jgg_ X9.r + 25J> + 49 a = 2920
to find all the integral values of *•, y, and s.

? » Multiplying the firtl by 3, we have

Hence 963769 1 - M> - =963528 integral terms .v + ijj, + 21 z = ,6Sc,

and 929349 — i36 =929163 integral term* t9 ■*■ + ^5 J' + 49 = = 29-»

. whence

, ,.rr ^ • . . f • f 10 r 4- 28 a = 1240, or

whence the difference 3436) is the number of m- -j / , ^ _ g^^

tegral folutions required. .,, ,,r 1 r . ■

In the foregoing examples we hare had two of the terms And here the values of jf and * are fourd to be

prime to each other; but when this is not the cafe the fol- _y = no, 96, 82, 68, 54, 40, 26, 12

lowing transformation will be neccflary. a = 5, 10, IJ, 20, 25, 33, 35, 4*

Ex. 3. — Let there be propofed the equation, »nd of thefe, the only two that give

12 jr -I- 15 J- f 20 « = looopi, ^ 560 — 7 s — 5jr

to find the number of folutions. * ~ 3

Here no two of the co-efficients are prime to each other, j^ integer, are as follows,

and we muft therefore proceed as follows. _ — Rj — fc

Divide the whole equation by 3, and tranfpofe e, and { z = ^o, v = 40', x = co

^ _ J which are the only two folutions the equations admit ofin

4* + J > = 33334 - 7 '^ -i- — r— integers.

The method above given will never fail of producing all

which laft muft be an integer; make therefore 1=-' =. u, ^\^ poffible folutions in equations of the above form; but

" 3 there are other methods that may be followed m particular

and we have z = 3 u + 1 ; fubftituting now this value of cafes which fometimes (horten the operations. Thefe the

z, the original equation becomes reader will find explained in vol. ii. of Eulcr's Element* of

12 X 4- i;.r + 20 (3 " + 0 = loocoi ; Algebra,

or, dividing by 3, Prop. VI.

4 ■*' + 5 J" + ^° " = 333*7' To decompofe a given numeral fraftion, having a conb-

the number of folutions in which will be the fame as in the pofite denominator, into a number of fimple fradiens having

equation propofed, which will be foimd as in the foregoing prime denominators.

examples, except that here the leaft value of « = o, becaufe -p^is is, in fad, only an application of the foregoing

we fhall then Itill have z = i, and by proceeding as in 00

the preceding examples, it will be found that the number prapofitions to this particular problem ; for let — bo tht

of integral (olutions that may be given to. this qucftion, "

amounts to no lefs than 138861 1. given fraftion ; and fuppofe, in the firft. inftanoe, that it*.

Vol.. XIX. G ■ d«no.

INDETERMmATE ANALYSIS.

denominator conlills of two prime faftors,
will then be to fiiid

1''

a b, it

•f integral folutions. If the gi^-en fratlion be

;n whicli equation, having determined the values of p and q,

ve fhall have r y for the fradions required ; and as

many different ways may any fuch fradion be decompofed
into two others, as the equation a q + b p z^ m admits

-, then

we may firft refolve it into two fratitions, and one of thcfe
into two others ; thus, let

'" ^ / . ? ■
abc ab ' c '

then we have

al q + c p = tn;
and having, from this equation, found the values oi p aT>d q,
P , 9

• (hall have

abc

ab

Affair., lot -i- = — 4- — , or E
aba 0

J in this equation, fo (hall we have

r b = p, find r and

a b c a b c

as required ; and in the fame manner may any fraftion that
admits of decompofition be refolved into others of which
the fun. (hall be equal to the original fraftion.

Ex. — What are thofe two fraclions whofe fum is equ;d
to 1-9
35

\ve may make —
Z5

Since 35 =
produces this equation,

5/ + 7 7= 19
in which the value oi p — i, and q =

and therefore the fractions fought are

readily found :

2 19

Pnop. VII.

To find the leafl; number, that, being divided by given
numbers, (liall leave given remainders.

Let N reprefcMt the required number, fuch that, being
divided by a, a', a" &c. the remainders- (liall be refpedtively
l, b', b", &c. that is,

ti = am-^b — a'n + b'= a' p + B" &c.
and it is required to find the leaft value of N, that anfwcrs
thefe conditions.

Firft fmce a m + b = a' n J^ b'

we have am — a' n = b' '— b.

Find, therefore, in this equation, the leaft values of m and
n by Prop. II., then will a in + b, or a' n -t- b', exprefs the
lca(i number that fulfils the firll two conditions. Let now
this number be called c ; then it is evident that every num-
ber of the form a a' q + c will alfo fulfil thefe conditions ;
and we muft proceed to find a a' y + c = a" p \- b" ; or,

a c{ q — a' p — b" — c ;
that is, the leaft value of /> and q in this equation ; fo (hall
■we have, a a'.q + e for tne . leaft niynber that anfwers the

firft three conditions, and fo on for as many otliors as may
be propofed.

Ex. — Find the leaft number, that, being divided by 28,
19, and 15, fhall leave for remainders refpeftively 19, 15,
and II.

Here we have 28 ;n + 19 = 19 « + I5 = 15 /> + H-
Now, in the equation 28 m — 19 n = — 4, the leaft values
of m and n are m — 8, and n = 12 ; whence 28 m + 19 =
19 « -;- 15 =: 243 ; and it now remains to find 28 . 19 y 4-
243 = 15 /> + 11; or, 532 q- i;p= - 228.

In which equation p = 512, and q = 14, whence
532 5' + 24; = ij ^ 4- II = 7691, which is the leaft
number having the required conditions.

Having thus treated of the folution of indeterminate equa-
tions of the firft degree, to as great an extent as our
limit will admit of, we (hall proceed to thofe, in which one,
at leaft, of the unknown quantities enter in the fquare power,
which conititute the clafs of indeterminate equations of the
fecond degree ; and as we have feen that every equation of
the firft clafs lias its folution depending \ipon that of the
equation a p — b q ^ +1; foin thofe that we are about
to iuveftigate, the folution is intimately connefted with that

ofti,

(hull firft I

: equation p

N

I ; this, therefore, is what

Prop. VIIL

To find liie integral values of / and j in the eqv.ation
/'- N?'= + 1,
N being any given number whatever, not a complete,
fquare.

In order to obtain the general folution of this equation,
which is always poffible (at leaft with the pofitive fign) we
muft (hew the method of extrafting the fquare root of
any number N, not a complete fquare, in continued frac-
tions ; but as this operation belongs properly to the latter
fubjeft, we (hall only in this place indicate the method, and
mull refer the reader for the demonftration to vol. ii. of
Euler's Algebra, and to Barlow's Elementary Inveftiga-
tions. See alfo SQUARE Root.

The transformation of the ,/ N, to continued fraftions,
is performed by means of the following formula.

Let a be the greateft integer contained in .y'' N ; thea
make

N - m=

,/N + 0

,/N +m

.,/ n"+ m'

n'

.,/ N 4- m"

&c. &c. &c. &c.

In thefe formulre a, u', u", &c. are the greateft integers con-
tained in the correfponding fraftions, which quantities are
the quotients, whence the converging fraftions are to be
deduced, by the fame rule as is given in Prop. I. for the
quutients a, fi, 7, ^, &c. : and by continuing tlie above ope-
rations, we ftiall be finally led to a quotient equal to 2 a,
at which term we muft Hop, and the correfponding fraftions
to the laft quotient before this will give the required value;
of p and q.

Ex.

J.v. I. — Required ihe values of /> and q in the equation

/'- 197'= - I-
By the above ruk-,

INDETERMINATE ANALYSIS,

Ex. 4. — Find the vahies of p and q in the equation
/>= - '47'= '•

Fii-ft,

19 + o _

A^ 19 + 4 . - t,

3

./ IQ + 2 ^ ^,

A^ -9 + 3 _ 3 _ „„
V '9 4- 3 J

^' 19 4- 2

3
-''9 4-4 3 „.

4. 1

3 • - - 4 = 2
5 . i - 2 = J

2-3-3 = 3
33-2=4

'9-3 _ ,
2 —J

^7^" = 3

'4 4- o

= 3

L4 4-3

'4 — 1
0 = 3; -^-~- = 5

>4

5 • • - 3 = 2 i

2.2 — 2 = 2;
5-1-2 = 3:

= 2
= 5

Whence we have,
quotients

fraclion;

n ^

Li 11

3 4

1 required.

Having thus arrived at the quotient 8 = 2 <7, we liavu which gives 15- — 14 . 4-

ily to connpute the fraftlons by the propolltiou above It will be obferved, that in the turcgomg examples
quoted ; thus, ^ have obtained for each only one folutiow ; whereas they

all admit of an indefinite number of folutions. Moreover, it
does not appear, from the hrft three examples, how we
fhould have found the values of ^ and q, if they iiad been
put equal to -f- i inllead of — i . This (hail, therefore, be
confidered in the following propoiition.

quotients 4

fractions

4S 61 170
II 14 39

which laft fraction gives the values of / and q ; that

170, ;

= 39 ; fo

170" — 19 • 39'' = — l> as required.
Ek. 2. — Find the values of p and q in the equation

/- - 13 j^ = - I.
Firft,

'- =3 I 3 • I - o = 3 -, -^

4- I - ,
3 • I —

' A^ 13 + 2 ._ J

3.t-2=x;LLZLi:=.

4.i-x=3;^'=.

&c. &C.

3

And having thus arrived at the quotient 2 a, or 6, we ha

quotients 3, i, i, i, i

fraftions J 3 4 7 i« 18

1 I I 2 3 5

that is,/ = 18 and 9 = 5'. which give

18'-- 13 ■5'= - I.

as required.

Ex. 3— Fiod the values of p and q in the equation

/- '7?'= - I-

Firft -'''+°-.

= a (4-0=4. ^f^'

Prop. IX.
To find the general values of x and y in the equation
.v" — N_y' = + I. from one known cafe/i — N 9" = +1.
In the firft place it may be demonllrated, but our limits will-
not allow of it, that the equation .v- - N y — I is always
poflible for every value of N, providing it be not a compk-te
fquare ; and the values of .v and y are always deducible,
both from ^' — N j' = i, and from /' — N y" = — I ;
hut if the operation above given does not produce the equa-
tion />' — N y' = — I, the equation a-" — N _y" = — I
is always impoffible. The prei'ent problem, therefore, di-
vides itfelf into three cafes ; wz. to find the general values
of X and y in the equation r' — N f, under the following
conditions :

I ft, ,v- — N j^ = I , from one known cafe ^' — N 17' = i
2d, J,'"" — N ^y"^ = I, p'- — \\q- =—\

jd, x=.
Caf:

N j' = I, and j;^ — N J'' = I into

the factors J C/ 4- 7 ^/ N) (/> - 7 ^/ N) = i
1 (.V + V V N; (.V - y ^/ N) = I
then we have alfo,

(/•4-7^/N)"■ (/.- q ^^T =■ l;

equating thcfe, with the faftors in x and y, we have
(/. 4-^ V N)"' ■= X + y VN
ip - q ^/N)" =x - y ,/N

, (p 4 g^/N)" + ip-q VN)'\
whence .< = - — * ■ ^ ;

2

^iII_±-5 = s / ^'"^ ■*■ " 2VN "

• which values of x and y will always be integral, and will be

Here we hare, at the firll ftep, arrived at the quotient the general values fought ; and thcfe are evidently indefinite

4. . , f . r in number, bccaufe the power m is indefinite.

a, whence the firft fraaion, ^. is the one fought ; ior ^^,^ 2._The (ime method may he followed here, as in

r= — I, as requireo

the preceding culV, except that the powers inufl. be
G 7

INDETERMINATE ANALYSIS

in order to convert — i into + i, as is obvious from but if A be not fo found, then 19 the equation impcfllble,

infpec^ion ; and, therefore, the generll values of x and y This theorem cannot be demonarated in this place, as it

will be belongs to the theory ot continued fraAions, and the reader

,„ is therefore referred for a pvoof of the rule to Le Gen-

i X = (/» + 7 A^ N)-° 4- (/> - y ^/ N) ^^^,^ j.^^j fy^ 1^ Theorie des Nombres.

J 2 _Ev. I.— Required the values .of .r and v, in the equation

1 . ^ (/■ 4- ? ./ N)- -{p-q ./ N)-" .v'_23/ = 2.

' 2 v' ^ Here by the rule Prop. VIII.

Cafe ^. — Here, again, we have evideatly the fame refult as /t, j_o I 23— 4' _

in the former cafes, except that the power m mud now be ^ — '■ = 4 i . 4 — O =• 4 ; j — T

odd for every odd power of — i = — i ; therefore,

V ^ (j' + gv-N) -fQ^-g.^N) 7 _ I , . I - 4 _ ^ , ^

V ^ ■ A^:^,; + I _

y - (/ + g a/N) - (/- g a/N) Having thus arrived at the denominator 2, it follows that

L ' ' 2 ^/N (|,g equation is poflible, and the values of x and y are

Let us now propofe an example in each of thefe three found from the fame calculation as at Prop. VIII. ; thus

cafes. quotients 4, i, 3

Ex. I. — In the equation p"- — 14 j' = i, we have .,45

^ = 15 arid g = 4, to find a fecond value of p and q, or fradlions J -' —'

of jrand y, in the equation «' — I4v^ = !• , , ,...''.

Make whence .v :=: 5, and v = I, which gives x' — 23_y= r.

■ , , V, , -• Ex.2 Required the values of .r and V, in the equation

_C5+4./h)-0;-4a-h»_^^ .,_,,,= .,.

J Fiift

,, = (^5-^-4^^I4r-(I5-4^-Hr ^ ^^^

!_ -^ 2 V14

which give 449^ — 14 . 120' = i ; and other values may be
found by affuming any other power above the fecond.

Ex. 2. — Given ^ ::= 4, and q z= j, in the equation
/' — 1 7 y = — I , to find the values of x and y, in the
equation .v — l"] y'' ^= 1.

./i9^o

A^i9 + 4

3

a' 19 4- 2

1.4-0 = 4; —
19

Here we have.

Haling therefore found the denominator j, the equation i»

f _ (4 + V^l)' + (4 ~ A^l?)^ _ , pofilbie, and v.-e have

I .\ _ . ^ _ 3^ quotients 4,

i „ = (4+ ./i7)'-(4-a/i7)'- ^ s

L^ 2,/17

whence 33^ — 17 . S' = i ; and other values may be found
by affuming any other even power inftead of the fecond.

Ex. 3. — Given /> = 4, and q = I, in the equation
p~ — 17 jr" = 1, to find the values of k and j, in the equa-
tion x" — 17 ^'^ = — 1.
Affume

r _ (4+ v'17)^^ (4- a/i7)'-

268

fraftions

{ -:■ i'

whence x = 9, andj' = 2, which gives 9-
as required.

Ex 3. — It is required to afcertain the
impoffibility, of the equations

rv;-:7/=±2
Xx - ,73.= +3
Fir.l

-19. 2'- =.5
poffibility, 01

^/i7 + 0

1 .4 - 0= 4;

'■-4-_i

.iilf4^8

1.8-4=4;

'^-= '

-'•7 + 4 8

1.8-4=4;

'7-4^_,

1 (4_tA/'7r-(4-./i7)'^6

l^ 2v,/I7

whence, 268' — 17 • 67' = — I, and other values may be
ebtained, by affuming other odd powers indead of the
third.

Pkop. X. • whence it follows, that fince only i enters into the deno-

minators of thefe quotients^ no ene of the propofcd equa-
'I'o afcertain the pofRbility or impoffibility of every equa'- tions are poUible.

T:^.^::^^ll£rJ^i^ '"'' '° ""' ^ '^"' ' ^"'--^y — ±^^ propontion. w.may demonflrate

,n the former cale, A ucmg < in. generally the impcrfribiUty of all ei

The rule for this purpoie, is to conTert ^'N into a feries ^ r /f f,,nowin^ forms •

of quotients, as in Prop. Vlli- ; ana ii A be found in the ' °

-denomtnator of any of the quotients, that is, if A be found x^ — {a' + 1) y' — + A

amongft. any of the numbers, which in the propofuion x'- — {a— 1) y' = -r A

above quoted arc reprcfentcd by n, n', »", &c. tlie cqua- •»•' —("'' + '^} y' — + A

.tlon is poflible, and the converging fradtion correfponding x' — (a' — a) y' = + A

to the quotient preceding this will give the values of .»■ and j;; in which A > i, and < «.

quations falling undbr

INDETERMINATE ANALYSIS.

Cor. 2. — It is alfo deducible from fimilar principles, that
the following equations are always pofTlble ; N being a
prime number, of tUe form placed oppofile the refpedtive
equations.
x' — N v' = — 1 poffible when N of tlie form 4/1+1

-'-Ny= - 2 N 8n -H3

' ^ H y' — 2 N 8n— I

. i in a fimilar manner, are deduced the three following

...^orems :

1. If M and N be both of the form 4/1+3, and not
equal to each other, the equation

M x' - N _y'- = + I
is always poffible in integer numbers: that is, under one
or other of the figns + or — .

2. If M and N be both of the form 4 /! + 1 ; then
one of the equations

.r'- - M N^.= :

M.

N y- = +

will always be refolvible in integers.

3. If M and M' be two prime numbers of the form

4/j + 3, and N a prime number of the form 4/1 + i,

it will be always poffible to fatisfy one of the equations

' r N .f= - MM'/= + I

\ M A- - M' N^' = + I

I M'.v'-- M N^'= + I

Pkop. XI.
To find the general values of x and y in the equation
X - N/ = + A '

from one known cafe p^ — N 9' = + A.

Find the values of m and n in the equation w^ — N /!" = I,
i>y Prop. VIII. ; then it is evident that the product

(;,' - N 9 ) X (,7r - N /! ) = + A ;
and it will be found, upon the developement of the following
formulas, that

,A-N,, X „.--N-) = {^l^r^l^

we have, therefore, only to make,

+ Ny/r r. <=/>»! — N jB

rx=//n+Ny/r^^ Cx=p»
\y=pn^qm lyr^pi

and having before ihewn Iww to find the general values m
and n in the equation m — N «• ^ i ; it is obvious, that
by means of thefe formulae we may derive different values
of .r and y, in the propofed equation, to any extent at
plcafure.

Cor. — It appears alfo from this propofition, that if the rule
in the foregoing one give p — N y' = — A, when the equa-
tion propofed be + A ; that this may be converted to the
latter fign by means of the equation

m'-N/r = - I.

Ex. I. — Given the values of p- and q, in the equation
p — qq^ ^z 2; -viz.p — 3, and y = 1, to find the general
values of X and J', in the equation x — "] y- :^ 2.

Firil in the exprellion m — y n =■ 1, we have w = 8,
and n — J ; whence by the above formula is obtained
f .V = /, ,« + N y « = 3 . 8 + 7 . I . 3 = 3 or 45
ly — p n ± qm =3.3+ 1.8 =lori7
fo that the fecond values of x and y »re, x = 4J, and
y = iq ; which give 45- — 7 . 17' = 3. And afl'uming
thefe again as new values of^ and^, other values x and jf may
be found in infinitum : or the original values of ^ and q may

be retained, and new values found for m and n, which anfwere
the fame purpofc.

Ex. 2. — Find the gener.il values of .r and j', in the equa-
tion .v" — I i_j' = 5 ; the known cat being />' — \i q- — 5,
or^ r= 4, and g = i.

In the equation m' — 11 /i'= i, we have m^= 10, and;/ = 3,
therefore by the formulae

f v = /> /,; ± N 9 /i = 4 . 10 + II. I . 3 = 7 or 73
\y — pn± qm =4. 3+ i . 10 =2 or 22
that is .r =: 7, and jr r= 2, are two new values cf x and j',
as are alfo x :::; 73, and^ = 22 ; for each of thefe give

in- 11 •"- = 5

and in the fame manner, other values may be found to any
required extent.

As our limits will not allow of a very full and explicit in-
vefti^ation of the feveral elegant rules that have been intro-
duced into the indeterminate analyfis by Euler, Lagrange,
Legendre, and other diftinguifr.ed mathematicians'; we muft.
refer t!(e reader for the inveftigation ef the methods em-
ployed in the following propofitions to the authors above-
mentioned, and muft content ourfelves with barely Rating
the operations, without entering into the demonftration of
the theorems themfelves.

Proi'. XII.

Every indeterminate equation of the fecond degree falls
under the general formula

a.t' + b xy + cy- + dx + cy + / = o,

and this may always he transformed to the more fimple form

u- - A/'= B.

The method of performing this transformation will be feen
from the following partial example, and the formulas we have
given it being univerfally the fame in all cafes.

Affume id — 3 a e = g ; d — i^a f ::= h ; [by + dy
- 4 a (<■/ + /■_,;+ /) = t; b- j^ac = A; Ay + g
= u;g-Ah^ B.

Then it will be found, by the deyelopement of thefe ex-
preffions, that

"x' + bxy + i-/ + dx + ey +/= i/= — A /■■■ — B = Q,
becomes a — A/'^= B.

And having found the values of u and / in this laft equa-
tion, thofe of .r and y are readily derived in the equation
propofed.

F — ^is2^^ A — LuAnIi ■

■^ ^ A ' ■' ~ 2 a '

or, fubftituting for y in the laft, we have the following

- S
dj (b-

b — ^ac)

Ex. I. — Transform the equation

3 A' f 8.Vjr _3J,*+ 2.V -5> =
I its fi.npleftform.

Here a — i, b — 9, c ^ — I, d — 2, .
■ I ic.

Whence C f — J^ac =■ A := 100

\bd— 2ac— v:= 46

) d - 4"./'"= ^ = 'i=4

(.■-A// = B= - 130284

5./ =

and

INDETERMINATE ANALYSIS.

and thus the reduced equation becomes

u' — 1001'= — 1302S4.
In which, having found « =346, and i = 53,
we have C, == 'UZl = MLzJ^ = ,,

1 - t-by-'i _ 5£^li3 jii. _ ,
V ~ ia ~ 6 ~ ^^

therefore .r = 4, and ^ = 3, arc the values of x and_y in the
original equation.

It will be obferved that we have employed here the molt
general form that equations of this kind admit of, and
therefore the formulae ai-e more complex than they ufually
occur in practical cafes, for when any of the co-efficients ,j,
b, c, Sec. become zero, the expreffions are much limplified,
as appears from the following example.

Ex. 2. — Reduce 7.1-'- 4- ^.ly + y'- = 67 to its fimpleft
form.

Here a = 7, b = §, c = i, </ = o, ? = o, / = — 67,
whence, omitting thofe quantities that are zero, we have
ri' — 4 « /: = A = 29; and^r^ o
J^^ - 4«/= /} = 1876

Again, if A > B, then tlie remainder arifing from -- will

be found in the lower feries, and the number B in the upper
fciies of remainders, if the equation be poffible ; and u
tliefe conditions have not place, the propofed equation is iiu-
poffible.

NoU. — It is to be obferved, that equations falling und'-r
the poffible form are not aUvays folvible in integers, tlif
proof extending only to their folvibility in rational numbc;
which may therefore lometimes be fraftional ; but when 1 1
fail under animpoffible form, tliey will admit of no folutii
either in integers or fraftions.

E.v. —Required the poffibility or impoffibihty of the cfji
tion

fquares
remainders

I. 4.

3'- divided by 7
2

iquar.s
remainders

I, 4,

3', 4', 5' divided by tr
9' 5. 3

. remamder .

29. 1S76'

B

and thus the reduced equation is

a- — 29 /" = 29 . 1S76-.

And in a fimilar manner may any indeterminate equation
of the fecond degree be reduced to the form «■ — A /" =: B.

Having therefore ffieMrn the method of reducing every in-
determinate equation to the form ir — A t" =:B ; it follows
that thefolution of this fimplo form involves with it the fo-
lution of every equation of this kind that can be propofed ;
we (liall therefore, in the following propofition, attend to the
folution of this particular cafe. But it may be proper to
ftate, that there are an infinite number of equations of this
kind that are impoffible ; and will admit of no folution, either
in integers or fraSions ; and tlierefore before we proceed
farther in the invelligation, it will be afeful to lay down a
rule, whence their poITibility, or impoffibihty, may be af-
certained ; as we may thus frequently fave much unneceflary
labour.

Prop. XIII.
To afcertain the poffibihty or impoffibihty of every in-
determinate equation of the fecond degree.

Rule, — Reduce the propofed equation to the form
u' - At'= B,
and find all the remainders arifing from dividing each of tlie

fquares i, 2', 3', 4% &c. ( j by A ;

and alfo the remainders arifing from dividing each of the

fquares i% 2', 3', 4% Sic. (■ j by B ;

and again, divide the greatefl of thefe numbers A, B, by
thelcallof them, and obferve the remainder.

Then if B be greater than A, this laft remainder will be
found amongft thofe of the upper feries ; and the number A
will be found amongll thofe of the lower feries, if the equa-
tion be poffible.

And convcrfcly, if thefe conditions have not place, the
propofed equation will admit of no folution, either in in-
tegers or fraAions.

Now 4 is found in the upper feries of remainders, but 7 is
not found in the lower ; therefore the equation cannot have
place either in integers or fraftions.

And for the fame reafon, the equation x' — J y' = II z'
is alio impoffible, for if tliis was poffible, fo would like-

; I ; which we have feen is impof-

wif^ ^ - ; l,_
fible. "

Ex. 2. — It is reqiiired to afcertain the poffibility or itn-
poffibility of the equation

fquares i% 2', 3", 4', 5", 6' divided by 13

remainders i, 4, 9, 3, 12, 10
And the fame fquares, divided by 12, give for
remainders i, 4, 9> 4> i> O

alfo, — = I and remainder i.
12

And here, fince 12 is found in th« upper feries, and I l.-i
the lower, the equation is folvible.

Note. — If tlie equation propofed be of the form

x---Ay-= -B,

we muft employ, inftead of the pofitive remainders ariil
from A, the negative remainders of the fame, that is, tak'.
the quotients in excefs. And if the equation have the fi>r

X- + A/ = B,
then we mull employ the negative remainders of B. Hav-
ing thus given an idea of the method of judging of the pof-
fibility of every equation of the form .v' — Ay' = B ; and
having alfo Ihewn how any indeterminate of the iccond degree
may be reduced to this form, it only remains to {hew the
method of folution of the above equation ; or, which is Hill
a more general form, of the equation

but in this, as in the other propofitioiis, we can only indicate
the method, without attempting to inveftigate the rationale
of the operation ; as this would carry us much beyond our
limits. Now it is fliewn under the article Diophaniine, tha^

the

INDETERMINATE A'NALYSIS.

the folution of ttc equation .v^— y»= Cz' is always to be
obtained ; and in the following propofition, with whici: we
Ihall conclude tliis article, it will be feen that every equation
of the form .f' — Ay' = Bz', which is poffible, may be
transformed to another of the form x' — y'' = c s''; and that
X, y, and z, in the original equation, will be dependent upon
thofe of v', y', and %', in the transformed equation ; and
the'refore thcfe lull being known, the former will be known
alfo.

Pkop. X [V.

To tra'isform ever)- poffible equation of liie turm .»-' —
Ay- — B, to another dependent equation of tha form
x'^ _ _y" = f z<'.

Ex. I. — It is reciuired to transform the equation .r' —
5 _v- =11 K", to another of tl»e form x' — v'* = c %".

Having firtl afcertained the poflibillty of the equation by
the foregoing propofition, the transformation may be effect-
ed in the following manner.

AiRime :c = n_y — i ly', and this fubllituted for x, gives

/«' — <"' -

Ex. 2. — Required the values of .r, jjandz, in the cqua'
tion

Firfl,
e have

13^'', and fubftituting for

Znyf

^ly

Br;

and here n = 5, whence the equation becomes
_)•" — 10 y y' + 13^''-:= z' ; or

(y- ^y'Y — 12 y--^^'-

Make now_)' — ^ y' = x', and it becomes
and the general values of .r' and z in this equation, art

•'■■ - 3/- + 4?
Whence, by affuming /> = ;
a = 8, and ^' = 4 ; fo that

3P

and

2pq.

yy

that is, let

Take n, fo lliat n'' — ^ may be divifible by
7! =r 4, and our equation becomes

/- iyy' + 1 1 J'" = -' ; '•"■

{y -4/)' - s y"' - ='

or, by making^ — ^.y' = x, we have
x"-5y'-==z'; or,
x'-— a.' = ^y, as required,
that is, the equation has been reduced from the forr
5 v' = 1 1 z% to another of the form x'- — y" = c :
at leail, to x'- — z^ — § y'- ; which differs from the f
ing only in the letters.

And, by means of the values of x, v', and 2, in this laft,
we readily arrive at thofe of x, y,- and 2, in the one propo-
fition ;

for x" — y — 4_v'> or y= x' + 4j'' ■
and X = ny — 1 1/, or 'x — ^^y— II y'
Now we have, feen, under the article Diophanttve, that
the general values of .,'' and 2, in eciiations of the form

J' = -^

.r= 5 J
z =: z

are as foUi

sy'= 36
12/= 13

-4?.

md J = I, we haveV = i6,
the original equation, the va-

I- I

= 9
= 33

orego-

the latter values being formed by dividing the former by
their greateft common divifor ; and either of thefe fets of
numbers anfwer the required conditions ; for,

132^-12. 36'= 13. 8, and 33=- 12.9'= 13.2';
and various other values may be obtained by changing the
values of p and q.

We will now give one example in wliich the required re-
duclion does not take place in the firft transformation,

Ex. 3. — Required the values of .r, j, and 2, in the equa-
tion

=z 191:.

— 19^': then the fubftitulioa

A ffume, as before, x =
of this value for x, gives

yy'+^9y'

Vvhence

if

= *H

- 5 r

= p- -

- 5 r

^2pq

•whence

v/e- have.

for the

: general

values

of ,

the equation piopi

afed.

X

-4/

+ 209-

4- 10

•/"/

y

= />■

+ 5f

+ 8

pq

sr- i=.vy+ ^9y
^sy - s-yy' + 95 y

now, J ^ — JO y' = :

- = z": in which n = ;

:>^

Making now, j ^ — jo y' = a' ; we have
•»■ - 5 }" = 5 -■'
and here, though we have not arrived at the form requirec^
the lad co-cfEcieiit is reduced from 19 to 5 ; and thus every
fucceilive transformation will reduce the co-cfScients, till we
ultimately arrive at that of unity ; but without purfuing this
reduction farther in the prefent Cafe, we are led to the folu-
tion in an eafier manner : for we fee immediately, that y may-
be alTumed = 5, ji' = 3, and 2=1.

And from thefe we readily afccrtain thofe of x, y, and Zy~
in the propoled equation ; for

r _ -v' + ny' . _ 5 + »o-- a _

1 .V = ny — l<) y' ', Or .v = 50 — 38 = 12
Lz =: 1 ; or ^. = 1 .

■which give 12^^-5 .5'' = I9'. J', as required.

We fhall now conclude this article with a fyncpfis of in-
we mud again transform this anew, and, by continuing the determinate formu'se ; the dcnionilration and application of_
operation, the reduftiofl to the flual feiui will be.ultimatelv which the reader will find in Barlow's " Elementary Invefti-
tiitttc^. gation.of the Properties of Numbers,"

Sjnopfn

where p and q may be aiTumed any numbers at pleafure. If
/ 2= 3, and ^ = I, we hdve x = 86, y = 38, and 2 = 4;
which numbers anfwer the required conditions ; for

86* — 5 .38^ = II .4"-;
and by giving different values to p and q, a variety of other
integral values may be found for .v,^-, and 2.

Note It . niiiy happen that the firfl transformation will

not reduce the equation to the form required, in which caf(

INDETERMINATE ANALYSIS.

Sympfis of IndeUrm'male Formvle. Syiwpfis of Indderminaie FormvU.

Form. I. Equation ax — by = + c Form. 9. Equation ax' 4- bx + m' = s

/General value of x = m i + ,

"^^ J P'-aq

*/5

I General value oi x = m b ± c q r (^^_^_ ^^j_ ^f ^ bq^-zmpq

I oiy = ma±cp \ ' p'-aq

in wliicli expreflions m is indeterminate, and the values of J ^ _ wj>' -f amy*

/> and y refult from the folution of the equation ap— L ^~ ^'- — j^

7 ~ ± '• »'here m, », and b are known ; and/i and j indcterminates.

Form. 2. Equation ax +'ijf = ^- Form. 10. Equation jr= - Njr- = + I.

f General value oi x =' c q - m b T Gen val of r = ^/' + ?'^^>"'+ (^-yv^'N)"

I y^ma~cp J " ' ^

Number of lohition« = — i ^- / J'= ■ nn — '

the quantities p and q being afcertained as above, alfo m where p and y arife from the equation /«' — N 9" =r + r,

indeterminate. and m is indeterminate ; except that it mull be even or odd,

as the cafe requires. See Prop. IX.

Form. 3. Equation a x -^ by .^ c z = d Form. 1 1. Equation x* — N_)r^ = + A.

f General value oi x = {d - ez) q - mb C Gen. val. of ;e = pm ± N y n

X y=ma-{d~c^)p \ y^pn±qm,
the quantities p and q being found as above, alfo m inde- the values -of m and n being formed from the equation m'

J — N n' = + A, and p and q from the equation ^' — N q-

terminatc, and z any integer < - . = -f i .

Form. 4. Equation .v' — ay- = »'. Form. 12. Equation ax' + i*-' -f- c x f /' = z'.

Gen. val. of .V = / -r a 7- r„ . . . - c - ^bf
hich expreffions a is given, and /> and q are indeter- / Or, x = 1——^^ ^^ — i^

« = 2 * <7 I Particular val. of ^

/• - ''r

{Pari
Or,

inniated, that may be alTumed at pleafure. .. v4*y '^)

where all the quantities a, b, c, andy are given.

{

5. Equation .v' + ay- = %'. Form, 13. Equation a x' + i x' -{-ex'' + dx + f — a'.

Gen. val. of x = f a f r _ (S ^/^ - 4 . ^/' + ^^) 8/^

>• = % Pi _ , I °' •" - 16. / - 64 a/^- 8^</-' + d^'

where a, 3, c. Sec. are all known quantities.

a being given, and^ and q indcterminates as above,

Form. 6. Equations atc^ + bxy -f ji^ := z". Form. 14. Equation m" x^-]-bx^ + cr' + d .x +

Gen.v:A.oix=ipq + bq f .v = l6r' ^'-64.^^-8 .*>'+ *'

X — p"- + bpq + aq

where p and y are ir.detcrminates, and a and b giv

tities.

where alfo m, b, c, &c. are all known quantities.

Form."]. Equation a. V' 4- i.r = c'. Form. i^. Equation m'a-' -f i.r' + fx' + </.v +/'= a'.

fGen. val. of. ^ -i?-- ( P-ticular val. of . ^ 'L^^"'^^J^

J p'-aq' J 4*/ +4'««/

1 */? I Or, 4mVj-_4m5/ • •

l ^^F~-aT ^ ''-i^ + Sm'f-^m'c-

, J ; 1 1 J ■ , In thefe exprefRons m, 3, c, &c. are -known quantities, and

whore a and & are. known quantities, and * and n indeter- • 1 j . i u- r . n u ur j

• ^ ^ ' r 1 with regard to the ambiguous fign, it mult be obferved,

that when it is taken -f- in the numerator, it muli be — ia
the denominator, and the contrary.

Form. 8. Equation m' .t" + i v + f rr 2=. Form. 16. Equation ax' -f b x'- + c a- 4- /^ = z'.

Gen. val. of .. ^ . P -^1 ^ \ Particular val. of .v = ^ilzJ^JL?/!,

bq — Zinpq «- 21 aj — C ■

^ _ "I p' 4 meg bpq' a, h, c, &c. being known quantities.

b q' — 2 mpq'-

whcre m, ^, and c are any given numbers, and/ and y indc-
terminates.

Synopfii

: I

I N D

Synopfis of Indtterm'mate FormuU.
T'orm. 17. Equation m^ x' -\- b »'' f f .r 4- </ r= 5^
b' — 27 dm''

{^-

'articular val. of .v

(.^^'

b, c, &.C. being given quantities, as ;

Form. 18. Equation m' x' + ir" + ex +/^
Particular val. of .» = if-^lH-SL',

i-3 m-f'
tvliere alfo m, I, c, &c. are known quantities.

Form. 19. Equation *•'' -j- axy -f iji' = z^.
f General val. oi x = 0 ~ b t u'' — abu^
\ y = iPu + ^atu' + {a'-b),

where I and :/ may be afFumed at pleafure.

Form. 20. Equation .\- + by^ — 2'.

rGen. val. of* = /' — btu^
\ y = 3t'u-bu^

i z = t' + u\

t and u being indeterminates, as above.

Form. 21. Equation .r- + by'' =z z*.

r Gen, val. of x = t* — 6bt^u'' + b' u*

< y = ^t'u- 4.btu'
L a = t' + bu\

i and a being indeterminates, as above.

Form. 22. Equation*' + by' = s".

rGen. val. of* = t" —f^t"-'' u' b + o t"'' uH' — Scc.
J _jr = ar-'u — y t" ■ 'uH + it-'-'- uH' ^c.

L z = t' + bu',

V'here t and a are indeterminates, and I, a, ft y, 5, &c. the
•o-efficients of {t + u)"'.

Form. 23. Equation x'' + /-j^^ =: 3;^

rGen. val. of .r = 4/* — 4 c/ m'
-J y=Hru + cu-

where / and u are indeterminates,

Forvi. 24. Equation x'' + ax'' y -\- b xy'' + cy'' = z\

< Partic. val. of / = —^ .

I 21i>

( Geii. val. of>; = /' + 2 c u w + a c 'ui^
\ y := 2 tu — 2 iww — {a b — c) 'w'',

where o and iv are indeterminates, on which alfo depends
the value of /.

Ikdetermin'ate Problem, is that in which there are

more unknown quantities than there are equations ; and

therefore from the principles of algebra the number of fo-

Jutions is unlimited, unlefs fome other condition enter, fuch

Vol. XIX.

1 N D

a» requiring integral values of the unknown quantities, by
wliicli means the problem frequently admits of only a dcli-
nite number of anfwers ; as may be fcen in the preceding
article. In geometry a problem is always faid to be inde-
terminate, or unlimited, when there are not fufficient data to
Irmit its conllruction.

INDEX, in Anatomy, the fore-finger.
Indi'.x, in Arithmetic, is the fame with what is otherwife
called the cliaractcrillic, or exponent of a logarithm.

The index is that which fliews of how many places theabfo-
lute number belonging to the logaritlim confills, and of what
nature it i,i, whether an integer, or a fraction.

Thus, in this logarithm 2.521293, the number (landing
on the left hand ot the point is called the index ; and be-
caufe it is 2, it (hews you that the abfolute number anfwer-
ing to it confifts of three places ; for it is always one
more than the index, becaufe the index of I is o ; of lo
is I ; and of 100 is 2, &c. And, therefore, in thofe
itnall tables of Biiggs's Logarithms, where the index is
omitted, it muft be always i'upplied before you can work
by them. If the abfolute number be a fraftion, the index
of the logarithm has a negative fign, and is marked thus,
2.562293 : which fliews the correfponding number to be a
decimiJ fraftion of three places ; -..•;s. 1.365.

Mr. Townly has a peculiar way of noting thefe indices,
when they exprefs fraftions, now mucli in ufe, ws. by taking,
inllead of the true index, its arithmetical complement to 10;
fo that he would write the logarithm now mentioned thus :
S.562293.

Hort- indices are to be added and fubtrafted, fee under the
article Logarith.m.

Inde.v, in Mufic, a charaftcr ufually placed at the end of
each hne to indicate the firll note of the next line. The
following is the charafter W, wliich the Italians term a
mojlra, the Englifh call it a direa.

Index of a Bool:, is that part annexed to a book, referring
to the particular matters or paffages therein contained.

Index of a Globe, is a little flyle fitted on to the north-
pole, and turning round with it, pointing to certain divi-
lions in the hour-circle.

It is fometimes alfo called gnomon. See Globe.
Index of Relation, in Algebra, the fame with fcale of re-
lation. See Scale.

Index, or Indice, is alfo the denomination of a congre-
gation at Rome, whofe hufinefs is to examine book?, and to
put fuch as they think fit to prohibit the reading and fclli.ng
of, into an index. See Conguegation.

Indices, or Expurgatory Indices, denote the name by wliicli
the catalogues ot prohibited books are called ; among which,
however, tliere is this difference, that feme are tjondemned
purely and abfolutely, and others only donee corrigantur, till
they be corrected.

Father Paul fays, that Philip of S))ain was the firft who,
by a la>v made in 1558, procured an index to be pubbdied
of the books condenmed by the inquifition of Spain. Pope-
Paul IV. took the hint, and ordered the congregatio: of
the holy office at Rome to print a fecond in 1559. But Grtt-
fer, (De Jure Prohib. lib. li. cap. 19.) fays, that the index of
prohibited books was printed in Italy, by the papal autho-
rity, in 1548; and a larger one in 1552 ; and another larger
in 1554. Pius IV. recommended the matter to the council
of Trent ; the fathers at Trent, after feveral debates not
being able to agree, thouglit ht to refer the whole affair to
the pope, who, with the advice of certain leai'ued prelates,
H pubhihc*

I N D

piiblifhed an index of the prohibited books, and certain
rules, by his letters, in form of a brief. The fame Pius IV.
in a bull of March 24, 1,64, fays, that the index was prc-
fcnted to him by order of the fy'nod, that it fliould not be
pubhilied before it was approved by him. It was accord-
ingly publidied by him, with a ftrift charge that it (hould
be received by all, and the rules prefixed to it obferved.
Clement VIII. enlarged and confirmed it, together with
the rules, and commanded it to be publilhedin 1595. This
was called by the name of the Roman index. By the fourth
rule, the common reading of the Holy Scriptures is forbid
m thefe words. " Since it is plain by experience, that if
the facred writings are permitted every where, and without
difference to be read in the vulgar tongue, men, through
their rafiinefs, will receive more harm than good ; let the
bifhop or inquifitor determine, with the advice of the parifli
pried or confefTor, to whom to permit the reading of the
bible, trandatcd by Catliolic authors in the vulgar tongue,
according as they rtiall judge whether it be moll likely that
fuch reading of the fcripture may do harm, or tend to the in-
creafe of faith and piety. 1.61 them alfo have the fame
power as to all other writings. But if any, without fuch
leave, fhall prcfume to read or have them, without firil
ihewing the bible to the ordinaries, he fhall not receive the
abfolution of his fins. And as to allbookfellers, who fhall
fell the bibles tranllated into the vulgar tongue, without fuch
leave, or by any other method fliall publifh them, let them
forfeit the price of the books, and let the money be given
to pious ufes by the biihop ; and let them be fubjecl to other
punifhments ; at the pleafure of the faid bifhop, according
to the nature of the offence. As to regulars, they (hall not
read or buy them, without leave firft obtained from their
prelates." The tenth rule enjoins feveral rellriftive regula-
tions concerning the printing and publication of books.
Hardouin's Concil. torn. x. p. 207, &c.

In pope Clement's catalogue is an extraordinary kind of
decree, that all the books of Catholic authors, wri'tten liiice
theyeariJTJ, which was the year immediatel). preceding
that in which Luther began to declaim againll indulgences,
ftiould be corredled ; not only by retrenching what is not
conformable to the doilrine of Rome, but alfo by adding
what may be judged proper by the correftors.

After this, the duke of Alva procured another to be
printed at Antwerp in 1571, which was publifhed by
Francis Junius about the vear 1586. There were two others
publiflicd in 1584., and 1612, by the cardinals Quiroga and
Sandoval, and feveral others by the inquifitors and mailers
of the facred palace. The moft confiderable of all the in-
dices is. that of Anthony a Sotomayor, fuprenie prefidcnt
and inquifitor-gencral in the kingdom of Spain, which was
made for all the ftates fubjeft 10 the king of Spain, and
comprehends all the others. This was publiiTied, with the
aavice of the fupreme fenate of the general inquifition, in
1640, and reprinted at Geneva in 1667. To this there were
many rules prefixed ; and to the Geneva edition was added
the index of the decrees which were rr.ide by the mafter of
the holy palace, by virtue of his office, or by the command
of the holy congregation, or by the holy congregations for
the indices and holy office, after the before-mentioned index of
the council of Trent. The ruks if the former indices are
explained and confirmed by thefe ; and the fifth rule, which
enlarges the fourth of the index of Trent, prohibits not only
all bibles in the vulgar tongue, comprehending all except
thofe that are Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Chaldee, Syiijc,
Ethiopic, Perfic, and Arabic ; but all parts of them, either
printed or manufcript, with all fummaries and abridgments

I N D

in the vulgar language or tongue. Limborch's Hid. of thf?
Inquifition by Chandler, book ii. chap. 16.

Of the operation of thefe indices, theautliors of the En-
cyclopedia obferve, that there has been hardly any good
book of piety or morality in their language which has not
been profcribed. Avt. Iiide.v.

DEX of the variation and of the inequahility of curvature.
See V.\Ki.\TlON of curvature.

INDGEH, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turliey, in
Caramania ; 12 miles S.'NV. of Kaifarieh.

I.VDGEH Su, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natoha ; 40
miles S.W. of Angura.

INDIA, an extenfive country of Afia, which v/as di-
vided by Ptolemy and the ancient geographers into " India
extra Gangcm" and " India intra Gangem,'' orthepeninfula
beyond the Ganges and that on thij fide of the Ganges, to
which the appellation of India, according to its original
etymology, as the country of the people called " Hindoos,"
properly belongs. (See HindoosTan.) India on this fide
of the Ganges was bounded, according to Ptolemy, on the
W. by the Paropamifus, Arachofia, and Gedrofia ; on tlie
N. by mount Imaus ; on the E. by the Ganges ; and on the
S. and partly on the W. by the Indian fea. The gulf into
which the Indus difcharged itfelf was called " Canthi-Col-
pus," and an illand in this gulf was named " Barr.ce." The
wedern mouth of the Indus was denominated " Sagapa."
Ptolemy enumerates feven mouths of this river under this and
the following names ; vi-z. " Odium Sinthum, Oreum, Cha-
riphi, Saparages, Sabalaffa, and Lonibare." To the Ganges
Ptolemy affigns fi^e months, viz. thofe of " Poluia, Oftium
Magnum, O. Chambericuni, O. Pfeudo-domum, and Anti-
bole." The part of India, which was fituated towards the
weft, was called " Indo-Scythia." India beyond the Ganges
had the Ganges on tlie W., on the N. certain parts of
Scythia and Serica ; on the E. the country of the Sinx ;
and to the S. the Indian fea. This, however, is a vague name
for wide and various, and till of late very much unknown,
regions between Hindoodan and China. The territory thus
denominated is rich and extenfive, and includes the Birman
empire, and the dominions of Pegu, Siam, Laos, Cambodia,
Siampa, Cochincliina, Tonquin, and Malacca : which fee
rel'peaively. See alfo Akracak, Asam, Ava, and
Thibet. For an account of " Hither India," or " India
intra Ganges," fee Hindoo&tan and E,tji India Company.
For an elaborate account of the " Political Hidorv of India,
from the introdudion of Mr. Pitt's bill, A. D. 17S4, to the
prefent date," fee Mr. Malcolm's "Sketch." Lond. 181 1,
8vo.

Is-DIA, Eaj}, Company, Coins, Silt, &c. See Company,
Coin, Silk, &c.

India, Sigismondo d', in Biography, a mufical compofer,
who was born at Palermo in Sicily, and flouriflicd about the
year i6to. In 161 1 he publifhed at Venice two fets of
madrigals; and in 1627 a book of motetti, which did not
go down the dream of oblivion unnoticed.

INDIAN, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing belonff-
ing to the Indies, Eaft or Wed.

l^Tilxti .Irroiv root, w Botany. See Maranta.

l.N-niAN Bay, ill Geojrraphy, a bay that hes on the W. fide
of Bonavida bay, in Newfoundland.

Indian Bread, in Botany. See Ca.ssada.

Indian Com. See Maizit.

Indian Corn-cars, Petri/td, in Natural Hiflory. Many of

the early writers on extraneous fofhls mention ears of Indian

corn among their reliquia. Mr. James Parkinfon, in Jiis

Organic Remains, vol. j. p. 450, diews, that what Emanuel

Swedenborg

I N D

P.wiHlciiborg ficrured as an ear of Indian corn, is the Item df
an u::kno\vn p. ant, which, at pages 424 and 427, is faid to
bclonjj to tlie feiies of vegetable remains inclofed in iron-
ilone nodules. See plate 14. iig. 4. of W, Martin's Pet.
Derb.

Indian Cov^, in Geography, a harbour on the E. coaft of
Indian illanv', in Dufliy bay. vl

Indian Cnrt. a creek on the itland of Antigua, a little to
the well of Standtaft point. — Alio, a river of Virginia, which
runs into the Ohio, N. lat. 40' 25'. W. long. So 40'. —
Alfo, a river of Virginia, which runs into the Chefapeak,
N. lat. 37' 45'. \y. long. 76 27'.

Indian Crefs, in Botany. See Tkop.i;olum.

Indian Corn Falli, in Geography, a catarad in the river
St. Mary, about twenty miles from lake Superior. N. lat.
46' 22'. W. long. 84° 25'.

Indian Fig, in Botany. See Cactus.

Indian Gem, in Jllinerahgy. See Gem.

Indian GoJ-tr.-e, in Botany. See Ficus.

Indian Hemi, in Geography, a cape on the E. coail of
New Holla:.d, io called by captain Cook from the number of
natives who appeared near it as lie pafled in May i-'ro.
S. lat. 25-3'. E. long. 123 j6'.

Indian IJ!arJ. a fmall illand near the coaft of North Ca-
rolina, at the moutii of Pamlico found. N. kit. 3 j- 23'. W.
long. 76 ' 50'. — Alio, an illand on the S. part of Uuiky bay,
on the coalt of New Zealand, about four miles in circum-
ference, fo called by captain Cook ; about four miles from
Pickerfgill harbour.

Indian Int. See Ink.

Indian Leaf, MaLLathrum, in Botany. See Tajiala-
patra.

Indian Malloiu. See Sida.

Indian- Millet. See Holcl's.

Indian Oak. See Tectona.

Indian Ocean, in Geography. See OcE.\N.

Indian Old Toiun, a town of America, in Hancock
county, flate of Maine, fituated on an ifland in Penob-
fcot river, juil above the Great Falls, and about fixty
miles below the Forks. Here are about 100 families of
Roman Catholics, the remains of the PeHobfcot tribe, and
the only Indians who refide in the dilhitt of Maine. They
are in a thriving Hate, having obtained from the Provincial
congrefs a traft of land, 12 miles wide, iuterfe£led in the
middle by the river, and vefted v. ith a right of huntinj^ and
fiihing as far as the mouth of Penobfcot bay extends. Thc-y
have a decent church, and a priell who conducts their reli-
gious fervice.

Indian Reed mi Shot, in Botany. See Cann.v.

Indian River, in Geography, a river of Delaware, which
runs into Rehobot bay, N. lat. 38 40'. W. long. 7J 16'.
—Alfo, a fmall arm of the i'ea, between Chandlin and Plea-
fant river, in the diilrift of Maine. — Alfo, a river on the E.
coail of the peninfula of Eaft Florida, rifing near the fea-
coaft, and running from north to fouth, and forming a kind
of inland paflage along the coail. It is alfo called Rio Ays.

N. lat. 27 30'. W. long. 80 40 Alfo, a town in SuiTex

county, Delaware, containing 1547 inhabitants.

Indian Sound, a gulf or bay on tiie S. coail of Patagonia,
communicating with the Straits of Magellan by St. Jerome's
channel.

Indian Too.'n, a fmall town of North Carolina, 52 miles
from Edcnton.

Indian To-Mn Point, a cape on the eaft coaft of the ifland
«f Antigua. N. lat. 17 15', E long. 61 22'.

Indian H^ood, cM> d Ai'o Jamaica and Campeachy Wood,
it taker, o-t of the heart of a largo tree growing plentifully

I N D

in the ifles of Jamaica, Campeachy, &c. ufed in dyeing, its
dccoftion being very red.

It has been obfervcd, that putting fome of this decoflion
into two bottles, and mixing a little powder of alum with the
one, it will become of a very beautiful red, which will hold ;
the other in a day's time becoming yellow, though both
bottles were ftopped from the air alike ; and that if a little
of the fame decodion be expofed to the air, it vi'ill become
as black as ink in the fame fpace of time. See Campeachy
Wood, BuA.siL, and Logwood.

INDIANA, in Geography, a territory on the NAV. fide of
the Ohio, and lately form.ed a part of the N. W. territory.
In January 1801, it was by aft of congrefs erefted into a
temporary government, with powers and privileges fimilar to
other territorial governments. It lies between the Great
Miami river E., the Miffifiippi W., the Ohio S., and the \\~
liuois N. It is divided into the three following counties :

Knox

Randolph.,
St. Clair..

.2517
.110:

St. Vincennes 714

Kadiakias 467

Kakokia "^it)

Total

4875

This territory has a fine foil, adapted to corn, wheat, rye,
oats, cotton, hemp, tobacco, &c. The two weftern counties
of Randolph and St. Clair have lately petitioned congrefs to
be annexed to the Upper Louifiana, in the territorial go-
vernment. On the N. W. bank of the Ohio, about twenty
miles fouthward of the mouth of the Wabalh, N. lat. 37^
36', is a remarkable cave, called the " Great Cave,'' which is
one of the moft furprifing natural curiofities on the Ohio,
Tlie entrance is fpacious and uniform ; the dome is elliptical,
and the uniformity continues to its termination in the hill.
Morfe.

Indiana, a territory in Virginia, lying between Ohio
river and the Laurel mountain, containing about ^i millions
of acres; of a form nearly triangular, and extending in
length from the Pennfylvania line to the waters of the
Little Kenhaway.

Indiana, a new county in the weftern parts of Pennfyl-
vania, which, with Weftmoreland and Armftrong, conftitute
a diilrid for the choice of tliree reprefentatives.

INDIANE, a fmall harbour in the illand of Cape Breton.

INDIANS, tlie name given to the aborigines of America.
Thefe people are fcattered thrcngh the vaft extent of the
two prodigious continents, and divided into an infinite num.
ber of nations and tribes, differing from each other but little
in their manners and cuftoms. The Indians are tall and
ilraight in their limbs : their bodies are ftrong, and adapted
to endure much hardfhip. Their features are regular, but
their countenances fierce ; their hair long and lank, and the
colour of their flvins a reddifli brown. Their only occupa-
tions .ire hunting and war ; agriculture is left to the women,
and for merchandize they have no tafte. They are hofpi-
table, generous, and good-tempered ; but to the enemies of
their country they are implacable : no length of time call
ailay their refentment, nor is any diftance of place great
enough to pioteft tlie olijcd of their revenge. The Indians
feem to have no jult notion of a Supreme Beinop, though they
maintain the exiilence of fuch a Being, eternaland incorrup-
tible, who has poWL-r over all, to whom however they pay ni>
worlhip : but they are exceedingly fuperllitious ; and beiqg
deliroiis to look into futurity, tiiey encourage and fupport a
multitude of diviners, augurs, and magician.', upon whofe
H }. decifions

INDIANA.

Jecifions and advice they rely in all matters that concern
them, whether of health, war, or hunting. Liberty is the
darliner patTion of the Indians ; it is this which maiies life
fiipportable, and to this they are ready to flicritice every
thing. Some tribes acknowledge a head or king, but he is
reverenced as a father rather than feared as a monarch. He
has no guards, no prifons, no officers of juftice : in moil
cafes no other qualification is neceflary for their chiefs, but
age, experience, and ability in conducting their affairs.
Every tranfaction is performed with much ceremony; and
to fi.x the remembrance of them in their niinds, they have
belts of fmall fhells or beads of different colours, ivhich
have all a different meaning, according to their colour or
arrangement. Thefe belts arc carefully treafured up in
each town, and ferve as the public records of the nation ;
and to thefe they occafionally have recourfc when any djf-
putes happen between them and their neighbours.

When the ancients among the Indians have refolved upon
a war, they do not declare what nation they mean to attack,
nor the time when the attack fliali be made, in order that
the enemy may be off his guard, and unprepared for de-
fence : but the principal captain fummons the youths of the
town TO which he belongs, the war-kettle is fet on the fire,
the war-fongs and dances begin ; the hatchet is fent to all
the villages of the fame nation, and to all its allies ; the fire
eatches, and the war-fongs are heard in all parts. The
prime qualities in an Indian war are vigilance and attention,
to give and avoid furprize : likewife patience and fti-eiigth
to endure the mtolerable fatigues and hardfhips which al-
ways attend it. The fate of their prifoners is the moll
fcvere of all : during the greatell part of their journey
homewards they fufl'er no injury ; but when they arrive at
the territories of the conquering ftate, or at thofe of their
allies, the people from every village meet them, and think
that they ihow their attachment to their friends by their
barbarous treatment of the prifoners. Many writers have
alTerted that the Indians, even at the matureit flage of their
exillence, are only furnilhed with hair on their heads, and
that the other parts of the body are always free from it.
Tliis, however, i^not the trutli, for, naturally, their bodies
refemble tliofe of the Europeans ; but regarding the beard,
&c. as deformities, they pluck out each hair by its root, in
order to increafe their beauty. The men of every Indian
nation differ in drefs from each other, excepting thofe who
trade with Europeans ; thefe exchange their furs for
blankets, fliirts, and other apparel, which they wear as much
for ornam.ent as necefTity. Thofe among the men who wi(h
to appear gayer than the rell, pluck out the hair from their
lieads, except from a fpot on tlie top of it, about the fize of
a crown piece, where it is permitted to grow to a confider-
ab!e length : on this is falUned a plume of feathers of vari-
ous colours, with filver or ivory quills. The manner of cut-
ting and ornamenting this part of the head dillingi)iflies
different nations from each other. They paint their faces
red and black, and thuir whole bodies when they go to war.
Young Indians, who are defirons of excelHng their compa-
nions in finery, flit the outward rim of both ears, at the
fame time that they take care not to feparate them entirely,
but leave the place tlins cut flill untouched at both extremi-
ties; around this fpongy fubftance they twift brafs wire, till
the weight draws the amputated rim into a bow of five or
fix inches in diameter, and drags it ahnoll down to the
(houlder. It is alio a common cuftom among them to bore
their nofcs, and wear in them pendants of di&rent forts :
fea-fhells are much worn by thofe of the interior, and are
rccko.aed ornamental. Indians in general pay greater at-
tcutioii to the i: drefs, and to the ornaments with whiclitLey

decorate theii' perfons, than to the accommodation of their
huts or tents. They conllruft the latter in the following
method : being provided with poles of a proper length, thes"
fallen two of them acrofs near the ends with bands made ut
bark : having done this, they raife them up, and extend the
bottom of each as wide as they purpofe to make the area o[
the tent: they then credt others of an equal height, and li^
them foas to fupport the two principal ones : over the to;j
they fpread the Ikins of bealls. Thefe tents have neitliL.
chimnies nor wmdows ; there is only an aperture left in tho
middle of the roof, through which the fmoke is difcharged.
They have lliins alfo for beds, generally thofe of the bear,
which are placed in rows on the groiuid ; and if the floor i.-
not large enough to contain beds fufficient for the accommo-
dation of the whole family, a frame is erccled a few fetC
from the ground, in which the younger part of it fleep. A,
the habitations of the Indians are thus rade, their domeflic
utenfils are few in number, and plain in their formation.
The tools with which they falhion them are fo awkward anJ
defedlive, that it is not only impoflible to form them will
any degree of neatnefs, but the time required in the execa-
tion is fo confiderable, as to deter them from engaging in tl.
manufafture of thofe which are not abfolutely neceffary. All
the tribes are now polTefT'd of knives, and ileels to llnke fire
with : thefe are regarded as elTential to the common ufes of
life, and the Indians ufually purchafe them with flaves. In-
dians, by a furprifing fagacity, v.ill crofs a forell or plain of
the greatell extent, and reach with the utmoll exadilnefs the
I)kce of their dellination without any deviation from a dlreft
hue. Their memory is very tenacious, their belts of wam-
pum preferve the fubftance of treaties which they have con.^
eluded with the nei>;hbouring tribes for ages back, to which
they will appeal with as much readinefs and perfpicuity as
Europeans can to their written records. Every nation pays
great refpeil to the dictates of age. The advice of a father
is 'regarded : but the decifions of a grandfather create in the
minds of ihe young an awe which they cannot withlland : his
words are confidered and obeyed as oracles. The Indians -
are fond of gaming, and often flake their arms, their apparel v.
and every thing of which they are pofTeffed : they are
Itrangers to all diflindlion of property, except in articles of.
domeflic ufe, which every one confiders as his own, and in-
creafes as circumltances admit. They are extremely liberal
to each other, and iupply the exigencies of thofe who belong
to the fame band with their fuperfiuities. Of the value of
money the Indians, excepting thofe who live near the Euro-
pean colonies, have no idea, but confider it as a fource of
innumerable evils. They are equally indifferent to the pro-
dailions of art. They are ignorant of the fciences, anil
feem quite unacquainted with the firll principles of alb-o-
nomy, yet they contrive to divide the time in a rational and .
perfpicuous manner. They count their years by winters, or, .
as they exprefs themfelves, by their fnows ; and they divide
the years by the moons ; and on the firll appearance of'
each new moon they repeat fome joyful founds, ilretch-
ing, at the fame time, their hands towards it. Every
month has with them a name expreffivc of its feafon : that
which anfwers to our March or April, they call the luorm
monih, becaufe they obferve that at this period the worms
quit their reti'eats in the bnrk of trees, wood, &c. in which
they have fhcltcred themfelves during the winter :,. they have
alio the month or moon ot flowers ; the month of corn ;
the cold month ; the fnow month, &c. When the moon
docs not appear above the horizon, they fay the moon is
dead, and fome call the three lad days of each moon " naked
days." They have no divifions of weeks,, but days tlicy
cour.t by fl«eps ; half days by pointing to the fuu at noon,

and

I N n

and quarters by tlie rifinj and fetting of the fun { to exprefs
wliich, in their traditions tliey make ufe of hieroglyphics.
Their fole knowledge in aftronomy confifls in being able to
point out the polar ftar, by which they regulate their courfe
when they travel by night. They reckon diftances from
one place to another by days' journies, each being about 20
miles. They have no knowledge of arithmetic, and thoi:gh
they are able to count to any number, figure* and letters
appear to carry with them fome hidden myllery, and much
above their comprehenfion. Every feparate body of In-
dians is divided into bands or tribes, and forms a little com-
munity within the nation to which it belongs. As the
nation has fome particular fymbol by which it isdiflinguifhed
from others, fo each tribe has a badge frcm which it is
denominated, as that of the eagle, the paather, the tiger,
the buffalo, &c. Throughout every nation they particu-
larize themfelves in the fame manner, and the meanelt perfon
among them w'M ren-.>mber his lineal defcent, and diftinguifh
himfjf by his re'"peaive f^.mily. Every band has a chief,
who IS te: u.<»d ihe Great Warrior, and who is eletled for
his warlike qi:;dilications ; befides th s there is another who
enjoys a pre-eminence as b!= hereditary ri^^ht, and has the
more immtdiate mariagcn.: ..t of their civil affairs. When
th; chiefs are convened on any public bufinefs, they always
conclude with a feafl, at which fefHvity and cheerfulnefs
know no limi.s. Dancing is a favourite excrcife among the
Indians, they never meet on any occafion but this makes a
part of the entertainment ; and when they are not engaged
in war or hunting the youth of both fexes amufe themfelves
in this manner every evening. The Indians have feveval
kinds of dances which they ufe on different occafions, as the
pipe or calumet dance, the war dance, the marriage dance,
and the dance of the facrifice. The movements in every
one of thefe are difGmilar, though it is impofTible to give
fuch E defcription of them as will convey to an European a
jufl idea of the diftindlions. Hunting is their principal
occapation ; they are trained to it from their youth, and it
is an exercife which is efteemed no lefs honourable than ne-
ceffary towards their fubfiftence. A dextrous hunter is
held nearly in as high eftimation as a dillinguifhcd warrior.
Scarcely any device which the ingenuity of man has dif-
covered for cnfnaring or deilroying thofe animals that flip-
ply them with food, or whofe fliiHS are valuable to Euro-
peans, is unknown to them. Every hunter prepares himfelf
by failing during feveral days : the reafon they give for this
is, that fading enables them to dream freely, and in their
dreams they are informed where they fliall find the grcatell
plenty of game ; it is thought alfo to avert the difpleafure
*f evil fpirits, and induce them to be propitious. They
feem to have fome notion of a future ilate of exiilence, and
fuppofe that their employments there will rcfemble thofe in
which they are engaged here, without the labour and diffi-
culty annexed to them in this period of exigence. Among
thofe who have priells, thefe priefts are their phyficians

and their conjurors : they cure their wounds and dif-
eafes, mterpret their dreams, give them charms which fhall
render them fuperior to external danger, and fatisfy their
ciiriofity with regard to future events. The Indian is fub-
jctt to but ver\- few difeafes ; the moll fatal and deilruclive
ii the fmall-pox, which to them has been the mofl terrible
of all peftilcncco : this is not, hovever, continual in their-
country, ai it is in otlicr nations ; frequently there are inter-
va's of many years ifl which it is never heard of; but when
it prevails, towns and villr.gos are thinned of their inha-
lirants. An Indian is faid to meet death, when it approaches
him in his hut, with the fame refolution with which he lias
u'ten faced iU-ia the field. If he is a chief, and has a.fa>.-

FN D

mily, he makes a kind of funeral oration, which he concludes
by giving to his children neceffary advice for the regulation
cf their condudl. He then takes leave of iiis friends, and
iffues out orders for the preparation of a feafl, which is
defigned to regale thofe of his tribe that come to pronounce
his eulogi'jm. After the lall ftruggle tlie body is dreffed
in the ufual habiliments ; the face is painted, and it is placed
in a fitting poUure on a mat in the middle of the hut, with his-
weapons by his fide. His relations being feated round, each
harangues the deccafed body, in turn, and, if he happen to
have been a great warrior, recounts his heroic actions.
After this, the body is carried to the burying place, where
it is interred with otiier ceremonies. Such arc the general^
charafteriflics of the Indians; the peculiarities of eacii tribe
will be found in other parts of the didionary. The amount
of Indian population cannot be precifely afccrtained. The
newly difcovered illands in the South fea, and part of the
N. W. coall, are probably the mofl populcus ; as they have
fuffered lefs by invaders. The belt inforn.cd v.-riters have
conjcftvired the number of aboriginal Indians in America-
to be under 2^ millions. Since the difcovcry of America,
the decreafe, in confequence of labour and oppreffion, fa-
mine and peftilence, has been aftonifliiiig. A lill of Indian
tribes, in Imlay's Hillory of Kentucky, makes the ag-
gregate number lefs than 60,000 of thofe who inhabit the
country, from the gulf of Mexico on both fides of the
Miffi!ipj)i to the gulf of St. Lawrence, and as far well as
the country has been generally explored, that is, to the
head water of the MifTifippi, and from thence a good u-ay
up the MifTouri, and between that river and Santa Fe. The
population of the Indian nations in the fouthern parts of-
the United States is given differently from Mr, Imlay's
itatement by Mr. Parcel!, who refided among them in 1780, ,

Gun men.
Mufcogees, commonly called Creeks 5860

Chaftaws 4131

Chickafaws 575

Cherokees 2800

Catabaws „ ] co

'3-)'

Total.

17,280

13'423'
2290

8550
490

42,033

The above red nations have fomewhat increafed fincc the
general peace ellabliflicd among them in 1777. The whites
incorporated among them are few in number, and lead a
vagabond life, connefking thcmielves with one tribe after
another. Tlie increafe of population is confiderably
checked by the ufe of fpirituous liquors, and by a certain
complaint introduced among thi-in by the whites. In tlie
northern dillrift of North America, Mr. Hutchins,in 177S, .
eilimated the Indians N. of the Ohio, and E. of the Milli- ■
fippi, at 13,800, and thofe weilward of lake Superior and 1
the Miflifippi, at lo,coo.

INDICATION, in Phyftc, fignifies the pointing out or -
difcovering what is fit to be done, and what means> applied
in any cafe, from a knowledge of the nature oi the difeafe, ,
and the virtue of medicines.

Indications are of four kinds : prtfcrvat'i-vCjGr prcphyl/iHic, .
which direft how to cut off the caufe of an ap;)roacl)ing -
difeafe ; curalii:Ci which fhew how to remove a difeafe ac- -
tually - formed ; palliative^ which dirett how to lefien its
ef!eds, or take uflf fome of its fymptoms, before it can be
wholly removed i^ .u.nd vital, wbiijh relate to the llrergth ofi"
the body. -

Tlatl

I N D

That part of phyfic which treats of indications is called
Jevie'rnica.

INDICATIVE, in Grammar, the firil mood or manner
of conjugating verbs, (liewing either the time prefent, part,
or future, and afierting what we think certain ; and, there-
fore, fometimes called the decLiraiive mood.

I love is tlie prefent tenfe ; / loved, the pad ; and / -will
lo-i'^ is the future of the indicative mood.

Indicative Column. See Column.

INDICATOR, ill Anatomy, extenfor or abduftor iu-
dicis, cubito-fus-ou^uien ; a mufcle of the fore-finger, fitu-
ated on the dorfal furface of the forearm. It is a flender
mufcle, of an elongated figure, extended from the back of
the ulna to the fore-finger. It arifcs, by (liort aponeurotic
fibres, from tlie pollerior furface of the ulna, beginning
about the middle of the bone, and having its attachment
extended towards the wrift ; and in a flight degree from the
iuterofleous hgament. It is flender and pointed at its origin,
grows gradually larger, and then diminillies again and forms
a fuiall flattened tendon. From its origin at the middle
of the ulna, it pafTes obliquely to the carpal end of the
radius, and is confined at the furface of that bone in a
fibrous iheath common to it with the extenfor communis, to
which it is here attaclied by means of the fynovial membrane
which lines the flicath. Quitting the flieath, it runs along
the back of the hand, on the radial fide of the tendon,
which the fore-finger receives from the extenfor communis :
tiicfetwo approach each other, and are united at the arti-
culation of the finger to the metacarpus. The common
t^endon paflcs over the back of the firll joint of the fore-
finger, over the firil phalanx, and then divides into three
portions, which terminate hke thofe of the extenfor digi-
tornm communis : it corrcfponds to them alfo in every other
particular, fciee Extkxsor.

The poflerior furface of this mufcle is covered by the
extenfor carpi uluaris, the extenfor proprius auricularis, and
extenfor communis digitorum, and by the integuments. Its
anterior furface is in coutatt with the ulna, interoffeous liga-
ment, radius, carpus, interojTeous mufcle of the fecond In-
terval, m.etacarpus, fynovial membranes of the digital arti-
culations, and the phalanges. The radial edge is in contaft
for a confiderable fpace with tiie extenfor tertii intcrnodii
pollicis ; the ulnar edge is attached to a ridge of the
ulna. It will extend the three phalanges of the fore-finger,
and move it towards the ulnar edge of the hand, as in point-
ing to an obji-a. It will extend the wrift, and affill in the
fupination of the radius.

INDIC.-iVIT, vn Lau>, a writ or prohibition that lies
for a patron of a church, whofe clerk is fued in the fpi-
ritual court by another clerk for tithes, which do amount
to a fourth part of the profits of the advowfon ; then the
fuit belongs to the king's court, by the ftat. Well. i. cap. j.
And the patron of the defendant being likely to be preju-
diced iu his church and advowfon, if tlie plaintiff recovers in
the fpiritual court, hath this means to remove it to the king's
court. Reg. Orig. 3j. Old Nat. Br. 31.

INDICIS ExTEN.soR, in jinatomy. See Indicator.

■ Semi-inlerojftus. See Abductou.

INDICTION, fignifies the convoking of an ecclefiaftical
aflembiy ; asa'fynod, or council, or even a diet.

Indici ION is applied to the feveral fcflions of the ftime
councils.

Hence it is, that at the end of the fcfTions of the
council of Trent, the decree by which the council aopoints
the day of the future feflion, is called the iodiaioa of that
I'efllon.

I N D

Indiction, in Chronology, a term ufed for a kind of
epocha, or manner of counting time among the Romans ;
containing a cycle or revolution of fifteen years, which,
when expired, begins anew, and goes round again without
intermifllon.

This method of computation has no dependence on the
heavenly motions. Petavius fays, there is nothing in chro-
nology lefs known than the Roman indit'lion ; he means,
than its original and commencement. It is the general
opinion, that it was inftituted in the time of Conftantine,
about the year 312 ; but this is a mere guefs. There were
indictions in the time of the emperor Condantius, as ap-
pears from the Theodofian Code. The learned hold, that
indiftions were originally no other than certain annual
taxes, the tariffs whereof were publ.ihed every year ; but
why they were fo called, why confined to a cycle of fift
teen years, when, and on what oceafion, inftituted, is not
known.

We find three kinds of indiftions mentioned in authors ;
the indictiun of Conftantinople, beginning on the firft of
September ; the Imperial, or Ca:farean mdiftion, on the
fourteenth of September ; and the Roman or Papal indic-
tion, which is that ufed iu the pope's bulls, and which begins
on the fii-fl; of .January.

The popes have dated their afts by the year of the indic-
tion, which was fixed to the firft of January, A. D.
.;ij, ever finte Charlemagne made them fovereign ; be-
fore w hich time they dated them by the years of the em-
perors.

At the time of the reformation of the calendar, the year
1^82 was reckoned the tenth year of the indiftion ; fo
that beginning to reckon hence, and dividing the number
of years elapfed between that time and this by 15, the
remainder, with the addition of 10, will be the year of in-
diftion, correfponding to the year of our Lord 181 1. The
indiftion may alfo be found by adding 3 to the year of owr
Lord, and dividing the fum by 15, the remainder is then
the year of the indiftion : if there be no remainder the in-
diftion is I e. In either of thefe ways the year of indiftion
for 1 81 1 is 14.

The word indiftion comes from indialo, which fignifies
(Jlablijhment, order, or denunciation. The time of the indic-
tion, among the Romans, was that wherein the people were
fummoned to pay a certain tribute ; and it is for this reafon,
that the imperial indiftion began towards the end of Septem-
ber ; becaufe the harveft being then got in, it was fuppofed
the people could more eafily pay their tax.

INDICTIVE, In'dictivus, an epithet given to certain
feaft-days appointed by the Roman magiftrates, viz. the con-
ful, or prxtor.

INDICTMENT, derived from the French endiler, indi-
care, or, according to M. Lanibard, from :»J=i«it;;ui, I charge,
I inform ngaiiijl, in Laiv, a bill or declaration, of complaint,
drawn up in form of law, for the benefit of the common-
wealth : exhibited as an accufation of one for fome oft'ence,
criminal or penal, and preferred to a grand jury, and by
their verdift found to be true, and prelented before a judge
or officer, who has power to punifli or certify the fame
ofience.

Indictment, in Common Law, fignifies as much as accu-
fatio among the civihans ; though in fome points it differs.
Sec Accusation.

Lambard fays, an indiftment is an accufation at the fuit
of the king, by the oaths of twelve men of the fame
county where the offence was committed ; returned to in-
quire of all offences in general in the county, determinable by
the court into which they are returned, and their finding a bill

brought

INDICTMENT.

:, 'tit before tliem to be true. But when fuch accufation is
I 1 by a grand jury, without any bill brought before tliem,
and afterward reduced to a formed iiidiament, it is called a
prclentment ; and wlien it is found by jurors returned to en-
quire of that particular offence only, which is indicted, it is
properly called an inqnifitiou.

Althongli a bill of indictment may be preferred to a grand
jury upon oath, they are not bound to iind the bill, if they
find caufe to the contrary ; and though a bill of uidictment
be brought to them without oath made, they may find the
bill if they fee caufe. But it is not ufual to prefer a bill
UMto them before oath be firil made in court, that the
evidence they are to give unto the grand inqueil to prove the
bill is true.

The grand jury (fee Jury) are to find the whole of a bill,
or to reject it ; and not to find it fpecially in part, &c. If
they are fatisfied of the truth of the accufation, they then
indorfe upon the bill of indiftment " a true bill,'' anciently
liilla vera. But t.) find a bill, there muil at leaft twelve of
the jury agree. The indictment, when fo found, is publicly
delivered into court.

As indiftments are purely for the good and quiet of the
commonwealth, they are to be preferred for criminal, not
civil matters. They are ufed in cafes of high treafon, and
petit treafon, felony, and trefpaffes of all kinds, and in all
pleas of the crown ; tliough they cannot be ufed for injuries
of a private nature, that neither concern the king nor the
public; and therefore all indiftments ought to be brought
for offences committed againft the common law, or aganill
ftatutes ; and not for every flight mifdemeanor. A perfon
cannot be indicled of fuipicion of felony, but of the
very crime itfelf ; and then if he be not in cullody, the
fheriff is commanded to attach his body by a capias, &c. A
perfon indicted for felony may have connfel allowed to fpeak
for him, as to matter of law only ; but fuch as are indicted
for treafon may have a copy of their indiiftment before trial,
in order to advifc with counfel ; and fuch indictments arc to
be found within three years after the offence committed, un-
. lefs the treafon be directly agaiait the king's perfon. (7 and
8 W. HI. cap. 3. which is extended to trials on impeach-
ments by zS Geo. II. cap. :;o. ) Perfons indicted of treafon
muft be by the oaths of two witneffes ; but in other cafes one
wituefs is fufficient. The prifoner, in this cafe, (hall alfo
have a copy of the indictment, but not the names of the
witnelfcs, five days at leaft before the trial, i. e. upon the
true conftru£lion of the aCl 7 W. III. cap. j. before his
arraignment ; he Ihall alfo have a copy of the panel of jurors
two days before his trial ; and he ftiall have the fame coni-
pi:lfive proccfs to bring in his v.itnefies for him, as was ufual
to compel their appearance againft him. By 7 Ann. cap. 21.
every perfon indicted for high treafon, or mifpnfion of trea-
fon, fhall not only have a copy of the indiftment, but a hit
of all the witneffes to be produced, and of the jurors im-
panelled, with their profeffions and places of abode, deliver-
ed to him ten days before the trial, and in the prefence of two
tt-itnCiTes. But this lall act, fo far as it affected indiftments
for the inferior fpecies of high treafon, refpe£ting tlie coin
and royal feals, is repealed by the ftatute 6 Geo. III.
cap. 53. But no perfon indicted lor felony is, or (as the law
ftand^) can be, entitled to fuch copies, before the time of
his trial.

Indiftments muft be certain in every point, and charge
fome particular offence ; alfo goods ftolen muft be particu-
larly fet down, and the offence laid pofitively, and not by
way of recital. There muft alfo be expreffed the Chrillian
name, furname, and addition of the offender, with the day,
year, and place in which the offence was committed, as alfo
3

the nature of the offence, (i Hen. V. cap. J.) Tn an
indici incut for murder, the Icui^th, dejjth, or other dimen-
fions of the wound, mull be expreffcii, that a judgment may
be formed whether it was mortal ; and in this cafe, the tin-.o.
of the d»ath muft be laid within a year and a day after the
mortal ftroke was given. (Sec Appeal ) And in felony,
the value of the things ftolen is to be particularly mention-
ed, in order that it may appear whether the offender has
been guilty of grand or petit larciny. A miftake in fpell-
ing the defendant's furname is not a fufficient cauie for abat-
ing the indictment, provided it founds like it. If a word of
confequence be omitted in an indiAment, it renders the
whole naught ; but the cafe is not the fame where a word of
form is omitted, or where there is an omiffion of a fynony-
mous word, if the fenfe is not injured. In fome crimes par-
ticular words of art muft be ufed, which are fo appropriated
by the law to exprefs the precife idea which it entertains of
the offence, that no other words, however fynonynious they
may feem, are capable of doinjr it. Thus, in treafon, the
fafts muft be laid to be done " treafonably, and agaiuli his
allegiance ;" anciently, prodhorie et contra Jigiantiie fue dell-
/:/»;;" elfe the indictment is void. In indictments for mur-
der, it is neceffary to fay that the party indicted " murder-
ed," not " killed" or " flew" the other ; which, till the late
ftatute, was expreffed in Latin by tlie word " nwnlnivli."
In all indiftments for felonies, the adverb •♦ feloiiiuul3y,
feJon'tce," muil be ufed ; and for burglaries alfo " lui\^liirUer,"
or in Englilh, " burglarioufly ;" and all theie to afcertain the
intent. In rapes the word " rapuit," or " ravifhed," is ne-
ceffary, and muft not be expreffed by any periphrafis ; in
order to render the crime certain. So alfo in larcinies, the
words" fc/onice cepit et fl/^Joc/rti)/';," "feloniouflytookandcarrKd
away," are neceffary to every mdidtment ; for thefe only can
exprefs the very of'ence. In cafe one part of an indiftment is
inconfiftent wit h another part of it, theiiidictment becomes void ;
though where the lenfe is plain, the court will difpenfe with a
fniall inconfiltency. Indictments are amendable the lame term
they are brought into court, but not afterwards ; and in cri-
minal profecutions, the amendment muft be only fuch as i.-f
permitted by the common law. Indidtments for crimes
committed, ought to be laid in the county where they were
done ; for otherwife, upon pleading the general iffue not
guilty, if it appears that the offence was committed in an-
other county or place different from that in the mdidtment,
the defendant will be acquitted. Yet if larciny be com.-
mitted in any one county, and the goods carried into
another, the offender may be indicted in either for the
ofi'ence is complete in both, (i Hal. P.C. J07 ) Or, he
may be indicted in England for larciny m Scotland, and car-
rying the goods with him into England, or vice ver/d; or
for receiving in one part of the united kingdoms goods that
have been ftolen in another. (Stat. Geo. HI. c. 31.) But
for robbery, biuglary, and the like, he can only be indicted
where the faCt was actually committed ; for though the car-
rying away and keeping of the goods is a continuation of
the original taking, and is therefore larciny in the fecond
county, yet it is not a robbery or burglary in that jurif-
diftion. And if a perfon be indicted in one county for larciny
of goods originally taken lu another, and be thereof con-
victed or ftands mute, be fhall not be admitted to his clergy ;
provided the original taking be attended with fuch circum-
ftances, as would have ouiled him of his clergy by virtue
of any ftatu'e made previous to the year 1691. (Stat.
25 Hen. VIII. 3 W. and M. c. 9.

An offender is fubjeCt to indictment for a felony com-
mitted againll a perfon unknown ; yet foii:cbody muft be
proved to be the proprietor upon the trial, or elfc the property

will

I N D I N D

will be prefumed to be in the prifoner, lie Tiaving pleaded 8j* 30', and from N. lat. 10' to 27' ^o'; Cuba being made

not guilty. An indidment being at the king's fuit, the the weiierly boundary, and the Bahamas the raoft northerly ;

prorccutoris a goed vvitnefs to prove the charge contained in and fixing the eufterly point at the ifiand of Barbadoes, and

it ; and no damage can be given to the parly aggrieved, ex- the foutlierly at Trinidad. Tlie name was given by Co-

ccpt it be particularly grounded on fomc Uatute. IndiA- lumbus, and has not been unfrcquently applied to the whole

inont? before juHices of the peace may be removed by cer- of America. See each illand feparatc'y defcribed.

tiorari into the king's bench. ' INDIGENOUS, of indigena, denotes a native of a coun.

A bill of indiftment is faid to be an accufation, bccaufe try ; or that which was originally born or produced in the

the jury, who inquire of the offence, do not receive it till the country where it is found. In this fcnfe, particular fpecies

party that offered the bill, appearing, fubfcribes liis name, of aniuials and plants are faid to be indigenous in the country

and offers his oath for the truth of it. where they are native, in oppofition to exotic.

It is always at the fuit of the king, and differs from an INDIGESTION, in Medkine, in the acceptation in

accufation in this, that the preferrer is no way tied to the which we employ the term, implies not only the iniperfeft

proof thereof upon any penalty if it be not proved, except performance of the act of digellion, but alfo an impaired

there appears a confpiracy. But if any one prefer an iiididt- condition of the funftions of the llomach and chylopoetic

inent to the grand jury for any criminal offence, witliout vifcera in general.

probable caufe, and the bill is not found, or the party is ac- In ufmg the term indigejlion in this extenfive fenfe, we follow

quitted, aftion Hes for a mahcious profecution. In order to the example of Dr. CuUen, who has comprehended, under the

which it is neeeffary tliat the plaintiff {hould obtain a copy head of Dyfp pfui (from ii;, ill, and s-sxTSiv, todi^cjl), a great

of the record of his indidlmcnt and acquittal ; but in prole- variety of iVmptoras, which other nofologifts have confi-

•cutionsforfelony, itisufualto deny acopyoftheindiftnent, dered as dillintt difeafes, and defcribed under various ap-

wherc 'here is any the lead probable caufe to found fuch pellations, but which, he is of opinion, are all referrible to

profecution upon. But an attion for a malicious profccu- one common caufe, an imbecility, or lofs of tone in the

tion mav be founded on fuch an indiftment whereon no ftomach. (See Cullen, Nofol. Method. Gen. xlv. and Firii

acquittal can be ; as if it be rejctled by the grand jury, or Lines, § iigo, and ligj). Among thcfymptoms jull

he coram noil jtid'ice, or be infufficiently drawn. alluded to, which ftnnd as dillindt genera in other nofoJo-

IxDlCTMENTS, Demurrer to. See DE>runnER. gical fyftems, are /Inorevla, ov lojs of appetite ; Cardialgia.

INDICTOR, m Law, he that indifteth another for an or heart-burn ; Gajlrodymn, or Jl ,mach colic; Flalulentia, or

offence: ^nd W/^c? is the party who is inditled. I Y.ii.\\\. flatuler.ct ; Naufca i Vomilus, Sodii, &c. (See the Nofol.

cap. 1 1. 21 .Tac. I. cap. 8. Syllems of Sauva^es, Ve.gel, and Linnajus.) To the fame

INDICUM. In the writings of the ancients we find difordered condition of the digeftive organs, when it is

tliis word very frequently ufed, as the name of a blue colour, fympathetic of, or combined with other complaints, Dr.

or pigment ufed in dyeing, and imported to Rome, Greece, CuUen likewife referred m.any of thofe undefined affeftions,

and other parts of the world, from the Ealt Indies. The which have been confufedly claffed together under the gc-

greater number of writers make this the fame with our neral title of nervous difeafes, or under that of chronic tucak-

•indigo, or anil fecu'je ; and fome fay it was the fame nefs. From the great importance of the llomach in the

with our woad ; but the former opinion feems moft pro- animal economy, in which it is, as it were, the laboratory

■table. of health, and from its fympathetic relation to every other

This fubftance, which the Greeks call indicum, the Ara- important organ in the body, it is obvious that every de-

liian writers, Avicenna, Serapion, and others, have called rangement to which it is expofed mull occafion fome

ml; though the fame word is alfo fometimes ufed by correfponding derangement in other parts of the fyftem,

them for the pigment made from woad. See Indigo- and that it muft fuller, in its turn, whenever any diftant

PERA. organ is much indifpofcd ; and hence, that indigeilion will

Indicum Folium. See Folium and Tamalapatra. moll frequently be accompanied with various adventitious

INDICUSCALMU.s,inA^a/tt/-a///j?ory, is a foffd coralline fymptoms, and that it will be of two kinds, idiopathic

Tjody, fuppofed formerly to reprefent fome fpecies of reed, and fympathetic, according as the ftomach itfelf, or fome

tefet with ftars on the fiirface. other organ, is the feat of the primary diforder. It is of

Indi(U.s Cocculus. Sec Cocculus. the idiopathic indigeilion, however, that we particularly treat

Isdk:u.s<7<7/»/-, aterm ufed by feveralof the ancient writers at prefent.

to exprefs black. The generality of the Greek and Roman The fymptoms which charafterize idiopathic dyfpepft/i,

phyficians of old times have called the black lignum aloes, are an irregular, but commonly deficient appetite, with oc-

4tgtdlochum indicum ; and the only black kind of myrobalin cafional fqueamiflinefs, fometimes aftual vomiting ; — a fenfe

they were acquainted with, was in the fame manner called of load and diftention of the ftomach after meals, followed

the indicum ; not that thefe were fuppofed peculiarly the by eruftations of air, or of fohd or fluid matter, of various

produft of the Indies, in diilintlion from the paler lignum qualities, acid, pungent, nidorous, or infipid ;— heariburii,

aloes, or the other myrobalan ; but that they were of that and pains in the region of the ftomach. Some or all of

colour which they called indicus color. thefe fymptoms occur at different times or in different in-

Indku.s crflus. See Co.s'rus. dividuals, and are commonly combined with irregularity

INDIES, Ea.st, in Geography, comprehends that vaft of the bowels, which are molt frequently coftive, but fome-

traft of country, which is fituated in the fouth of Tartary, times lax, or in each of thefe dates by turns. The mouth

between Perfia and China, as well as the iflands in the Eaft and throat are ufually dry, efpccially in the morning, and

Indian fea, fuch as Borneo, Sumatra, Ceylon, .lava, the the tongue is at the lame time furred, and of a white or

Mahli Ts, Cilobes, Moluccas, Philippines, &c. See India yellow colour, and there is a difagreeable tafte on the

and HiNnoosTAN, and each ifland feparately. palate.

IxDiKs, Wejl, includes iflands of the Atlantic, which Tliefe are the direft indications of a deranged condition

extend from the well of Florida, in a curve, to the coaft of of the ftomach itfelf, and the confequent irritation of ill.

Surinam, in South America, from W. long. 58 ;o' to digellcd aliiiHMit. The fenfe <rf load is occafioned by the

rcmora

INDIGESTION.

s^\-^ra of tlie food in its undigefted flats, and that of

('.;:1. jtiuii by the cvohition of air, which is probably oc-

<-a!i);ied by the fpontaneous decompofition or fermentation

of llif alimentary matter, and is relieved by eriiftation and

the I'.ifcharpje of flatus. The irritation of the acid or acrid

cr:(!ities upon the coats of the ftomach, efpccially about

;^;K'r orifice, excites the fenfation of heart-burn, and

. Mial fpafmodic and inverted aflions of the llomach

pallet, by which erudations are produced, as well as

ij,.. 1.1 iodic contraftion of the mufcular parts of the Ito-

( fnach, which is accompanied by pain or galtrodynia : over.

I ditlentiou of tlie coats of the Itomach, by tlie flatus, is

likewife productive of pain.

But in addition to thefe morbid fenfations and phenomena
in the ftomach itfelf, an infinite variety of fyniptonis oc-
cur, in different inftances, indicating the fynipathetic af-
■ fefrtion of the conilitution at large, or of particular organs.
Thefe have commonly been called tKriwits fymptonis, in-
afmuch as they have originated merely from a fympathy of
parts, independently of any dilordered Hate of the circu-
lation, or of any morbid change in the ftruclure of the
fufFering organs ; and they are often more dillrcffing than
the primary fymptoms belonging to the affeftion of the
ftomach. Among the fymptoms to which we allude, are
languor, fliiggilhn^ls, and indifpofition to exertion, either
mental or corporeal, but efpecially the latter ; drowfuiefs,
particularly after meals or (light cxercife ; giddiiiefs, noife
in the ears, occafional dimnefs of fight, or a fenfe of objeSs
floating before the eyes, with head-ache under various
forms, moft frequently affefting the forehead and temples,
fometimes the crown and the occiput ; fevere flying pains ;
palpitations of the heart, or intermiffions in its pulfation,
with confiderable variations in the ftate of the pulfe ; total
reftilelTncf?:, or unrefrefliing fleep during the night, with
frightful dreams, the incubus, or night-mare, &c. ; tem-
porary abfenre of mind, impaired memory, unufual timidity
and dcfpondency ; and, in fhort, all the train of complaints
which belong to hypochonJriafis and hyjferia in the conft^i-
tutions in whicb they are liable refpeftively to occur. See
thefe articles.

■ The experiments of modern phyfiologifts have (hewn that
the procefs of digeftii n is principally effected by means of the
fluids of the ilomach, which poiL>fs a folvent power over the
fubllances u.*ed as aliment ; and that it is not a procefs of
concoclion, putrefaction, attrition, or fermentation, as was
anciently fnppofed. (See DlGEsriox.) It would feem,
therefore, that the elfential caufe of idiopathic dyfpepfia
ronfiihin a change in the quantity or quality of this gailrie
fluid, or folvent, originating from an impaired condition of
the ftcretery function of the ftomach. This, however, can
perhaps only be afciibed to the deficiency of its tone and
vigour as a mufcular organ. Dr. Cullen juftly remarks,
that, as the peculiar nature of the digeftive fluid, the changes
which it may undergo, and the caufes by which it may be
changed, are very little known to us, we cannot found a
practic.d doclrine upon any fiippofition refpecting it ; but as,
«t the fame time, the imbecility of the ftomach, either as the
caufe or the effedl of the change in the digellive fluid, feems
always to be prelent, and to have a great (hare in occa-
sioning the fymptoms of indigeftion, we may Hill coiifider
the imbecility of the ftomach as the proximate and almoil
fole caufe of thj'pef)fia. He obferves, too, that tiiis view
of the fubject is the more admilTible, as it appears to be
fully and clearly applicable to the explanation of the pra(f\ice
which experience has ellabliihed as the moll fuccefsful in this
difrafe. Firft Lines, ^ lup.

Cuufes of IiiifiytjVion. — Certain original conftitution of the
Vol.. XIX.

body is obvioufjy conncAed with a predifpofition to tTiis
complaint : this is fometimes manifeft only in a defcaive
performance of the funffions of the ftomach itfelf; but in
other cafes it is evidently a part of the general want of
tone and vigour in the body, and occurs in pcrfons of
lax fibre, and fangnine or fanguinco-phlegmatic tempera-
ment. In perfons of dark and fallow complexion, the fto-
mach itfelf appears to be often originally weak, in a degree
difproportionate to the general condition of the habit.

The exc'it'mg caufis of indigeftion, then, muft be looked
for among thofe circumftances which tend either to produce
a lofs of tone in the mufcular fibres of the Ilomach, or which,
in ihe debilitated ftate of that organ, tend to opprefs its
powerj and to impede its funaions. The caufes which
contribute to impair the vigour of the ftomach are of
two kinds ; namely, thofe which operate direftly upon tliat
organ, and thofe w hich affect it indirectly, or through die
medium of the general fyftem.

The vigour of the ilomach is impaired by the excelTive
ufe of ftimulatir.g condiments, and of fpirituous liquors, ai
well as by the abufe of certain articles of the fedative or
narcotic kind, fuch as tobacce, tea, coffee, opium, bitters ;
and by the too frequent and copious ufe of acid and afcef-
cent articles of food, and of warm watery liquids. Frequent
vomiting, whether ariling fpontancouOy or excited by art,
tends alfo greatly to debilitate the ftomach ; and over-dif-
tention of the organ by an exceiTive quantity of food or
drink, or the ufe of food in itfelf difficult of digcition, or
diflicult from the idiofyncrafy of the individual, equally
contribute to the fame effeft. The want of due mafticatioit,
and of the proper commixture of the faliva with the food,
by which its tendency to putrefactive decompofition may
be diminillied, liJcewife materially enfeebles the digeftive
powers of the ftomach, and adds to the oppreffion where it
is already weakened. Whence the habit of frequent fpitting,
or rejection of the faliva, is juftly enumerated among the
caufes of indigeftion. ComprefTion of the itomach after a
full meal, as by particular poftures, &c., or violent exercife
or fiiecuffion of the body, under the fame circumftances,
have been found to have a material influence in preventing
the procefs of digeition, and oppreffing the powers of the
ftomach. Hence various occupations and trades, in which
comprclTion and fuccuffion of the diftended ftomach are daily
produced, occafion habitual dyfpepfia in thofe who are pre-
difpofed to the difeafe.

Many of thefe occupations, however, debilitate the fto-
mach likewife through the medium of the general fyftem,
or by deranging other organs and funftions with which the
llomaeh particularly fympathifes. The fedentary and in-
active life, connedtcd with many of them, debilitates the body
in all its fimftions, and the ftomach moft particulr.ily ; in-
tenfe ftudy, or clofe application of mind to any buiinefs,
when long continued ; grief, anxiety, vexation of mind, and
diforderly paflions of any kind ; venus immodica ; cxpofure
to moift and cold air, when without exercife ; and frequent
intoxication, wliich belongs partly to this head, and partly
to the former, — are all common remote caufes of that im-
becility of itomach which is connected with indigeftion.
Dr. Cullen remarks, that, though the difeafe, as proceed-
ing from tlie laft fet of caufes, may be conlidcrcd as a
fymptomatic affedion only ; yet as the diforder of the fto-
mach is genei:;lly the liril, always the chief, and often the
only efi'eCt which thefe caufes produce or difcovcr ; fo the
affeftion of the ftomach may be confidered as the difeafe
chiefly to be attended to in practice ; and the more pro-
perly fo, as in many cafes the general debility is only to

INDIGESTION.

be cured by reftoring the tone of the ftomach, and by
remedies firft applied to this organ.

On the other hand, however, it is not to be omitted,
that the ilomach, from its extenfive fympathy, by which
it is often a partaker of morbid initation feated in other
organs, occafionally difplays fymptoms of derangement fo
violent, and apparently fo confined to itfelf, as to make
the primary and proper foiirce of the derangement be alto-
gether overlooked. Many inftances might be quoted of
the fuccefsful treatment of feemingly idiopathic dyfpepfia,
by remedies which manifeftly and chiefly operate upon other
organs, and exert little or no immediate beneficial influence
on the ilomach. The vifcera, more immediately concerned
in the fnnftion of digeflion, efpecially the liver, and the
alimentary canal, are often the feat of the original irrita-
tion in fuch cafes ; the kidnies and the uterus occafionally
produce fimilar eftefts.

Treatment of Indigejllon. — In attempting to cure this (late
of the ftomach, we may confider the following indications
as the principal points to be purfued : Jirjl, to avoid, or re-
move, or, as far as may be, to regulate thofe things which
have been enumerated above as the ordinary exciting caufes
of the difeafe ; fccondly, to palliate or remove thofe urgent
fymptoms, which efpecially contribute to aggravate and con-
tinue the ilifeafe ; and thirdly, to reftore the tone and vigour
of the fl:omach, and of the fyftem at large.

The propriety and neceflity of the firfl; indication is fuffi-
ciently evident, as the continued application, or frequent re-
petition of thofe caufes, muft neceffarily tend to continue the
difeafe, to defeat the efficacy of remedies, or to occafionthe
recurrence of the diforder in fpite of the operation of thefc.
Dr CuUen juftly remarks, that it is commonly owing to the
neglett of this indication, that this difeafe is fo frequently
obftinate in its duration. Tt would be fuperfluous to enu-
merate the various modes of fulfilhng this indication, which
will be fufficiently obvious from the confideratiou of the fe-
veral eaufes : but this circumftance evinces the importance
of minutely inveftigating the origin of the diforder, previous
to the adminiftration of remedies, and of afcertaining whether
the dyfpepfia be conftitutional or acquired, vi'hether idiopathic
or fymptomatic, whether owing to any organic derangement
of the ftomach, fuch as tumour, ulcer, or fcirrhofity, or
whether arifing merely from errors in diet,, or other extrinfic
agents. It muft be obferved, however, that the accom-
plifliment of this firft indication is often exceedingly diffi-
cult : for, in many cafes, the circumftances of the patient
will not admit of any material change ; his avocations
themfelves, upon which his fubfiftence depends, compre-
hend, perhaps, the principal caufe of the mifchief. More
frequently, the obftacles arife from the difficulty of inducing
men to break in upon eftabliflicd habits, or to renounce the
purfuit of pleafure ; and efpecially, to perfuade them
that thofe praftices, which they have often repeated, and
feen others repeat, with fceming impunity, are in reality pre-
judicial.

Some allowance, indeed, is neceffary to be made for the
influence of habit, in all changes that relate to the animal
economy, and efpecially where thcfe habits have been carried
to the extreme. For if the ftomach have been long accuftomed
to exceffive xlimuli, whether from condiments or fpirituous
liquors, the total abftraclion of thefe from the diet might
occafion a direft debility, under which the powers of life
might fink. Under fuch circumftances, therefore, fome de-
gree of the accuftomed ftimulus muft be for fome time in-
dulged in, or fome lefs prejudicial one fubftituted. But the
apprehenfions of danger, from great changes in the habits
of life, which are generally entertained, are carried to an

extent which experience does not juftify. Almoft aii iii<'
general rules which can be laid down, in refpeft to tlr,
wholefomenefs of certain articles of diet, admit of exception a
from peculiarities of conftitution in particular individuals.
Some indications on this point, however, may be obtained
by attending to the obvious prevailing ftate of the ftomach,
as evinced by the acid or nidorous eruftations, &c. The acid
ftate of the ftomach implies the neceffity of diminiftiing the
proportion of vegetable food ; while the nidorous condition
may be benefited by augmenting that part of the diet, and
lefl'ening the quantity of animal food. It is of much im-
portance that the whole quantity of food fiiould be fuch as
not to overload the ftomach, or occafiou confiderable diften-
tion. There is a common precept, under which great errors
are fometimes committed, in the way of overloading the
ftomach, or at leaft of exhaufting its digeftive powers,
namely, that of eating little and often, fo that long fafting
may be avoided on the one hand, and too much repletion
on the other. With the view of fulfilling this precept,
an almoft inceflant fupply of aliment is fometimes thrown
into the ftomach ; fo that the digeilion of one portion
is never completed, before another is combined with it in a
crude ftate, thus aggravating the crudities which the
difeafe itfelf produces, or preventing their more effe&ual
affimilation.

In fulfiUi]ig the ficond indication, of removing urgent
fymptoms, one of the firft objects purfued by fome prafti-
tioners, is that of removing the crudities of the ftomach
produced by the difeafe, by means of emetics : Dr CuUen
himfelf appears to be the advocate of this practice. ( Firft
Lines, par. 1204.) Neverthelefs, as thefe crudities are
commonly the effeft of the difeafe, and not the caufe, the
expulfion of them from the ftomach by vomiting can afford
but a brief and temporary relief ; and the fame uneafinefs will
recur after the firft or fecond meal. And, moreover, experi-
ence has (hewn us, that frequent vomiting, however excited,
tends to weaken the ftomach, to diminifli its powers of digef-
tion, and to render it lefs able to retain what is thrown into
it, and therefore ultimately to aggravate the fymptoms which
it was intended to relieve. " They are unhappy,'' fays the
fame phyfician in another place, " who trull to this mode
of relief, and have frequent recourfe to it ; for I am certain,
from much experience, that frequent vomiting hurts the tone
of the ftomach, and often makes the fymptoms of digeftion
recur more frequently and fooner than they otherwife would
have done." (Cullen on Mater. Medica, vol. ii. p. 465.
See alfo Emetics.) We haveftated under that article, the
circumftances which have led to the erroneous fuppofitioo,
that the indigeftion and its concomitant fymptoms originate
in the prefence of bile and other extraneous fluids in the fto-
mach ; and explained how the difcharge of bilious and mu-
cous matters from the ftomach, under the operation of an
emetic, may be the effecl of the vomiting, although they
miglit not previoufly have been lodged there. In fliort, there
are few inftances of dyfpepfia in which the ufe of emetics can
be deemed beneficial.

Of the other urgent fymptoms, which require to be pal-
liated, the principal are acidity, and its frequent concomitant,
heart-burn, — pain in the ftomach, — the ejedion of a copious
and clear fluid, or •watcr-hrajh (as it is termed in Scotland),
— and conjlipation of the bowels. It will not be neceflary for
us to dilate upon the method of treating thefe fymptoms
here, fince they will be found amply difcuffed under their
proper heads ; as they are often fo peculiarly diftreffing to
the patients, as to be confidcred themfelves the principal
difcafes, and to be the principal fubjcft of complaint. We
may briefly obferve, that the prefence of acid in the ftomach

INDIGESTION.

in a morbid degree is known, not only by its riling occa-
Conally into the mouth and throat by eruftation, and by the
heart-burn which accompanies it (fee Cardialgia) ; but
alfo by the occurrence of gnawing pains in the ftomach,
flatulency, irregular cravings for food, griping and loofenefs
of the bowels, See. The acidity already prefcnt in the
ftomach may be correftcd, by neutralizing it by means of a
chemical combination with fome alkali or abforbent earth.
The three alkahs, foda, potafs, and ammonia, may be taken
for this purpofe refpeftively, either in the pure (or cauftic)
ftate, or mild, ;. e. in the form of carbonates : on the whole,
they feem to be more efficacious in the pure ftate. The
foda-water, now manufaftured in the ftiops, is an agreeable
form of antacid ; but the alkali may be taken with advantage
in larger quantities than that beverage contains. Magnefia,
chalk, and the teftaceous powders prepared from crabs-claws
and oyfter-ftiells, which are carbonates of lime, likewife
combine with the gaftric acid, and neutralize it: the mag-
nelia (which is much more effeftual in its pure ftate, or cal-
cined, than in the form of carbonate) is often ufeful, inafmucli
as it forms a neutral fait, which is in fome degree laxative,
with the acid of the ftomach. It is not, however, fuf-
ficient to neutralize the prefent acidity, the difpofition to
generate it muft be alfo obviated. This is to be effecled
partly by avoiding acefcent aliments of the vegetable clafs,
and uling animal food, fueh as is little capable of acefcency.
But as vegetable food cannot be entirely difcardcd, the e.scefs
of its acefcency may be in fome meafure avoided, by chuiing
fuch vegetable matters as are the leaftdifpofed to the vinous fer-
mentation, fuch as leavened bread, and well fermented liquors;
and inftead of ufing the frefti native acids, employing vine-
gar. But the difpofition to acidity may be farther pres'ented
by other means ; namely, by thofe which invigorate the muf-
cular fibres of the ftomach, to be mentioned prefently. It
appears that the acidity occurs in a morbid quantity, either
from a change in the digeftive fluids, becoming lefs fit to
moderate the natural progrefs to fermentation, or from their
not being fupplied in iufficient quantity ; both of which
probably arife from a weakened aftion of the ftomach. For
it is obferved, in fome inllances, that fedative or depreffing
paflions immediately occafion the appearance of acidity in
the ftomach, which did not appear before ; and alfo that the
ufe of ftimulants, applied to the ftomach, often corrects or
obviates an acidity, that would otherwife have appeared.

Of that fymptora of the dyfpeptic ftate of the ftomach,
which is a common concomitant of indigeftion, pain, or
Jlomach-colk, gajlrodynia, we have already treated at length.
(See the lad term.) Having there ftated the various circum-
rtances under which it occurs, and efpecially in the two oppo-
fite ftates of repletion and inanition, as well as the method of
cure, which fucceed in thefe two conditions refpeftively,
we deem it unnecelTary to repeat the obfervations here.

In fulfilUng the fecond indication, another fymptom which
requires particularly to be obviated is cojlivmefs. There is
fo much connexion between the feveral portions of the ali-
mentary canal with refpeft to the periftaltic motion, that if
accelerated or retarded in any one part, the other parts of it
are commonly affefted in the fame manner. Thus as the
brilker aftion of the ftomach muft accelerate the aftion of
the inteftines, fo the flower adion of the inteftines muft in
fome meafure retard that of the ftomach. It is therefore of
confequence to the proper action of the ftomach, that the pe-
riftaltic motion of the inteftines, determining their contents
downwards, be regularly continued, and that all coftiveuefs, or
interruption of that determination, be avoided. But an indif-
criminate ufe of cathartic medicines is much to be deprecated.
For it muft be obferved, that, as every confiderable evacuation

of the inteftines weakens their aftion, and tends therefore to in-
duce coftivenefs when thtevacuationisover; fo thofe purgative*
which produce a large evacuation are unfit for correfting the
hiibit of coftivenefs. The milder cathartics, therefore, are
the moll fuitablc for this 'purpofe, which do no more than
folicit the intci\ines to a more ready difcharge of their prefent
contents, without either hurrying their aftion, or increafing the
excretions into their cavity ; either of which might produce a
purging. Dr. CuUen was of opinion, that medicines w Inch
particularly ftimulate the large inteftines, and aft little on the
higher parts of the intcftinal canal, were pecuharly proper
for this purpofe, fuch as the aloetic, and other refinous
purgatives. Thefe medicines certainly produce a very bene-
ficial operation in numerous inftances, probably by fupplying
the place, as it were, of the bile, which appears to be the
natural tonic and laxative to the inteftines, and which is
often both deficient in quantity, and depraved in quality, in
dyfpeptic habits. The augmentation and correction of this
fluid is often an important objeft in the treatment of indi-
geftion, and the changes in the appearance, odour, and con-
fiftence of the ftools, as well as the prefence or abfence of
griping, teuefmus, heat and irritation in the feat, &c., are
among the principal diagnoftic fymptoms in regard to the
condition of the bile, which feems to be the chief caufe of the
variations of the alvine difcharge. (See Abernethy's Obfer-
vations on the Dif. of the Health, &c. ) For the purpofes of
augmenting and correfting the biliary fecretion, the milder
preparations of mercury, which require to be varied accord-
ing to circumftances, which have not yet been accurately
defcribed, appear to be the moft effectual agents. It is pro-
bable that the long expected treatife of Dr. James Ci'rry will
contribute materially to elucidate this important fubject ;
and we truft that we (hall be able to avail ourlelves of the
affiftance of that work, before we compofe our article on the
chrome dijeafes of the \^WS.K.

The peculiar modification of dyfpepfia, called by the
Scotch liiatcr-hraJJi, the Cardialgia fputatoria of Linnaeus,
(Gen.Morborura,Ciafsiv. Ord. i.) and the P^rro/ij of CuL
len, (for which we have no appropriate Englifh nan'e,) is a
fufficiently diftincl difeafe to be difcufled in a feparate article.
See Pyrosis. See alfo Flatulence, Nausea, and Vo-
miting.

The third indication, which is properly the curative one,
is to reftore the tone and vigour of the ftomach, the lofs of
which is deemed the principal fource of the difeafe. The
means of accomplifliing this indication may be refeiTed to two
heads ; one of which includes thofe means which operate
direftly and chiefly on the ftomach itfelf ; and the other,
thofe which, operating upon the whole fyftem, communicate
their tonic powers fecondarily to the ftomach.

The medicines which operate diredtly on the ftomach, com-
prife all thofe articles which are denominated tonics, and
many of thofe cailedjlimu/ants, and ajlringents. — The bitter
vegetable fubftances, or Utters, as they are emphatically
called, and efpecially thofe which combine fome aromatic
quality with their bitternefs, are moft frequently prefcribed
for this purpofe, and poflefs very confiderable efficacy. Such
are the roots of gentian, colomba, and riuibarb ; the bark
of cinchona, cafcarilla, S:c. ; the quaflia wooj ; the flow.TS
of chamomile ; and many other vegetable produdions. Ex-
perience, however, feems to have decided, that thtle bitters
cannot be taken for a great length of time with impunity.
Some have imagined that there is a certain quantity oi a nar-
cotic power refidentin tliem, which, though infinlible in its
effefts for a confiderable time, ultimately occafions a dele-
terious influence on the conltitutiou. This ivas particularly
learned from the confequenccs of a long continued nl ■ .'f the
I 2 celebrated

INDIGESTION.

celebrated Portland Po\vdi>r, for the cure of the gout : a very
large number of tliofe perfons who took that medicine, which
confided of bitters and aromatics, having died of apoplexy,
Gr fome other fevere difcafe, after having been apparently
much benefited by its nfe. When thefe medicines are taken,
therefore, with a view to reftore the tone and vigour of the
fiomach, it is advifablenotto employ them unremittingly for
a great length of time ; but to fufpend the ufe of them occa-
fionally for a confiderable period, fubllituting fome other
corroborant medicines, if neceflity require them. Among
thefe the mineral ad^s are important adjuvants, efpecially the
fiilphuric (or vitriolic) and muriatic acids ; which have not
only a direct tonic power upon the ftomach, incrcafe the ap-
petite, and aid digeftion, but alfo tend to prevent tiie procefs
of fermentation in the food taken in. In this way, pro-
bably, their efficacy in preventing the formation of acidity in
file [iomach, and tlie heart -bum. Sec. arifing from fuch aci-
dity, is to he explained. It is certain, that, in many in-
ftances, where the alkalies and abforbcnts Iiave failed to ob-
viate acidity and its confequeuces, connefted with indigeftion,
tlie free ufe of one or other of the mineral acids has
eifeftually remedied the diforder. ylrcmalic fubltances ftimu-
Jate the ilomach, and frequently therefore relieve accfcency,
flatulence, and carjialgia ; e. g. cinnamon, ginger, capfi-
cum, &c. but their ftimulus is tranfitory, and if they are
frequently repeated, and taken in large quantities, they may
injure the tone of the ftomach. Chalyheaie medicines, or the
Tarious preparations of iron, ai-e often employed as tonics,
in the cure of indigeftion ; and they may be adminiftered in
tonfiderable quantities with fafety. They have not, how-
ever, been found foefScacious in the cure of indigeftion, as
the remedies above-mentioned ; and they are principally taken
in the form of chalybeate tuaters. But it is certain that thefe
waters contain in general a vei-y fmall proportion of fteel ;
and that other preparations of the fteel are adminiftered in
much larger quantities without producing thofe falutary
effeds, which are often afcribed to tlie r.iineral wEters ; it is,
therefore, probable that the benefits, which are obferved to
accrue during the ufe of thefe waters, are generally the re-
fult of other circumitances connefted with the drinking of
them.

For, in fact, the moft eflential means of fulfilling the third
indication are thofe which flrengthen the fyftem at large, and
thus indirectly reftore the vigour of the ftomach ; and among
thefe, exercije claims our firft notice. We have ftiewn, in its
proper place, the mode in which exercii'e operates, in pro-
moting the full and perfect circidation of the fluids through
all the organs of the body, and therefore in perfec\ing the
performance of all the funftions. (See Exkiuise.) But
we may remark, with Dr. Ciillcn, that it in a particulnr
manner ftrengthens the ftomach by promoting perfpiration,
and excilinj; the aftion of the velTels on the furface of the
body, the fkin having a pccuhar fympathy with tlie ftomach.
In this intlance, however, as in every other operation of the
animal economy, moderation muft be the leadmg rule ; for,
although the fteady and free circulation through the cuta-
neous velfels conduces to a fympathctic f.ipport of the aftion
of the itomach ; yet excefiive perfpiration, arihng from over-
aftion of thefe veffels, is followed by a languor and partial
torpor, which is alfo communicated to the ftomach ; info-
much that fickocfs, and total lofs of appetite are often the
immediate refiJts of violent extrcife, attended with profufc
perfpiration. Regular exercife on horfeback has been gene-
rally found the moll efTefinal means of Itrengthening the
itomach, and of curing indigeftion.

Cold bathing is anotlier important mode of reftoring both
rtneral aud Ivcal vigour ; bat uolcfs it be lelorted to with

fome difcrimination, like other a£live agents upon the aniirsl
frame, it may be productive of much detriment. In order
to iibtain benefit from the external application of cold, a
certain degree of vigour in the circulation, efpecially in the
vefll-ls of the fl^in, fiiould be prcfent. In the dyfpeptic
ftate, the temperature of the (Ivin is liable to be defcdtive,
and tlie cutaneous circulation to be feeble ; and under fuch
circumftances, fo far from giving ftrength te the conftitution,
or to the ftomach, the powers of life are depreffed by the
ufe of the cold bath, and the digcftive organs fympathize in
the torpor, produced in the fkin. The tepid or w arm bath
is more beneficial when this condition of the fyftem exifts,
and the baths of Buxton and Matlock may be reforted to
with advantage ; the fame principle, liowcver, muft be kept
in view in the ufe of thefe j which niuil not be entered with &
chilly and ftiuddering furface ; nor the immerlion be repeated,
if a glow dues not fucceed. See Cold, as a remedx.

In confequence of the great fympatliy betw een t!ie ilomsch
and the flcin, the proper regulation of the chlhing is a matter
of confiderable importance to thofe who are liable to indi-
geftion ; and as the temperature, though variable, is mofl
frequently below the ftandard of health, fo in general warmth
is a neceffary quality to be maintained. This is moft parti-
cularly required in the extremities, in which the circulation
is neceflarily moft languid, in confequence of the greater
diftance from the heart ; warmth and drynefs of the feet,
therefore, are peculiarly ferviceable in the cure and preven-
tion of dyfpepfia ; and for thole whufe temperature is eafily
diminilhed by external cold, the general ftimulus and flow-
condudting power of woollen garments, worn next the fkin
during the winter months, may be confidercd as affording
much fecurity from the attacks of indigeftion. But as pro-
fufe perfpiration is generally accompanied by fome degree of
fympathctic debihty in tlie ftomach, thefe garments fhould
not be ufed, during the hot feafons, by thofe whofe ikin is
readily brought into a perfpirable ftate.

A relaxation of the mind from the anxieties of bufinefs
and the fatigues of ftudy, and the pnrfi'it of objects of
amufement, contribute materially to the well-being of the
animal economy, and efpecially to the proper performance of
the digeftive functions. This object is more particularly to
be confidcred, when there is a tendency to hypochondriafis.
And as we have already obfeived, it is probably from the
auiufcments and regular exercife, which are generally enjoyed
at watering places, as they are called, that more benefits ac-
crue to the dyfpeptic invahds, than from the virtues of the
mineral fpriugs, thefe places of refort may be recom-
mended.

Before -^-e conclude this topic, it may be proper to flate,
that feveral contemporary phyficians and furgeons have ob-
ferved, thai a difordered condition of the digeftive organs,
however induced, becomes the caufe of many fecondary
difeafes, both general and local ; fucli as fuperficial ulcera-
tions, pains, tumours, &c. ; which fpontaneoufly ceafe,
when the diforder of the digeftive organs is removed. We
may remark, however, that it is not eveiT- diforder of di-
geftion which is followed by thefe confequences ; and that it
is rather in the morbid condition of the biliary fecretion, than
of the ftomach itfclf, that the diforder alUided to confifts.
Its fyinptoms are thus defcribed by Mr. Aberncthy. " This
(lighter diforder of the chylopoietic organs is, in general,
manifeftcd by a diminution of the appetite and digeftioa,
flatulence, and an unnatural colour and factor of the excre-
tionSj which are generally deficient in quantity. The tongue
is dry, whi'.ifli, or furred, particularly at the back part :
this fymptoin is moft apparent in the morning. The fur is
greateft at the back part, and extends along the middle of
3 the

I N D

t'„" tnngiie to the tip, the cdg-es remaining clean. As the
dirc;ife advances, a tciidornefs is felt when the epigallric region
i» jo.iipri-fTcd, and tho patient breathes inoiv by the ribs, and
l;N by the diaphragm, llian in the healthy Hate. The urine
i : 1 1\ quently turbid." ( Abernethy on the Conftitut. Origin
ct Local Dif.) In whichfocver of the organs concerned in
ion this morbid condition may be principally featcd,
;'iers participate, and various cffefts follow, m the man-
iius defcribed by Mr. Abernethy. " It is generally
ii^.i]i itod, that difordcrsofthe chylopoietic vifcera will affeit
tlu- foiirce of fenfation, and confcquontly the whole body ;
but the variety of dlfeafes, which may rel'iilt from this caufe,
I'- not been duly weighed and refleiled on. It may pro-
, in the nervoii.< fyftem, a diminution of the functions
:■ brain, or a Hate of excitation, caufuiii delirium ; par-
.■i\-ous inactivity and infenfibility, or the oppofite rtate
iitation and pain It may produce, in the mufcular
;r,, weaknefs, tremors, and palfy ; or the contrary af-
^ ..i!.s of fpafm and convulllons. It may excite fever, by
dillurbing the actions of the fanguiferous fyftem ; and caufe
various local difeafes, by the nervous irritation which it pro-
duces, and by the weaknefs which is confequent on nervous
diforder or imperfecl chy lification. Or if local difeafes occur
in a conftitution deranged in the manner which I have
defcribed, they will become peculiar in their nature and pro-
grefs, and difficult of cure. AffeAions of all tliofe parts
which have a continuity of furface with the ilumach, as the
throat, mouth, lips, ikin, eyes, nofe, and ears, may be ori-
ginally caufed or aggravated by this complaint." When-
ever, therefore, local difeafes are connected with this flight
derangement of the digeilive organs, the firll care will be to
correft this derangement, as the moft important flep towards
the cure of the former. For while the fecretion of bile is
either defective, or depraved in quality, (of which the ap-
pearances of the alvine difcharge afford the beft index,) the
local or general fymptoms of diforder, connected with this
condition of the hepatic function, will not yield to remedies
that would otherwife feem to be appropriate, and readily
effeft a cure.

INDIGETES, a name which the ancients gave to fome
of their gods.

There are various opinions about the origin and ffgnilica-
tion of this word ; fome pretending it was given to all the
gods in general ; and others only tathe femi-gods^orgreat men
deined. Others fay it was given to fnch gods as were ori-
ginally of the country, or rather fuch as were the gods of
the country that bore this name ; and others again hold, it
was afcril-ed to fuchgodsas were patrons and protestors of
particular cities.

JLaUly, others hold indigetes to be derived from inde ge-
nifus, or in loco dcgens, or from imU and ago, for dcgo, I
h-ve, J inhabit; which laft opinion feems the moil pro-
bable.

In effeft it appears, i. That thefe indigetes were alfo
called local gods, dii /ocaks, or topical gods , which is the fame
thing. 2. The indigetes were ordinarily men deitied, who
indeed were, in efiect, local gods, being elteemed the pro-
tectors of thofe places where they were deified ; fothat tne
fecond and third opinion are very confiftent. 3. Virgd joir.s
paJiii with indigetes, as being the fame thing, Gcorg i.
ver. 4i;8. Dii patrVt, indigetes. 4. The gods to whom 'he
Romans gave the name indigetes were, Faunus, Vtila,
M.x\f •■■, li ■rnuius, all the gods of Italy; and at Aliieps,
Minerva, fays Scrvius ; and at Carthage, Dido It is true,
we meet with Jupiter indigei ; but that Jupiter ind}^es is
Mae&s, not the great Jupiter ; as we may fee in Livy, lib. i.

I N D

eap. iii. in which laft fenfc .Servius afTures in, ind^t comes
from t)ic Latin in diis tjgo, I am among tbegodt.

Among thefe indigetes gods, there is none more cele-
brated, nor more cxtenfively worfhipprd, than Hercule'^.

INDIGHIRKA, in G<-o»/«//.j.. a riverof RufTia, which
rifes in nearly 64 N. lat., in the Stanovoi-Krebct.and being
re.r.forcod by the Amekon and a multitude of fmaller river?,
falls, in four great arms, into the Frozen ocean, N. lat. 73*
E. long 144' 14'.

INDIGNATORIUS, in Analnmy, a mufcle thus called,
as being fuppofed to draw the eye from its inner corner out-
wards, wl'.ich gives an appearance of fcornai:d anger.

But this is properly a compound motion of two mufcles ;
for which, fee Eve.

This mufcle is called by others the reftus exterior, and
ahducens ; and by Albinus, the nbdudtor. it is one of his
quatuor reCti oculi.

INDIGO, or Anil, Botany. See Ixdigoff.ra.

From this plant is extradted a dyer's drug, of a deep blue
colour, brought hither from the Weil Indies and Ameri-
ca. It is alfo made in the Ealt Indies, particularly in the
dominions of the Great Mogul, the kingdom of Golconda,

The ancients were acquainted with the dye, which we call
indigo, under the name of " Indicum." Pliny knew that
it was a preparation of a vegetable fubllance, though he was
not jullly informed concerning the plant itfelf, and the pro-
cefs by which it was fitted for ufe From its colour, and
the country from which it was imported, it is denominated
by fome authors " Atramentum Indicum" and " Indicum
nigrum." Even at thcclofe of the i6th century it was not
known in England what plant produced indigo. Gcrarde>
in IJ97, is wholly filent about it, and fo is Johnfon in 16^2.
Parkinfon, however, in 1 640, treats largely of it. He
calls it " Indico or Indian woade,'' and gives a figure of the-
leaf from De Laet. He then defcribec it, tirit from Fran-
cis Xii f nes in De Laet's defcription of America ; and fe-
condly, from Mr. William Finch, a I>ondon merchant, in.
Purohas's Pilgrims. Even in 16S8 Mr Ray fays it was
not agreed among botanifts what plant it is frorn which
indigo is made ; but that the mofl probable opinion was,
that it is a leguminofe fhrub, allied to Colutea. He
defcri'ies it from Hernandez and Margraaf; ai'd fubjoins
that of the " Ameri" from the Hortus Malabaricus. " Nil
or Anil Is the American name. In Arabic it is Kile. The
Portiiguefe have adopted their j4nd or ylnileira from the
Ami^rican. The other European nations generally call it.
Indigo. In Chincfe it is Tiin laam, which lignifies iky-blue..
Mo Miller cultivated the dyer's indigo fo long ago as the
year 17^1 ; and calls it Guatimala indigo, faying that with
us it is an annual plant. Specimens of the Indigofa-a tincforia,
or dyer's indigo, from different parts of India, Madagafcar,
.lava, Ceylon, &c. vary very much, if they are all really the
fame fpecies. Linnseus fays that it is almoft an exotic in
Ceylon, but frequent in Paliaccua and Coromandel. ;'^ c»
cording to Loureiro it is fpontaneous in China and Cochin-
china, and is cultivated all over thofe vail empires. Dr.
Patrick Browi.e, bcfides the wild indigo already mentioned,
has tv.'ooihers, which he calls the mdijro, and the Guatimala
indigo ; the former yielding more of the dye than either of
the others, is genera. ly preferred, though fubjeA to many
more mifchances.

It hr.s been generally believed, that the indigo plant flou-

rifhes cnly in the climate of the torrid zone, and in thofe

p rts of the temperate zone which are near the tropics. But

experiments lately made in Italy by Bruley, by order of

gowrmnent.

INDIGO.

government, have proved that, in a fuitable foil and expo-
fure, and with good feed, it may be cultivated in a foutherly
climate. Accordingly, he has obtained the indigo plant in
the gardens of the Chateau de la Venericj near Turin ; and
by fubmitting it to the procefs employed at St. Domingo,
he has extracted an indigo which might bear comparison
with the fineft indigo of the colonies. His plantations were
made towards the end of February. M. Icard de Batahgni,
another colonift, cultivated the plant in 1805, in the depart-
ment of Vauclufe, in France ; and his refults confirm the
hopes formed with refpeft to the culture of indigo in Eu-
rope.

Labat has given a particular account of the culture of the
plant, and the preparation of the indigo. The ground be-
ing tlioroughly cleared from weeds (one of the principal
points in the culture), and, we may add, drained, a
number of flaves, ranged in a line, march acrofs, making
little trenches of the width of their hoes, and two or three
inches deep, about a foot diftance from one another every
way : then, retarning, they drop fome feeds in each trench,
and afterwards cover them with the earth taken o>it. The
foil, it is obferved by others, fhould be free and rich, and
the chmate warm : and the feafon of fowing fliould be rainy ;
as the earth muft either already have imbibed water, or rain
muft fpeedily follow the fowing ; otherwife the feed becomes
heated, corrupts, and is loft, after all the labour it has oc-
cafioned. During the procefs of vegetation the ground muft
be carefully weeded, in order to prevent any mixture of herbs,
which would injure the indigo in its manufafturc. In moift
weather, the plant comes up in three or four days ; and in
about two or three months after, it is fit for cutting : if fuf-
fered to fland till it runs into flower, the leaves become too
dry and hard, and the indigo obtained from them proves lefs
in quantity, and lefs beautiful : the due point of maturity is
known, by the leaves beginning to grow lefs fupple, or
more brittle. In rainy fealbns, the cutting may be repeated
every fix weeks : cutting in dry weather kills the plant,
which, if that is avoided, continues to afford frelh crops for
two years.

A large quantity of the herb is put into a vat or ciftern of
ftrong mafon work, with fo much water as is fufficient to
cover it ; and fome wood laid above to prevent its rifing up.
The matter begins to ferment, fooner or later, according to
the warmth of the weather, and the maturity of the plant,
fometimes in fix or eight hours, and fometimes not in lefs than
twenty. The liquor grows hot, throws up a plentiful froth,
thickens by degrees, and acquires a blue colour, inclining
to violet. In proportion as the caloric increafes, azote is
difengaged, the herbaceous mucilage feparates, the vegeta-
ble is difcompofed, and the mixture abforbs oxygen. The
fermenting fluid pafles from a green to a violet tinge, and this
by degrees changes to a blue colour. The great art of the
manuwfturer is to check the fermentation at a proper degree.
If the fermentation is too feeble or too brief, the plant re-
mains impregnated with much effential fait, which diminifhes
the quantity of mdigo. If it be too long, the tender ex-
tremities of the plant undergo a putrefaftion which deftroys
the colour. Some years ago, the following criterion was
publifhed at St. Domingo, for afcertaining invariably the cor-
rect fermentation of the indigo. It is only requifite to write
on white paper with the matter to be examined. If this ink
be of very higli colour, it is a proof that the fermentation
is not yet at its true point. The experiment is repeated
every quarter of an hour, till it is perceived that tlie liquid
has loft its colour. This was pronounced an infalhble index
to Ihew the true point of fermentation. Others, however,

judge of the proper ftage of fermentation by means of a
filver cup, into which they throw the liqrid, fliaking it till
grains are formed ; by their quality, and that of the fluid,
they judge of the fermentation. When the feculent parti.
cles begin to precipitate to the bottom of the cup, it is then
judged, that the herbs have attained the true degree of
maceration for obtaining indigo. It has been obferved,
however, that this procedure often led into error ; and, there-
fore, five or fix minutes after the liquid has been put into the
cup, it was perceived to form round its fides a cordon of
feculse, or fediment, at firft of a green colour, and then
blue. When the maceration is not at the requifite point, this
cordon, or girdle, detaches itfelf with difficulty from the
fides of the cup, but finally precipitates, and concentres at
the bottom, always towards the centre, and the water
above it becomes limpid, though of a yellowifli tinge. When
thefe figns are perceived, they indicate infallibly the fuccefs
of the firft operation. At this time, without touching the
herb, the liquor impregnated with its tinfture is let out, by
cocks in the bottom, into another vat placed for that pur-
pofe, fo as to be commanded by the firft. The firft vat is
called the " fleeper ;" the fecond and third are called the
" beaters."

In the fecond vat, the liquor is ftrongly and inceffantly
beat and agitated, with a kind of buckets fixed to poles,
till the colouring matter is united into a body. A good dea\
of nicety is requifite in hitting this point ; if the beating is
ceafed too foon, a part of the tinging matter remains dif-
folved in the liquor ; if continued a little too long, a part of
that which had feparated is diflblved afrefli. The exaCl
time for difcontinuing the procefs is determined by taking
up fome of the liquor occafionally in a httle cup, and ob-
ferving whether the blue fecula is difpofed to feparate and
fubfide.

The facility with which the grain precipitates to the
bottom of the beater, is an unequivocal fign that the beating
has arrived at the correft point.

The whole being now fuffered to reft till the blue matter
has fettled, the clear water is let off", by cocks in the fides at
different heights ; and the blue part difcharged by a cock in
the bottom, into another vat. Here it is iuffered to fettle
for fome time longer, then farther drained in cloth-bags, or
facks, and expofed in fliallow wooden boxes to the air,
without expofing it to the fun, and carefully keeping it from
the rain, till thoroughly dry.

Before it is perfedlly dry, it is cut in fmall pieces of an
inch fquare, which detach themfelves readily from the box,
when the indigo is entirely dry. Yet, however well drained
and dried the indigo may be, it always experiences, in the firft
months of its fabrication, a diminution fufficiently evident to
warrant a haftening of the fale. It is cuftomary to pack the
indigo in barrels, and thus to circulate it in commerce. In-
digo is packed in facks of coarfe linen, and the fack is co-
vered with an ox's hide, fo hermetically fewed, that nothing
can penetrate it. Thefe packets are called " ceroons."
They are much preferable to barrels, as they are more fohd
and more convenient for tranfportation. Two " ceroons"
make the load of one animal.

The author above-mentioned, from whom the greateft part
of the foregoing account is extracted, obferves farther, that
the goodntfs of the indigo depends greatly upon the age of
the plant ; that before it has grown fully ripe, the quantity
it yields is lefs, but the colour proportionably more beauti-
ful ; that probably the fecret of thofe whofe indigo has
been moft eftecmed, is no other than cutting the herb at the
time v\ hen it yields the finell colour ; that the fuperiority of

fome

I N D

fome of the indigoes of the Ea(l Indies to thofe of America,
h perhaps owing to the former being prepared more cu-
rioufly from only the leaves of th^ plant ; and that by beat-
ing the herb in the fteeping-vat, which has been praftiTed by
fonie with a viewto increafe the quantity, great part oftlie fub-
ftance of the leaves and bark is blended with the water along
with the colouring matter, and the indigo extremely debafed.
It is faid that lime, or lime-water, is fometimes employed
in the beating- vat, to promote the fcparation of the tinging
particles from the water ; and that the hardnefs or flintinefs
of fome forts of indigo is owing to an over proportion of
this addition.

Pomet fays, that the Indians of the village of Sarqueffe,
near Amadabat, ufe only the leave? of the indigo, and throw
away the plant and branches ; and from thence the moll
efteemed indigo is brought.

Indigo is commonly divided, from the colour which it ex-
hibits upon breaking, into three kinds, copper-coloured,
purple, and blue. It is Hud that the dyers ufe chiefly the
firll ; and the calico-printers (for this drug gives a durable
ftain to linen as well as woollen) the laft. On what parti-
cular circumftances thefe different appearances depend, we
know not ; nor is it certainly known whether the real qua-
lity of the indigo has any conneftion with them. The deepeft
and hvelieft blue indigo, iibbed with the nail, appears like
polifhed copper ; and folutions of all the forts, made in alka-
line lixivia, affume alike a copper-coloured flfin upon the
furface.

Good indigo is moderately light, breaks of a ihining fur-
face, and burns a'moft wholly away upon a red-hot iron.
It is quickly penetrated by water, and reduced into a kind
of pafte ; a conliderable part is at the fame time diifufed
through the liquor, and very flowly fubfides. This is pro-
bably what Labat and Heilot mean by its diffolving in
water ; for no part of the indigo really dilTolves ; it cannot
indeed be expedled that it fhould, from the procefs by which
it is obtained.

Indigo requires an equal quantity or more of fixed alka-
line fait, to render it totally foluble in water. On digefting
the indigo, with a gentle heat, in the folution of the alkaline
fait, a fhining copper-coloured fkin begins to appear, and
gradually covers the whole furface : on agitating the matter,
a large blue flower or froth arifes, and the liquor underneath
appears of a deep green. If woollen cloth, without any
other preparation than moiftening it with warm water, be
dipped in this hot liquor, it comes out perfettly green, and
changes almoft inftantly in the air to a fine blue. This is
the common procefs of dyeinir blue.

Mr. Heilot defcribes two indigo vats with urine ; one of
which is ufed hot, like the foregoing, and the other cold.
The hot vat confiils of equal parts of indigo, alum, and
tartar, digeiled in urine till the liquor becomes green. The
cold one is prepared, by digeiling powdered indigo with
vinegar for twenty-four hours, in the proportion of four
pounds to about three quarts ; then mixing the matter with
about fifty gallons of urine, and llirring the whole together
every night and morning, till the liquor turns green, and
gathers a head like the common vat.

Indigo is fitted for printing on linen, by diluting it with
■water into the confiftencc of a fyrup ; then adding fome
powdered pearl-afhes, green vitriol, and lime newly flaked ;
with fo much water, orcafionally, as will reduce them into
the confiflence of thin paint ; mixing the whole thoroughly
together, and ftirring the matter every now and then, till it

fains a copper colour on the furface. The proportions ufed
y the workmen are, two parts of indigo, one of pearl-
afhes, three of vitriol, and two of lime. The fame compo-

I N D

fition, diluted vnth ?. fufRcient quantity of water (about fix
gallons to a pound of indigo), and boiled, gives a durable
blue to tanned fl<ins, whether dipped in hot or cold.

Indigo digefted in a moderate heat with different volatile
alkaline fpirits, gave only yellowifli and brownifh red tinc-
tures ; with rectified fpirit of wine, a rcddidi one ; to lime-
water, and to water acidulated with the vitriohc, nitrous,
and marine acids, it gave no tinfture at all.

The concentrated vitriolic acid unites with it into a fmooth
pafte, efpecially if the indigo is previoufly well ground with
powdered glafs, fand, or other like fubftances. The indigo
is thus rendered foluble in boiling water along with the acid,
fo as to pafs through the pores of a filter ; the folution,
whilll liot, appears of a deep bright green colour, like that
made by fixed alkalies, but fades as it grows cold, and
changes at lall to a brownifh. Thefe experiments, which
were many times repeated with the fame event, feem to over-
turn Mr. Hellot's ingenious theory, which deduces the
green colour of folutions of indigo from the common pro-
perty of blue juices being turned green by alkalies ; and the
blue colour which the cloth acquires foon after it is taken
out of the vat, from a feparation of the alkali. We here
find, that a green folution of this concrete is obtainable by
the ftrongefl of the acids, and that with volatile alkalies it
difcovers no tendency to greennefs.

For the method of preparing Saxon Hue and Saxon
green from indigo, fee thofe articles.

Indigo is fometimes ufed among the painters for paper-
hangings, and fuch grofs ufes, who grind and mix it with
white to make a blue colour ; for without that mixture it
would paint blackifli.

They alfo mix it with yellow to make a green colour. It
is alfo ufed in dyeing, and by the laundrefTes, to give a blueidi
call to their linen.

In the Hortus Indus Mahbaricus is an account of the
plant whence indigo is drawn ; the decoftion of Vvhofe root
is faid to be excellent againft nephritic colics ; its leaves, ap-
plied to the abdomen, good to promote urine ; and the in-
digo itfelf is faid to be of good ufe in drying of tumours.

Some phyficians have recommended indigo in the quantity
of a drachm, while others look upon it as a poifon ; and in
Saxony the internal ufe of it is prohibited.
Indigo, Bqjlanl. See Amorpiia.

Indigo Mills. For the purpofe of effecting the folution
and union of indigo with the liquid ufed along witli it, for
the purpofes of dyeing, mills of various conflruftions are in
ufe. In this procefs trituration or friction is as much as
poffible avoided, and the pulverization is effefted merely by
bruifing. For this two very fufficient reafons may be af-
figned ; the firft, in point of economy, and the fecond, to
avoid chemical inconveniency. On whatever fubllance the
indigo was triturated or rubbed, a certain proportion of the
fluff would be mixed or incorporated along with the pulve-
rized indigo, and that proportion of indigo which was ab-
forbed by this ftuff would be either totally loll, or brought
into union with another fubllance which might prove ufelefs,
and probably injurious in the fubfequcnt procefs of dyeing.
If the former only was the cafe, the abforbed indigo would
be totally loll ; if the fecond took place, the whole procefs
might be utterly fpoiled by the combination. In the appropri-
ate plate, _/f^. I. reprefents the ground or horizontal plan of
fuch an indigo mill as is generally ufed in fmall dye-works,
and which is occafionally turned by a man's or boy's hand.
This is tedious and laborious, for the operation mull be
continued for a very long time before the indigo is fuf-
ficicntly mixed with the liquid to be fit for ufe, and only a

fmaU

I N D

fman qnantlty can be put into the vefTel at once. Fig. s.
is an elevated feCtion of the fame mill.

In tins machine the pulverization or granulation of the
indigo is cfFeftcd by the preffure of a nuiibcr of fmoctli
catt-iron balls, like thofe ufed for the (hot of great guns,
which, bein^ rolled among the indigo, prefs it into a pafte
by their weight, Kntil it unites with the liquid by which it
is \o he held in folution.

InjSg. I, A rcprefents the bottom and rim of the vefP-1
which contains the indigo, and which is of a cylindrical
form. B is an upright fpindle, which, in this figure, docs
not appear. Upon the fpindle B is fixed a wheel C C, with
a convenient number of arms projecting round the vefTel, like
the radii of a circle ; and below each of thefe arms are pro-
je£ling pieces of iron, like the pins or teeth of a harrow,
for moving the balls. When this wheel C is moved round
its axis, the whole balls in the velTel A are fet in motion,
and, by rolling over the indigo, gradually prefs it, until it
unites with the water or liquid with which it is furrounded.
If the bottom of the cylinder be flat, a very fmall part of
the furface of each ball can acl upon the indigo ; but by
calling circular hollow grooves, as reprefented in Ji^. 2,
nearly the fenii-diameter of the ball will prefs upon the
iluff. The mill is moved by a handle I),Jg. 2, which fets
in motion the fmall bevel wheel E, and this wheel afting upon
the horizontal wheel F, fixed upon the fpindle B, fets it alfo
in motion, and confequently the wheel C C is moved round
its axis, a:id all the balls roll round upon the indigo. G is a
crofs .liaft upon the top of the fpindle B, loaded at each
end with a heavy ball. There is generally another fhaft
placed at right angles to this, when they aflill in regulating
and equalizing the motion in the fame manner as any other
fly wheel. When the indigo is found to be fufficiently dif-
folved, and united with the water, the liquid thus formed is
drawn off into any other veffei for ufe by means of a vent
and fpiggot placed in any convenient part of the bottom of
the velTel.

Tlie great labour and time which it requires, and the
fmall quantity of ftuff which can be prepared at once by a
machine of this kind, renders it ill adapted for the ufe of
large works where much indigo is confumed, and where
they have generally a horfe-power water-wheel, or fteam-
cngine, for raifing water, cutting madder, and other pur-
pofes neceffary in extenfive works. Fig. 3. reprefents an
elerated crofs feclion of one of thefe machines, driven by
any moving power, and capable of preparing a very great
quantity of indigo at all times, as it requires no attendance,
excepting to empty the veflel when the indigo is wanted,
and add a frefli fupply. H is a femi-circular veflel of cait-
iron, placed upon a ilrong wooden frame O, and of any con-
venient length. I is a cover made in two pieces, with a cir-
cular aperture to admit the upright ftiaft K working upon
the centre, or pivot P. At Q, the upright P is jointed to a
horizontal fliaft uf wood M, the other end of which is con-
nected by the joint R, with a crank fixed on the end of a
horizontal fliaft N driven by the moving power. The cir-
cular motion of the fliaft and crank N communicates an
alternate, or reciprocating motion, by means of the horizontal
connecting fliaft M, to the upper end of the upright fliaft
K, which vibrating upon the centre joint P. fets in motion
the iron cylinders L, I>, in the body of the veflel, which
prefs upon the indigo, and produce tlie fame eflcft, but to
a much greater extent, as the balls in the machine firll
dtfcribed. The cylinders L, L, may be made of any dia-
meter or length which is found convenient. The greater
mafs of iron that they contain, the quicker and more effec-
tual will be tlicir operalion upon Uic llufF, provided there is

IN B

a fiifficient power to drive them. The frame under the
joint r extends the whole length of the femi-circular veflel H,
which may be any length, according to the e.x tent of the power
and quantity of work required. As thii machine requires
no attention whatever, it is found very ufeful in large dye
works, as, by means of it, they can conltantly command
a large fupply of prepared indigo, \^'hich may be drawn off
when wanted, for the longer it is under the preparing procefs,
the better in every refpecl, and frcfli indigo may be added
as the fupplv gets low.

INDIGOFERA, in Bolany, yields the blue dye called
Indigo or Ir.dicum, fo eminently ufefiil in dyeing various
manufactures of a blue colour. This fubftance obtained the
name of indigo from its native country, India. — Linn. Gen.
^^3. Schreb. 506. Willd. Sp. Pi', v. 3. 1220. Mart,
Mill. Diet. V. 2. Ait. Hort. Kcw. V. 3. 6;. Jufl". 359.
Lamarck Diet. V. 3. 244. Illuftr. t. 626. Gxrtn. t. 148.
Clafs and order, Dlade'iphia Decandria. Nat. Ord. PupiHo-
naceie, Linn. Legum'mofx, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, fpreading, almoft
flat, five-toothed. Cor. papilionaceous ; itandard rounded,
reflexed, emarginate, fpreading ; wings oblong, obtufe,
fpreading at the lower margin, of the ftiape of the ilandard ;
keel obtufe, fpreading, deflexed, marked on each fide by an
hollow awl-fliaped point. Stam. Filaments in two bundles,
difpofed into a cylinder, afccnding at their tips ; anthers
fomewhat roundifli. Fiji. Genr.en cyhndrical ; flyle fliort,
afcending ; fligma obtufe. Fenc. Pod roundifli, long.
Seeds numerous, kidney-fliapcd.

Efl". Ch. Caly.K fpreading. Keel of the corolla having
an awl-fhaped fpur on each fide ! Pod linear.

Obf. Till within the lafl; century it was but imperfeftly
made out what plants produced the dye known to the
Romans by the name of Ind'icum. Mr. Miller, however,
cultivated the Iitd'igofera fo early as 1731 ; but he was ac-
quainted with only five fpecies of it ; w liich fame number
Linnreus imperfeftly defcribed. Profeffbr Martyn enume-
rates thirty-five fpecies, and Wiildenow fifty-one ; but fince
this genus is particularly known and eileemed for its uti-
lity in the arts, and that mod of its fpecies yield the blue
dye, as well as many other plants of the Aime natural
family, we fliall merely give a general outline of the genus,
without entering into a long fyllematic arrangement of the
fpecies.

The genus /niAVo/J'riiiscompofedof flirubs and herbs, whofe
leaves are, in certain cafes, iimple, more generally ternate,
but moil frequently unequally pinnate. The leaflets in fome
fpecies are jointed and awned at the bafc. Stipulas diflinft
from the leaf-llalk. Peduncles axillary, generally many-
flowered, in fpikes or bunches. Many ipecies are natives of
the Cape of Good Hope ; for initaiice, I. fiUfoUa, fericta,
drprejfa, ovata, pforaloides, caitdicnns, amtctui, iiicana,procumbejis,
fiirmentofa, d^tiudala, frecia, coriacea, JUiform'u, tligiUita, Jrut

Iefiens,jlrl3a, unguj/ifolia, and capillitris The rell are either

from the Eall or Well Indies, Arabia Felix, New Holland,
and the coall of Guinea.

It is faid that Pliny was aware that IiiJicum was a prepa-
ratiim from p. vegetable fubftance, though he was ill-informed
both coiKcrning the plant itfelf, and the procefs by which
it is made fit for ufe. The l<)llowing is a curious anecdote
to flifw that at the clofe of tlie i6th century it was unknown
in England what plant produced Indigo, for in a hook en-
titled '• Remembrances for Mafler S. by Richard Hakluyt,"
written in 1582, Mailer S. is initruded "to know if Anile
that cslouivth blew, be a natural commodity of Turkey, and
if it be compounded of an herbe — to fend the feed or root
with the order of fowing, &c.— that it may become a natural

commodity.

I N D

commodity in the Uralm, as woad is {Ifatls iinfforia), that
the high price of foreign woad may be brouglit down."

I. tlncloria. Dyer's IndiTo, is a native of the Eaft and Weft
Indies, Madagafcar, Ceylon, /ava, S:c. Its Hem is fuffru-
ticofe. Leaves pinnate, ovate. Bunches of (lowers fliort.
• — Loureiro fays it is cultivated all over the vaft empires of
China and Cochin-china. It is figured under the name of
Ameri in the Hortus Malaharicus, v. i. loi. t. 54.

ISDIGOFERA. See SOPIIORA.

INDIKKOOD, in Geography, a town of Grand Bucha-
ria ; 60 miles W. of Balk. N. lat. 36 38'. E. long. 64°
10'.

INDION, a town of Pe^fia, in the province of Chorafan,
neai; the Masjan ; 210 miles N.N.E. of Herat.

INDIRECT Modes of Sylhg}f„!s, in Logic, are the
five lad modes, or moods, of tlie tirlt figure, expreiTed by the
barbarous words harallpton, celantes, dalttis, fefpame,frefijhm.

It is the coiiverfion of the concliifion which renders the
moods indirect : for inllance, a fyllogifm in darii, and an-
other in dabitis, would be perfedily alike, were it not for
that converlion ; the propofitions having the fame quantity,
and the fame quahty, and the middle term being the fubjcft
in the major, and the attribute ia the minor, in both. It re-
mains, then, that, to make a dillinftion, that which is the
fubjeft of the conclafion in darii, be the attribute in the con-
clulion of dabitis ; and that which is the attribute in the firft,
the fubjeft in the laft. See Syllogism.

DA- Every thing that promotes falvation is advantageous :

RI- There are afflictions which promote falvation :

I. Therefore there are afflictions which are advanta-

geoi's.
DA- Every thing that promotes falvation is advantageous :
lil- There are afflictions which promote falvation ;
TIS. Therefore fome things promoting falvation are af-

Indiuect Conf.rmjl'ion. See Confirmatiox.

INDISCERNIBLES. in the Phllofophy of Lahmlz.
Sie Leibnitzi AN- Phllofophy.

INDIVIDUAL, Individuum, in Logic, a particular be-
ing of any fpecies ; or that which cannot be divided into two
or more beings, equal or alike.

The ufual divifion in logic is made into genera or genufcs,
thofe genera into fpecies, and thofe fpecies into individuals.
See Genus, Specie.s, and Division.

The fchoolmen make a four-fold diftinftion of individuals ;
viz. ■

IxniviDUUM Vagum, that which, though ij; fignifies but
one thing, yet may be any of that kind ; as when we fay a
man, a certain perfon, or one faid fo and lo ; tliough but one
perfon is meant, yet that perfon, for aught that appears to
the contrary, may be any body.

IxDiVlDrUM Determjnatum is, when the thing is named
and determined ; as Alexander, the river Nile, &c. this is
alfo called indfcidmimfgnatum-

I>;DIviDLU>f Demonjhativum is, when fome demonftrative
pronoun is ufed in the exprrffi ;. ; as, //•/'/ man, that ivomau.

IXDlVIDUUM ex Hypolheft, or by fuppofition, when an
univerf .: name or term is rellrained, by the fuppofition, to a
particular thing : as when we fay, the fon of fuch a one, and
it be known that he had but one fon.

INDIVI.SIBLES, in G.omHry, thofe indefinitely fmall
elements, or principles, into which any body or figure may be
ultima:- !y refolvd,

A line is faid to confift of points, a furface of parallel
linff?, and a folid of parallel and fimilar ftirfaces ; and becaufe
each of thofe elements is fuppofed iiidivifible, if in any f.gure

Vol. XIX.

I N D

a line be drawn through the elements perpendicularly, the
number of points in that line will be the fume as the number
of tlie elements.

\\hence it appears, tiiat a parallelogram, prifm, or cy-
linder, IS refolvable into elements, as indivifible, all equal to
each other, parallel, and like to the bafe ; and a triangle into
lines parallel to the bafe, but decrealing in arithmetical pro-
portion ; fo alfo are the circles which conllitute tiie para,
bolic conoid, and thofe which conftitute the plane of a circle,
or the furface of an ifofceles cone.

A cylinder may be refolved into cylindrical curve furfaces,
having all the fame heigiit, and continually decreafing in-
wards, as the circles of the bafe do, on which they infill.
This way of confidering magnitudes, is called the method of
indivifibles, which is only the ancient method of exhauftions,
a little difguifed and contratted.

It is found of good ufe in ftjortcning mathematical de-
m:inftrations ; of which we may give an inllance in that fa-
mous propoiltion of Archimedes, that a fpliere is two-thirds
of a cyhnder circumfcribing it.

Suppole a cylinder, an hemifphere, and an inverted cone
(P//;/.'VIII. Geometry, fig. 102 ' to have the fame bafe and
altitude, and to be cut by infinite planes all parallel to the
bafe, of which d g is one ; it is plain, the fquare oi d h will
every where be equal to the fquare of i r (the radius of the
fpliere) the fquare h e = e h fquare ; and, confequently,
fince the circles are to one anotht-r as the; fquai-es of the radii,
all the circles of the hemifphere will be equal to all thofe
of the cylinder, deducting thence all thofe of the cone ;
wherefore the cyhnder, deducting the cone, is equal to the
hemifphere ; but it is known, that the cone is one-third of
the cyhnder, and confequently the fphere mutt be two-thirds
of it.

Cavalleri was the firll perfon who introdviced this method
of indivifibles into one of his works, entitled " Geometria
Indivifibilium," printed in 163 J ; which he alfo made ufe of
in another trad publilhed in 1647.

INDIVISO — Pro Indivi.so. See Pro.

INDIVISUM FoLitJM. See Leaf.

INDO-SCYTHIA, in ylncient Geography, a diftria of
India, that lay on the wefteni {\ie of the river Indus, ex-
tending as far as the river Coa';, or Cow river, and at pre-
fcnt inhabited in part by thofe who are probably defcend-
ants of the Scythian Nomades, and called Nomurdy.

INDOCTORUM Parliamentu.m. See Pakliamen-

TUM.

INDORE, in Geography, a to«Ti of Hindooftan, in the
Malwa country, and refidence of a Mahratta chief ; 290
miles S.S.W. of Agra. N. lat. 22 56'. E. long. -6 1 1'.

INDORSEMENT, any thing written on the back of a
deed or inllrument. See Endorsing.

A condition written en tiie back of an obligation is
commonly called an indorfement : fiom in, and dor/iim,
back. ■'

Indorsement of a Bill of Exchange. See Endorse-
ment.

INDOS, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Ben-
gal; 16 miles E.N.E. of BiiTunpour. N. lat. 23- 10'.
£. long. 87 53'.

INDOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Tellingana ; 15
miles NAV. of Indelavoy.

INDRA, in Mythology, is deemed, among the Pagan
Eail Indians, the firll ol tlie demi-gods ; and fecms gene-
rally to rank in importance next to the three chief deities
that form the Hindoo Trimurti. (Sec Trimurti.) The
liillory of this firll of their Jii minoret might be extended
througli fevcral volumes ; and, indeed, inchiding the fables
K (.oinicctcd

i N D

connected with the motley hiftory of this perfonage, many
volumes thereon are extant among the Hindoos. He is
faid, in their thengony, to be the offspring of Kafyapa and
Aditi (fee Kasyapa), and has the whck- lirmument under
his regency. In Biany particulars he correfponds with the
.l<<ves or Jupiters, for there were a great many among the
Greeks and Romans ; more efpccially, perhaps, with Jupiter
Pluviiis, for Indra is the god of fliowers. The Hindoos
fancy the vifible heavens to be under the guidance of eight
genii, colleftively called Maruts, or the Winds. (See Ma-
Rt'T.) Of thefe, Indra is the principal, and he rules the
caftern quarter. He may be deemed a perfonilication of the
firmament, ruling all atmofpheric or meteoric phenomena.
As god of thunder he is named 'Vajra Pani, or Lightning
Sender ; his difk-fhaped weapon, -uajm, reprefents light-
ning. He refides in the celeilial city Umravati ; his palace,
Vaijayanta, is fituated in the garden Nandana, which con-
tains alfo the all-yielding trees Pariyataka, Kalpadruma, and
three others fimilarly bountiful. He pofleflTes alfo the all-
prolific cow Kamdenu, otherwife called Surabhi ; and hence
©nfe of Indra's names means the brd of meahk. He has a
confort named TnJiani : he rides the elephant Iravat, with
three probofci, which are faid to reprefent water-fpouts, as
the bow with which he is armed is the iris. Seated on mount
Meru, or tlie north pole, attended by mate and female
dancers (Siu'ara and Upsara), he regales the gods with
neftar and lieavenly mufic. He is painted with four arms,
and fpangled with eyes ; hence one of his names is the l]:ou-
fand-ryed god. Another of his names is Purendera, or the
Jejfrcyer of to-am ; he having, in revenge for fuppofed ne-
glefts, overwhelmed feveral cities ; particularly Ujaini, or
Oojein, the capital of Malwa.

Indka Malwa, the hereditary pofleffion of the family of
Sindia. The city has now lain fubmerged about 1900 years.
(See OoJKI^•.^ Indra is alfo named Sliatkratu, meaning he
to whom is made a hundred facnfices, for this " king of the
immortals,''' another of his names, is very extentively pro.
pitiated in the numerous ceremonies of luftration and facri-
fice that Brahmans, devoted to the fervice of the altar, are
daily called upon to obferve. Jealous, however, of the
efferings made to other deities, he is reprefented as fre-
quently interrupting, both by perfonal interpofition and evil
counfel, the facrifice prepared or intended for other deities :
in this chara£ler of an evil counfellor he is ufually called
Sakra, and although called and reprefented as tboufand-eyal,
he is fometimes painted with but one eye ; the caufe of
•which, with many other fables connefted wi:h the character
and hiilory of this important deity, is related in Moor's
Hindoo Pantheon, whence moll of the particulars of this
article are taken.

Like moft of the other Hindoo deities, Indra is repre-
fented as immoral and depraved, even to a proverbial degree ;
but we muft refer to the work juil mentioned for infkances
of his profligacy, exceflively extravagant if received literally,
but which, doubtlefs, arc allegorical concealments of fome
aftronomical or phyfieal fads ; for major Moor proves Indra
to be a Itar or a conftellation of the northern hemifphere,
2nd that the wars which he fuftains againft giants, in which
he is alternately conqueror and conqutred, refer to fome
cycle or periodical revolution of the heavenly bodies. Me-
tallic images of Indra are rarely feen : he is fculptured in
Elephanta and other excavations in India, mounted on Iravat,
and is often met with in paintings. Several engravings of
him are given in the Hindoo Pantheon. Under the words
feverally referred to above, and the foreign names of perfons
and places that occur, farther particulars of the fubjedls of
this article will be fgund ; for Indra is fo important a deity,

I N D

that his hiftory, like liis worfiiip, mixes it fclf with that e 1
moil of his divine affociates in the monftrous fyftem of Hin-
doo idolatry.

INDRANI, is the name of the Sakti or confort (fee
Sakii) of Indra, the regent of the firmament among the
Hindoos. (See Indra.) Her name is fometimes pro-
nounced Aindrani. She is otherwife called Pulomaya, or
Powlamya, and Saki, and is reprefented in the Hindoo
Puranas, or mythological and theogonical romances, as a
faithful and virtuous charafter, which is not always the caie
with their female divinities : (he is alfo very handfonie, and ha-
refilled many temptations. She is called one of the fcven di-
vine mothers of the celellials. (See Matri.) In the fixth
volume of the Afiatic Refearches, is a very curious and interell-
ing account by fir Charles Malet, of the magnificent exca-
vations at EUora, accompanied by plates ; one of them re-
prefeiitiiig Indrani, of lovely form, feated on a lion, with u
cliild ill her lap, and a fivull and crofs bones in her girdle :
niaiiir Moor, however (Hindoo Pantheon, p. 271.), doubts
if this elegant figure be really of Indrani, of whian lie fays
he never faw any fculptured reprefentation. See El.ORA ;
to our account of which may be added, that Mr. Daniel has
engraved and publiilied, from materials in the coUeftion of
fir Charles Malet, a fei'ies of views, both minute and per-
fpeftive, of the interior and exterior of thefe wonderful
excavations, that is altogether unrivalled by any work in
Europe, as well for the accuracy of oriental fcenery and
collume, as for its general elegance and fplendour.

INDRAPOUR, in Geography, a town on the W. coaft
of the iflandof Sumatra, and capital of a country, wliich
has feveral other towns, where the Dutch have a factory for
the piirchafe of pepper, ico miles N. W. of Bencoolen.
S. lat 2\ E. long. ICO 40'. This was once the feat of
a monafchy of fome confidcration and extent. Its anti-
quity appears from an hillorical account given by the fultan
of Bantam to Corneille le Brun, in which it is mentioned,
that tlie fon of the Arabian prince, who firil converted the
Javans to Mahometanifm, about the year 1400, having got
himfelf declared fovcreign of Bantam, married the daughter
of the raja of Indrapour, and had, as her portion, the ter
ritory of the Silhbares, a people of Banca-houlou. This
was probably the firll difmemberment which the Javan mo-
narchs long availed themfelves of; and fince, the kingdom
of Indrapour has dwindled into obfcurity. From its ruins
has fprung that of Anacfoongey ; extending on the fea-
coaft from Mandoota river to that of Oori ; the prefent
capital of which, if fuch towns deferve the appellation, is
Moco Moco. Marfden's Sumatra, p. 2S4.

Indrapour Point, a cape on the W. coafl of Sumatra.
S. lat. 2 10'. E. long. 100 ^^4'.

INDRAT, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabadj 2j
miles N.W. of Beder.

INDRE, a river of France, which rifes about four
miles N. N. W. from Boudac, in the department of the
Creufe ; and joins the Loire at Rigny, between Saumur and
Tours.

iNUiin:, one of the departments of the central region
of France, formerly Lower Berri, in N. lat. 46' 45 , fo
called from the river which traverfes it from S.E. to
N. W. ; bounded on the N. by the department of the
Loir and Cher, on the E. by that of the Cher, on the S.
by the departments of the Creufe and Upper Vienne, and
on the W. by thofe of the Vienne and Indre and Loire,
about 54 miles from N. to S., and j from E. to W. Its
capital is Chateauroux. It contains 362 fquare leagues,
and 207,91 1 inhabitants; it is divided into four diftricts,
T.'s. IlTouduu, tontaiiiing 39.341 inhabitants ; Chateauroux,

I N D

7,-,5S?; LaChatre, 45,171 ; and Le Blanc, 47,Si I. Its
cantons are 23, and communes 275. Its contributions
amount to i,6j 2,606 francs ; and its expenccs to 219,^94
fr. 59 cents. The wedern dillrid of this department
abounds in rocks, pools, and woods ; but the other tracts,
nnd ill particular that on the right hand of the Indre, con-
if cultivated fields, vineyards, Sec. yielding grain, wine,
Laftures j it has mines of iron, marble quarries, and mi-
, ;.I fprings, &c.

isDKE an^ Loire, one of the nine departments of the
weftern region of France, formerly Tourraine, in N. lat.
■47- 10', fo called from the union of the two rivers : bounded
•on the N. by the department of the Sarte, on the E. by
the departments of the Loire and Cher ard the Indre, on
the S. and S.W. by the department of the Vicnne, and on
the W. and N W. by the department of the Mayne and
Loire ; about 50 miles from N. to S., and 45 from E. to W.
Its capital is Tours. It contains 325 fquare leagues,
and 278,73;S inhabitants. It is divided into three diftritts,
tj'i. Tours, including 1 28, 6j^ inhabitants; Loches, 57,094;
and Chinon, 93,029. Its cantons are 24, and communes
jii. Its annual contributions amount to 2, S6S, 779 francs,
and its expences to 246,653 francs. This department, 0:1
account of its fertihty, has been llyled the garden of France.
The vallies and eminences near the borders of the large
rivetj are fertile, but at fome diftance are heaths and un-
cultivated tracts. The diflridl lying between the Loire
and the Cher is of a light and fandy, but produftivc foil.
The peninfula formed by the Indre, the Loire, and the Vi-
cnne, is noted for its fertility. A traft, called Brenne, is
moill, but tolerably fruitful. The principal products are
rye, barley, millet, wine, fruits, and pallures. It has mines
of iron, and mineral fprings.

INDU, a name of the moon among Hindoo mytho-
logills. This luminary is more commonly called Chandra,
or Soma. (See SoM.\.) It has been furmifed that the
name India and Hindoo, words unknown in the ancient lan-
guage of the country, may have been derived from Indu ;
but fir William Jones and iSIr. Wilkins difcountenance fucli
an etymology. See Moor's Hindoo Infanticide, p. 171.

INDUCEMENT, in La'-u; is what is alleged as a mo-
tive or incitement to a thing ; and it is ufed fpecially in
feveral cafes : -Jz. there is inducement to aftions, to a
traverfe in pleading, a faft or offence committed, &c. In-
ducements to ailions need not have fo much certainty as in
other cafes : a general indebitalus is not fufficient, where it is
the ground of the aftion ; but where it is only the induce-
ment to the adtion, as in confideration of forbearing a debt
until fuch a day; (for that the parties are agreed upon the
tlebt) this being but a collateral promife, is good without
fliewing how due.

INDUCIARUM Petitio. See Petitio, and Empar-

L.W-tK.

INDUCTION, in Logic and Rhetoric, a confequence
drawn from feveral pro^ofitions, or principles, firlt laid
down.

Thus the conclufion of a fyl!ogifm, is an induftion made
from the prcmifes. See Syli-ogism.

IxDUCTioN is alfo ufed for a kind of fyllogifm itfelf ;
being a medium between an enthymeme and a gradation, in
regard it wants a propofition (which, however, is under-
ftood,) as in the enthymeme ; and abounds in affumptions
(which yet are collateral, or of the fame degree), which is
the cale in. a gradation.

For inilancc ; every terreftrial animal lives, every aerial
animal lives, every aquatic animal lives, and every reptile
animal alio lives ; therefore every animal lives.

I N D

Here, it may be obferved, arc various alTumptions, fro.-n
the more general fpccies of the animal kind collefted into
one ; which this propofition is fuppofed to precede ; e. gr.
that every animal is cither terrcllrial, aerial, aquatic, or
reptile.

Suidas reckons three kinds of induftion : that juft men-
tioned, which concludes or infers fome general propofition
from an enumeration of all the particulars of a kind, he calls
the diiilcclic induction.

The fccond proceeds by interrogation, and concludes
probably, or with a verifimihtnde ; this is what the Greeks
called ■:^r(xyj;-o, and was that which Socrates ordinarilv
niade ufe of, as Cicero, in his Topics, and Quint ilian havc
obferved: and, therefore, called the Socratic induftion.
This, however, is a captious way of reafoning : for while
tlie refpondent is not aware of what is defigned to be in-
ferred, he is eafily induced to make thofe conceffions, which
othcrwife he would not. Befides, it is not fo well fuited t-*
continued as to interlocutory difcourfes.

The third kind oi indudtion is properly rhetorical ; beinj
a conclufion drawn from fome example, or authority.

Tliis is a very impcrfeiSl induftion, all its force lying in a
propofition wliicii is concealed, and which will hardly bear
being exprefled. Tiuis, he that fays, Codrus died bravely
for his country, therefore I mull die bravely for niv
country ; proves nothing, unlefs this propofition be carried
in mind, that I muit do the fame with Codru.'. Again,
Archimedes, and the other mathematicians, fay, the fun is
much bigger than the earth ; therefore, it mull be owned,
the fun is much bigger than the earth. Where this pro-
pofition is underftood, luz. whatever Archimedes, and the
other mathematicians, fay, is true.

Induction is one of the four forms of reafoning ufed by-
orators in confirmation ; the other three are fyllogifm, en-
thymeme, and example, which lad coincides with the third
fpecies of induction above enumerated.

_ Induction-, in the Englijh Laws, is ufually taken for the
giving poiTeflion to an incumbent of Iiis church, by lead-
ing him into it, and delivering to him the keys, by the com-
miflary, or bidiop's deputy, and by his ringing op.e of the
bells.

When a clerk is inflituted into a benefice, he is to ex-
hibit his mandate from the bifliop to the archdeacon, or
other perfon to whom it is directed, and hath a right tliercby
to be indufted into his living ; and if he be refufed induc-
tion, he hath a remedy both in the eccleliallical court,
and alfo an a£lion of the cafe in common law, againft the
archdeacon. If the inductor, or perfon to be inducted,
be kept out of the church, or houfe, by laymen, the writ
de 111 lalca lies for the clerk, wliich is directed sut of the
chancery to the flieriff of the county, to remove the force,
&c. if another clergyman, prefented by the fame patron,
keep pofleflion, a fpoliation is grantable out of the fpiritual
court, whereby the tithes, &c. fliall be fequeftcred, till the
right be determined. ■

The archdeacon rarely indu£ts a clerk in perfon, but
ufually ifTues out a warrant to the clerks and lettered perfons
w-ithin the archdeaconry, impowering any of them to do it
in his (lead.

An induction made by the patron of the church is void ;
but bifiiops and archdeacons may induft a clerk to the bene-
fices of which they are patrons, by prcfcription. No induc-
tion is neceflary to a donative, where the patron, by donation
in writing, puts the clerk in pufTcnion wiiiiout prefentation.
II Hen. IV. cap. 7.

The ufual form and manner of induftion i?, for the ifi-

ductoj- to take the clerk by the hand, and then to lay it

\\ 2 ' ot

1 N D

on the key of the chinch, which muft be then in the door,
and t > fay, " By viiiiie of this inftniir.ent, I induft you
in tlie real, actual, and corporal pofTcfSon of the rectory
or vicarage of - , with all its fruits, profils, members,
and appurtenances." — This done, he opens ihe door, and
puts the clerk in potfeffion of the churc';, and fliuts the
door upon him; who, after he hath tolled a bell (if there
be any) to give the parifliionevs due notice and fiifScient
certainty of their new miniftcr, comes out, and delires the
iuduftor to indorfe a certificate of his induclion on the arch-
deacon's warrant, and that all prefent will lignify it under
their hands. If the church-key cannot be had, it is fuf-
ficient that the clerk lays hold of the ring of the door,
the latch of the church, gate, &c. and, witliin two months
after this, the clerk mult read the thirty-nine articles,
and a'l the (ervice of the day, both at morning and evening
prayers, in the pariih church of his benefice, and in the time
of common prayer, and declare his aflent and confent ; he
mull alfo then read the ordinary's certificate, in which is
the declaration of his conformicy, together with the fame
declaration, and of all this he mull have two or three
good witnefies, who muil lign that they heard hini do it,
and be ready to attell it, I'iva -voc^, if required ; and,
within fix months after induction, he mud alfo take the
paths of allegiance, fupremacy, and abjuration, at the quar-
tcr-feflions, or in fome one of the courts at Weilminller-
hal'.

Induftion makes the parfon complete incumbent, and fixes
the freehold in him. When a clerk is thus prefented, iulli-
tuted, and inducted into a rectory, he is then, and not before,
called in law, pirjXna imptrfotmla, or parfon iniparfonee.
ij Ehz. c. 12. 13 and 14 C. 11. t. 4. i Geo. Hat. 2. c. 13.
o Geo. II. c 26. 23 Gee-. II. c. 2S.

INDULGENCE, in the Romj/L Theology, the remiflion
of a puniihment due to a fin, granted by the church, and
fuppofed to fave the finner from purgatory.

The Romaniils found their indulgences on the infinite trea-
fure of the merits of Jefus Chrill, the Holy Virgin, and all
the faints ; which they fuppofe the church has a right of
diftributing by virtue of the communion of faints. See

SuPEREnOt;.\TION.

Thefe indulgences were firft invented in tlie eleventh cen-
tury by popes Gregory VII. Victor, and Urban II. as a
recompence for thofe who went in perfon upon the wild en-
tcrprize of conquering the Holy Land. See CliOlS-iDE

They were afterwards granted to thofe who hired a fol-
dier for that purpoie, and in procefs of time were bellowed
on fuch as gave money for accomp'ilhing any pious works en-
joined by the pope. In the beginning of the twclfih cen-
turv, the biiliops, whenever they wanted a fupply of money
for their private pleafures, or the exigencies of the church,
recurred to the fcandnious traffic of indulgences; and when
the Ron:<:in pontiffs fa.v that imraenfe treafures were thus ac-
cumidated by the inferior rulers of the church, they thought
proper to limit the powers of the birtiops in remitting the
penalties impofed upon traufgreflbrs, and «{fumed it, almoll
entirelv, as a proh.able traffic to theinfeUes. They began
with granting a plenary remiflion of all th.- temporal paint and
penalli-S whicli the church hath annexed to certain tranf-
greflioMS ; and then proceeded to abohfli even thepuniihments
which are referved in a future ftaie for the workei-s of
iniquity.

The Roman jubilee, firft inflituted by Bonifnce VIII.
A.D. r300, carries «ith it a plenary, or full iudidgencc, for
all the crimes committed therein.

The pope alio grants bulls of plenary indulgence to feveral
chuichcs, cionalleries, aiid even to private perfons ; and it is

1 N D

a frequent thing to have general indulgences for the time of
the principal feallsof a year. Their cafuifts fay that aple-
nary indulgence does not always prove effectual, for want of
complying with the conditions whereon it was granted.

For the extirpation of heretics, it has been a common
pradtice with the popeb to grant indulgences. Thus Cle-
ment XII. " That we may Itir up and encourage the faith-
ful to extirpate this ungracious crew of forlorn wretches,
(the Cevcnois, when in armdagainll Lewis XIV.) we fully
gi-ant and indulge the full lemifiiou of all fins, whatever they
may be (relying upon that power of binding and loofing,
which our Lord conferred upon his chief apoftle), to all thofe
that fnall lift themfelves in this facred mditia, if they (hall
happen to fall in battle." See Ar.soLUTiox.

Julius II. had bellowed indulgences on all who contri-
buted towards building the church of St. Peter at Rome,
and pope Leo X. in order to carry on this magnificent
llrutiure, pubhfhed indulgences, and a plenary remifhon on
the fame pretences. Finding t he project take, he granted
the riglit of promulgating thefe indulgences in Germany,
together with a (hare in the profits arifing from the fale of
them, to Albert, elector of Mtntz, and archbifliop of Mag-
deburg, who emg^Ioyed Telzcl, a Dominican friar, as his
chief agent for retailing them ; and he farmed out thofe of
other countries to the higheft bidders, who, to make the
befl of their bargains, procured the ableil of their preachers
to extol the value of the ware : " Happy times for finners,"
fays a modern writer, " their crimes were rated, and the re-
milTion of them fet up byauftion. The apoftolic chamber
taxed fins at a pretty reafonable rate ; it coll but ninety
livres and a few ducats, for crimes which people on this fide
the Alps puiiiflicd with death."

Thefe are fpecified in a book of rates called the Tax-Boek
of the Holy Apoftohc Chancery, firft printed at Rome in
the year 1514. and afcribcd by feme to pope Innocent VIII.
From a correct edition of this book, printed by L. Banck,
profefTor at Norkopin, in Gothland, in 1 651, it appears
that the price of abfolution for fornication, attended with
the moft heinous circumftances, was fix groffi or groats ;
for a layman's murderino a layman, five groats ; for laying
violent hands on a pricft, without ihedding blood, nine

froats ; for committing inceft, five groats ; for a prieft's
eeping a concubine, feven groats ; for forging the pope's
hand-writing, levenieen or eighteen groats. See the Taxa
S. Cancellarix Apoftclicae, a L. Banck. Franequerae, 165 1,
p. 1 26, &c. It was this great abufe of indulgences, that
con'r;buted not a little to the firtt reformation of religion
in Gerrrfhny ; wherein Martin Luther began firll to declaim
againll the preachers of indulgences, and afierwards againil
indulgences themfelves : but lince that time, the popes have
been more fparing in the cxercife of tlii.'i power ; however,
they afterwards carried on a great trade with them in the
Indies, where they were purchafed at two reals a-piece, and
fometimes more. See Rekok.m.vj'iu^-.

Indulgence, or Induho, fignifies alfo a fpecial favour,
or privilege, conferred either on a community, or a parti-
cular perfon, *iy the pope's bulls ; in virtue whereof the
party is lieenfed to do or to obtain fomething contrary to the
iiitentbn and difpofition of the common laws.

There are two kinds of indultos : the one adive, which
confills in a power of nominating and prefenting freely, and
without referve, to benefices that are otherwife limited, and
reltrained by the laws of the apollolical chancery ; fuch are
thofe ordinarily granted to fecular princes, cardinals, bilhops,
&c.

Ptt/five indultos confill in a power of receiving benefice?,

and

I N D

r.r.d expeftative graces ; of wliich kind are thofe of a par-
li:::nciit, of graduates, maiidiitaries.

The indul:o of kings is I'le power given tlicnrof prefcnt-

: .: toconfillorial benefices, either by treaty, by favour, or

III privilege.

I'iio indulto of cardinals is a licence for holding regular

11 as fecularben-fices, and for difpofing of benefices in

• n^im, or continuing them, &c.

, ululto of parliament is a right of privilege formerly
ted to the cliancellor, prefidents, counfellors, and other
ciFie.rs in the parliaments of France, to obtain a benefice of
t!:e collator, uijim the king's nomination direcled to him.
Tiiis WIS a kind of advowlon, or patronage, belonging to
tlie Fr nch king ; the indulto being a mandate, or grace,
bv which he was permitted to name to any collator he plcafcd
a L-ounfe!lor, or other officer of parliament, on whom the
• r fhould be obiiged to bellow a benefice; fo that the
■- of the indulto refided radically in the king, the officers
X onlv the obiefis thereof.
iNDULPHlTS, m Biography, the feventy-feventh king
of Scotland, began his reign in the year 951^. The early
years of his reign were peaceable and profperous, but after-
wards his kingdom was invaded feveral times by the Danes,
who were enraged againlt him for making an alliance with tiie
Englidi. Tlitir firlt defcent was upon Eail Lothian, whence
ihey were foon expelled, but crolTed over to Fife. Here
they were defeated, and driven out, and fo well had Indul-
phus taken care to guard the coatls, that they could iir.d
7)0 other opportunity of invading the country ; till, having
thrown the Scots off their guard, they made good their
landing in Bantfiliire. Here Indul; lius attacked them in
their camp, and drove them towards their ihips, but was
killed in an ambufcade, into wiiich he fell during tlie piir-
fuit.

INDULTO, in Commerce, denotes a duty, tax, or
<uitom paid to the king of Spain for all fuch commodities as
are imported from the Weit Indies in the galleons.

INDURATING, a term applied to fuch things as
■give a harder or firmer confiltence to others, either by the
greater folidity of their particles, or by difiipating the
thinner parts of any matter, fo as to leave the remainder
harder.

INDURATION of Str.^ta, in Geology, denotes the
change which all the maifes of the earth evidently have under-
gone fince they were depoCted in their prefeut fituation in a
fluid or plaltic Hate ; under the article H.\kdening of Strata,
we have noticed fume of the facts and theories on this fubjecl,
to which we beg to refer.

INDUS, or Sisni':, or, according to the proper Sanfcrit
name Sundlroo, under which name it was not unknown
to the Romans [Ic/hs bicotis Simlue appetlatia; Pliny, 1 vi. )
a celebrited river of Afia, which is formed of about to
principal iireams, that defcend from the mountains of Perfia,
Tartary, and Hmdooltan, on the N.E. and N.W. ; all
which ftreams, uniting near Moultan in Hindooftan, form
this famous river. The Ayin Acharce fays, the SiuJe,
according to fome, rifes Letv.-oen Cafhmere and Cafligar,
whihl others place its fource in Khatai, meaning probably
Koten, the Chatje of Ptolemy, and not China. It is clear,
however, that the people of Hindooftan confider the north-
ealtern branch as the true Sinde, though the ancients feemed
to have reckoned othcrwife ; for Pliny fays " in jngo Caucafi
TOontis, quod vocatur Paropamifus, adverfus Solis ortum
cffufus." The emperor Baher, indeed, applies the name of
Sindc to one of ite v/eflern branches, that fprings near Ba-
tnian, but he appears to differ in this particular from the reil
of hii countrymen ; for the name of Nilab, which was ap>

I N D

plied to tliexivcr that ran by the fcite of Attock (long be-
fore that city was founded), was applied alfo to the fime
river, in its courfe through Little Thibet ; and Nilab is fy.
nonymous with Sinde. (See Nilab.) The Indus, under
the name of Nilab, pafTes through the country of Little
Thibet ; and its head mull be on the well of the great ridge
of mountains called by the ancients Imaus, becaufe on the
call of it, the rivers all run in a direftion oppofite to that of
the Indus. About 20 miles above Attock, the periodical
rains, which fell on t!ie northern mountains, having confider-
ably fwelled the river, its breadth was about j of s
niile ; its courfe rapid and turbulent, and its water extreme!)
cold, with a great quantity of black fand fufpended in it.
At Attock the Indus is joined by the Cabul, and very con-
iiderably increafed by it, fo that from Attock downwards
to Mouhan, or to the conflux of the Panjab waters, where
it has obtained the na.iie of Attock, it is no longer fordable ;
below that point it is called Soor, or Shoor, until it divides
itfelfinto a number of branches n?ar Tatta, where the prin-
cipal branch takes the name of M-kran. This river, how-
ever, when fpoken of general'y, is called Sinde ; although
particular parts of it are known by different names. I'he
Indus, and its branches, adn.it of an uninterrupted nariga-
tiou fro.m Tatta, the capital of Sindy, to Moultan and La-
hore, for velTels of near 200 tons. About 170 miles from
the fea, by the courfe of the river, the Indus divides into
two branches, of which the wefternmoll is by much the
largell. This branch, after a courfe of about 50 miles to
the S.W., divides into two more; the fmallelt of which
runs in a W.S.W. coiu-fc, to Larry-Bunder and Dacrawav ;
and thelargeft, taking the name of Ritchel river, runs in a
more fouthwardly courl'e to the town or village of Ritchel,
on the fea-coail. The oiher principal branch is that which
bounds the eadern fide of the Superior Delta ; feparatin<i, as,
wehavefaid, about 170 miles from the fea. It is fmaller
than the Ritchel river, but larger than th:it of Larry-Bun-
der, and according to chcun-.itances and report, it opens into
the mouth of the gidf cf Cutch, nearly opponte to Jigat
point ; its courfe being fomewhat to the eailward of fouth.
Major Reanell infers from various circumllances, that the
Delta of the Indus (feeDr.LT.v) is about 150 Britilh miles
in length along the iea-co;;;!, and about 1 15 in depth, from
the place of feparation of the fupcrior branches of tl-e
river, to the moll prominent point of the fea-coaft. The
lower part of this Delta isinttrfefted by rivers ajid creeks in
almcft every dircftion, like the Delta of ike Gmges, but
tt-ithout trees j the dry parts being covered with brulhwood,
and the remainder, being by much the greatell part, being
noifome fwaeips, or muddy lakes. The irjipcr part of the
Delta is well cultivated, and yields abundance of rice. Thi^
Delta is fet apart for the breeding of camels, anfwering tliis
purpofe by means of the tender parts of its brufhwood,
which ferves them for fodder. The breadth of the Ritchel
branch is ellimated at one mile, jull above the tide ; and at
Tatta, at only half a mile. It is certain that the Indus is
very confidcrably lefs than the Ganges. The velocitv of il =
current is eftimatcd at four miles per hour in the drr
feafon ; but this is fuppofed by Rrnneil to be over-ratcJ.
The courfe of the Indu-s river is ilated by major Rcnnell at
(probably) 6\, thai of the Thames bring i. This in-
genious geographer mentions the moveable towns or villages
that are fituated on the banks of the river, noticed by Near-
chus and the Ayin Acbaree ; fome of which are tlie ha-
bitations of filhermen, and others of graziers ; which are
continually changing their pcfitions hke a camp. Few
rivers abound more with fi(h than the Indus does ; and among
thcfc are fome very delicious fori*. Tlie mouths of the

Indus

I N F

Indus are comprehended between N. lat. 23' 20' and
24' 40'.

INDUSTRY, Frulis of. See Fruits.

INEADA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in Romania ; 56 miles E.N.E. of Adrianople.

INEQUALITY of Natural Days. See Equation.

In'equahty, optica!. See Optical.

INERT J\f;etable Matter, in Agriculture, is a term lately-
given to that fort of vegetable matter which, by long and
frequent cxpofure, has been fo faturated and combined with
the oxygen or pure air of the atmofphere, as to be rendered
in a great degree infoluble. The furface of peat mofifes,
and the mould of fuch foils as have been much expofed to
the aftion of pure air, by fallowing, are fuppofed to be
rendered inert in this way by the author of the " Conneftion
of Chemiftry with Agriculture." See Peat.

INERTIiE Vi^. See Vis Inertia.

INESCUTCHEON, in Heraldry, a fmall efcutcheon
borne in a larger one, as part of fome other coat. See
Escutcheon.

GuiUim confines the name to an efcutcheon borne fingle
in the fefs point or centre.

This is alfo fometimes called an efcutcheon of pretence.

He who marries an heirefs, bears her coat of arms on an
iiiefcutcheon, or efcutcheon of pretence, in the middle of his
own coat.

Modern heralds apply the name inefcutcheon to thofe
"fmall efcutcheons, feveral of which are borne in a large
one.

INESERRHA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in
Sennaar ; 10 miles E. of Gieffien.

IN ESSE is applied to things which are aftually cx-
ifting.

Authors make a difference "between the thing in effi, and
a thing in pojf- A thing that is not, but may be, they
lay, is in pojfe, or potentia ; but a thing apparent and
vifible, they lay, is in cjfe, that is, it has a real being eo
inflanti; whereas the other is cafual, and at beft but a pof-
fibility.

INEVERAM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Rajamundry ; 33 miles S.E. of Rajamun-
dry.

INFALISTATIO, an ancient punilhment of felons, by
throwing them among the rocks and fands, cuHomarily
ufed in port-towns. It is the opinion of fome writers, that
infaliflatus did imply fome capital pimiihments, bv expofing
-the malefaftor upon the fands till the next tide carried him
a\vay ; of wliich cuftom, it is faid, there is an old tradition.
However, the penalty feem« to take its name from the '^qt-
mm fikfe, or falejia, wliich fignified not the fands, but the
rocks and cliffs adjoining, or impending on the fea-(hore.
" Commifit feloniam ob quam fuit fufpenfus, utlaeatus, vel
alio modo morti damnatus, &c. vel apud Dover infaliftatus,
apiid Southampton fubmerfus, &c."

INFALLIBLE, from in, taken privatively, andfallo, I
J:ceivi-, that which caimot deceive or be deceived.

Upon this term ftands one of the principal heads of con-
troverfy bet.vecn the Reformed and the Catholics ; the
-■latter of whom maintain, that the church, alTembled in
general cmmcil, is inf dlible ; which the former den)-.

The Jefuits, in their difputcs with the Jaiifenifts, have
exprefsiy zfferted that .Tefus Chrift hath given to all
popes whenever they fhaU fpeak e cathedra, the fame
inf?.llibi)ity which he had, both in matturs of right and
fa6t.

The principal rcafons alleged for the infallibility, are
ilrawn from the prosnifes of Chrilt,. from the 'obfcurity

I N f

of the fcriptures, the infufficiency of private judgment,
and the necelfity there is of fome infallible judge for the
decition of controverfies.

The infallibility of the pope is a doArine of a late Hand-
ing, and has not been entirely acquiefccd in, even in their own
communion, and altogether rejected by the Gallican church.
See Popery.

INFAMOUS, derived from in, andfiw,7,fame, report, in
the ordinary ufe of the word, fignifies fomething notorioufly
contrary to virtue, or honour.

Auliis Gellius ufes the word infimes materias, for what
we ordinarily call paradoxes, i. e. difcourfes remote from
the common opinion ; propofitions that appear oppofite to
truth, &c. as the elogy of Therfites, the praife of a quar-
tan ague, &c.

Infamous, in Laiu, denotes a perfon or thing, which i«
of no repute, or eftcera, in the world.

There are two kinds of infamy : fome perfons being iiT-
famons as having been noted by the laws, or ftigmatized by
public judgment.

Infamy, which extends to forgery, perjury, grofs cheats,
&c. difables a man to be a witnefs or juror : but a pardon
of crimes reftores a perfon's credit to make him a good evi-
dence. Judgment of the pillory makes infamy by the com-
mon law, but by the civil and canon law, if the caufe for
which the perfon was convifted was not infamous, it infers
no infamy.

Others are held infamous, by the exercife of fome fcan-
dalous profeflion ; as a catchpole, a merry-andrew, a hang-
man, an informer, &c.

Heretofore there were crowns of infamy given, by way
of punilhment, to criminals : they were made of wool.

INFANCY. See Infant.

INFANT, in a Lazufenf, a perfon under the age of one-
and-twenty years, whofe acts are in many cafes either void
or voidable. (See Age ) All gifts, grants, &c. of an infant,
which do not take effeft by delivery of his hand, are void ;
and if made to take effedt by delivery of his own hand, are
voidable by himfelf and his heirs ; and thofe who lliall hare
his eftate.

Although an infant, under 21, can make no deed which
is not afterwards voidable ; yet in fome cafes he may bind
himfelf apprentice by deed indented, or indentures for feven
years (Hat. 5 Eliz. c. 4. 43 Eliz. c. 2. Cro. Car. 179)';
and he may by deed or will appoint 3 guardian to his chil-
dren, if he has any. Stat. 12 Car. II. c. 24.

By the cuftom of London, an infant, unmarried, and
above the age of fourteen, may bind himfelf apprentice to a
freeman of London, by indenture, with proper covenant?,
which ftiall be binding.

An infant may bind himfelf to pay for neceflarics, as meat,
drink, apparel, phyfic, and learning, but not by bond with
penalty ; though a bill for neceffaries, without a penalty for
the very fum due, it is faid, will bind him. Infants are not
obliged to pay for clothes, ujileis it be averred f )r their own
wearing : and ttiat they were convenient and netcflary for
them to wear according to tiicir degree and ellate. A n infant
may buy, but cannot borrow money to b\jy neceflarics ; for
the law will not trull him w itli neceffaries, but at the peril of
the lender, who mull lay it out for him in necefiaries, or fee
it thus laid our. . •

An infant has been adjudged of age the day before his
birth-day ; for tho law will not make a fraft on of a Aw;
■ therefore where a perfon was born the third of Septem-
ber, and the fecond of September, twenty-one years after,
he inade his will, it was held pood, and that he wati then cf
age to dcvifc' his lands. And it is faid fuch will rti^t'l
6

NFANTS;

lake cffi'Cl, though the devifor dies by fix at night of tliat
day.

Ar. infant eight years of age, or upwards, may commit
bomicide, and be hanged for it, if it appear, by any
other a&, that lie had k.no\vlcdj;e of good and evil ; for
here malitia fuppltbit ataiem : yet Coke on Littleton, feft.
40J, fays, " All infant fliall not be puniOied till the age
of fourteen ;'' which, according to him, is the age of dif-
eretion.

But this depends on the degree of judgment which he
pon'eifes. If an infant be infra annos iufanlix, viz. fevcn
years old, he cannot be guilty of felony, whatever ciicum-
ftances proving difcretion may appear. See Ace, in Luzl-,
Executor, Gt ardian, &c. See alfo Rapi:.

An infant en venire J'a mere, or in the mother's womb, is
capable of having a legai y, or a fnnender of a copy-hold
ellate made to it. It may liave a guardian afligned to it (Hat.
12 Car. II. c. 24.) ; and is enabled to h.ave an eftate limited
to his ufe, and to take afterwards by fuch limitation, as if
it were then adually born (ilat. lo & 11 W. III. c. 16.) ;
and in this point the civil law agrees with cur's. Though
infants cannot alien their el\ates, yet infant trullecs or mort-
gagees are enabled to convey, under the direftion of the
court of chancery or exchequer, or other courts of equity,
the eftates they hold in trutl or mortgage, to fuch perfon as the
court (hall appoint. By thecuftom of gavel-kind, an infant,
at the age of fifteen, is reckoned at full age to fell his lands ;
and by cuftoni, in fome places, an infant feifed of land in
focage, may, at the fame age, make a leafe of years, that
fliall bind him after he comes of age.

An infant, who has an advowfon, may prcfent to the be-
nefice when it becomes void. (Co. Litt. 172.) An infant is
capable of inheriting, and may alfo purchafe lands, but his
purchafe is incomplete ; for, when he comes to age, he may
either agree or dil'agree to it, without alleging any reafon ;
and fo may his heirs after him, if he dies without having
completed his agreement. (Co. Litt. 2.) And in cafe any
infant bargain and fell his laud by deed, indented and inrolled,
yet he may plead non-age.

If an infant grants leafes for a term of years, he may,
at his full age, either confirm the leafe, or bring trcfpafs
againll the Ic.Tee for the occupation. Alfo a leafe granted
to an infant, may be avoided by waiving the land before the
rent-day exprefled therein. However, infants are bound in
all aiits of neceffity ; as prefentations to benefices, admit-
tances and giants of copy-hold eftates, alTenting to legacies,
and conditions annexed to lands, whether the eltate comes by
grant or defcent. If an infant be the defendant in an aflion,
the plaintiff {hall have fix years for commencing his adlion,
after the defendant comes of age ; and an infant, who is a
plaintiff, has alfo fix years after he comes of age, to fue by
the Itatute of hmitation.

Infants, Di/eefes of, in Medicine. When the extreme
delicacy and tendernefs of every part of the flrufture of the
infant frame is confidered, as well as the extraordinary revo-
lution, which it fuddenly undergoes, in pafTmg from its vege-
tating ftate, as it- were, in the uterus, to that of a breathing
animal, it muft: be obvious that a thoufand circumflances,
which make no impreflion on the adult frame, will powerfully
influence that of the infant ; and that the utmoll care will be
required to fnicld it from numerous caufcs of difeafe, from the
pioment of its birth. To the negleft of thefe circumflances,
or to their inability of attending to them, the great morta-
lity that occurs among the children of the poor, in large cities,
is perhaps chiefly to be afcribed. But this was firmti'.y
much augiiicnttd, among all ranks, by the abfurd and unna-

tural interference of art, which was apparently didlated by
a notion that the inflinfts and intimations of nature were to
be oppofed, as of the mofl baneful tendency. Fortunately
the more rational fyllem of following thcfc intimations, as
thebefl guides to health, has generally fuperieded that abufe ;
and it will only be r,'i|uifite for us here to fpenk of fome of
the accidents attendant on birth, of the more frequent con-
nate imperfeftions of ftrufturc, and of the difeafes pecu-
liarly belonging to the period of infancy and childhood.

Recovery oi Jlill-born or lueaUy wfmts. — 'Dr. Hamilton
obferves, that the occafional recovery of ftill-born children,
under circumflances where experience alone could have en-
couraged any hopes, ought to teach praiftitioiiers the im-
portance of employing, with patience and attention, tlie
means conducive to that purpofe. If there is no pulfa-
tion in the umbilical cord, the infant fhould be inflantly fe-
pavated from the mother, the cord being tied by a flip knot,
and the body iinmerfed in warm water. The lungs fhould
be then difteuded with air, by means of a bag of elaltic gum;
or a common fyringe, (the pipe of which is to be infertcd
into one noftril, while tlie other and the mouth are carefully
doled,) and ag-ain emptied by gentle prefi'ure on the breall.
In this way an alternate diftention and comprefTio*! of the
lungs fhould be continued for fome time. Should the action
of the heart be now perceived, the fame means are to be
continued, until the infant exhibit the ufual marks of begin-
ning refpiration, when the artificial dillention of the; lungs
is to be only occafionally repeated, and all preffure on the
breafl is to be avoided. But if, notwithflanding thefe means,
the pulfation of the heart be not reflored, the infant fhould
be taken out of the warm water, ph'.ced before the fire,
carefully rubbed, and then wrapped in warm flannel. • A
glyfter, confilting of a table-fpoonful of fpirits, and'twu
or three table-fpoonfulsof warm water fliould then be admi-
niftered, and the temples, noftrils, and teguments of the
face round the mouth, fhould be gently touched with a fea-
ther, dipped in vitriolic .ether, or fpirits of hartfhorn. But,
fecondly, if the pulfation in the cord of a fl ill-born child is
dirtinft and foft, and the infant has the natural appearance,
fo long as the placenta remains attached to the uterus, the
child ought not to be feparated from tlie mother. The
body fliould be carefully wrapped in warm flannel, the
noftrils and fauces fliould be touched with a feather dipped
in vitriohc xtlier, and a little fpirits rubbed on tlie breaft.
If the after-birth become detached, (which is known by .
the lengthening of the cord,) the child mnil be imm.-j
diately feparated, and the above means employed. Should
the procefs of breathing commence after thefe means have
been ufed for a few minutes, nothing elfe is to be done than
keeping the infant warm, with its face freely expofed to the
air. But fliould this not take place, tiie lungs arc to
be diftended and again compreffed, as in the firfl cafe. See
Prof. Hamilton's Hints on the Difeafesof Infants, &c.

Although alive when born, the infant, in fome inftances,
lives only a fhort time. If the lips be pale, and the pulfation
in the heart very feeble or flow, it may be fufpcdled that this
originates from fome caufc which is not cognizable to the
fenfes. On the fuppolition that it arifes from a deficiency
of vitality, ftinudants have been applied to the lurface, as a
little brandy, or fpirits of hartlliorn, rubbed on the ribs
and fpiiie, &c.; and fuch means have occafionally proved efli-
cacious, though in the majority of cafes they fail. When
the extremities are of a purple 01* blueifli colour, and the
breathing is impeded or uinatural, it is generally found that
there is a defecl in the he.irt or lungs, which is beyond the
power of any remedy.

INFANTS.

J I. Connate Iiufierfe3hns. — Cliildren are not always born
in a Hate of pcrfcftion in refpecl to tlie llrufture of their bo-
dies ; for fometimes they have deficient, fupcrfluous, or
mifpUced parts, natural paffagcs clofeJ, and various
marks on the furface. Many of thcfe iinpeifjclions admit of
no remedy ; while others may be eafily reflified. The fol-
lowing are thofe wliich are mod frcqiiciitly met with.

FilT'ures in the lips not only coiilUtulc a remarkable de-
formity, but commonly prevent the child from fuckiig.
They appear under various forms. Sometimes the fifl'ure
exifts only in one lip, generally the upper one, and is occa-
fioned merely by a divifioii of the foft parts : in other cafes,
there ia aconliderable lofs of fubilance between the divided
parts : in fon;e ifillances, again, there are two liffures in one
lip, or both lips are affetled : and in others, the fiiTure is
not confined to the lips, but extends along the roof of tlie
mouth. All thefe different fpecies of the fame deformity
receive the general name of harc-Itp ; which fee.

The tongue is naturally bound do\rn to rhe lower part of
the mouth by a membranous cord, to prevent it from too
<:;reat a degree of motion. Sometimes, however, the cord
lixes it fo nuich, that the infant caiinot fuck, in which cafe
it is commonly faid to be /w-..i--//.-v/. Women very often
imagine tiiat their children have this detect, when it does not
really exill : and perhaps one iniluoce of it does not occur
in feveral hundreds of thofe that are born. The difeafe may
be always difcovered by putting a finger gently into the
child's mouth ; for if he be abie to grafp it, as he would
do the nipple in fucking, or if the tip of the tongue appear
difengaged, the membrane doe.i not require to be cut.
The operation of dividing tXiifnnum, trifling as it may ap-
pear, requires fome caution, in order to avoid wounding the
fublingual veins, and cutting too deep ; for in the firit cafe,
a fatal hxmorrhage may enfue ; and in the fecond, if the
tongue is loofened too much, tlie tip may be turned back,
and clofe up the throat ; an accident that mud foon occafion
death. It may be difcovered by the threatcjiing fuffocation
or convulllons, and by the introduflion of the finger into
the mouth, by which alfo the tongue may be pulled back,
and the confequences avoided. This, however, is a very rare
accident : it has been abfurdly called " fwallowing the point
of the tongue." See Underwood on the Difeafes of Chil-
dren, vol. ii. p. 17. 5th edit.

The natural pafages, efpecially the r.nns, vagina, and
vrethra, are fometimes imperforate, preveiuing altogether, or
in great part, the ufual excretions. In iume cafes, a collec-
tion of mucus alone proves the obftacle ; but in others,
membranous fubftances clofe up the paflages, in which lalt
i.iltances, an operation will be reqnifite to open the parts,
.thich mud be performed by a flvilful furgeon. In refpetl
to the vagina, Dr. Underwood obferves that he never found
the external parts totally imperforate, there being always a
fniall opening at the msatus urinar'ius : but the aperture to
t!.: vagina itlelf fometimes requires to be opened, either by
the point of a lancet, or by the fingers only, which is gene-
rally eafiiy efFefted, there being always a raphe, or line,
where the natural opening fhould be. The anus is fometimes
clofpd only by a thin membrane, fo that the day after birth
the meconium may be dillinftly felt, and in a manner feen
(hining through it. A (light punfture with a lancet, and
paffing a bougie or the point of a finger into the bowel for
two or three days afterwards, is fufficient to remove this
impediment. But more commonly the imperforate anus is a
melancholy cafe, allowing of no effeftual remedy, as the
gut often terminates in a cul-de-fac : fo high as not to
be reached. The imperforate penis is not quite fo com-

mon a cafe ; but is not unfrequently fufpeftcd, when
the aperture of the paffage is merely iloppcd up by a
little mucus. Under fuch circumftances, wadiing the
part with warm milk and water, or at moll a little affift-
ance with a fmall probe, or any fuch blunt-pointed inllru-
mcnt, will be fufficient to open the paflage. When the
urethra is perfeflly open nearly to the extremity, as ofteiv
happens, it is necefjary only to make a fmall aperture with a
lancet, or a fine trocar, and to k'Sep the part open by the oc.^
cafional introduclion of a ilcnder bougie.

Tumours about the back-bone of infants are always dan-
gerous. If they be fuft, partly tranlpareiit, and obvioudy
connected with the fpine, conilituting the difeafe called_;^/n(i
liifJa, or hydrorachtth, they moft generally prove fatal ulti-
mately; although in fome inllances, the progrofs to that
event has been very flow, the child having lived to the thir-i
tcenth year. Fortunately, h:>wever, it more commonly ter-
minates within a few months after birth : where it is pro-
tratled, the individual is in a mifi-rable Hate, being paralytic
in his lower limbs, &c.

Retcntiati of the Meconium, — The meconium is that black,
vil'cid matter, which every infant difcharges from the intef-
tines for the nrd two or three days after birth ; and many
complaints have been afcribed to the undue retention of it,
and confequently a great vcLricty of purgative medicines have
been recommer;dt>d to be given, alnioll as foon as the child is
born, will] a view to expel it. But experience has taught
that the natural evacuant of this matter is the firft milk of
the mother, wb.ich is ilightly laxative in its properties : the
infant, therefore, (liould be put to the breall as foon after
birth as tiie fituation of the mother will allow. The per-
nicious praftice of giving infants purging medicines. Dr.
Hamilton remarks, as foon as they are born, cannot be too
much reprobated ; for the retention of the meconium for fome
hours after birth certainly produces lefs inconvenience than is
cccafioned by the acrimony of the fubftances which the child
is often iorced to fwallow. Tlie mod fimple artificial means,
he adds, for removing this matter, are Lifbon fngar diflblved
in water, or a folution of manna. Wlicre thefe fail, a tea-
fpoonfiil of cold drawn cador oil is to be given.

Jaundice, or, as the nurfes term it, \.\vi2 yeilo-jn gum, is among
the difeafes which take place within a few days after birth.
It is preceded by drowfinefs, and difinclination to fuck, and
is foon difcovered by the univerfal yellownefs of the (kin.
Sometimes the whites of the eyes appear yellow for a day
or two before tlie other f\ mptoms iippear : the tinge of the
Ran is feldom deep, and the difeafe is more readily removable
than the jaundice of adnlts ; but cafes are occafionally met
with, where the colour of theikin is of a dark yellow, the in-
fant moans conftantly, and convulfions follow, which at lad
deftroy life. In regard to the treatment of this difeafe, if
the child feem to fuffer no uneafinefs, although its iliin be
quite yellow, and if his bowpls be open, it will be unnecef-
fary to adminider any medicines. But if he be unable to
fuck, and have a diipofition to eondant flecp, aflivc mea-
furcs (hould be adopted. Thefe confid principally in eva-
cuating the vifcid matter, which probably clogs up the
biliary dufts. An emetic of ipecacuan, and brilk laxatives,
as of rhubarb, or frequent dofes of a fohition of manna,
will then be found neceffary, and their effeiSs may be much
promoted by the vs'arm bath. When violent colic pains or
convulfions accompany the yellow gum, there is reafon to
fear that the liver is difeafed, and little can be expetted from
any remedy.

The thrujh, fore month, or aphihe, is fo common a difeafe

in early infancy, that it has been imagined to be a falut^lry

5 effort

INFANTS.

effort of nature to expel fome hurtful matter from the fyftcm,
which might othervvifc be produAive of many comijlaintt
at a future period. This opinion, however, is merely a vul-
gar ])rejudice, founded neitlier on reafon nor experience.
j1fh:hit appear to be eonnefted with a deranged condition of
the alimentary canal, and feem to arife moll frequently from
the too early or too liberal ufe of fpoon-meat, or improper
food : but other caufes occafionally produce it, fuch as
expofure to cold, damp weather, &c. In the treatment of

and the free admiflion of pure air enforced : indeed, it is
probable that, in proportion to the cffedunl ventilation em-
ployed, the occurrence of the difeafe will be diminiftied,'
and its violence, wlien it does appear, mitigated.

Another affcftion of the fl<iii, accompanied by fever, and
occurring under fimilar circumllances, has bi-en called by Dr.
Underwood, who was one of the firft to dcfcribe tlie difeafe,
x\\Q Jh'm-houiid d'ljeafe. This does not happen invariably, like
the preceding complaint, within a (liort time after birtti ; for

this complaint, Dr. Hamilton affirms, that the great objeft it has been known to attack infants above fix montlis old
fhould be to promote its natural progrefs, and to counteraiSt It is ufliered in with violent fever, with coldnefs of the
the effects of the acrimony of the fahva. The early uie of limbs, opprcfled breathing, and almoft conllant moaninjr.

ftimulant appHcations, fueh as gargles of port-wine and
boras; force off the fpots before they have undergone the
natural changes, and by their irritation keep up the difeafe.
But the proper objefts may be obtained by putting fre-
quently into' the infant's mouth a tea-fpoonful of a liquor,
prepared by mixing with the w liitc of an unboiled egg, three
table-fpoonfuls of cold water, and a little refined fu;

The llvin is of a yellowifli-white colour, refembhng foft wax
in its appearance, and not only thickened and hardened, but
evidently unyielding ; the cellular membrane is fix;-d in fuch
a manner that it will not Aide over the fubjaceiit mufclet.
not even on the back of the hands, where it is ufually very
loofe and pliable. Tliis ftrifture often extends over the

whole body ; but tlie flvin is pecidiarly rigid in the piirts
about the face, and on the extremities, Tlie child is aKvays
cold, and whatever number of days it may furvive, has
conllantly the appearance of being in a dying (late. The
ftools are of a clayey colour and confillcuce ; and the dif-
eafe feems to be much connected with a diforder of the

gar,
by prohibiting all fpoon-meat, and by frequently dulting
tlie natural palfages with prepared calamine or tu'tty pow-
d^T. When the fpots become yellow, the bori.x may be
allowed. It is to be mixed with eight or ten times its
weight of powdered fugar or of honey, or it may be dif-
folved in fig-tea in the fame proportion. If the fpots grow chylopoietic organs, efpecially of the liver. The free ufe
livid, bark and port-wine fhould be ufed as a gargle, while of laxatives, together with the warm bath, and fome cordial
the infant is fupported by means of ten or twelve parts of medicines, appears to have been occalionally fuccefsful ;
warm cow's milk, mixed with one part of flierry wine, but in general, where the progrefs of the difeafe has not
The fame kind of nourilhrnent is neceffary in cafes, where, been arretted in the commencement, it has terminated fa-
from the extenfive incruflation over the tongue and cheeks, tally.

the infant is incapable of fucking, which ohen happens for
a day or two. See Apuni.T:.

f 2. Difeafes of the Skin. -Two lifeafes, of a febrile na-
ture, connected with a morbid coULition of the ilcin, have
been defcribed by writers on the diforders of infancy, which
n^erit attention. They are almoft unknown, however, ex-
cept to the phyficians of lying-in hofpitals, as they have
feldom occurred in the private houfes of individtials. The
firfl of thefe is eryfipelatous inflamnvation of tlie flcin, called
by Dr. Underwood eryjipelas infantile, which ordinarily
occurs within a few days after birth, and fometimes at a
later period. It feizes the moll-robuft, as well as delicate,
children ^'making its attacks in a very fudden manner, and
proceeding rapidly in its courfe. It moft commonly ap-
pears firft on the toes or fingers, which look fwelled and
blue, as if from cold ; but in the more violent forms, it
begins about the pubes, and extends upwards on the belly, the '
and down the thighs and legs ; or fometimes it commences time
in the neck, when it is equally dangerous. It appears, in- not
deed, to be always moft dangerous when it feizes or fpreads
to the body, and moft mild when confined to the extre-
mities. Suppuration and gangrene are occafionally the con-
fequencej ; but even where neither of thefe events takes place,
it may terminate fatally from eft'ufion into fome of the cavi-
ties, or from the inflammation extending to the contents of the
abdomen, glueing the parts together, and throwing out ujran
their furface an exudation of coagulable lymph. On the
whole, the treatment of this infantile eryfpelas has too fre-
quently proved unTuccefsful. The ufe of faturnine lotions
and poultices, on the firft appearance of the inflammation,
fcemed to check Us progrefs at firft ; but it was foon found
to fpread, and to terminate in a fatal fuppuralion or mor-
tification. A more cordial plan of treatment has been
attended with a fomewhat greater degree of fnccefs ; aj'd

The moft common affeftions of the fliin, however, that
occur in early infancy, are unaccompanied by fever, are
productive only of flight inconvenience, v^'ithout danger, and
confift principally of certain rafhes, or eruptions of papular
or puliular fpots. The n.oft common of thefe is a papular
eruption, which appears under a variety of forms, and lias
been called the gum, or technically Jlrophuhis. Dr. Willan
has dillributed thofe varieties of appearance under five
heads : the moft frequent of which is the red gum (or red
gown, as it was formerly denominated, probably becaufe the
child's fkin, thus variegated, fomewhat refembles a piece
of red printed linen), the flrophnlus interli/iffus. The pa-
fiidir, or pimples, in this affeftion, rife fenfibly above the
level of the cuticle, are of a vivid red colour, and commonly
diftinft from each other : their number and extent vary
much in different cafes. They appear moft conllantly on
the cheeks, fore-arm, and back of the hand, but are fome-
diffufed over the whole body. This eruption has
general any tendency to become puftular, but ufually
fcurf, or exfoliations of tlie cuticle. Its du-
ration, however, is very uncertain : the papul-.c and fpots
fometimes remain for a length of time without any altcrr
aticm ; fometimes difappear and come out again daily : but
for the moft part, one eruption of them fucceeds another,
at longer intervals, and with more regularity. The red gum
occurs chiefly within the two firft months of lactation : it
is not always accompanied or preceded by any diforder of
the conllitution, but appears occalionally in the ftrongell
and moft healthy children. In many inftances, it is cou-
neded with a weak irritable ftate of the alimentary canal,
and confequent indigellion. For if it be, by any means,
fuddenly repelled from the furface, diarrhoea, vomiting,
fpafinodic afleftions of the bowels, and often general dif-
turbance of the conllitution, fucceed ; but as foon as it rr.

the application of externarftimulants, fuch as linen com- appears, thofe internal complaints are wholly fufpei.dot.

prefTes wrung out of camphorated fpirit, has in fome cafes Dr. Armftrong and others liave partisularly notieed fli)>

checked the iiiflainmation. The bowels fhould be kept open, reciprocatio.n, which makes the red gum at times » diffvi.- ,.,;

Vol. XIX. L : fume

INFANTS.

fome importance, though, in its ufual form, it is not thought ftinate and painful form of it is noticed by Dr. Willan, v.h'x\\
to be in any refpeft dangerous. On their remarks a necef- takes place, though not often, on the lower extremities.
fary caution is founded, not to expofe infants to a ftrcam of The papuls fpread from the calves of the legs to the thigL,,,
very cold air, nor to plunge them uiileafonably in a cold bath ; nafes, loins, and round the body as high as the navel : beuig
tiie molt violent and even fatal fymptoms having often been very numerous and clofe together, they produce a continuous.
the confequence of fuch imprudent conduct. Little need rednefs over all the parts above-mentioned. The cuticle-
be faid in regard to the treatment of the red gum : the com- prefently becomes (lirivelled, cracks in various places, and
mon mild appearance of it, being confillent with a healthy finally feparates from the fifin in large pieces. During this
ftate of allthe funftions of the body, requires no medicinal pi-ocefs a new cuticle is foi-med, notwithftanding which the
application. It is, however, advifable to keep the flcin clear complaint recurs in a fliort time, and goes through the fame
fromyiirii'j', and to promote equable perfpiration. This may courfe as before. In this manner, fucceffive eruptions take
be done bell by daily ablutions with tepid water, which place during the courfe of three or four months; and per-
prove ufeful in moft cutaneous diforders, and will be found haps do not ccafe till the child is one year old, or fomewhat
of confiderable importance with refpeft to the general health more. Ciiildren neceflarily fuffer great uneafuiefs from the
of the infant. heat and irritation occafioned by fo extenfive an eruption ;

The other varieties of Jrop/ju/us, mentioned by Dr. Wil- yet, while they are affeded with it, they often remain free
Ian, are two, the ,9. allidtis, or tuhite gum, which differs from from any internal or febrile complaint.

the former merely in the appearance of its papula;, which This appearance, Dr. Willan remarks, fliould be diftin-
confill of a number of minute, whitidi fpecks, a little ele- guiftied from the mlcrlrigo of infant?, which exhibits an uni-
vated, and fometimes, though not conllantly, furrounded by form red, fmooth, ibining furface, without papulx ; and
a flight rednefs, occm-ring chiefly on the face, neck, and which afveCls only the lower part of the nates and infide of
breali, and being mere permanent than the papulce of the the thighs, being produced by the ftimulus of the urine, &c.,
red gum. 3. S. conferlus, or rank red gum, fometimes alfo with which the child's clothes are almoil conllantly wetted,
called the tooth-rajh, which ufually takes place about the Under the head of intertrigo, however, we muil include all
fourth or fifth month after birth, on the cheeks and fides of thofe varieties of chafing and excorintion w.hich occur in thofe
the nofe, e.xlending fometimes to the forehead and arms, but partj where the fkin is folded, or in contaft, and therefore
rarely to the trunk of the body, and accompanying the ftate liable to confiderable attrition. (See Ixtertrigo.) From
of dentition ; and in the feventh or eighth month affuming a the delicate ftrufture of the ikin of infants. Dr. Hamilton
fomewhat diiTerent form, appearing in one or two large irre- obferves, excorhnlons readily take place wherever one part of
gular patches, of a high red colour, on the arms, fliouldcr, or it is in conllant contaft with anotlier, unlefs the moft careful
neck. 4. 5. I'olatkuj, which is characterifed by fmall, cir- attention be paid to keep every part dry. The ears, neck,
cular patches, or chifters of papulse, arifing fucceffively on arm-pits, and groins are chiefly liable to be afi"ected in this
different parts of the body, continuing red, with, a little manner. When the excoriations are not allowed to con-
beat or itching, for about four days, when tliey turn brown, tinue for a confiderable length of time, they ftrldom require
and begin to exfoliate ; the fucceiTive patches, however, not any other treatment than being dulled, morning and even-
ceafing to appear in lefs than three or four weeks. And, ing, with prepared tutty.or calamine, or with common alhes
5. Strophulus ri7ni//^«j, in vyhich the papulae are larger than in finely powdered, or a little hair-powder or flarch. But
any of the foregoing fpecies, have no inflammation round when a-difcharge of matter is the confequence of negleded
their bafe, and a very fmooth and fhining furface, whence excoriations, a cure can only be obtained by much care and
they appear to be of a lighter colour than the adjoining attention; for it is often very difficult to ftop thefe runnings,
cuticle ; they are diffuied, at a confiderable dillance from Some praditioners have objeded to fuch attempts, on tiie
each other, over the loins, fhoulders, and upper part of the falfe fuppofition that the difcharge is a falutary outlet for
arms.. This eruption affefts infants- about a year old, and an overload of the fyflem. Theie opinions, admirably well
mod commonly fuccecds fome of the acute difeafes.to which calculated to favour the carelefsnefs of nurfes, are founded
they are liable, fuch -s catarrhal fever, or inflammations of upon improper views of the operations of nature,
the bowels or lungs : the papula; continue hard and elevated Many different remedies will be found beneficial in dif-
fer about a week, and then gradually fubfide and difappear. ferent cafes of excoriation ; fuch as wafhing the parts daily
tiee Willan oa Cutan. Difeafes, Order i. Genus j. with brandy and water, li:r.e-vvater, a weak folution of fugar

The llrophulus voLitkus bemg fometimes connefted with of lead, or of white vitriol, and dreffing them with any mild
a diforder of the ilomach and bowels, it becomes requifite ointment, as fpermaceti ointment. Turner's cerate, or oint-
to adminifter a gentle emetic or fome laxative medicines ; ments containing the oxyd of zinc, or a fmall portion of the
after which the decodion of Peruvian bark will be found of ointment of nitrate of m,ercury. While thefe means are
advantage. No externa! application feems neceffary. 'The purfued, an open ilatc of the bowels is to be promoted, by
llrophulus <:sn/frt.7j,' when the child is otherwife healthy, is the occafional exhibition of any gentle laxative, as manna
generally afcribed to a fta-e of indigcftion, or fome feverifh diffolved in water, &c. The ufe of mild mercurials, as al-
tsmplaint in the mother or nurfe : but the eruption is fre- teratives, fuch as the hvdrargyrus cum creta, &c is likewife
qu-.ntly feen when no fuch caufe for it is evident. It may ■ beneficial.

with more probability be confvdered asone of the. numeioii's Som.e other flight eruptions, to which young children are
fymptomsofirnc.ncn, arifing from the inflamedand painful liable, chiefly of the papular form, are mentioned by Dr.
•ftate of the gums in dentition ; fince it always occurs Underwood, and require no other treatment than an atten-
during that proccts, and difappears foon after the firft teeth tion to the Hate of the bowels, or the ufe of fome teflaceous
have cut thro gh the gums. On this view the erup'ion powders. See his Treatife on Dif. of Children, vol i.
requires no fpecihc confideration in medical practice ; it can There is a very common eruption, fays the writer juft
♦inly be iiUeviated.ty the general treatra.-nt proper'for the qvoted, that caUs for more attention, and' to yi'hich medical
ftate of teeih-ng, to be mentioned prefently. writers have given the name of crujla Lllea, (or mlll-blo'cha.

This fpccies Qljlrophuhs appears under other modlfica- as Dr. Hamilton tranflates it,) " winch has a very unplea,
hous, which liave been aiUtaken for meancs. One very ob- fant appearance, but is, notwithftanding, equally innocent

WJlh

INFANTS.

'le fomier, and even prevents other complaints. I
1 never faw an infant," he continues, " mucli loaded
•. but it has always been healthy, and cut its teeth
\h\y well: indeed it falls to the lot of tlic fiiieft
', and fuch as are well nouriftied ; whence fome hsvc
J it owin^ only to the richnefs of the milk. And
larkabl? in this eruption, that howfoever tliick and
titinued the fcabs may be, the crtt/la In^ea never cxco-

>, .lor leaves any fear on the parts.'' It is not attended

widi any fever, or obvious derangement of the fyftem. The
crull appears firll on the forehead, and often extends half
way over the face in the form of large loofe fcabs. It is
fometirnes attended with fevere itching. Praftitloners in
general affirm that medicines are not required, and :ire ra-
ther injurious than beneficial in this eruption ; that mild lax-
atives, fo as to keep the paiTage of the bowels free, may be
employed, but that all aftive purgatives are to be avoided ;
and, laiUy, that where there is excelTive itching, fome weak
cooling allringent lotion, of the acetate of lead, or fulphate
of zinc, fiiould be applied to the parts. Dr. Underwood
denies that the critjla la8;a ever degenerates into fcald-head,
as fome authors before him had mentioned. But Dr. Ha-
milton has pointed out a modification of crujla hdea, which
frequently takes place during teething, and is a moll obfti-
tnite and troublefome complaint. " This,"' he fays, " is
characterized by a rednefs of the (l.-in ro-.md the edge of the
incruftations ; by an ichorous or clear-coloured exudation
ilToing from the furface of the fcabs, which concretes, and
which tends to carry the difeafe over every part of the face
which it touches. There cannot be a doubt, indeed, tiiat
this form of crttjla laElea is contagious, and notliing lefs than
a variety of the fcald-head, or Unea capitis, the Ponigo of
Dr. Wilian's nomenclature, in which this fpecies is called
Porrigo larvalis. The cure of this modification of the dif-
eafe requires conftant ablution with milk and water, thin
gruel, S:c., to remove the acrid fluid which exudes, and the
application of fome drying ointment. S.ime alterative pre-
paration of mercury is Hkewife ufeful internally, fuch as the
hydrargium creta, or the grey oxyd, followed by the vege-
table and mineral tonics. See Pomur.o.

Dr. Hamilton lias ftated the follov.'ing praftical conclu-
fions refpefting the eruptions of children in general. . They
may all be divided into two clafies, he obferves, \.\\ejirjl of
which .are temporary, or of fhort duration ; are commonly
ufhered in with fymptoms of general indifpofition, and are
owing to fome diforder of the llomach or bowels, or to
fome :nte,n-!!prion of the ufual excretions or fecretions : th.e
Jccur.d are of an indefinite duration ; bre^k out gradually
tvitliont any derangement of the ordinary health ; and are
probably, in moft inftances, the effects of fome difeafed con-
dition of the lymphatic fyllem, though, fometimes, they
may be occafioned by a local affection of the llvin itfelf.
Xhe trep.tment requifite in thefe two forms of eruption is
thus dated. In \\vifirjl clafs, where fymptoms of indifpo-
.fition, fuch as heat, reftlefsnefs, ficknefs, or opprelfion, are
! followed by an eruption, a brill< dofe of calomel (hould be
; liril ordered, together with the warm bath, and afterwards
I occafional purgatives, and a fuitable regulation of the diet,
I are to be advifed. But, in the ficond clafs, where the ap-
■ pearance of the eruption is unaccompanied by fever or
' marks of indifpofition, fome of the medicines called altera-
. lives, and the dady ufe of warm baching, particidarly in fca-
water, (hould be recommended. The medicines to which an
alterative power is afcribed, he continues, arc preparations of
mercury, of antimony, of fulphur, and of neutral falts ; and
therefore calomel in very fmall dofes, or antimonial wine, or
the fnlphuret of antimony, or Harrowgate or ChelteF.ham

waters, or fome imitation of thefe, are the remedies to be
chiefly depended upon. It is commonly neceflary to order
a protradietl courfe of thife medicines.- In fume cafes,
cither topical applications (befides the warm bath) are ne-
cefTnry, to a'lay irritation, anfing from excefGve heat and
itching of the fliia. The moll efficacious are lime-water
rfii.xed with oil, a foluion of pitafs, and the acetite of am-
monia much diluted. The metallic folutions are too power-
ful to be employed, except upon very particular occafions.
IfTues have been often employed in thofe cafes, bul experi-
ence has prov>.d that purging anfwers better. Very didivfs-
ing effefts have followed the application of a blifler, where
there was a tendency to chronic eruptions of the flcrn. Ha-
milton's Hints for the Treatment of the principal Difeafes
of Infancy and Childhood, pi 130.

§ 3. Dentition — It is generally admitted that the time of
teething is an important period of the infant (late, during
which a number of diforders of a formidable charafter are
liable to occur. Dr. Cadogan, indeed, and Dr .'.rmflrohg
feem to have entertained a folnewhat difi'ereht opinion upon
this fubjedt, and have afcribed the complaints, connefted
with the proccfs of dentition, to fome other rnornid condi-
tion of the habit, fuch as too great fiilnefs, or a corrupt
ftate of the fluids : but this appears lobe a difference only
in terms, and implies an admiflion of the occurrence of the
difeafe^ alladed to. (See Armftrong on the Difeafes moft
incide- t to Children, &c. p. 61.) It is certain that thelia-
tural procefs of dentition is produftfve of pain and indifpo-
fition in by f.ir the greater number of inftances: fom.e in-
fants, indeed, fuffer lefs than others, but few eiijoy- perfect
heahh while teething. We fhall firft defcribe the progrefs
of the developement of the teeth, and afterwards the ordi-
nary aflieftions which it excites in the conliitiition. ' '

The period />/ teething is fubjeft to confiderable variety in
different inftances; but in the greater- number of cafes, the
firft pair of milk-teeth appear betv.een the fifth and tenth
month, and the laft before the end of the fecond year. In
fome infants, however, tiie firft pair or two are cut by the
end of the third month ; while, on the other hand,, not a
few attain the fixteenth or eighteenth month before a fingle
pair appears. In general, thofe of the lower jaw are. cut
before the correfponding ones of the upper jaw ; but fome-
times the feveral pairs of the upper jaw are cut before thofe
of the lower. The following is the order of fucceiTion in
moft inftances : viz. firft, the two middle fore-teeth of the
lower jaw ; then the correfponding pair in the upper : next
follow the two adjoining teeth of the upper jaw ; and, after
thefe, the two next fore-teeth of the lower jaw : then come
the two foremoft grinders of the upper jaw, and after them
the two anterior grinders of the lower jaw: the two eye-
teeth make their appearance next ; and fome time after, the
two oppofite to them in the lower jaw : and finally, thepolle-
rior grinders. Of the firft fet of teeth there are twenty in all,
but in fome cafes only. fixtccn : an interval of one, two, or
more v.eeks is interpofed between each fuccefilve pair ; and
there is commonly a longer interval between the firft two
pair than between the fucceeding ones. Some children, how-
ever, cut their teeth crofs, as it is called, or irregularly, the
teeth appearing firft in the upper jaw, and alfo at a diflance,
inftead of being contiguous to each other : in fome rare cafes
the grinders come out before the cutting teeth. This is ac-
counted, and with fome reafon, an indication of difficult or
painful dentition.

At birth the teeth are placed underneath the gums, and

each tooth is inclofcd in a fine uienibrane or capfule, which

is fuppofed to be extremely fenfible. This capfule, as well

as the gum, muft give waybefore the tooth can be protruded ;

L c and

I N F A N T S.

and this 1; acconpliflied merely bjrtUe prefTure of the enlarg-
ing tooth, which oceafions the ablbrption of thofe parts. In
favourable cafes, the prefTure of the teeth «n the gums occa-
fioni pain, and an increafed flow of the fluids fiu-niflied by
the mouth. Hence the infant is fretful, reftlefs during the
night, drivels coatinuallj-, and frequently thrufts his little
hands, or whatever he can get hold of, into his mouth, to
rub his gun-iS ; and he hasoccafionally ficknefs, gripes, and
loofencfs. At lall the corner of a tooth is perceived ; but
the uneafineU ftill continues for fome days, when a fecond
one is cut. During the interval between the cutting of the
lower and upper teeth, he recovers his ftrength and ufual
good health ; but is foon again fubjefted to the fame un-
eafinefs.

Were thefe the only complaints which attend teething,
little danger might be apprehended ; but fometimes many
very formidable fymptoms occur. In robuft healthy con-
■ftitutions, a violent fever frequently precedes the appearance
of every tooth ; the gums are fuelled and inflamed, the
eyes much aft'efted, the belly bound, the Ikin hot ; and there
is every now and then continued fcreanling, with inability
to fuck, and the fleep is (hort and dilturbed. Weakly in-
fants, where teething is painful and difficult, are opprefTed
\vith ficknefs, loath all kinds of food, lofe their colour, fret
perpetually, have a conftant loofenefs, and become much
emaciated. Some, befides thefe fymptoms, are fubjedl to
convuliions, which recur from time to time, till the tooth
or teeth are above the gum. In others, cough, various
eruptions on the Ikin, ulcerations in the gums, extending
fometimes over the palate, obltinate inflammation of the eyes,
afFedions of tlie urinary organs, and fometimes moft alarm.-
ing determination to the head, are occafionally the effects of
teething. All the fymptoms are much aggravated, if feveral
teeth be cut at once, or in immediate fucceffion.

It is of great importance to be able to afcertain when any
of the diltrelhng fymptom?, thus enumerated, arife from
dentition. This is to be done by a careful examination of
the Hate of the gums. Previous to the protruiion of any
tooth, the i't^am, which may be diitinftly obferved on the
edge of each gum, like a doubling of the fkin, is done away,
and the upper furface of the gum i.s rendered flat and broad,
or is elevated in the form of a I mall fwelling. The gum of
the upper jaw is more apt to appear on the flretch than that
of the lower. It is not eafy to diflinguifh when tlie infant
fufFers pain from any part of the gum being prefled upon ;
etherwife that might affilt: in pomti-ig out the advance of
fome particular too'.h or teeth, becaufe fuch a degree of fret-
fulnels attends teething, that every attempt to feel the ilate
of the mouth never fails to irritate the child.

An eftunate of the danger attending dentition is to be
fermed chieliy from the nature of the fymptoms. Expe-
rience proves that puny deheate infants often fuffer lefs than
the mofl healthy and robull. In this climate it has been
found that fummer is a more favourable feafon for teething
than winter. Some infants cut their fore-teeth without any
pain or difficulty, but are much diltrefled while cutting the
grinders or eye-teeth ; although, when the protrufion of the
tirft two pair of fore-teeth is accompanied or preceded by
great uneafmefs, there is reafon to fear that the individual
will fuller during the whole period of teething : yet the con-
verfe of tlte propofition does not hold good ; that is, where
little derangement of health attends the firft pair or two, it
is not to be concluded that all the other teeth are to advance
with the fame facility. It is well known, that during teetli-
Lig every acute difeafe is more than ufually dangerous ; and
it iii ulfo a well eilabiiflicd fad, that infants, in a crowded

city, are more liable to pain and alarming fymptoms a'. . ■
time of life than thofe reared in the country.

The treatment of the ordinary complaints attcr.d; g
teething, Ihoidd confifl in moderating the pain, in regulating
the ftate of the bowels, and in the continued employment of
every means calculated to promote the general health of the
infant. With thefe views, fmall quantities of anodyne balUim
may be rubbed on the back-bone at bed-time, when the :;-
fant feems to be greatly pained. He ought to be fed wv.h
beef-tea twice a-day, if weakly, and if his bowels be Iouk- ;
and fliould be kept as much as polhble in the open air wli, n
the weather is favourable ; the cold bath ought not to l.e
laid alide in thefe cafes, unlefs other concurrent dilorders
fliould render it.neceflary, as nothing is more conducive to
promote general ftrength. Loofenefs, if cxceHive, mull be
moderated ; and if the belly be bound fliould be artificially
induced by gentle laxative medicines. When relllefs during
the night, the child fliould be taken out of bed, and carried
about in a cool airy room ; and if not relieved in a fhort time,
he ought to be put into a warm bath. Finally, he fliould
be allowed fomething to rub his gums with, which will
both gratify his wiflies, and tend to promote the abforption
of the parts inclofing the tooth. A piece-of wax-candle, or
of recent liquorice-root, is preferable to coral ; though th^
latter fubltancc is in no other refpeCl injurious than that it
may be, by awkwardnefs, forced into the noftril or eye.

The management, when alarming fymptoms take place,
muft be varied according to circumilances ; but in every
cafe the indications to be fulfilled are, to cut afunder the
parts which refifl the protrufion of the tooth or teeth, and
to palliate diflrefTing or troublefome complaints. Some of
thefe, which occur alfo under other circumilances, will be
noticed immediately. See alfo Dentition. Hamilton's
Hints, &c. p. 73, etfeg.

Canker of the mouth, ioncrum oris, as it has been called, s-
mofl commonly connccled with dentition ; it is fopiet
troublefome to remove, but commonly a trivial com; :
It fometimes makes its appearance in the lirfl month, Dr. I
derwood fays ; at others, about the ti.me of teething ; and
frequently at tlie age of fix or feven year?, when children are
thedding their firfl teeth, and the fecond are making their
way through the gums. It confifls of little foul fores cover-
ing the gums, and extending fometimes to the infide of the
lips and cheeks. It is faid to occur during teething moll
frequently where the gums have not been landed. It is
generally ealily cured by keeping the body open, and by
the ufe of fome mild aflringent application to the mouth.
As much white vitriol, or rock alum, as will give a mode-
rate roughnefs to a little honey, is ufually fufScicnt for this
purpofe ; or if it fliould not etfett a cure w hen the complaint
makes its appearance at the time of teething, it will generally
go away as foon as the teeth are protruded. The worll |
fpecies of this complaint, w^itneffed by Dr. Underwood, has
occurred during the fecond period of dentition, when a child j
has been fliedding a number of teeth together, leaving the 1
decayed flumps behind, which have been negletled to be |
drawn out. The whole gums wil then fometimes be fpongy,
or diffolve into foul fpreading ulcers ; and fmall apertures I
will be formed, communicating from one part to another,
accompanied with an aozing ol a fetid and fometimes puru-
lent difcharge. If the flumps of the decayed teeth are
eafily acceffible, they ought to be extraded, and fome aflrin-
gent applications made to the parts, conlifting of myrrh,
Peruvian bark, alum, or cryllals of tartar, made into a pafte [
with honey of rofes, or lotions made with the fame iagrc- |
dients, altringent tinftures, or mineral acids. !

§ 4. Bowel Comj>laiiUs. — Under Uiis head we Ihali include
5 the

ihe d-lor^ers of the whole of the alimentary canal, and of the
organs connected witli it, both hy fun nion and ftrufture.

Thefe conllitu'e, pcrliaps, the moil important triSe of the
diffaf-s of children ; inafmuch as they not only produce con.
fiderable diilrcfs by their dirccl: clFecl in deranging the
fuuftions, but are likewife indiretlly the fource of nurtierous,
feverc, and even fatal conllitutional maladies, both chronic
and acute. Tlie diibrdcrs of the ftomach, indeed, arc feldom
vcrv formidable or Iroublcfome in early life ; but the de-
rangements of the biliary fecrction, of the intellinal caiial,
and of the mefenteric glands and abforbents, wliich are
much connected with each other, are produftive of much
mifchief during the whole period of infancy and childhood.

Siclnffs and Vomit'ing. — A flight degree of ficknefs is_a
very common occurrence in infants, as their lloinach is fo
irritable, tiiat it readily rejects any overload of food. But
this fpontaneous puking is attended with little violence to the
Romach ; the milk, or other aliment, feems to come up
without anv fenfible aftion of the part, or any reaching effort
of the child : and wlien the food is brought up im;nediately
after fucking or feeding, and in an almoll unchanged Itate,
fuch licknefs is obferved to be not incompatible with a
thriving itate. Unlefs when the ficknefs is extremely vio-
lent, therefore, or long continued, it is feldom neceflary to
interfere. But when means are required to moderate or to
allay it, we muft endeavour to afcertain the caufe of the
vom'iting, and apply them accordingly. The caufes of
ficknefs at the ftomach in infants are either fome altered con-
dition of the nurfe's milk, or the prefence of fome indigcf-
tible fubftance in the ftomach. If the nurfe have been under
the influence of any violent emotion of the mind, or if fhe
have begun to be out of order, or even to have the feeiings
preceding that event, it may be concluded that there is fon'.e
morbid change in the milk. During the progrefs of leeth-
JBg, the increafed quantity of faliva, together with its acri-
mony, proves occafionally the caufe of ficknefs. In fuch
cafes the ftomach may require the difcharge of its contents
by means of a gentle emetic : a little warm water or chamo-
mile tea, or, at the moft, fome preparation of ipecacuan, will
anfwer this purpofe. Antimonials, in dofes which excite
vomiting, are frequently injurious to infants, and fometimcs
adually fink, with great rapidity, the hving powers. When
the vomiting is kept up by irritability of the ftomach, which
is fometimesthe confequence of its actions havingbeendifturb-
ed bv a caufe already removed, flight cordials and aromatics
may be given to ftrengthen the organ and abate its fenfibility,
and if thefe fail, fome" iiimulant or anodyne may be applied
external'y.

It mult be obferved, however, that habitual vomiting from
over-diftention of the ftomach, to which many infants are
liable, may lay the foundation for future weaknefs of the
digeltive organs, and (hould therefore be guarded againlt by
every precaution. For this reafon, infants ought not to be
allow*! to fuck too much at a time, and large quantities of
fpoon-meat Ihould never be given in the early months.

Diarrhaa or Loof-nefs. — The natural appearance of the
ftools of infants ftiould be familiar to every praaitioner. In
general the colour is that of a bright orange, the conliftence
i» pulpy and curdled, and the fmell is not offenfue. Any
deviation in thefe refpects marks fome difeafed ftate ot the
ftomach or bowels. During infancy, from two to four
evacuations, within the twenty-four hours, feem neceflary and
ufef.il ; and even where that number is exceeded, it is not
to be regarded as injurious, unlefs the health be impaired, or
the flrfti be rendered flabby. The appearance of the ftools,
io cafes of diarrhoea, is very various. When they arc green,
and at the fame time emit a four fmell, which arifes froiK the

INFANTS.

prevalence of acidity in the firft palTagPS, there is n"-n»rally
griping and fretfulnefs, but the complumt is not d.. ig.rous

It generally yields to a laxative, or, in very youn ; -nfants,
to a medicine compofed of a little magnefia and riiubarb,
with a little diftiUed water of dill or penny-royal, with a
few drops of a.mmoniacal fpirit, or of the compound tinfture
of camphor. The nurfe's food ftiould be regulated in this
caf'. and the infant ought to have no other food, in addition
to the milk, than arrow-root.

Slimy ftools are generally the cfTeA of expofiire to cold,
though they occafionally arife from fome irritation or accu-
mulation in the bowels. In both cafes they are apt to be
flightly ftreaked with blood. If there be violent pain, or
fvmptoms of fever, introfufception is to he dreaded. A-
dofe of cold-drawn caftor oil, together with the warm-bath,
or fomentation of the belly with flannf is wrung out of hot^
water, arc commonly all that are necifiary, if the dileafe be
attended to at the beginning. Where flimy ftools are of
the colour of clay, and emit a putrid fmell, the infant foon
becomes emaciated, and the dileafe often terminates fatally,
though its progrefs be flow. Alteratives, with opiate fric-
tions" and occalional purgatives, afford the chief means «£
relief. If the infant be ft'ill at the breaft, the milk fliould be
changed, a pradice which ought to be adopted in every iu-
ftance where there is great tendency to loofenefs._

The moft diftrefllng cafes of diairliaa are chole in which
the ftools are liquid, brown, black, or clay-coloured, and
of an offeniive fmell. As the dilordcr proceeds, very un-
favourable fymptoms occur, fuch as emaciation ai.d drynefs
of the fttin, fwelh'ig or flirinking of the belly, with an al-
tered appearance of the countenance ; and there is a conftant
fretting or peevifnnefs of temper. Swellingsof the glands
of the groin, and a little unealinefs of breathiug, as if there
were a (liirht tendency to cough, are alfo very unfavourable
fymptoms. In m.any of thefe cafes the purging is the ef-
fect of a difeafed ftate of fome of the digeftive organs, or of
the mefenteric glands ; but in others it arifes from an ir-
regular action of'the former organs. In thefe diforders fome
practitioners begin the treatment by the ufe of emetics ;
but the advantages of thefe medicines are not very obvious,
while the dil",jdvaiitages rofultiiig from their debilitating and
irritating qualities in the ftomach are fometimes unequivocal.
On the whole, the continued ufe of alterative medicines,
which maintained a fteady but genlle action upon the ali-
mentary canal and the adjoining vifcera, feems to be the
moft fuccefsful treatment i:i thefe c(m.pla;uts ; the phyfician,
at the fame time, corrtcting and modifying their operatio.i.
according to circumftances, and palliating urgent fymptoms.
Part ofVtiediet, in thefe cafes, fliould coiiiift of weak beef,
tea or chicken broth, with rioe, or boiled cow :■ milk with
baked flour, or arrow-root. The oceafional ufe ol injections
of thin flarch and laudaQum, m the proporllun uf eight or
ten drops of the latter to l-.\o table-fjioonfids of the forx;.T,
may be employed to ir.ud.i-ate the difcharge when th.s
ftrerigth is much leduccd.

Of the frvere and often fatal fpecies of dianhcra, jufl
alluded to, there is one form which is known in Scotland
by the name of the " ivea,.<ng hrafi," and which has been,
well dofcribed by Dr Clieyne. (Eflays on the Difeafes
of Children. Efl". ii.) It occurs after weaning a child too
fuddenly, efpecially at an unfavourable k-afon, as the autumn.
It commences, fometimes two or three days after weaning,
but frequently not for three or four weeks, with a purging
and griping, 'and green ftools. This, being crroneouily
afcribed to teething, is perhaps neglcfted, and tlie fymp-
toms increafe, a retching and vomiting fupervene, and are
cradiially followed by a loalliing of every kind of food,
** ' emaciatioa-

INFANTS.

emaciation and foflnefs of the flefli, reftlefliiefs, thirft, and
fever of a heclic charafter. But the moll cliaraftcriilic
fymptom of this difeafe is a conilant peevillinefs, the edeft
of unceaiing; griping pain, expieffed by the uhinc oi the
child, but t-f!iecially by the fettled difcontent of its features.
In the proajrefs of the difcafe, the evacuations from tlie
belly fhew very different aflions of the inteftincs, and great
changes in the biliary fecretion ; for they arc fometimes of
a natural colour, at other times (limy and alh-coloured, and
fometimes lienteric. The difeafe feldom proves fatal before
the fixth or feventh week ; but fometimes an earlier ter-
mination is fuddenly produced by inceffant vomiting and
purging, or by convulfions, from the extreme irritation in
the bowels.

By diffettion Dr. Cheyne afcertained the ftate of the
vifcera in children who had died of this difeafe. In every
cafe the intellinal canal, from the ftomach downward,
abounded with fmgular contraftions, and had in its courle
one or more intus-fufceptions ; the liver was exceedingly
firin, larger than natural, and of a bright red colour; and
the gall-bladder, which was enlarged, contained a dark-green
bile. In fome diffedions the mefenteric glands were found
fwelled and inflamed ; in others, however, they were fcarrely
enlarged, and had no appearance of inflammation. It is
probable, tlierefore, that this difeafe is owing to an in-
creafed fecretion of acrid bile, or rather to the morbid ftate
of the liver which occafions this ; and that the extremely
irritable ftate of the whole abdominal vifcera, marked by
the fpafmodic contraftions and intus-fufceptions, &c. is
occafioned by the prefence and paffage of this acrid ex-
cretion.

As the exciting caufe of this iveamug Irnfi is apparently
too fudden an alteration of the diet of a child at an unfit
feafon, it follows that children ought at all times, but more
particularly in the autumn, to be weaned gradually, aiKl
well accuftomed to the food on which they are afterwards
to fubfift before' they are finally taken from the breaft.
At the beginning of the difeafe, or even later, when the
sfttack is flight, Dr. Cheyne recommends a dofe or two of
rhubarb, to the extent of five or fix grains, at the interval
of two days between each dofe ; and that, m th.e mean time,
the child (liould take half or a third part of a grain of
ipecacuan powder, mixed with fix or eight grains of pre-
pared chilk, and a fmall portion of fome aromatic powder, as
cafiia, every four or five hours. A Itarch glyfter, with five
or fix drops of laudanum in it, may be adminiftered at bed
time with advantage, if there be much griping along with
the purging. Th<; fnccefs of thcfe remedies, however, will
depend upon a ftriil attention to diet. An animal diet pro-
duces lefs irritation than one vvhiih is folely compofcd of
vegetable matter. Eggs, the finer kind of light fhip-bifcuit,
or arrow-root, cuftard, the juice of lean meat, plain ani-
maLjellics, broths freed from their oily part, and milk, are
proper articles of nourifhment. The breaft milk might
perhaps be reftored with advantage. Vegetables of all
forts, particularly fruits, acids, and compofitions of which
fugar or butter form a part, and- fermented liquors of
every kind fhould be ftridly prohibited. The feet fhould
Le-4wpt warm by woollen ilockings, and flannel worn next
the fidn ; and the warm bath and fomentations may be fre-
quently ufed to alleviate the continual fpafms. Dr. Cheyne,
however, taught by fubfequent experience, recommends
fmall dofes of calomel as the moft effeftual remedy againft
tiie weaning brafh, and other chronic forms of bilious
diarrhtea. He generally gave half a grain of calomel, morn-
ing and evening, or a grain every night, for a week or ten
days. After the third or fourth dofe there is generally a

great change, he fays, in the colour of the alvine difch".rg<> ;
it becomes of a dark mrhogany colour, and is in gei, ..I
more offenfive. When this change takes place it prod- icc3
a favourable chaiige in the diforder. Soon aftCKwardb, il;e
children become free from fever, more placid, and in n
day or two more their appetite returns, with their fc-n^r
complexion, and every otlier demonllralion of health. '.
never fovind, he adds, in the many cafes in which he
given c.ilomel, that it produced faliva»ion, or any '■
luipleafant effed. Cheyne, Effay ii. On the IJowcl C
pi lints more immediately conneiled . with the Bihary
cretion.

Cojlmenffs. — This oppofite condition of the bowels, tlv
feldom occurring in young infants, is prodnftive, in chil
a li'tle more advanced, of many diftrcfling complaints, fc.^
infants,, indeed, feem to be habitually coftive ; and the-.
certainly a confiderable variety, in relpedl to the ftnl,- •;
the bov.'els, in different individuals. But what may be p:;^-
peily termed coftivenefs is never to be regarded as a ii:\-
tural deviation peculiar to any infant: it is always t'..-
effcft of difeafe, or of the nurfe's miik, or of the food. If
one copious evacuation lake pl.ice every twenty-four hor.i:,
and the infant be thriving, there is no occafion for ini i -
feivnce ; but if there he any greater torpor of the bov. i ■
than this, fuitable remedies are to be employed. It i.s i -
ncrally proper to treat the cafe at tirit as if it were ;,iij
confequence of difeafe ; aid on this account a brlft ln-ui-
tive may be given every day, for four or five times |i e-
cefiively. The beil laxatives for infants are manna, ca'ci-Ad
magnefia, calomel, and cold drawn ca(lor-oil ; and Dr. \\:.-
railton recommends a laxative fyrup, prepared with treiicle
and a ftrong infufion of fenna.

Where thefe means fail, there is reafon to attribute tie
coftivenefs to the nurfe's milk. SoineLimes that peculi;ir
ftate of the milk may be altered by regulating the diet,
and openiiig freely the bowels of the nurfe. While proper
means are tried for this purpofe, the infant's bowels are
to be kept clear by fome mild laxative. But if it be found
that the milk IHll poU'cfles that injurious quality, the nurfe
fhould, if poilible, be changed Where this cannot be done,
four or five drops of antimonial wine may be given to the
infant every night at bed-time, and inftead of the ordinary
food, panada, made with fmall beer and treacle, fhould be
fubltituted.

Temporary coftivenefs may be at any time removed by
a fiippofitory, made of a fmall piece of yellow foap, ftiaped
like a very large Dutdi vvriting-qnill. This may be ren.
dcred more powerful, if neceffary, by being dipped, previous
to ufe, into fome powdered fea-falt. Suppofitories are more
efficacious in infants, and much more eafily .managed than
glyftcrs, though thefe latter means are alio fometimes ufe-
ful. In cafes of obftinatecondipation, attended with fymp-
toms of great opprefiion, aloes, fufpended in treacle or
fyrup, is more powerful than any other laxative ; from four
to eight grains may be thus given for a dofe. Many prac-
titioners err. Dr. Hamilton affirms, by direfting too fmall
dofes of laxative jr.edicines for infants. .

At a more advanced period of childhood, a morbid ftate
of the alimentary canal, of which cojVivfriefs is a confpi-
cuous fymptom, frequently occurs, and is the fource of
fdveral' varieties of difcafe, both chronic and acute, which
conllitute perhaps the moft frequent maladies of the puerile.
age. The'firft of thefe, to v/hich we fliall dirett the attention
of the reader, has been called, by Dr. Hamilton, fenior,
phyfioian to the Royal Infirmary at Edinburgh, marafmus.
See his Obfervations on- Purgative Medicines, chap. iii.
edit. 2d.

INFANTS.

;i Marafmus inckideJ a variety of fymptoms wliicli afled
chilJren of both fcxcs. The difeafe ileals on gradually,
and the following arc the early fymptoms by which it is
characterized : a flug^gifhnefs, and laflitude oji flight exer-
tion, <lepravity and lofs of appetite, a flabbinofs and wailing
of the mufcular llefh, fuhiefs of the features, and paleiiefs
or party colour of the countenance, fwelliiig of the upper
Kp, a conilant itchmg of the nofe, foetid breath, with a
fwelling of the belly, an irregular and generally coftive Hate
of the bowels, and a change in the colour and odour of the
fxces. When thefe fymptoms have continued for fome time
Other more urgent complaints enfue. There is an alternate
palenefs and flufhing of the countenance, followed by heat
and drynefs of the ikin, feeble and quick pulfe, thirll:, great
frctfulnefs, increafing debility, and difturbed lleep, during
which the little patients grind or gnafh their teeth, and
are fubjeft to involuntary ftarting, and twitrhing of- the
different mufcles, and, when awake, to a conilant picking
of the noftrils or lips, or even of the eyes, and to involuntary
gclliculations, approaching to convulfions.

Every cafe of marafmtis does not neceflarily include all
thefe fymptoms ; for they occur in different combinations.
The difeafe appears moll commonly among weak and in-
firm children, whether they are fo froiu delicacy of con-
ftitution, or from incidental caufes. It is particularly
prevalent in large and populous cities, where children are
deprived of ready accefs to exercife in pure air, and ficken
and pine in the nurfery ; or when they are confined in
crowded and airleis fehool-rooms, whither they are fent, partly
for the purpofes of education, and partly, to ufe a com-
mon phrafe, with the view of being kept out of harm's way.
Children alfo, who are employed in manufaftories, where
their occupation and confinement are fuch as to weaken
and enervate them, are liable to be attacked with this dif-
eafe. Irregularity in diet and improper food alfo give rife
to marafmus. It is accordingly obferved to prevail raoft
in the fummer and autumn, the feafons which atford an op-
portunity of eating unripe fruit and vegetable articles from
the garden.

Marafmus has generally been attributed to the prefence
of worms in the alimentary canal. But the afcar'tdcs, which
are often pafied in great numbers by children, are not ac-
companied, excepc incidentally, by the fymptoms of ma-
rafmus ; and the txma, or tape-worm, is altogether un-
known in. infancy and childhood. The lumbrkus, or round
■worm,' mufl therefore be the ger.eraliy fuppofed caufe of
the lymptoms of marafmus. But the difeafe occurs, in
numerous in'lances, and is cured, when no worms are fecn ;
and, on the other hand, the prefence of himlrici in the
bowels is by no means an uniform caufe of bad health, and
has been frequently noticed when marafmus did not occur.
Various anthelmintic medicines, however, have been fuc-
celTively in vogue for the cure of the difeafe, upon the
fuppofition of the exitlence of worms ; but the utihty of
fuch of them as have been found to be moft beneficial,
pr. Hamilton believes to have been in proportion to the
purgative powers which they pofl'efled. He fays, "when
I confider the languor and laifitude wh'ch precede this ma-
rafmus ; when I recolleft the con.litutional or acquired
debility of thofe who are more particularly expofed to be
affeded by it ; inftead of adopting ihe common opinion, of
its being occafioned by worms, I am more difpofed to
tliink, that a torpid Hate, or weakened aftiun of the ali-
Bicntary canal, is the immevliate caufe of the difeafe ;
whence proceed ccftivenefs, dilleniioii of thi bowels, and a
peculiar irritation, the confequcnce of rem(,ra of the faeces.
I have accordingly been long in ihe habit of employing

purgative medicines for the cure of this marafmus ; the
object is to remove indurated and fatid fcEces, the accu-
mulation perhaps of montlis ; and as this objeft is accom-
pliiliing, the- gradual return of appetite and vigour mark
the progrefs of recovery." Obf. on Purg. Med. p. 51.

Since the praftical conclufions are the fame, it is not of
material importance by what theoretical views they are fup-
ported ; but we accord with the following obfervations of
Dr. Hamilton, junior, (profeffor of midwifery at Edin-
burgh, whofe excellent " Hints for the Treatment of the
principal Difeafes of Infants, &c." we have before quoted.)
" There can be little doubt," he fays, " that neither the mere
accumulation of the llools, nor the torpor of the bowels,
on which that appears to depend, can explain the various
fymptoms produced by this condition of the digcftive or-
gans. There is every reafon to fuppofe that there is an al-
tered aClion, not only in the llomach and intellines, but alfo
in the liver and lafteals. perhajis in all the parts concerned
in the digeftion of the food. When this has continued for
a certain time, the accumulation of acrid matter, which is
the confequence, addi greatly to the irritation, and while all
this is going on, the circulating juices become depraved.'*'
Hints, &c p. 11^.

In the treatniM of marafmus, then, the leading objefts are,,
to remove the accumulating mafs of morbid and irritating
fxces from the bowels, to alter the morbid aftions of the
digeftive organs, and to palliate the dillreffing fymptoms
which occur. The two firll, which arc the curative indica-
tions, are both fulfilled by a Heady and perfevering admi--
niflration of purgative medicines.

In the incipient ilage, while the difeafe is mild, the bow-
els are not altogether torpid and inaftive, neither are they
overloaded with accumulated fa»ces. Mild purgatives, there-
fore, repeated at proper intervals, efFefl a cure. Theypre-
ferve the bowels in proper action, carry off fsces which had
begun to be offenfive and hurtful, and prevent farther accu-
mulation. The difeafe yields- in a few days to this treat-
ment, and all that is farther required is fome tonic medi--
cine, which (hall ftrengthen the ftomach and bowels, to-
gether with a due regulation of diet, and occafionally a
purgative at bed-time, the patient being likewife much in
the open air. Preparations of iron are found the bell to-
nics in thefe cafes ; and children readily take the w'ine of
iron, or the filings covered with fugar. In felefting the.
purgatives, it is neceffary to flatter the tafle of our young
patients. Powder of jalap is not altogether unpleafant :
the mild neutral faits, dilTolved in a fuitable q;:antity of
beeftea, are alfo convenient purgatives : but c-alomel will
prove, on feveral accounts, the moll certain and ufeful.
remedy of this kind.

When the confirmed ftage of marafmus has been allowed
to arrive, m.anifcft danger threatens the young fufferer, whofe ■
remaining flefh and ftrength are rapidly wafted by the fuper-
vening fever ; while proilration and depravity of appetite
withhold necefiary nouriniment, and at the fame time the
more inadive Hate of the bowels, and greater bulk of fecu-
Icut matter, throw additional difBculties in the way of a
cure. Under thefe circumllances, an aftive.praftice ihould
be adopted, with the view of Himulating the inteHines, and
of putting the collciled mafs in motion without' d*>lay.
Thefe ends are beH obtained by giving fmall dofes of the
purgative medicine, and by repeating thefe frequently, fo
that the latter dofes may fupport the effefts of the pre-
ceding ones. When the bowels are once opened, Hronger
purgatives, given at longer intervals, will accomplifh the ■
cure.

WhiiQ the purgative inedicine& are thus exhibited, it is ;
abfolutely.

INFANTS.

abfolutely nffcefTary, in order to have full information of their
^ffffts, to infpeft daily what is paifed by ftool. The fmell
and appearance of the fxces are a criterion of tlie progrels
that is made in the cure, and dircA the farther adiuiniilra-
tion of the purgatives. Tliis infpeftion is the more nccef-
fary, as we cannot expect tlie information we want fi-om
our little patients, and we fhall often look for it in vain
from the attendants, whofe prejudices, and whofe ignorance
of our views, prevent them from feeing the propriety of the
inquiry. During the prevalence of this difeafe, the fvcces
are dark, foetid, and varying from a coftive conlillcncc to
that of clay, and are often fluid ; and fuck they appear
upon the firll exhibition of the purgative medicines. It
may be obferved, that the recovery of the I'lck keeps pace
with the return of feces of a natural colour, form, and
fmell, — a change which the repetition of purgatives doesnoL
fail to produce.

While the purgatives are given in this manner, in the
confirmed (late of marafmus, in whicli the obllinacy of the
difeafe is fometimes great, and the danger attending it im-
minent, nourifliing food, of light and digelliblc quality,
and fuited to the talle of the patie;U, and the moderate ufe
of wine, are much required. For tome ti.iie alter the
fymptoms have difappeared, it is expedient to continue a
mild ilimulus to the bowels. As they have recently Aif-
fered, and have been v.eakened by over-diltention, they are
apt to favour fubiequcnt accumulation of fasces, the fore-
runner of a relapfe, which is to be dreaded the more, as the
patients have been weakened by the previous difeafe. And
fo far from being attended with any danger, this gentle fo-
licitation of the alvine difcharge, ( for it ought to be gentle,)
is the greateft promoter of recovery. (Hamilton's Obf. on
Purg.) At the clofe of the difeafe, ilrengthening mcdicinei>,
fuch as chalybeates, and the infufions of bitter vegetables,
may be employed with foHie advantage to complete the
cure.

As marafmus proceeds from fymptoms of flight indifpo-
fition, which are eafily obviated by proper ftimulus and eva-
cuation of the bowels, through a feries of others which
become daily more and more obftinate and dangerous, the
health of children (hould be watched with great afiiduity.
Proltration and depravity of appetite, a changing complex-
ion, tumefattvjn of the abdomen, fcanty and unnatural
llools, and foetid breath, indicate approaching danger. When
thefe, therefore, are obferved, the afiillance of medicine
(hould be reforted to, by the prompt ufe of which much
eventual dillrefs, and even death itfelf, may be prevented.
But otlier confiderations call for this affiduity. Marafmus
has a clofe connexion with fome other formidable difcafes,
and either precedes or feems to accompany them ; of thefe
we may- notice more particularly two, hydrocephalus and
epHcbfy.

Qi tlie HvDUOCEPll.\LU,s inhrnus, the bane of infancy
and of childhood, we have given an ample account under
its proper head. The pathology of the difeafe has been the
fubject of much variety of opinion, and is ftill involved in
fome obfeurity. Thus much, however, is known, that it
often Heals {lowly on, with fymptoms refembling thofe of
incipient marafmus ; and that where it has been believed to
exili, from tlie prefence of fome of its mod charaAeriftic
fymptoms, a diligent exhibition of purgative medicines has
fucceeded in relloi-iiig health. Too much attention, there-
fore, cannot be paid, to prevent the confirmed Hate of ma-
rafmus. See Hvd«0(:ki'HALU.s.

Epilcpfy, which is a difeafe moll diftreirmg to the patient,
and perpk'xing to the phyfician, alfo often appears in child-
kood. It is coHllrmed by the repetition of the fits, till their

frequency and the force of habit fix it, and make it a oonRi- '
tutional difeafe for life. Now it is generally underftood,
that tlie iirll attacks of epilepfy are not always idiopathic,
but arc frequently the effedt of particular irritation of tiie
body or mind. There are numerous inftances, indeed, of
irritation of the body inducing epilepfy ; and, in children,
when no other is evident, the loaded intelline, and the
morbid change induced in its conlents, in the courfe of
the marafmus above dcfcribed, may be fufpected of giving
the irritation in quelHon. In faft, wwrnio in the inteftines
(or vtarafmus, for we may thus inUrpret the language of
medical wriiert.) have been iii'-iuion.-d an.ong the caufcs of
epikpfy, Surely, thtielore, itii, couiidL-ration fuggefts
another cogent rcafon for watching the nfe and progrefs
of mara&nus: and it will induce us, on the firft at-
tack of epilepfy in childreu, ariling from an uncertain
caufe, to fct on foot a decided and aflivc courfe of pur-
gative medicines : and not to incur the rilk of allowing
the difeafe to ftrikc root, while we are idly employed iii
the exhibition of inert and ufelefs vermifwge medicines ;
or are groping in the dark in queft of other caufes of the
difeafe, or of uncertain lemedies for their removal.

Colic pahit arc not uncommon in infants at the bread;
for the dencacy of the bowels renders them liable to be af-
fected by the moll apparently trifling caufe'^. Hotice expo-
fure to cold, inattention to changing the clothes vvlien they
become wet, loo great a quantity of fpoou-meat, fome
fault in the milk, too large dofos of magnefia, and a col.
ledlion of acid (lime, or of air in the flomach and bowels,
may fevenJly be produdlive of this complaint. If an in-
fant be fretful by -fits, or at intervals, if its upper lip look
blueiih or livid, if it writhe or contort its body, and draw
up its linrbs towards the llomach, and more efpecially if it
occaiionally pafs wind, which feems to afford relief, there
is good rcafon to fuppofe it afTtcled with colic. The leffer
degrees of this complaint are uf temporary duration, and
fo well underllood, that a medical practitioner is feldom
confulted on the fubjecl. But the more violent degrees af-
iume an appearance, which feldom fails to occafion much
anxiety and alarm. Excelfive and long continued flirieking,
great fever, indicated by the heat of the ikin and flulbing
of the face, opprelfed breathing during the intei-vals of the
fcreaming, and the evidence of pain being occalioned by the
llighteft prcffure on the belly, are the ordinary fytnptomt
in fuch cafes.

With refpeft to one of the caufes of colic above-men-
tioned, the exhibition of too much magnefia, it may be ohi
ferved, that many women, from the befl motives, but the
moll improper views, torment their infants with the frequent
adininiilration of this drug : becaufe it has little tafte, they
naturjlly imagine that it can do no injury. But its opera-
tion depends on its undergoing a change, by combination
with acids, in the llomach and bowels, which gives it the"
fame properties as tlic laxative falts ; and it is obvious, if
too large a dofe of thefe occafion cohc pains in grown
perfons, the magnefia mull, when given in too great quan-
tity, or when there is much predominant acid in tlie firft
pafTages, produce the fame elfecls in infants. Too much
fugar, put into the meat of children, tends to generate
much acid ; whence it gives occafion to thefe pains, as well
as to the green colour and four fmell of the ilools, the,
green colour being occafioned by the mixture of an acid with:
the bile.

In (light degrees of colic, a fev\r drops of Dalby's car-
minative, mixed with fugar and water, and a dofe of cold
drawn caftor-oil, if the bowels be confined, are all that are
iieceflaryi The top common pradlice of giving fpirits and

water

INFANTS.

water to infants cannot be reprobated in terms fufl\piently
flrong. Profeflbr Hamilton aircrts, from his perfonal know-
ledgL^, that many infants are annually dcllroyed in Edin-
burgli by this moil unnatural praAice ; and we have too
m'ich evidence that the fame prnftice is conftantly refortcd
to by nurfes on this fide the Tweed. The bed mode of
preventing (light degrees of colic, is to take cai-e that the
infant do not fuck too much at a time ; to promote the
difcharge of any air that may be fwhllowed while fucking,
by gently tofiing the child now and then before his flomach
be filled ; to proportion the quantify of fpoon-mcat to the
po'.vcrs of Irs digeftion ; and to regulate the diet of the
nurfc, as it is now well known, that after certain articles
of food, (fuch as particidar kinds of malt-liquor and of ve-

fetables,) a great deal more air than ufual is feparated
uring digeflion from the milk.

In the more violent degrees of colic, the treatment mud
be varied according to the circumfiances of the individual
cafe. If it feem to arife from the accumulation of {lime,
or from fome fault in the milk, fuitable dofcs of cold drawn
caftor-oil, or magnefia and rhubarb, together with the wai . i-
bath, or fomentations of the belly, are to be employed.
But if the bowels be quite open, and the complaint have
been evidently excited by expofure to cold, or fome external
circumfiances; along with the warm-bath or fomentations, opi-
ates, in the form of anodyne balfam, rubbed on the belly, may
be fafely prefcribed. Preparations of opium fliould almoil
never be given internally to infants, as they may do, and have
done, irreparable mifchief. Dr. Hamilton recommends the
tiufture of hyofcyamus as a fubllitute. When conllipation at-
tends colic, the moft aclive means of opening the bowels are
to be reforted to. For this purpofe even large dofes of calo-
mel, followed by cold drawn ca(lcr-oil and laxative glyflers,
are fometimes infulficient, and more powerful purgatives mull
be devifed.

Inirofjfception, or tn'.us-fufcept'ion, is a very dangerous difeafe,
which refcmbles colic fo much, that it fometimes requires
great praftical difcernment to draw the line of diftin&ion
between the two difeafes. This diforder confifls of the
pafTagc or inverfion of one portion of the inteitines into an-
other, together with a flriilure and confequeiit inflammation
in the introfufcepted portion. Sometimes thefe are fuch as lo
clofe the canal ; but in other cafes, the pafTage through the
■ gut, though narrowed, remains free. Inirofujcept'wn is oc-
cafioned by violent irritation and fpafmodic action of a part
of the gut, and this may be excited by worms, by morbid
fasces, or undigefled aliment, by dradic purgatives, &c. ;
whence "it is fometimes the confequence of colic.

If, along with the ordinary fymptoms of very violent
•olic, the pu'fe be unnaturally flow, or if there be urgent
calls to void the flools, and nothing but flime, or flime
tinged with blood be pafTed, there is much reafon to dread the
cxtflence of this difeafe.

When !ntrrfufcept'ior. is difcovered at the beginning, it often
yields to the ufe of leeches, warm fomentations, and a medi-
cine calculated to e.xci;e both vomiting and purging. But
if its nature be overlooked or mifimdcrftood, even for a few
hours, the fatal event can hardly be prevented. A dif-
charge of blood from the bowels, but more often ilupor and
Occafional convulfions, precede death. Hamilton's " Hints.'"
See al.''o the furgical article Intro-, or Intus-susceptiok.
. Prohpfus ant, or falling down nf the gut, that is, a partial
everfion of the recliim. or llraight gut, through the funds-
pent, is a corr.mon efTetl of bowel-complaints in weakly
cTiildren ; and feenis to confill of a relaxation of the gut,
which is forced downwards by any irritation that excites
conllant or frequent efforts to expel fxces, followed by fome

Vox.. XIX.

degree of fpafmodic llriflure in the y}^!>inffermv(ch, whicU
prevents it from returning. It is generally of temporary
<l;n\\lion only, and is cal-ily replaced by flight prtfTure.
Nurfcs commonly apply a piece of woollen cloth or a na;kin
for this purpofe, but, Dr. Hamilton fays, a better plan is to
Ir.y the child upon liis face, to feparate his thighs, and then to
prefs together both his buttocks. If thofe means fail, it be-
comes neccffary to introduce the fore-finger, prcvioufly
greafed,into the gut, to remove the flrifture from the fphinc-
ter. This is a more fafe and fpeedy method than the app'ica-
tion of allringent fubltanccs to the protruded parts, which
might irritate or inflan;e them. With the view of preventing
the frequent recurrence of this moR unplcafant, though not
dangerous complaint, all irritations of the bowels ought tcr
be guarded againil ; the tin/es flipuld be dipped tv.icc a day
into a tubful of cold water, in whicli a red-hot iron had been
frequently quench.ed, and the child ought to be made to fit
regularly on a firm hard feat. In fome inllancrs the relaxa-
tion cf the parts becomes fo great, that the gut defcends evtry
tim.etlio child goes to (lool. In this cafe, aflringent lotions,
applied by means of a comprcfs of foft tow, have been refortcd
to with fucccfs ; or fuppofitories of various fubflances have
been introduced into the bowel after going to Ilool, giving^
mechanical fupport to the parts.

y/crnis in theintcflines, r.ltlwugh commonly fuppofed to be
the caufe of all the varieties of marafmus, are much lefs fre.
quent caufes of difeafe in children, as we have above flatcd,
than other morbid changes in the digsflive organs. None
of the three varieties of mteflinal worms, however, arc pe-
culiar to children ; zx\A xho: tenia, or tape-ivorm, is feldom, if
ever, found in infants. Of the nfcariides, or fmnll thread-
worms, as they have been called, a full account has already
been given ; and a defcriprion of the lamlyicus, or round-
worm, will be found under its proper head. For the fymptom.s'
of ivorms, as they are commonly related, fee th6 foregoing
hillory of Mavafmus.

§ 5. Febrile Dijeafcs. — Infants and children are liable to
moil of the fevers which affecl adults, both contagious
and non-contagious ; although within the firfl eight or ten
months they are not fo fufceptible of the influence of conta-
gion, as they afterward become. A fucking child will
fometimes efcape the infedion cf fcarlet-ft-ver, meafles, and
even the fmali-pox, which fcizes the reft of a young family.
Each of the difeafes juft mentioned, as well as the whoop-
ing-cough, chicken-po>:, and catarrhal fevers, which are
among the diforcers, which children feldom efcape, are fnf.
ficiently im.portant for ft'parate confidcration refpeftively.
(See Feveii, Scarlet, Me.-vsi.ek, S.mai.l-po.x, Pertus.sis,
Varicella, and Ciioup ;' alfo Cow-rocx.) Our attention,
in this place, will be chiefly confined to a form of fever,
which is in fome rr.eafure peculiar to infants, and is nov.- ge-
nerally knov.'n by the name of " infantile remittent fever."
The infantile remittent fever, or febris infantum remittens, ai
it was firit denominated by Dr. Butter, might perhaps have
been included without impropriety under the foregomg fac-
tion, among the difordcrs originating in the bowels ; for it is
now pretty generally underllood, that this fever is conne£led
with a morbid Hate of the excretions in that canal. As the
m.arafmus, above defcribed, has been commonly attributed
to the prefcnce of worms in the inteflines ; fo this fever ha*
been afcribed to the fame caufe, and has been called the
luormfe'ver ; partly, it would feem, from the occafional dif-
charge of worms during the courfe of the fever, and partly
from the famenefs of the fymptoms of irritation in the bowels,
from whatever caufe it may arifc. This fever was called
Hedica febris infantum by Sydenham, and Hedica infantilis by
Sauvages, from the flow and ii:oderate progrets which itcom-
M loonlT

INFANTS.

moiiiy makes ; and for tKe fame reafon, Hoffman gave it
the appellauon of Febr'u lenta infantum.

The fever in queftionis moft commonly preceded for feme
d;\ys, and occaiionally for weeks, by fymptoms of in-
dilpofition, mu .li refembling the early fymptoms of maraf-
vuis. The child is obferved not to look well, and his colour
often changes. He is indolent, fpiritlefs, and fretful ; fre-
quently picks his nufc, lips, and fingers, even fometimes till
he draws blood : his breath is o.Fenfive, and he is affefted
with a fhort dry cough. If he can fpcak, he complains of
pain in his head, or belly, or both : and when ilill older,
he fays alfo that he is faint and weak. He has a defire fur
drink more than for food ; is much troubled with wind ;
and his belly is fometimes larger than natural. In his
lleep, he Harts, moans, and makes a grating noife with his
teeth. His urine puts on a milky appearance almoft as foon
as made, and, in a few miiuites, depofits a fediment of the
fame colour, leaving the body of the urine witli very little
colour. His bowels are generally in the extreme, being
eitlier coftive or loofe.

After thefe fymptoms have continued for a longer or
fhorter time, the fever makes its appearance, fometimes pre-
ceded by a diftinCl cold fit, at other times, however, fo
gradual in its approach, that the commencement is not ob-
ferved. It always aflumes more or lefs of the remittent
form, when it is dillinftly feen, and the exacerbations are
long, and the remiffions ihort, in proportion to the violence
of the fever. During the exacerbation all the fymptoms are
jncreafed ; there is great heat of fliin, and the patient is drowfy,
andfleeps, but not foundly ; for he ilarts, moans, talks in-
coherently, and even fcreams in his fleeps. The wind is
particularly troublefome, makes a rumbling noife in the
Isowels, and is exploded copioufly both upwards and down-
wards, with manifeil relief The cough is more frequent,
and the breathing is quickened and opprefled. The patient is
often fick, and fometimes retches, and even vomits phlegmy
ttuff of various colours. The pulfe beats from a hundred
and forty to a hundred and fixty pulfations in the minute.
In the remifBons, all the fymptoms abate. The patient is
wakeful, is attentive to things around him, often inchnes to
be playful, and is in general averfe to lying in bed. What
fleep he has is ufually compofed. The pulfe beats from a
hundred and twenty to a hundi-ed and thirty ftrokes in a
minute.

Thefe exacerbations and remiffions often occur with a con-
fiderable degree of regularity; the exacerbation generally be-
ginning in the evening, and the remiffion taking place in the
morning : but in the more acute form of the difeafe, there are
one or two (horter exacerbations during the day. In the
latter cafe, both in the exacerbations andremifGons the (Ivin
is commonly dry : when fweats happen, they are partial,
affefting only the head, breaft, or palms. The belly and
palms are always warmer than any other part of the body.
Where there is only thenofturnal exacerbation, it is ufually
terminated by a profiife fwcat ; and through the day, the
fkin is temperate, but feels dry and harfti. The patient
has no appetite, and fcarcely any thirll ; fo that in many
cafes, it is with great difficulty that he can be made to take
cither food or drink. The (late of the bowels is uncertain ;
but the ftools are always unnatural, either as to their colour,
eonfiftence, contents, or fmell : moll commonly they are
morbid in all thefe refpefts ; for they are either whiter or
darker than natural ; they are always more offcnfive ; are
feldom without a great deal of (lime, and fometimes confill
of nothing but flime : fometimes they froth and ferment hke
yeaft.

The patients frequently pafs worms in the courfe of tlu«
fever, even when they were never known to void any before.
Thefe worms are not only thrown off by vomiting and llool,
but arc fometimes obferved to work tliemfclves out of the
body both ways, feemingly unaffitted by any exertions on
the part of the patient's organs. But in many cafes of
this fever, no worms are ever feen.

When the lever is on the dechne, the exacerbations grow
milder and fhorter, and at length diiappear one after
another ; the appetite returns by degrees ; the fleep becomes
calm and refrerfinig, attended with a general moifture of the
flvin, and the ilools approach more and more to the natural
ilate, till they become as in health. The duration of this fe-
ver, in its more acute form, is from eight or ten days to a iort-
night or three weeks ; in the more flow and mild form, it
will lall for two or three months or more.

That the caufe of this remittent fever of children lies in
the alimentary canal, and is of the fame nature with tliat
from which marafmus, and fevefal other infantile difeaics
originate, has not been doubted fnice it was fo well pointed
oul by Dr. Butter. It is proved, in the firft place, by the
fimilarity of the fymptoms with which it is preceded ami
ufliered in, and, fecondly, by the nature of the alvine dif-
charges during its continuance, but more efpecially by the
fuccefs of the pradlice, which is founded upon this princi-
ple, and confilis in carrying off the accumulation of mor-
bid excretions from the bowels, and augmenting their
ilrength. The fame caufe operating in different conftitu-
tions, will produce a difierent feries of fymptoms ; and
it is probably from the peculiar irritabihty of habit in
fome children, that this fever is produced, by the fame
morbid fecretion and accumulation in the prirrnt vi.f, which
give rife to marafmus, and other chronic maladies in
others. " It may be accelerated by cold, fatigue, or the
like;" fays Dr. Butter, (fpeaking of the remittent fever,)
" but the principal caufes are crude accumuk.iions in the
firft paffages, which, with a very irritable predifpofition,
draw the intellinal canal into fpafm, &c." whence the
irritation is communicated to the reft of the body, and general
fever induced.

Cure of the infantile remittent fever. — The two principal in-
dicationsof cure are, to allay the febrile irritation, and to re-
move the great irritating caufe ; the former of which, although'
in a great meafure palliative only, is an objeft of con'iderable
importance. It is extremely defirable, therefore, that from
the fu-il occurrence of the febrile fymptoms, the child (hould
be kept Hill, and quiet, in a chamber which is of a cool
temperature; that all folid food and ftimulating drink fliould
be cautioudy abftained from ; and the fole fupport of the
patient be diluting and nourifliing hquors, fuch as fraall
broth, gruel, and barley-water.

The fecond, or proper curative indication, is fulfilled by
fuch medicines as keep up a conftant gentle adtion upon the
bowels, and contribute at once to diflodge the morbid accu-
mulation, and to correct the morbid condition, of the alvine
excretions. This purpofe may be etfefted either by the
neutral falts, or by fmall dofes of mercurial laxatives, ef-
pecially in combination with abforbents. Dr. Butter gives
the preference to the former ; and commonly employs the
polychrefl fait, which promotes both urine and ftools. For
a child of five years old (and proportionally for a younger
or older fubjcct ) he dilfolvcs a drachm of this fait in a quarter
of a pint of water, fweetcning it with two drachms of fugar.
Of this mixture two fpoonfuls are adminiftered every four
hours, or at fuch intervals, when the child is awake, that
the whole may be finiflied in twenty-four hours. This me-
dicine is to be repeated daily, fo as to promote one, two,

three.

INFANTS.

thrye, or four ftools, according to tlic circumftances of the
calc, the larger number in the more acute forms of the
dil'-afe. When the fever is attended with a loofenefs, Dr.
Butter interdicts the ufe of the neutral falts, and prefcrihcs
the extraft of hemlock [Conium, Linn.) ; the quantity of five
grains to be taken in the courfe of 24 hours, fufpended in
r water with ahttle fugar. It relieves every fymptom of the
fever, he fays, and at the fame time gradually carries off l!ie
loofenefs. Under fimilar circumftances, we have feen ed'cntial
fervice from fmall dofes of fome mercurial, combined with
abforbents, as the Hydrar^yrus eum.Creta, of the London
Pharmacopoeia ; or a grain of calomel united, by rubbing,
with a little foda and teflaceous powder. While the conium
is given as above-mentioned, as much rhubarb may be ad-
minillered as will keep the body gently open, where the fever
is not very acute.

AVhcn there is great reftleffnefs and vociferation, the belly
"Ihould be fomented with flannel cloths, wrung out of a de-
coftion of chamomile, and applied agreeably warm, for
twenty minutes or half an hour at a time, as occafion may
require ; and this operation (houid be repeated as often as
the fymptoms return. As the difeafe declines, the child
may be allowed to return gradually to his ufual diet and way
of life ; but fome care will be requifile, that he may not have
his free liberty as to eating, drinking, and exercife, until
he has recovered his full flelh and ftrength ; and the medi-
cines above recommended muft be continued till the fever is
quite gone.

Catarrhal fiver is not a very frequent difeafe during in-
fancy, and when it does occur, feldom requires any other
treatment, than an emetic at the beginning, an open ftate of
the bowels, and the warm bath every night while it continues.
When it extends to the degree of pulmonary inflammation,
bliftering the chert is often an effedlual remedy, or, in ftrong
children, the application of leeches to the cheit may be re-
forted to. The principle of treatment, indeed, is the fame
in thefe complaints, whether they occur in the early or later
periods of life ; e.xcept that the infantile conlHtution is more
eafily acled upon by remedies, and therefore that a laxative
' and a blifler will often accomplilh a degree of alleviation of
fever, which more active meafures will be required to pro-
duce in adults. See Catarrh and Peripneumony.

Among the fevers incident to children, the acute hydroce-
phalus, or water in the head, fliould be defcribed ; but we
have already given the hiitory of that important difeafe in its
place. (Sje Hydrocepii.\lu.s.) It remains for us to fay a
few words on the fubjedt of convulfions.

§ 6. Convulftvs Difeafis. — The fubjcft of convulfions, in
general, has been treated under its proper head, (fee Cox-
TULSioxs,) as well as the moil fevere modifications of con-
vulfive difeafe, the epilepfy and St. Vitus's dance. (See
Epilep.sy and Chorea.) It will, therefore, be fufficient to
ttate here fome circamilances relative to the convulfions of
infants in particular. And firft it muft be obfervcd, that,
in confequence of the peculiar fufceptibility of impreffion
in the nervous fyftem of infants, many circumftances excite
convulfions at that early age, which have no fuch efFeft at a
fubfequent period of life. Accordingly it is well known,
that in general the younger the infant is, the more readily do
fits occur, and that fome families are more liable than others
to the ciil'cafe, apparently from a weak ftate of the nervous
or vafcular fyftem being communicated from the parents.
The obvious exciting caufes are dentition, mechanical in-
juries, acute difeafes, impurities of the air, paflions of the
mind, indigeftible or poifonous fubftances in the ilomach or
bowels, ovcr-diftention of thofe organs, irritations in them
from acrid matter or worms, the ftate of the fyftem previous

to the appearance of. fmall-pox, meafles, &c. All tliefc ad
by difturbing the nervous fyllcin, ajid altering or deranging
the actions of the veflels.

In fome cafes convulfions come on fuddenly ;. the infjint,
from being in the mod perfect health, turns in a monxcnt
livid, his eyes and features are contorted, and his. limbs :and
whole frame are thrown into violent agitptions. Tfiefc
fymptoms are fucceeded by a fufpcnfion of the vital pojvers,
as in faintings, which may or may not prove fatal. Some-
times the attack is gradual, and the firft fymptoms are not
cafily difcerned by the attendants : the infAnt ftiews fome de-
gree ot uneafincfs ; he changes ..colour, his lips quiver, his
eyes are turned upwards, and he uncxpeftcdly, as it >yere,
ftretches himfelf out, or his hands become clenched. 'The
lefl"er degrees of thefe are called by the ni:rfes in-wardfils.
Convulfions commonly precede the fatal termination of moft
of the difeafes of infancy, which explams the reafon of their
appearing in the bills of mortality to be of fuch frequent
occurrence. _ Accordingly, where they take place after any
cop.fidei-able indifpofitior., tliey are to be regarded as tlie har-
bingers of death. But even where the infant had been in
perfeft health previous to the attack, the event is always to
be confidercd as e.'ctremely uncertain, for a fingle fit may kill.
In ordinary cafes, the danger is to be eftimated by the de-
gree of violence of the fit, "and by the caufe which had pro-
duced it. Thus if the caufc be fome irritation, which is
naturally of temporary duration, or which can be eafily re-
moved, a favourable event may be looked for ; but if it be
not obvious, it may be fufpected to be fome flate of the
brain, which admits of no remedy. In many inftanccs,
where it was impoflible to difcover the caufe of the fits
during life, an accumulation of water witliin the ventricles
of the brain has been found after death.

There is no medicine pofTefled of any fpecific power in
fupprefling convulfions, although cochineal, niidetoe, mun<,
and other fubftances, have been at different times extolled
for fuppofed virtues of this nature. One of the moft
effeftual means of alienating the fits, is to immerfe the child,
during their attack, in a tubful of water, heated to 96 of
Fahrenheit's thermometer, or to a warmth that the hand can
eafily bear. In very young infants opiates are not always
fafe, and cannot be trufted in the hands of nurfes or inex-
perienced perfons ; but in children upwards of eighteen
months, where the warm bath docs not fpeedily facceed in
abating the convulfions, from one or two to four or five drops
of the tindlure of opium might be adminiftered, according to
the feverity of the fits : or a proportionate (juantity of the
camphorated tinfture of opium, or of the extract of poppies
diff'ufed in a little water. Profeffor Hamilton has recom-
mended a fubftitute for opium, which may be given to
j'ounger children ; namely, the tinfture of hyoj'cyamus :
" twenty drops, evening and morning, have been repeatedly
given to infants within fix months of age.'V He remarks
that, when the convulfions have been the efteft of hooping-
cough, great benefit has been derived from this medicine.
Camphor, in the form of glyfter, has fccmed fcrviceahle in
fome few cafes, the fame author ftates, but chiefly in children
beyond the fccond year. He adds, " when a child fcemii
to be fuddenly deprived of life by one or two fits, if he ap-
peared previoufly in good health, he ought on no account to
be confidercd as irrecoverably loft ; but the common means
for reftoring fufpended animntion (hould be carefully em-
ployed, as long as his colour is not entirely changed."
Hints, &c.

Some other difeafes, which occur in infancy and childhood,

might here have been defcribed ; cfpecially the glandular

affcdions, both internal and external ; the variout dil'order.'s

M i of

I N F

'••I the fc-Jp, as the fcald-head, ring-worm of the fcalp, &c. ;
the rickets, and fo forth. But fame of thefo are not peculiar
to thL' age of childhood, and others are fufficiently im-
portant to be difcuffed more at length. See Tabes mcfente-
rica, or mefenteric confumption ; Sckofvla, Pouftioo,
Rickets.

The l>rcveiUion of difiafrs in children depends principally
»n (he regulation of tlio diet and clotl-.ing, deep, exercife in
the open air, and cli-anliiurfs. On the fubjeft of the two or
three latl points we have little to fiy, as the value of a proper
attention to thorn is now generally underitood. In regard to
diet, it may be fufficient to ftute, that, after weaning, pre-
parations of milk, of ejTgs, of vegetable and animal jellies,
/liould precede folid anini;'.! food ; that, during childhood, a
proper proportion of animal and vegetable matter (liould be
iifed ; and that all condiments, except fatt, are uiineceffary,
and all fpirituous fcrmen'.ed liquors pernicious. In refpeft
to clothing, it is important to obforve, that tlw attempts to
rear children in a hardy manner, by allowing their legs to be
bare, and other parts of the body to be much expoied (a
praftice fantlioned by fome great names) have proved moll
unfuccefsful ; for by thefe means not only has the growtli
been, in many inftances, ftinted and perverted, but the con-
ftitution has been much injured; and, in fome cafes, life ab-
fohitely deftroyfd, in confequencc of inflammations of the
lungs and bowels, or various fcrofulous aiTeclions» thus ex-
cited. It would appear, indeed, tliat fcrofulous and con-
fumptive djfeafes owe their origin principally to the cold and
humidity of our climate, and the deleterious inflnei^ce of
thefe caufes upon the conlHtution in childhood was ftrikingly
illullrated in the attempt lately made by the Sierra Leone
Company to form an eilablKliment for the education of
African children in this country. Mr. John Pearfon, who
fuperintended this inftitulion, Hates that they all died of con-
fumption : they almofl uniformly became fcrofulous ; they
bore the firll winter tolerably well, but drooped during the
fecond, and the third generally proved fatal to them ; info-
much that it became neceffary to abandon the plan. Now
■we cannot but deem the fitualion of a child, who is to be
hardened by thin clothing, as analogous to that of thefe
African children, and to believe that, by fuch deluhve at-
tempts to give ftrength, the perfedl and healthy evolution of
the fyftcm is prevented, and the foundation laid for fcrofula,
confumption, and other chronic difcafes.

Inj'AN-ts, RuumngEyaof. vSee Oi'HTllALMy.

Infants at Belhlehem, Slaughler of, by Herod, a fafl men-
tioned in the gofpel of St. Matthew, chap. ii. 16. ; but
difputcd on account of the filcnce of Jofephus, who has
written the hillory cf tiie Jews, and particularly the reign
of Herod. The faft is not in itfelf improbable nor incre-
dible, if we confider the cruelty of Herod's difpofition and
other favage afts of which he was guilty (fee Heuod), ar/d'
more efpecially if we recollect, that the ilaughter, m.entioned
by St. Matthew, was perpetrated upon the occafion of
tidings brought to Jerufalem, of the birth of one who veas
•< king of the Jews.'' Jofephus, who has given an account
of a terrible execution made in Herod's court, and at Jeru-
falem, about the fame time, upon the occafion of fome
prediAions, that God was about to take away the kingdom
from Herod, might om.it the murder of the infants at Beth-
lehem from a fear of being charged with a defign to load
Herod unreafonably, or a fear of rendering his hiltory dif-
agreeable by too particular a detail of cruel aftions. The
filence of Jofephus, it is faid, is no more an objection againll
St. Matthew, than the fdence of other writers with regard
to fafts mentioned by Jofjphus is an objeAion againfl him.
Jofephus, however, if he was a firm Jew, as. moll writers

I N F

have fuppofed, had a particular reafon for pafiing over thff
event at Bethlehem, becaufe he could not have mentioned
it, without giving great advantage to the Chrillian caufe.
If he had written that Herod, at the latter end of hij leign,
had put to death all the young children at Bethlehem, on
occaiion of a report fpread at jerufalem, that the " king of
the Jews" had been newly born there, he would very much
have gratified the Chriilians ; fmce it was well known, when
he wrote, that about thirty years after the death of Herod,
Jefus, being then about thirty years of ag?, had been Ityltd
the " king of the Jevi's," and had been publicly crucified at
Jerufalem with that title ; ami it was nrn:U be'i;;ved by all
his followers, that he was the . r , ' " i^.n of under

that charader, and was now aci . ■ 1 -uid jjower.

If Jofephus did not wifli to 1. . is and their

caufe, he would tJierefore be l:ii nc v.:i:i r.;;.i:a to tliis hStf
But it has been alleged, that the Greek and Roman iiifto-
rians are lllent with refoedt to this event ; but this may
eafily be accounted for, if we confider, that the Romau
empire was at this time fo extenfive, that the affairs of many
dependent princes have been loll in the crowd. Neverthe-
lefs, St. Matthew's account is confirmed by the teftimony
of ancient Chrillian authors. Jidlin Martyr, Iren3EUS|,
Origeii, and other Chrillian writers have mentioned the facl.
Moreover, there is alfo a noted paiTage in Mac "obius, a
heatlien author, who flouriflicd in the latter end of the fourth
century, who, among other jells of Augullus, has this,:
" When he (Augullus) had heard that among the children
within two years of age, which Herod king of the Jevvs
com-manded to be flain in Syria, his own fon had been killed,
he fsid, " it is better to be Herod's dog than his fon."
Macrob. Sat. 1. ii. c. 4. This paffage, if we deduce no other
inference from it, fliews, that Herod's (laughter of the in--
fants in Judea was a thing well known in Macrohius's time,
and was not contelled by the heathens. See Lardner's
Works, vol. i. chap. 2.

INFANTA, in Geography, a river of Africa, which runs
into the Indian fea, S. Int. 32 .

INFANTE and Inkanta, are titles of honour given to
the children of fome princes ; particularly thofe of the houfes
of Spain and Portugal.

It is ufually faid, that the appellation of infanta was iij-
troduced into Spain on occafion of the marriage of Eleanor
of England with king Ferdinand of Caftile : and that their
fon Sanello was the firll that bore it. But this is con-
tradided by Pclagius, bifhop of Oviedo, who lived in the
year uco, and who informs us, that the titles infante and
infanta were iifed in Spain ever fince the reign of king
Evremond II.

INF AN riCIDA, in Mythology, the name of a deity to
v.diom, arcording to Lyophron, children were facrificed
by the Greeks. It is not hkcly that this was originally the
name of any feparate deity ; but from the lamentable fre-
quency of this almoft incredible offering, this h.orrible dif-
tindion was appropriately applied to, moll probably, Hecate,
or fome other form of the goddefs Diana, of multifarious
names and charaders. The fubjcd of infanticide has lately
undergone more than iifual difcuffion, and the prevalence of
the pradice, both heretofore and exilling, proved of greater
extent than could have been imagined. See the following
article.

INFANTICIDE, or child murder, is an enormity that
our reafon and feelings would lead ns to reckon as a crime
of very rare occurrence. That it fhould exifl at all is, at
the firll view, furprifing, — that it fliould prevail to any extent
is difficult of belief,— that parents fliould be its perpetrators
is in a high degree painful to imagine ; but that mothers

flwuli

IN F-

l|i6utd be the executioners of their own offspring, nay, their
habitiul and fyllemntic executioners, is futh an agonizing
^cntenipliition, fiich an outrage on humanity, as evej-y ami-
aMe Li-ling of our nature fickcns and revolts at. But that
tlljs lamentable cuttom is, notuithllandihg, extenfivcly pre-
yalenv, h;is la'e'.y been devc-loped fo dcmonftratively, that,
ho'.vever comfortable it may be to our wounded fcniibility
to iiululije thehope of error, it is, v.nliappily, the wanton-
aeh of Icepticifm to doubt. To try, however, as it would
feem, the flietth of our credulity, we are imperatively
tailed upon to believe this unparal'elod enormity of a race,
heretofore fuppofed to be the mod humane in exigence ;
viz. of the Hindoos : but of that race, which is anio^ig ihe
moll t^iu'.er in other refpetl?, we arc coultrained to believe that
by them this fad deed has been fyllematically and univerfally
perpetrated !

A few years ago it was difcovercd by Mr. Duncan, then
refident at Benares, that a fc6l of Hindoos in that neigh-
bourhood, called Raj-kiimar, was in the habit of deftroying
all thi'ir female infants. A notice of this extraordinary faft
was foon after publiflied in the fourth volume of the Afiatic
Refearches, by fir John Shore (no-A- lard Teignmouth), then
governor-ireueral of India. Mr. Duncan fueceeded in per-
fuading this deluded tribe to rt'linquilh their barbarous habit ;
and fo effeftu;illy, that no inrtance has fince been difcovered
of an infiiiigem.ent of the written penal obligation that the
chiefs and other individuals of that tribe then voluntarily
entered into. As well as the Raj-kumars, other fefts of
Hindoos, in the vicinity of Benares, « ere found to have
been in limilar habits, though to a lefs extent, and they
executed a fimilar deed of renunciation.

The fame gentleman, the Hon. Mr. Duncan,now governor
of Bombay, in the year 1800, being at Sural, heard inciden-
tally that on the weftern fide of India alfo, and efpecially in
the contiguous countries of Guzerat, Kutch, and Sind, in-
fant'cide was extenfively praftifrid ; due enquiry amply con-
firmed the faft. Availincr hunfelf of the recently improved
connection between ihe Britifh government and that of the
Gaikawar, or fovereign of Guzerat, Mr. Duncan, through
the able and ze;Jou3 co-operation and agency of colonel
Walker of the Bombay elUbliihment, our political refident
and military commander in Guzerat, again fueceeded in the
entire and eiTeftual abolition of the cuftom ; all the chiefs
of the tribes in which it had obtained binding tliemfe'vrs
and their families, and adherents, to a perm:i:'.ent renunciation
and difcontinuanceof it ; rendering themfelves, in default of a
due obfervance of the agreement, obnoxious to penal in-
fliftions'onthepartofthe Britifh and Gaikawar governments.

Among the military tribe of Jarejah, infanticide was
found moll common ; fo common, indeed, th^t a Jarejah fe-
male was very rarely feen or heard of. The men of this tribe
procured wives from others who reared their daugh-
ters. The number of infants, tlius facriiiced, amounted,
by one computation, to 30,000 annually, in the peniufula
of Guzerat alone: but this colonel Walker deemed an ex-
aggeration. Anotiier eftimate, erring probably on the other
hand, reckoned 2000 as nearer the annual amount. It ap-
peared to be the univerfal praclice to dedroy the infant
immediately on its birth : this was done generally bj the
midwife, or fome female attendant ; fometimes, however,
by the mother ! The father never interfered, and the name
or fiibjeft of a daughter wns never mentioned in his pre-
fence. Sometimes the infants were fmothered in various
Ways, or fulTered to expire from want of nurture : different
metiiods of deltruftion are related, and it feems to have
been a matter of indifference how, provided the inhuman deed
were done.

I N F

In the tontiguous countries of Ku^ch arid "Sind, infanti-'
cide alfo prevails: but it has not been afcertained to what
extent. It is recogni^^d arid avowid bvthe perfons pol'-;
fefiing the powers of government, wlio afl'ert the antiquity. of
the ufage, and forbid any interference on our part with a view
to its abolition : our endeavours to eifecl that falutary end
have in thofe quarters entirely fjiled.

It is, however, a confoling fad to rcfleft on, that folely
through Britiflr interpofition this cullom has been put an
entire ftcp to througiiout the vaft extent of our iniiueuce
in India. None of the former governments, whether Hin-
doo or Mahometan, of the countries comprehended within
that term, appear ever to have made any effort toward work-
ing fo defirable a reform, although the religious tenets of
both pointedly prohibit the practice.

Thefe particulars we have gathered from a recent publi-
cation by major Moor, on " Hindoo Infanticide ;'' wherein
he has given at length all the correfpondence and negociation*
that led to its difcovery and funpreilion in India; with no-
tices of a fimilar cullom, which, and the expofure of chiU
dren, he proves to have prevailed both in ancient and modern
times among many nations in almoft: every part of the world.
He adduces many fpeculations on its exillence, origin, and
effects ; extending, indeed, to a lengthened difcuflion on a^
fubjedl that, as much as any on record, evinces the ahr.oft
incredible inconfiftency and weaknefs, and wickednefs of
man. See Ixfastkida.

INFANTOS, in Geography, a town of Spain, in New
Callile ; 20 miles W. of Alcaraz.

INFANTRY, the body of foot foldiers, in an army, or
other corps. See Foot.

I'he infantry iland contradiffinguiihed from ihecaz'uf/y or
horfc, which fee.

E.iropc is unqueftionably indebted to the Swifs for a to-
tal change in the military fyllem, particularly fo with regard,
to foot foldiers.

Dr. Robertfon, in the firft vo'ume of his hiftory of
Charles V. p. 105, obferves, that the fydem of employing
the Swifs in the Italian wars, was the occafion of introducing-
a total innovation in the military cuftom. The arms and
difcipline of the Swifs were different from thofe of other
European nations. During their long and violent ftruggles
in defence of tiieir liberties againft the houfe of Aullria»
whofe armies, like thofe of other confidcrable princes, con-
fifted chiefly of heavy-armed cavalry, the Swifs found that
their poverty, and the fmaU number of gentlemen reliding
in their country, at that time barren and ill cultivated, put
it out of their power to bring into the field any body of
horfe capable of facing the enemy. Neccflity compelled
them to plsce aU their confidence in infantry ; and in ordcf
to render it capable of withftanding the (hock of cavalry,
they gave the foldiers breall-platcs and helmets, as defenfive
armour, together with long fpears, halbcrts, and heavy
fwords, as weapons of offence. I'hey formed thctn into
large battalions, ranged in deep and clofe array, fo that
they could prefent on every fide a formidable front to tlie
enemy. (See Machiavel's Art of War, b. ii. chap. ii.
p. 45'i.) The men at arms could make no impreflion on
the folid ftr.-ngth of fuch a body. It repulfed the Auftrians
in all their attempts to conquer Swifferland. It broke the
Burgundian Gendarmerie, which was fcarcely inferior to
that of Fr.ince, either in number or reputation ; and when
firSl c-!Ijd to a£l in Italy, it bore down, by its ineliliibl?
force, every enemy that attempted to oppofe it. TKefe
repeated prod's of the decifive effefls of infantry, exhibited
on fuch confpicuous occafions, reflored that fervice to re-
putation, and gradually re.-cftabUihed the oginion wliith had

been

I N F

been long exploded, of its fuperior importance in the opera-
tions of war. But the glory the Swifs had acquired, having;
infpircd tliem witli fuch high ideas of their own prowefs
and confequence, as frequently' rendered them mutinous and
infolent, the princes who employed them became weary of
depending on the caprice of foreign mercenaries, and began
to turn their attention towards the improvement of their
national infantry.

The German powers having the command of men, whom
nature has endowed witli that lieady courage and perfevering
ftrength which form them to be foldiers, foon modelled their
troops in fuch a manner, tliat they \ned with the Swifs both
in difcipline and valour.

Tlie French mo!iarclis, though more flowly, and with
greater difficulty, accuftomed the impetuous fpirit of their
people to fubordination and difcipline ; and were at fuch
pains to render their national infantary refpeftable, that as
early as the reign of Louis XII. feveral gentlemen of high
rank had fo far abandoned their ancient ideas, as to con-
defcend to enter into their fervice.

The Spaniards, whofe fituation made it difficult to em-
ploy any other tlian their national troops in the fouthern
parts of Italy, which was tiie chief fcene of their operations
in that country, not only adopted the Swifs difcipline, but
improved upon it, by minghng a proper number of foldiers,
armed with heavy mulkets, in their battalions ; and thus
formed that famous body of infantry, which, during a cen-
tury and a half, was the admiration and terror of all Europe.
The Italian ftates gradually diminiflied the number of their
cavalry, and in imitation of their more powerful neighbours,
brought the ftrength of their armies to confift in foot fol-
diers. From this period, the nations of Europe have carried
on war with forces more adapted to every fpecies of fervice,
more capable of afting in evei7 country, and better fitted
both for conquefts, and for preferving them,

Infaktiiv, Exerctfe. See Exercise.

IxFAXTuy, Foreign. The foreign infantry in the fervice
«f Great Britain, according to the returns dehvered in on
the ift of November 1800, confifts of Loyal French Emi-
grants, Caftries, Mortemart, Roll and Dillon ; Meuron
ditto ; four ditto Dutch, each having a company of artil-
lery attached, and one Dutch rifle with a company of
pioneers ; Lowenftein's corps, which was not completed,
and one corps of foreign invalids. Staff to a foreign hof-
pitah There are befides 16 unattached foreign officers who
receive full pay, 166 ditto on half pay, 504 aged and
wounded ditto, 46 foreign officers widows, 44 children of
foreign officers who have died in the king's fervice. There
is alfo a fniall corps of ellafettes, which is attached to the
waggon train, and confills wholly of foreigners.

IxFAKTRY, Heavy anm.'!, among the ancients, were fuch
as wore a complete fuit of armour, and engaged with broad
fliiclds and long fpears. They were the flower and ftrength
ef the Grecian armies, and trad the highcft rank of military
honour.

IsFASTRY, Light armed, amongft the ancients, were de-
figned for fltirmifhcs, and for fighting at a dillnnce. Their
weapons were arrows, darts or flings.

Infa\t«y, Light, have only been in ufe fince the year
1656. They have no camp equipage to carry, and their
arms and accoutrements arc much lighter than the common
infantry, or battalion men. Wherever there is light cavalry,
there Ihou'd be liglit infantry to ail in conmniSion.

INFARCTION, in Ahdicint, infnraus, i'u^^x^:; of the
Greeks, is fynonymous with objlniilion, and congejlicn, and
denotes that (late of any organ of the body, which is tumid,
with the blood-vcfl'els loaded, and is more efpecially applied

I N F

to the tumours produced by a chronic inflammation of the
parts.

Infarction of the Liver. See Hepatitis, and Liver,
Chronic Dijeafes of.

Ikfarctios of the Spleen. See Splenitis and Spleen.

Infarction of the Mefentery. See Marasmus, and TaeeS
Mefenlerica.

INFATUATE, to prepoffefs any one in favour of feme
perfon or thing that does not deferve it, fo far as that he
cannot eafily be difabufed.

The word itfatuate comes from the Latin fatiiut,fool, of
fart, to fpcah out ; which is borrowed from the Greek ?a. ,
whence ?kt!;, which fignifies the fame with -vates in Latin, or
prophet in Englifli : and the reafon is, becaufe their prophets
or priells ufed to be feized with a kind of madnefs or folly
when they began to make their prediftions, or deliver
oracles.

The Romans called thofe perfons infatuated, infatuali, \vlii>
fancied they had feen vifions, or imagined the God FauniK,
whom they called Fatuus, had appeared to them.

INFECTION, in Medicine, a word ufed in two accepta-
tions : lirft as denoting the efflurium or infedlious maltcr,
exhaled from the perfon of one difeafed, and capable uf
communicating the difeafe to others who inhale it ; in which
fenfe it is fynonymous with contagion : and fecondly, as
fignifying the acl of communication of fuch morbid effluvium,
by which the difeafe is transferred. The word comes from
tlie Latin verb inficio, which properly fignifies to dye of
fome other colour, or to caufe fomething to be imbibed.
See Contagion.

INFEODATION of Tithes, in La-w. See Tithes.

INFERI.^, in Antiquity, facrifices offered to the dii
manes, or the fouls of deceafed heroes and illuftrious per-
fons ; or even of any relation or perfon whofe memory wa»
held in veneration.

INFERIOR, ftands oppofed to fuperior.

Inferior Courts of Record, in Englijh La'-M-ivriters, is ufed
as a general name for corporation-courts, courts-leet, and
flierifFs-torns. See Courts.

Moft courts are fubordinate to fome other ; but for di-
ftiuftion fake the term inferior-court is by fir Matlhcw
Hale, and others, applied in the manner here mentioned.

Inferior Maxilla, Ocean, Planet. See the fubftantives.

Inferior Penis, in Anatomy, a name given by Spigehus
to one of the mufcles of the penis, generally called the ac-
celerator by the moderns ; and by Vefahus, and others of kis
time, primus penis.

Inferior Ol/liquus, Serratus, Subfcapularis. See the feve-
ral articles.

Inferioris labii deprejfor, lahii elevator. See Depressor,
and Elevator.

INFERNAL Glass, in Chemi/lry, is a name given to the
bolt-head, wlien its ftem is continued downwaid into the
body of the glafs vefTel, and left open only by a very fmall
orifice.

Infernal Salt, a name given by Hoffman, and fome other
of the chemical writers, to nitre ; they have alfo called it
Cerberus chemicus.

Infernal Stone. See Lapis Infernalis, Caustic, and
Crystals of Silver.

INFERNALS, in Jrtillcry, floating mines coiiftruaed
in the bodies of fliips or boats. The firft inventor of them,
or at leaft the firft who put them in practice, was Frederick
JambeUi, an Italian engineer, at the fiege of Antwerp by the
Spaniards under Alexander, prince of Parma, in the year
1585. A very particular and interefting relation of their
wonderful effefts is given by Strada, in his " Hiftory of the

Belgi*

INF

r. l.-'c War." Tlie great dednitlion made by there canfed
ftve;- il others to be tried ; but none of tlicm fiicceedcd.
At Dunkirk and St. Maloes they were tried by the Enghlh ;
at Hivre de Grace by the Englifh and Ditch, under king
^V;i;iam; and one was condriided by the French to be
f.f-J againll Algiers, in i6S8, but it was not employed.
Pt. Remi, ill his Memoirs of Artillery, has given a fedlion
r.:!i view of the infernal ufed at St. Maloes. See a de-
f.rii tion and figure of it in Grofe's Military Antiquities,
V. i D. 410.

i X FERTILITY. See Feiitility.
^" FIBUL ATION, in Amiquky. It was a cuftom among
Iloniaiis, to infibulate their finging boys, in order
\^-ferve their voices : for this operation, which pre-
J their retrafting the prepuce over the ghns, and is
very reverfe to circumcilion, kept them from injuring
tlie-:r voices by premature and prepolterous venery : ferving
as a kind of padlock, if not to their inclinations, at leaft to
their abilities. It appears by fome paflages in Martial, that
a lefs decent ufc was made of inlibulation among the luxu-
rious Romans : for ibme ladies of dillinttion, it feems, took
this method of confining their paramours to their own em-
braces. Juvenal alfo liiiits at fome fuch practice. Celfus, a

T N F

Tntiniteis alfo ufed to fignify that which has had a
beginning, but will have no end : as angels, and human

kes what the fchoolmcn call infitiilum a parte pnjl ;
contrary, by infinitum a parU ante, they mean that

NDEFINIT8

fouls

This I
as, on tl

which has an end, but had' no beginning,
and Finite.

IxFixiTE, in Mathematics, is applied to quantities which
are either greater or fmaller, tiiaii any aflignable ones. In
which fenfe it differs not wuch from what we otherwife cafl
inihfmits or indeterminate. Thus, an

Infinite, or Injlnitely great line, in Geometry, denotes only
an indefinite or indeterminate line ; to which no certain bound*
or limits are prefcribed.

I.VFixiTE Quantities. Though the idea of magnitude in-
finitely great, or fuch as exceeds any aflignable quantity,
does include a negation of limits ; yet all fuch magnitudes are
not equal among themfelves ; but befides infinite length and
infinite area, there are no lefs than three feveral forts of infi^
nite folidity ; alt of which arc quantities yi/i generis; and
thole of each fpecies are in given proportions.

Infinite length, or a fine infinitely long, is to be con-fidered.

chafte author, fays, infibulation was fometimes praftifed for either as beginning at a point, and fo infinitely extended
the fake of health; and nothing dellroys it more tlian the
filly practice this operation feems intended to prevent. This
pradice is not perhaps likely to be revived ; if, however, any
one who has fuffered in his conititution by prepolterous venery,
fhould be able to get children, and ftiould be inclined to pre-
vent the fame misfortune in them, by infibulation ; the me-
thod of doing it is thus :

The (kin which is above the glans is to be extended, and
marked on both fides with ink, where it is perforated, ard
then fuffered to retract itfelf. If the marks i-ecur upon
the glans, too much of the ikin has been taken up, and we
mull make the marks farther ; if the glans remain free from
them, they fnew the proper place for affixing a fibula : then
pafs a needle and thread through the lliin where tlie marks
are, and tie the threads together ; taking care to move it
every day, until the parts about the perfomrions are cica-
trifed : this being effected take out the thread, and put in
the fibula ; which the tighter it is the better. Celfus, lib, vii.

elfe both ways from the fame point : in which cafe
the one, which is a beginning of infinity, is one -half of the
whole, which is the fum of the beginning and ceafing infi-
nity, or infinky a parte ante, and a parte poj , which is analo-
gous to eternity in time or duration ; in which there is al-
ways as much to follow, as is pall any point or moment of
time.

Nor does the addition or fubtra£tion of time, length or

fpace of time, alter the cafe, either as to infinity or eternity ;

any part of the

the one nor the other can

cap. 2 J.

Authors have not determined what the fibula of the ancient
fnrgeons was, though no doubt they were for different piir-
pofes. In the prefent cafe, the fibula feems to mean a ring
of metal, not unlike what the country people put through
the nof«s of fwine.

INFIDEL, a term applied to fuch perfons as are not
baptized, and that do not believe the truths of the Chriilian
religion. See Deist.

INFIERNO, in Geography, one of the fmaller Canary
iflands, between Lancerotta and St. Clara.

INFIESTO, a town of Spain, in theproviiKC of Aftu-
rias ; 20 miles E. of Oviedo.

INFILTRATION, in Geo/ogy, is one of the proceffes
of nature, by which flony hardnels feems to have been given
or increafed in mineral fubflances or llrata, in certain fitua-
tions, effected by the infiltration or foakage of water laden
with Itony particles, through porous fubflances, and then
depofitmg their lapidiferous contents : Mr. Kirwan, in his
" Geological EfTays,"' pages 45, 128, 131, and 412, has
confidered this mode of indurating the terreltrial flrata, and
quoted a number of curious mineral changes and appearances
afcribed to this agent.

INFINITE, tliat which has neither beginning nor end :
in which fcnfe God alone is infinite.

fince neithe
whole.

As to infinite furface or area, any right line infinitely ex-
tended both ways on any infinite plane, divides that plane into
equal p.^rts, the one to' the right, and the other to the left of
the faid line; but if from any point in fuch a plane, tivo
right lines be infinitely extended, fo as to make an angle ;
the infinite area, intercepted between thefe infinite right lines,
i:; to the whole infinite plane, as the arc of a circle drawn on
the point of concourfc of thofe lines as a centre, intercepted
between the faid lines, is to the circumference of the circle ;
or as the degrees of the angle to the 360 degrees of a
circle.

For an example — Two infinite right lines meeting at &
right angle on an infinite plane, do include a quarter part of
the whole infinite area of fuch a plane : if two .parallel infi-
nite lines be fuppofed drawn on fuch an infinite plane, the
area intercepted between tliem will be likewife infinite ; but
at the fame time it will be infinitely lefs than the fpace inter-
cepted between two infinite fines, that are inclined, though
with never fo fniall an angle, becaiife in the one cafe the
given finite dillance of the parallel lines diminiflies the infi-
nity in one degree of dimenfion ; whereas in a ftdor, there
is infinity in both dimenfions ; and confequently the quanti-
ties are one infinitely greater than the other, and tliere is no
proportion between them.

From the fame confideration arife three feveral fpecies of
infinite fpace or folidity ; for a parallelepiped, or a cylinder
infinitely long, is greater than any finite magnitude, how
great foevcr ; all fuch folids fuppofed to be formed on a
given bafis, are in proportion to one another as thofe bafes.
But if two of thofe three dimenfions are wanting, aj in the
fpace intercepted between two par.tllel planes infinitely ex-
tended, and at a finite diflance ; or with iufiuitc kngili and
tS tireaJth,

I N F

breadth, it have a finite thicknefs; all fuch folids fliallbe as
the given finite diftances one to another.

But thefe quantities, though infinitely greater than the
«pther, are yet infinitely lefs than nny of tliole wherein all tlie
three ditnenfions are infinite — Such are the fpaces intercepted
between two inclined, planes infinitely extended : the fpace
intercepted by the furface of a cone, or the fides of a py-
ramid, likewife infinitely continued, &c. all which, not-
withftanding the proportion of one to another, and to the
TO ■srav, or vaft abyfs of infinite fpace (wherein is the locus
of all things that are, or can be) or to the folid of infinite
length, breadth, and thicknefs (taken all manner of ways)
are eafily aflignable — For the fpace between two planes is to
the whole, as the angle of thofe planes to the 360 degrees of
the circle. As for cones and pyramids, they are as the
fpherical furface intercepted by ihem, is to the furfsce of the
fphere; and therefore cones are as the verfed fines of half
their angles to the diameter of the circle ! thefe three forts
of infinite quantity are analogous to a line, furface, and folid ;
and like them, cannot be compared or have any proportion
one to another.

Infinites, Arithmetic of. See Akithmetic.

Infinites, Charaaers in ylrithmelic of. See Charac-
ttER.

Infinite Decimals. See Repetend.

Infinite Dif.refs, in Lanv. Sec Distress.

Infinite Proprjition, in Logic. See Proposition.

Infinite Series. See Series.

INFINITELY fmall quantity, called alfo an infmitefi-
tr.al, is that which is fo very minute, as to be incomparable to
a-.y finite quantity ; or it is that which is lefs than any af-
fignable quantity.

An infinite quantity carnot be either augmented or lef-
fened, by adding or taking from it any finite quantity ;
neither can a finite quantity be either augmented or leCened,
by adding to, or taking from it an infinitely fmall quan-
tity.

If there be four proportionals, and the firfl be infinitely
greater than the fecond ; the third will be infinitely greater
than the fourth.

If a finite quantity be divided by an infinitely fmall one,
the quotient will be an infinitely great one ; and if a finite
quantity be multiplied by an infinitely fmall one, the pro-
duct will be an infinitely fmall one ; if by an infinitely great
one, the produft will be a finite quantity.

If an infinitely fmall quantity be multiplied into an infi-
nitely great one, the produ£^ will be a finite quantity.

In the method of infinitefimals, or of infinitely fmall
quantities, .the clement by which any quantity increafes or
decrcafes, is fuppofed to bcinfisiitcly fmall, and is generally
exprefled hf two or more terms ; fome of which arc infinitely
lofs than the reft, which being neglected as of no importance,
the renvjiining terms form what is called the difference of the
propofed quantity. The terms that are neglefted in this
manner, as infinitely lefs than the other terms of the element,
ai'c the verj' fame which r.rife in confequence of the accelera-
tion, or retardation of the generating motion, during the
infinitely fmall time in which the element is gcEerated ; fo
that the remaining terms cxprefs the element that would
have been produced in that time, if the generating mo-
tion had continued uniform, at is farther explained under
Flu.xion.

Therefore thofe differences are accurately in the fame
ratio to each other as the generating motions or fluxions.
And hence, though infinitefimal parts of the elements are
neglefted, the conclufions are accurately true, without even
^1 infinitely fmall error, and agree prccifely with thofe that

X3

I.N.F

are dediiccd by the methods of fluxion?. In order to rercr-:
the application of this rfiethod eafy, fome analogous princi-
ples are admitted, as that the infinitely fmall elements of a
curve are right lines, or that a circk is a polygon of an in-
finite number of fides, which being produced, give the tan»
gents of a curve, and by their inclination to each other mea-
fure the curvature. This is as if we (hould fuppofe that
when the bale flows uniformly, the ordinate flows with a
motion which is uniform for every infinitely^ fmall part (^
time ; and increafes, or dccrcafes, by infinitely fmall differ-
ences at the end of every fuch time.

But however convenient this principle may be, it muft be
applied with caution and art, on various occafions. It is
ufual, therefore, in many cafes, to refolve the element of the
curve into two or more infinitely fmall right fines ; and fome-
times it is neceffary (if we would avoid error) to refolve it
into an infinite number of fuch right fines, which are infinite-
fimals of the fecond order. In general it is zfofulatum in this
method, that we may defcend 10 infinitefimals of any order
whatever, as we find it neceffary ; by which means any error
that might arife in the application cf it may be difcovercd
and correfted by a proper ufe of tl.is method itfelf.

It is alfo to be obferved, that wlien the value of a quan-
tity that is required in a philofcphical problem becomes, -n
certain particular cafes, infiniteiy great cr irfii.iely little,
the folution wouid not be always juft, though fuih magni-
tudes were admitted. As when it is required, to find by
what centripetal force a curve would be defcribed about a
fixed point that is either in a curve, or is fo fituated '.hat a
tangent m.ay be drawn from it to the curve. The value of
tlie force is found infinite at tlie centre of the forces in the
former cafe, and at the point of contaft in the latter ; yet
it is obvious, that an infinite force could not inflcft the
line defcribed by a body that (hould proceed from either of
thefe points into a curve ; becaufe the direftion of its
motion in either cafe pafics through the centre of tiie forces,
and no force, how great fbever, that tends towards the cen-
tre, could caufeit to change that direftion. But it is to be
obferved, that the geometrical magnitude by which the force
is meafured, is no more imaginary in this than in other cafes,
where it becomes infinite ; and pliilofophical problems have
limitations that enter not always into the general folution
given by geometry.

But although by proper care errors may be avoided '
the method of infinitefimals, yet it muft be owned that ; >
fuch >vho have been accuftomed to a more ftrift and rigid
kind of demon ftration in the elementary parts of geometry,
it may not focm to be confiftent with perfeft accuracy, that,
in determining the firft differences, any part of the element
of the variable quantity ftiould be rejcAed, merely becaufe
it is infinitely lefs than the reft ; and that the fame part
fhould be afterwards employed for determining the fecond
and higiier differences, and refolving fome of the moft im-
portant problems. Nor can we fuppofe that their fcruples will
be removed, but rather confirmed, when they come to confi-
der what has been advanced by fome of the moft celebrated
writers on this method, who have expreffed their fentiments
concerning infinitely fmall quantities in the precifeft terms ;
while fome of them deny their reality, and confider them
only as incomparably lefs than infinite quantities, in the fame
manner as a grain of fand is incomparably lefs than the "whole
earth ; and others rcprefent them in all their orders, as no
lefs real than finite quantities And although it appears,
from what has been faid in this article, that a fatisfaftory ac-
count may be given for the brief way of reafoning that is
ufed in the method of infiniielinials ; while nothing is neg-
ledtcd without accounting for it ; and then the harmony

between

I N F,

between the method of fluxions, and tliat of infiiiitefimals
thus appears more perfeft.

And however fafe and convenient this method may be,
yet fo:ne -.^-ill al.vays fcruple to admit infinitely little quan-
tities and infinite orders of infinitefimals, into a fcience that
boafts of the raoft evident and accurate principles, as well
as of the moft rigid de:nonftrations It is therefore proper,
that this cxtenfu-e and iifefal dodrine {hou)d be eilablifhed
on unexceptionable principles. See the articles 1"luxio\
and Limit.. See alfo Mr. Maclaurin's Treat, of Fluxions,
in the Introdudion, p. 39, 40, &c. and book i. art. 495 to
502.

Infinitely Irfin'.te FraSions, or all the powers of all the
fraftions whofe numerator is one, are together equal to an
unit. See the demonftration hereof given by Dr. Wood, in
Hook, Phil. Coll. N 3 p. 45, feq.

Hence, it is deduced, i •. That there are not only infinite
progreflions, or progreflions in infinitum ; but alfo infinitely
farther than one kind of infinity. 2 '. That the infinitely
infinite proo-renioas are notwithftanding computable, and to
be brought into one fum ; and that not one finite, but fo
fmall as to be lefs than any afUgnable number. 3 . That of
infinite quantities, fonie are equal, others unequal. 4". That
one infinite quantity may be equal to two, three, or more
other quantities, -vhether infinite or finite.

INFINITIVE, in Grammar, the name of one of the
moods, which ferve for the conjugating of verbs.

Tl'.e infinitive does not denote any precife time, nor does
it determinate the nuniber, or perfons, but exprefles things
in a loofe indefinite manner ; a«, to teach, &c.

Hence the Latin and modern ,'rammarians have called
verbs under this mode, from this their indefinite nature, infi-
nitivcs. Sanftius has given them the name of imperfonals ;
and the Greeks that of a-jtfEfiJxIx from the fame reafon of
their not difcovering either perfon or number.

Infinitives, fays Mr. Harris, not only lay afide the cha-
rafter of attributives, but they alfo alTume that of fubftan-
tives, and are diftinguilhed with their feveral attributes : e. g.
*' D'jlce & decorum eft pro patria nwri; fcire tuum nihil
eft, &c."

Hence the infinitive has been fometimes called ovo/xi
fr,u%-t<n, a verbal noun ; fometimes o-,oux ^Ji-u. ■'«.-, the verb's
noun. The reafon of the appellation is evident in Greek,
by its taking the prepofitive articles before it in all cafes ;
thus TO -/e»?tiv, T- -/;«?;ii, TM -/fKesiv. The fame conftruclion
is not unknown in Englifh. Thus Spencer,

" For not to have been dipped in Lethe's lake
Could fave the fon of Thetis/ro;n to die :" i. e.

The lloics held the infinitive as the genuine ir.u.-x, or verb,
a name which they denied to all other modes ; becaufe the
true verbal character was conceived to be contained firaple
and unmixed in the infinitive only : thus, to walk, means
fimply that energy, and nothing more ; the other modes,
befides exprcfling' this energy, fuperadd certain affeaions
which rcfped perfons and circuniftances. The infinitive,
fays Prifcian, " fignificat ipfam rem, quam continet ver-
bum." The infinitive, in the application of it, naturally co-
alefces with all thole verbs, that denote any tendency, deiire,
or volition of the foul, but not readily with others. See
Harris's Hermes, p. 163, &c.

In moft languages, both ancient and modern, the infini-
tive is diftinguifiied by a termination peculiar to it ; as ti/tIiiv
in the Greek, fcrtbere in the Latin, ccrire in the French,
Jcrivere in the Itahan, &c. but the Enghfh is defeftive in
this point ; fo that to denote the infinitive, we are obliged to

Vol.. XIX.

I N F

have reconrfe to the article to : excepting fometimes when
two or more infinitives follow cacli other.

The praftice of ufing a number of infinitives fucceffively,
is a great but a common fa'tlt in language; as he offered to go
to teach to -write Englilli. — Indeed, where the infinitives have
no dependence on each other, thiy may be ufcd elegantly
enougli ; as to mourn, to figh, tofmt, tofwoon, to die.

INFINITO, in the 'Italian Mujic, is ufed for fuch canons
or fugues, as may be begun again and again : whence they
are alio cAliztX perpetual fugues. See FuGUE.

INFINITY, the quality which denominates a thing in-
finite. The idea fignified by the name infinity is beft exa-
mined by confidering to what things infinity is by the mind
attributed, and how the idea it felf is framed : finite and in-
finite are looked upon as the modes of quantity, and are
attribited primarily to things that have parts, and are capable
of increafe or diminution, by the addition or fubtradiion of
any the leaft part. Such are the ideas of fpace, duration,
and number. When we apply this idea to the Supreme
Being, we do it primarily in refpeft of his duration and ubi-
quity : and more figuratively, when to his wifdom, power,
goodnefs, and olher atttibutes, which are properly inexhauf-
tible and incmnprchenfible : for when we call them infinite,
we have no other idea of this infinity but what carries with
it fome reflexion on the number, or the extent of tlie
acls or objects of God's power and wifdom, which can never
be fuppofed fo great, or fo many, that thefe attributes will
not always furmount and exceed, though we multiply them
in our thoi:ghts with the infinity of endlefs number. We do
not pretend to fay, how thefe attributes are in God, who is
infinitely beyond the reach of our narrow capacities : but
this is our way of conceiving thena, and thefe are our ideas of
their infinity.

We come by the idea of infinity thus : every one that has
any idea of any ilated length or fpace, as a foot, yard, &c.
finds that he can repeat that idea, and join it to another, to
a third, and fo on, without ever coming to an end of his
additions. From this power of enlarging his idea of fpace,
he takes the idea of infinite fpace, or immenfity. By the
fame power of repeating the idea of any length or duration
we have in our minds, with all the endlefs addition of num-
ber, we alfo come by the idea of eternity.

If our idea of infinity be got by repeating without end
our own ideas, it may be aflved, why do we not attribute it
to other ideas, as well as thofe of fpace and duration ; fince
t'lcy may be as eafily, and as often repeated in our minds,
as tlie otiier ? yet nobody ever thinks of infinite fweetnefs,
or whitenefs, tliough he can repeat the idea of fvvect or
white, as frequently as thofe of yard or day i To this it
is anl'wered, that thofe ideas wliich have parts, and are ca-
pable of increafe by the addition of any parts, alford us by
tlieir repetition an idea of infinity ; becaufe with tlie eijdlefs
repetition there is connecled an enlargement, of wiiich there
is no end : but it is not fo in other ideas ; for if to the moll
pcrfecl idea I have of white, I add another of equal white-
nefs, it enlarges not my idea at all. Thofe ideas, which
confift not of parts, cannot be augmented to what propor-
tion men pleafe, or be ftrctclied beyond what they have
received by their fenfes ; but fpace, duration, and number,
being capable of increafe by repetitiou, leave in the mind
an idea of an endlefs room for more ; and fo tliofe idea*
alone lead the mind towards the thought of infinity.

We are carefully to diftinguifh between the idea of the
infinity of fpace, and the idea of the fpace infinite. The
firll is nothing but a fuppofed endlefs progreffion of the
mind over any repeated idea of fpace ; but to have actually
ill the miad the idea of fpace infi:iite,— is to fuppofe tlio
N mind

INF

mind already palled over all th«fe repeated ideas of fpace,
vfhich an endlefs repetition can never totally rcprefent to it ;
which carries in it a plain contradiclion. See Space.

This will be plainer, if Ave confidcr infinity in numbers :
the infinity of numbers, to the end of whofe addition every
one perceives there is no approacli, eafily appears to any one
that reflects on it : but how clear foever this idea of the
infinity of numbers be, there is nothing yet more evident
thnn the abfurdfty of the idea of an aftual infinite number.
Locke's Effay, vol. i. chap. xvii.

Infinity of Aa'ions, in Law ; the lord of the foil may
have a fpecial aftioa againft him who fliall dig foil in the
king's highway : but one fubjeft may not have his aftioa
againft another for common nuifances ; for if he might, then
every man might have it, and fo the adions would be in-
finite, S:c. I Co. Inft. 56. 9 Rep. 113.

INFIRMARY, a place where the fickand weak belong-
ing to any fociety, or community, are difpofed, either for
nurfing or cure. See Ho'^fital.

INFLAMMABILITY, is that property of bodies
which difpofes them to kindle, or catch fire. See Flame,
Heat, and Phlogiston.

TxFLAMMAr.iLiTY of Oils. See Oil,.

INFL.AMMABLE Am. See HYDnoOEK.

In-flammable Springs. About the middle of the lad
century, a fpring or well at Brofely in Shropftiire, was much
noticed on account of the inflammable exhalations or gaffes
which it emitted, fo that when a cover was adapted to it,
that contracted the llream of air, and a candle was applied,
it continued to burn with a lambent blue flame for a long
time: but the coal-works in the neighbourhood have long
fiiiCd drained this well. During the driving of Stoke fough,
to drain t!ie lead mines near Eyam in Derbyfhire, fuch a
quantity of 'iqiiid bitumen or rock oil was liberated from the
fmall cavitie.'i in the limellone, and from geodes of limellone
in the fhaie above it, that it frequently fv\-am on the water
in the fough, in fufficient quantities to take fire and burn
for a time, after the application of a lighted candle : this
was Called by Mr. Briy, in his " Tour'^ (p. 176.) a burn-
ing fpring, but improperly, feeing that the bitumen was
only fet free by the tools of the workmen, and was not fpon-
taneoufly difcharged fr^m the rock, a condition which feems
cfTential to a fpnng of any kind. See an account of this
fough, in Mr. Farevs Report on Derbyfhire, vol. i. p. 330.

INFLAMMATION is concerned, either as a caufe,
fymptom, confequence, or complication of the greater
number of difc-afes, to which the human body is liable, and
hence it has always been confidered by the moll: enlightened
pathologifts as a fubjecl which, in point of importance, is
inferior to none in the whole circle of medical feience. It
intcrells the phyfician, the furgeon, the accoucheur, and,
in (hort, every individual, who is in the habit of being en-
trufted with the treatment of any kind of diforder, or acci-
dental injur)-. A knowledge of the nature and laws of in-
flammation, and jull ideas rcfpecling the means of checking
and curing this affcfiion, may be laid to conftitute a key,
or introduftion, to the cmprehenfion of difcafes in general;
for fome may be alleged to confift of it, and very few are
entirely unattended with it in one Hage or arother. It is
for fuch rcafons, that fyftematic authors moftly treat of it
at the very beginning of their works.

The terra inllammation, which iz derived from the Latin
word irt/lamma'.io, probitfely owes its origin to an ancient
opinion, that there was fire in the part aflefted, and, if we
advert to the coufiderable fenfatio4i of heat, which the patient
experiences in the feat of the comphiint, the ufe of fuch an
«*prellion feeiBS altaoft natural. Tlie Gtecks appear to

INF

have employed terms of fimilar import, as :^'m; u.o:r., or
i^XoyM:, from (^Af^o), / burn.

Inflammation is divifible into feveral fpecies. The dif.
tinftions chiefly infifted upon by furgical writers, are the
acute and chronic. When inflammation n unattended with
any piirticular difeafe, it is fometimes called /f/n^.'f or healthy,
of which there can only be one kind. But the morbid
inflammations, or inch as are influenced by the prefcnce of
a difcafed aftion, are as numerous and various as difeafes
themfelves, each difeafe, in faft, having its ov,-n fpecific
kind of inflammation ; as, for inftance, the fmall-pox puf-
tule, tlie cow-pox veficle, the carbuncle, eryfipelas, fcrofula,
the venereal difeafe, &c.

When common inflammation is fpoken of, the acute
healthy fpecies is ufually implied, or that which is fo well
known' by the name of phkgmon. It is attended with four
remarkable fymptoms in the part aflefted, namely, pain,
rednefs, fwelling and heat : " notas vero inflammationis funt
quatuor ; rubor et tumor, cum calore et dolore." Celfus,
lib. iii. cap. 10.

The pain which accompanies the various forts of in-
flammation, differs very materially both in its degree
and kind. In many inflances, indeed, it might be more
proper to fay, that thei'e is an alteration in tlie natural fen-
iations and fentibility of the part, than that there is pain,
which latter term leads one to undcrftand a degree of agony.
Numerous chronic inflammations produce very trivial un-
eafinefs in the part, the patient feeling, perhaps in the feat
of the difeafe, merely a fenfation of weight and heavinefs.
It is likewife remarked by Richerand, that the pruritus,
which precedes and attends certain cutaneous eruptions, fo
far from being painful, occafions rather an agreeable fenfa-
tioD. It is only when the fenfibility is cairied beyond a
particular pitch that it amounts to pain. In phlegmonous
inflammation the pain is of a throbbing defcription, and the
fufFening is joined with an annoying fenfe of weight. In
eryfipelas the pain is of a burning kind. In anthrax it is
accompanied by a feeling of ftiff"nefs. The feverity of the
pain is generally in proportion to the vehemence of the in-
flammation, the fenfibility of the parts, and the refiftance
which their ftrufture makes to the tumefaftion.

It is a curious fact, of which the practice of fur-
gery affords many proofs, that parts which, in their
natural healthy Hate, are not remarkable for their great
fenfibility, arc frequently aff'eitted when inflamed with an
exquifite degree of tendernefs and pain. The gums, in
the found ftate, are not very fenfibie ; they may be divided
with a lancet, without any great deal of pain being occa-
fioned : and the prefl'ure of hard fubftances againft them in
mallication is not prodndtive of injury. When inflamed,
however, in confequence of decayed teeth, a cold, or any
other caufe, they are aff'edted with extreme fenfibility, fwell
in a confiderable degree, and cannot be touched, or prefi'ed,
in the flighteft manner, without much fufferipg being ex-
cited. The ligaments are naturally almolt devoid of fenfa-
tion ; but, in feveral difeafes of the joints, they are even
much more painful, than fome other inflamed parts, which,
when foiuid, pofiefs a vail deal of feniibility.

A preceding remark, therefore, that the pain is in pro-
portion to the natural fenfibility of the parts affcdted, is not
to be received without exceptions. With refpect to the im-
mediate way, in whic'a pain is excited in cafes of inflamma-
tion, it fce;iis moll rational to impute the degree of fuft'ering-
to the augmented fenfibility of the nerves, and the unnatural
condition in which tliey are placed. In chronic inflamma--.
tion, the changes which the parts uuJorgo arc flow, and the
nerves feem to have time to adapt themftlves to the altera-
tion i

INFLAMMATION.

lion ; but in aci'.te iMfiammrtion, tlie rmitations are quick,
aiid the pain is, for the moil part, conlidcrablc.

The f-.velling appears t.) be oecalioiied bv fcveral circum-
ftances, yet principally by the incrcafod determination of
blood to the vefll-ls of the part, and by an effulion of co-
agulating lymph in the interllices of the cellular fubftance.
The dilatation of ihv? blood- vefTels, and the interruption of ab-
forption, probably have alfo a fiiare in [iroducing thecft'edl.

The confiderable injciStion of the fniail vefTels with red
blood, and their great incn>afe of diameter, affoid fome cx-
j)lanation of the manner in which the preteruatur.d rcdnefs
arifes. It has been a prevailing fentiment, that the rednefs of
common inflammatitrn is partly owing, not merely to a dila-
tation, but at the fame time to an actual incrcafe in the num-
ber of the blood-veflels of the iiiflamKd part. New vefTels are
fuppofed to be generated. This doctrine, kov%ever, is far
from relling upon unqueftionable evidence. When co-
agulating lymph is extra vafated upon the furface of a
wound, an inflamed membrane, &c. it is beyond a doubt
often rendered vafcular, or, in other words, becomes fur-
nifiied with new velfels. But, in the extravafated lymph of
a phlegmonous tumour, we have no evidence to prove that
there is any generation of new veflels. If the veffels have
the appearance of being m;;re numerous, it is becaufe their
diameters are enlarged, and many, which previonfly con-
tained only a colourlefs fluid, are now filled with vifibly red
blood. Were the extravafated lympk of a phlegmonous
fwelling to be rendered organized and vafcular, the tume-
faction and rednefs would probably be more permanent,
and not admit (at leall fo cafily as ihey often do) of refo-
lution. When adhefions form between two inflamed fur-
faces, the organized fiibiliance, forming the connet\ion, lives
after the fublideiue of the inflammation, and is a permanent
effecl. (Did. of Pracl. Surgery.) According to Mr.
Burns, the fuppofition eafdy admits of refutation ; for heat,
and many other caufes of inflammation, operate fo quickly,
that there can be no time for the formation of any new
veffels ; and yet the rednefs is as great, and the inflammation
as perfett, in a minute, as in an hour, or a day, after the
application of the exciting caufe. (DifTert. on Inflammation).
Now that we arc noticing the rednefs of inflamed parts, it
may be as well to nr.ention the circumllance of red blood
itfelf being fometimes extravafated, in confequence of in-
flammation. The occurrence generally indicates, that the
infla.nmat( ry raifchief has been rapid and violent. The moll
llriking inllances, which juft now prefent themfelves to our
mind, are, firit, that ftate of an inflamed eye, termed che-
mo/is, for an account of which we refer to Oihthai.my ; and,
fecondly, the fpots, produced by effufed blood, on the inner
coat of the ilomach, when this vifciis has been inflamed, in
confequence of poifon. There is ftill another circumllance,
which has been mentioned by the celebrated Mr. John
Hunter, as conducive to the red appearance of inflamed
parts, viz. the blood, after it has become venous, retaining
a certain degree of the bright fcarlet colour, which it pof-
felfed in the arteries. We cannot offer any opinion concern-
ing the truth of the latter fuggeltion ; as coming from Mr.
Hunter, it cannot fail to deferve attention.

The experiments which Mr. Hunter made with the ther-
mometer, tend to evince, that the real augmentation of the
heat of an inflamed part is inconfideruble, although it feen.s
to be very great, when a judgment is derived from the pa-
tient's icehngs. If we recoiled, that the fenfibility of the
nerves is augmented, we can no longer be furpri/.ed, that
they fhoiild convey to the fenforium falfe impreffions.
With regurd to the ma»ncr, in which the incrtafcd ttiiipera-

ture of inflamed parts is produced, this fubjed is explicable
on the principles, which apply to the produdion of ani-
mal heat in general. We fliall merely obferve, that there is
always a greater determination of blood to a part which i;
in a Hate of inflammation, than to the fame part when it
is not inflamed. The blood flows through it with aug-
mented velocity, and we always find, that the heat of the
whole body, as well as of any portion of it, is alv.ays in a
ratio to the accelerated Hate of the circulation. When a
perfon runs, he hurries the current of the entire mafs of
blood, and his whole body is thrown into a heated ftate.
In fevers, the circulation is quickened, and there is like-
wife general heat. But in inflammation unattended with
febrile diforder, the blood flows only through the inflamed
part with increafed impetuofity, and, of courfe, the aug-
mentation of heat is local and circunifcribed.

Phlegmon, or what may be called common inflammation,
has been regarded by many writers as an afl^edion of the
cellular membrane. Its frequent occurrence in every fitua-
tion, both internal and external, has been accounted for by
the way, in which the cellular fubftance pervades the tex-
ture of almoll every part of the body. Phlegmon is re-
prelented as being attended with more fwelHng than
any other fpecies of inflammation. The bright red co-
lour in the centre of the tumour gradually extends towards
the circumference, and is infeniibly loH on the furrounding
fkin. The fwelling, on the other hand, is dillinctly cir-
cunifcribed. The heat has been compared with that arifing
from the ftcam of boiling water. The throbbing, to which
we have already adverted, manifefUy depends upon the pul-
fation of the arteries, and is fynchionous with the pulfe of
the whole fyltem. The throbbing particularly aflPeds the pa-
tient himfelf, and the furgeon may plainly perceive it when
he touches the part, all the fmall vefTtls of uhich are di-
lated, and beat in a preternatural degree. In a common
whitlow, this vehement throbbing is not confined to the
finger, but extends to the large arteries, a confiderable way
up the arm.

The adive mind of the late Mr. John Hunter led him to
pay much attention to the interefting fubjed before us, and
from him we have many fertile and original obfervations.
The principles and laws of inflammation were better ex-
plained by this philoTophieal obfcrver, than by any of His
profeffional predecefl'ors. He has uoticed the well efla-
blifhed circumllance, attending phlegmonous and other in-
flammations, whcrefoever fituated, namely, their being al-
ways moil violent on the fide next to the external furface of
the body. Thus, when inflammation invades the focket of
a tooth, it chiefly takes place towards the cheek, and not
on the infide of the alvcolary procefs. He point.5 out,
that the titnation, pofition, flrudure, fundions, and dillance
of the part affefted from the fource of the circulation,
caufe confiderable variety in the progrefs and termination
of all inflammation. He maintains, that parts, naturally
enjoyir.g a vigorous circulation of blood then can bear in-
flamnuation better than others in the oppofite condition.
From this obfcrvation, however, he excepts vital parts,
which, though they may be exceedingly valcular, do not
undergo inflammation favourably, becaufe the natural ope-
rations of univerfal health depend fo much upon.the found-
nefs of fuch organs. Mr. Hunter alfo endeavours to fliew,
that the depending pofition of a part feems to have a ba(i
effcd on inflammation, probably by retarding the return
of the blood. It is one of the fame author's principles,
that new-formed parts, as many tumours and excrefcenccs,
callus, fears, ^:c. poifefs lefs vitality than is the iliare of
N 2 other

INFLAMMATION.

other parts, which conftitute a portion of the original fabric
of the body : hence, when inflamed, they are exceedingly
apt to be deftroyed by ulceration, or mortification.

When an inflammation is of trivial extent, and not fe-
rioufly painful, the efFeAs of the complaint are dltogether
local. In the contrary cafe, the whole circulatiuu partakes
in the excitement, and the inflammatory fever occ jrs.

The blood, taken from a patient labouring under inflam-
mation, is well known by all medical praclitionei-s to exhibit
peculiar appearaaceB. The biood, when it has cfcaped out
of the living veffels, fpontanooufly feparates into two diftinA
parts, the ferum and the crafTamentum. The laft is a com-
pound fubilance, confiding chiefly of coagulating lymph and
red globules, the moll heavy ingredients in the blood. Now,
it is to be obferved, that blood, taken away from perions
affcfted with inflamm.ilion, is longer in coagulating, and
coagulates more firmly, than when drawn from people in
other circumllances. Hence the red globules, which are
very heavy, not being fo fcon entangled in the Ijmph,
defcend by their gravity more deeply from its furface,
which, being in this manner more or lefs divefted of tlie red
colouring matter, is, from its appearance, termed the huffy
coal, or inflammatory crujl. The firmer and more compact
coagulation of the lymph compreifes out an unufual quan-
tity of ferum from it, and the furface of 'Cae fi^y blood, as
it is frequtiitly called, is often formed into a hollow, tlie
edges being drawn inwards. Thefe changes in the blood
are, in fome cafes, a more infallible proof of the exiftence
of inflammation than the piilfe iifelf. At th« fame time,
it is probably only a criterion of fome unufual operation
going on in the fyi1;em ; for the blood, taken away from
pregnant women, is always found to exhibit the above ap-
pearances, a circumfiance which fliould always be recol-
leded. In peritoneal inflammation, the patient fometimes
feems to be in the mod feeble Hate, and the pu'.fe, abfl;radl-
edly confidered, would rather induce the pradiitioner to
employ tonics and itimulants, than evacuations ; but fhould
the continuance, or exafperation of the diforder, or any
other reafon, lead the furgecn to ufe the lancet, then the
bujfy coat, the concave furface of ilif blood, and the large
quantity of ferum, clear away all doubt concerning the ex-
igence of mflammation. But every praftitioncr ought to
bear in his mind, that, befidcs pregnant women, there are
a few anomalous conllitutions met with, where the blood,
taken away by the lancet, always exhibits the foregoing
peculiarities, though inflammation may not prevail.

We fee three very remarkable eflefts follow the preva-
lence of inflammation j to's. adhefions of parts of the body
to each other ; the formation of pus, or fuppuration ; and
ulceration, a procefs in which the lymphatics are more
concerned than the blood-vefleis. Hence Mr. Kunter
termed the differen: ftages of inflammation the adhcfive, the
fuppuraliv!, and the ulcerative,

All parts of the body are not equally liable to each of
the preceding confequences. It was remarked by Mr.
Hunter, that in the cellular membrane, and in the cir-
cumfcribed cavities, the adhefive liage takes place more
readily than the others ; fuppuration may be faid to follow
next in order of frequency ; and, laiUy, ulceration. When-
ever mucous membranes arc affefted, the fuppiirative in-
fiammation comes on more readily, than either the adhefive
or the ulcerative. Here adhefions, which originate from
the ni;;hte(l degree of inflammation in other fitua'.ions and
ftiuAures, can only be produced by the moll violent kind.
Indeed, ulceration is much more frequently met with upon
ir.ucous furfaccs than adhefions. The celhil«>r membrane

appears to be much mftre ftlfceptible of the adhefive In-
flammation than the adipofe, and much more readily pafTes
into the fuppurative. Thus, we fee the cellular fubftance,
connecling the mufcles together, and the adipofe membrane
to the mufcles, inflaming and fuppurating, and the matter
feparatiiig the mufcles from their lateral connexions, and
even the fat from the mufcles, while the adipofe fubfl:ance
and the flvin are only highly inflamed. Yet, it mufl; be al-
lowed, that in fituations where fat abounds, we very fre-
quently meet with abfceffes. This is fo much the cafe, thafr-
Mr. Brom field accounted the fat a more common nidus
for colleftions of matter, than the cellular fubftance it-
fclf. Thus abfceffes about the anus, mammas, &c. are re-
markably frequent. When we fpeak of the fat inflaming
and fuppurating, we fliould rather fay, that the membranous
cavities containing this fecretion are io affefted ; . for, fat
itfelf has no vcflels, principle of hfe, nor atlion of its own,
and, confequen'Jy, cannot be luppofed to be capable of un-
dergoing inflammation and fuppuration.

Parts of the body, which lie deeply from the furface,
but more particularly fucii as are known by the name ol
vital, are readily affefted with the adhefive inflammation.
That they are not fo much difpofcd to fuppurate as the
fuperficial parts are, is ftnkingly illvftrated in cafes of ex-
traneous bodies, which, if deeply lodged, only produce the
adhefive inflammation. By this procefs a cyft is formed, in
which the foreign body lies, without much inconvenience to
the patient, and may even change its fituatisn, without fe-
rioufly difturbing the parts through which it pafles. But
no fooner does it approach the Ikin, than abfceffes immedi-
ately arife.

Much might be faid concerning the difference of the pulfe
in the various cafes of inflammation. Thus, when any part
of the furface of the body is aflttted with a certain degree
of phlegmonous inflammation, the pulfe is generally full,
frequent, and ftrorg. When the peritoneum and bowels are
inflamed, it is very quick and fmall, &c. We fhall net,
however, enlarge upon this topic, as the ftate of the pulfe,
in the fevcral cafes, will be noticed in the many articles of
this work appropriated to the confideration of inflammatory
difeafes.

According to Mr. Hunter, the fufceptibility of the body
for inflammation is of two kinds ; the one original, confti-
tuting a part of the animal economy, and beyond the
reach of human inveftigatioii ; the other acquired from the
influence of climate, habits of life, and ftate of the n-.ind
over the conllitution. The firft kind of fufceptibihty,
being innate, cannot be diminiflied by art ; the fecond may
be lefTened by the mere avoidance of the particular caufes
upon which it depends. Thefe latter might be named
predifpofwg.

With regard to the remote, e.\citing, or oceafwnal caiifes
of inflamniation, they are infinite in number ; but very eafy
of comprehenfion, becaufe moft of them are lefernble to
two general clafles. The firft includes all fuch as operate
by their ftimulant or chemical qtiahtics, as, for inftance,
heat, cantharides, fulphuric acid, aqua ammonise puroe, &c.
The fecond embraces fuch as aft mechanically, as bruifes,
wounds, frafturcs, &o.

The principle on which cold becomes an exciting caufe
of inflammation, is yet contefted among furgical writers,
and may Rill be confidered as not decidedly known.

Fevers would fometimes appear to be the exciting caufes

, of inflammation. The local affcdion, thus originating, is

often called critical, and is fuppofed by many to be the

means, by which a ftop is put to the conftitutional indifpo-

8 fiiioiu

INFLAMMATION,

1. Strong injunctions are, therefore, given not to re-

? :!n inflammation of this kind, left the method fhould

loduftive of fome worfe and even fatal di order. We

.i\v,iys confidort d this mode of rcafoning unfatisiaftory,

. livjuld have little apprehcnfion of any real evils, which

V, arife from the attempt to diminiPa an inllammalion,

: ijpears as a confequence of a fever.

'iv' following obfervations refpeCling the proximate caiife

ilamm:ition,are taken from Mr. S. Cooper's Dittionary

t '.idical Sur^i-cry.

: nerou.5 opinions have been entertained upon this fub-
■ , but almoll every theory has been built upon the fup-
poUtion of there being fome kind of obftrucliun in the
inflamed part.

While the circulation of the blood was imknown, and the
hypothetical notions of the power of the liver, in preparin"-
and fending forth this fluid continued to prevail, it is not
adonifning, that the theories of phyfic rfiruld be exceed-
ingly imperfect. So fully perfuaded were phyficiar.s of the
exiltenceand influence cf different humours and fpirits, and
fo litrle did they know of the regular and conl'.ant motion
of the blood, that tli y beheved in the poflibility of depo-
fitior.s and congellions of the blood, the bile, or lymph ;
and acknowledged thefe as the caufe of inflammation.
Their anatomiils taught them, and their profeflors of phyfic
fupported the opinion, that the liver was the centre of the
i-afcular fyftem, from which the blood went forth by day

of the ancients in the treatment of inflammation ; but (haU
refer the reader to what Mr. Burns has written on the fub-
jed. Our prefent objca is only to trace the leading doc-
trines which have at diftVrent times prevailed, refpcainjr the
proximate caufe of infiammation.

From the theories o{ Juxlon and congejion, w hidi were
quite incompatible witii the laws of the circulation of the
blood, we I urn our attention to the doctrine of olijlnillion.

Boerhaave inculcated, (Aph 37J et feq.) that iiidam.
mation was caufed by an obllruaion to the free circulation
of the bood in the minute vefl. Is, and this obftruftion, he
fuppofed, might be caufed by heat, diarrhoea, too copious
flow of urine and fweat, or whatever could diflipate the
thinner parts of the blood and produce a thiekncfs or \'\{:
cidity of that fluid. When the lentor did not exill before
theproduclion of inflammation, he imxi^nned, that the Inrn-er
globules of the blood got into the fmall veflbh, a-d thi-s
plugged them up. When, for inllance, the perfpiration
wa.^ Itopped, the fluid, beinir retained, dibted the vcflels and
allowed lome ot thefe mifchi. vous globules to enter, and
produce a more permanent obltruCfiun. This circumilance
was termed an error led, and was one of the chief caufes
affign-d for inflammation. The obltruction, whether caufed
by vlfcidily or an err r loci, was imagined to occaiion a re-
to the circu ation in the part affeded ; hence in-

fill

afed it in the othe

efll-ls

heart, and augmenting the force or attraction of the b

proving an irritation to the
ood

the extremities, and returned again by night. If then any j" '.''^' P^""' °' the veliel which was behind the obftrudtion
the blood was fent out Z!*"^ caufed heat and pain, while the accumulation of the

peccant matter irritated the li

more forcibly ; and if, at the fame time, any part of the
body were weakened, or otherwife difpofcd to receive a
greater quantity of fluid than the reft, then a fwelling was
produced by the flow of humours to this place. Fluxions,
or flows of humour to a place, might happen either from
weaknefs of the part which allowed the humour? to enter
more abundantly, or from the place attradting the hu-
mours, in confequence of the application of heat or other
agents.

The peculiar nature of the fwelling thus occafioned was
fuppofed, by the ancients, to depend upon the kind of
humour. Blood produced the true phlegmon, bile, eryli-
pelas, &c.

The ancient phyficians alfo entertained an idea, that the
blood and humours might flowly ftagnate in a part, from a
want cf expi'.lfive power, and this affcftion was termed a
cangejllon, while the exprpffion_^i/.i7en or defiUx'wn was ufed
to demote any fwelling aiiling from the fudden flow of hu-
mours from a diilaiit part. The firft was formed gradually
without much pain, or the feelirg of pulfation, and ran its
courfe flowly ; the fecond appeared fuddcnly, was very pain-
ful, had a pulfatory feel, and was rapid in its progrefs. The
ancients, who fuppofed that the blood had very little mo-
tion, and that its courfe could be eafiiy direfted or changed,
recommended b'cd;ng from fome part which^as remote
fro.n a recent inflammation, by whicli they imagined that
the current of blood was altered, and a revuljtcn made. A
revulfion was alfo made by raifing a tumour in fome other
part, by means of ligatures, cupping-gla.Tes, &c. or by giv-
ing nature an opportunity of difcharging the humours from
dillant parts, by applying leeches or blifters. Hence fina-
pifms were applied to the feet in difeafes of the fuperior
parts.

When blood was drawn from the vicinity of the fluxion,
or coi.gellion, the mode was called tlerlvalion, which oi'ly
differed from re-vuljion in the diftance to wliich the humour
was i^irawn being lefs.

\. •■ r.uU n<Jt enter further into an account of the pradice

blood produced rednefs ; which three fymptoms are the
eiience of the difeafe. Befides ohjlrudion, Boerhaave alfo
brought into the account an acrimonious jaU cf the fluids
which rendered refolution out of the queftion, and gangrene
likely to follow. Aph. 388.

The vifcidity of the blood cannot be admitted r.s the
proximate caule of inflammation ; becaufe we have no proof
that this ftate ever exifts ; or, granting that it did, it wou-'d
not explain the phenomena. Were a vifcidity to occur, it
would exilt m the whole mafs of blood, would affed every
part of the body alike, and could not be fuppofed to pro-
duce only a lecal dilorder. How alfo could fuch a lentor
be produced by caufes which bring on inflammation fud-
deuly, without there being time for changes of the fluids to
take place ?

^ With regard to the dodrine of error loci, or of red
giobTes going into veffels,-which did not formerly tranfmit
them, the fact muft: be admitted, at the fame tune, that the
concluiion is denied. When the eye becomes infl.imcd, the
tunxa conjundiva is !een with its Wels full of red blood,
winch in health is not die cafe ; but this rcduefs never ap-
pears until the inilimmation has commenced ; and mull,
therefore, be confidered as an efl'ed, not a caufe. Nor can
tins error l«ci occafion any obftrudion in thefe veffels ; for
if they be divided, the blood flows freely, which flicws,.
that they are large enough to allow an eafy circulation.

Boerhaave's theory of obftrudion was too circnmfch-ibed,
and too mechanical ; it reduced all inflamjnations to one fpe-
cies. The only duliiidions which could have arifcn, mull
have proceeded from the nature of th* obftrudion itlVlf.
This dodrine could never account for the adion of
fpecilic difeafes and morbid poifons.

As for the fuppciition of the co-operation of an acrimony
of the fluids, the propc^rtion of the faline matter of the blood
has never bt-en j roved to be greater in this, than in any other
ftate of the body. Even were a general diforder of this
kfiid to be admitted, no rational explanation of the proximate
caufe of local iiillammation could be deduced from it.

Dr.

many

INFLAMMATION.

Dr. CuUcn attributed the proximate catifc of inflamma-
tion to a " ipafm of the extreme arteries fupporting an iii-
creafed aftion in the coiirfe of them." This theory only
differs from that of Boerha.ive in the cavife which is alfigned
for the obftniftion. Some caiifcs of ineqiiahty in the diftri-
bution of the blood, may tlirow an unufual quantity of it
upon particular veflTcls, to which it mult neceflarily prove a
ftimulus. But, farther, it is probable that, to relieve the
congeftion, the vis medicatrix uaturos increafes ftill more the
aftion of the vefTels ; and which, as in all other febrile dif-
eafes, it atfecls, by the formation of a fpafm on their extre-
mities. " A fpafm of the extreme arteries, fupporting
an increafed aftion in the courfe of them, may, therefore,
be confidcred as the proximate caufe of inflammation ; at
leaft, in all cafes not ariling from direft ftimuli apphed ;
and even in this cafe, the ftimuli may be fuppofed to pro-
duce a fpafm of the extreme veflels."

The inconfiflencies in CuUen's theory are very glaring.
The congeftion or accumulation of blood, which is only an
effeft or confequencc of inflammation, is fet down as the
caufe of the fpafm of the veflels, to which fpafmodic con-
flriflious CuUcn, ftrangcly enough, affigns the name of
proximate caufe. Tlie fpafmodic contraftion of the ex-
tremities of the veflels, inftead of pi-opelling the accumu-
lated quantity of blood, would render the paflTage of the
Hood from the arterial into the venous fyftem lliU more
difficult. Spafmodic conttriftion of the i'mall veflels is
fo far from being a fatisfaftory explanation of the proxi-
mate caufe of inflammation, that even tying a large vefTel
does not of itfelf bring on the uffeclion. Phlegmon is alfo
attended with an effufion into the cellular fubftance from the
extremities of the arteries ; a circumftance not ea(ily ex-
plained upon the principle of obftrufted circulation. See
Burns on Inflammation.

We fliall nov/ notice tise celebrated, and very original
opinions promulgated on this fubjeft by the famous John
Hunter. According to him inflammation is to beconfidered
only as a difturbed ftatc of parts, which requires a new, but
falutary mode of a>?tion, to reftore them to that ftate,
^vherein a natural mode of aftion alone is neceflary. From
fuch a view of the fubjeft, therefore, inflammation, in itfelf,
is not to be confidered as a difeafe, but as a falutary ope-
ration, confequent either to fome violence, or fome difeafe.
Elfewhere, the author remarks, the aft of inflammation is
to be confidered as an increafed aftion of the veflels, which,
at firft, coniifts limply in an increafe or diftention beyond
their natur.il fize. This increafe fecms to depend upon a
diminution of the mufcular pov.er of the veflels, at the fame
time that the elaftic power of the artery muft be dilated in
the fame proportion. This is, therefore, fomethin^ more
than fimply a common relaxation ; we muft fuppofe it an
aftion in the parts to produce an increafe of fize, to anfwer
prticular purpofes, and this Mr. Hunter would call an aft
cf dilatation. The whole is to be confidered as a neceflTary
operation of nature. Owing to this dilatation, there is a
greater quantity of blood circulating in the part, which is
according to the common rules of tlie animal economy ; for,
whenever a part has more to do than fimply to fupport iti'elf,
the blood is there coilcftcd in larger quantity. The fwtll-
ing is produced by an cxtravafation of coaguLiblc lymph,
with fome ferum ; but this lymph differs from the ccmmon
lymph, in confequence of pafling through inflamed \\([\-h.
It is this lymph which becomes the unituig medium of in-
flamed parts ; veflels flioot into it, and it has even the power
«f becoming vafcular itfelf. The pain proceeds from fpafm.
The rednefs is produced either by the arteries being more
dilated than the vtins, or becaufe the blood is not changed

in the veins. When, after an injury, a part cannot be reftore 1
to health by iiiflimmation alone, or by adhcfion, then fup-
puration, as a preparatory ftep to the formation of gi-aiii;-
latious, and the confequent rcftoration of the part, ukc,
place. The vclTels are nearly in the fame ftate as in inflani-
mation ; but they are more quiefcent, and have acquired .'.
new mode of aftion. See Hunter on the Blood, Inflam-
mation, &c.

An increafed aftion of the veflels is now almoft univcr-
fally regarded as the proximate caufe of inflammation.
I'his opinion derives ftrong fupport from a review of the
feveral exciting caufes of the afteftion, which, being in
general of an irritating nature, muft, when applied to living
or fenlible parts, occafion a preternat\iral exertion of their
veffeli. The method of cure tends alfo to confirm the com-
mon fentimcnt concerning the proximate caufe of inflam-
mation. See Diftionary of Praftical Surgery.

Trcalmeni of Iitfiammaiton. — According to the preceding
views of the fubjcft, the firft and principal objeft to be
aimed at in the treatment of inflammation, is to diminifli
that immoderate aftion of the arteries, which exifts in fo con-
fpicuous a degree. There are feveral means conducive to
this end ; but that which demands primary attention,
and, indeed, which feems to be indicated by common fenfe,
is to remove, if poffible, whatever conftitutes the ren.ote
or exciting caufe of the inflammation. Thus, fuppofing
the eye were to inflame in confequence of a fmall infeft
lodging under the eyehds, how obvious would be the pro-
priety of immediately taking away the fource of irritation ?
If the irritation of a thorn or fplinter fliould excite inflam-
mation, who would not of his own accord endeavour to
extraft the extraneous fubftance ? When the afleftion is
excited by extravafated urine, by preffure, friftion, ftimu-
lating applications, &:c. tlie furgeon often has it in his
power to render moft: effential fervice, by removing at once
what excites and keeps up the complaint. Frequently, the
exciting caufe is tranfient in its operation, and yet, the
inflammation cannot be prevented from running a certain
Gourfe. Thus, many kinds of external violence are in-
flifted in a moment ; but inflammation muft follow, and go
tlu-ough its operations, though the duration of the circum-
ftance which gave rife to the procefs has ceafeJ. The
living folids demonftrate, in thefe inllances, a kind of re-
adion. Since, therefore, the removal of the fti.Tiulus which
excites inflammation will not always put an immediate ftop
to the complaint, however it may tend to alleviate it, we
are generally called upon to moderate, by other nicung, tiie
increafed vafcular aftion.

There are few perfons fo entirely ignorant of the fubjcft
before us, as not to know that bleeding is one of the moft
powerful means of counterafting inflammation. This well
known faft, which has obtained the aflent of the moft cele-
brated phyficians and furgeons in every age and country, can
hardly fail to be quite congenial with fuch ideas and expec-
tations as arc*naturally impreffcd upon the mind by a dcfcrip-
tion of the diforder. Indeed, one principal effeft of the
increafed aftion of the vefllls, is the tranfmilfion of a larger
quantity of blood through the inflamed part. The pro-
priety of endeavouring, therefore, in moft cafes, to diminilh
this determination of blood to the feat of the inflammation,
cannot be doubted. The chief mode of accomplifliing this
objeft is by general and topical bleeding. This evacuation is
called general, when the blood is taken from a large veffel, at
a diftance from the inflamed part ; local or topical, when the
blood is evacuated by leeches, fcarifications, or cupping,
from the veflels which are near, or belong to the inflamed
part. General bleeding is not fo invariably proper as lopi-
6 ' * ca!.

INFLAMMATION.

I cal. Inflammation is a local affeiTtion, and ilicrefore muft par-
t ticularly require local curative means. OhjciElions have been
f urtjcd againll topical blccJina, exrcpt when tlie fkin, over
, and near the inflamed part, is itfelf free from the inflammation.
I However, mod furgeons in this country think otherwife ;
they put leeches on the inflamed fl<in, and even fcarify tiie
dilated veffels of the conjunrtiva, in cafes of ophthalmy, as
we tliiuk, with dcclJed good effeft. It is alfo an incontro-
vertible truth that bleeding is generally more efTedlual, the
nearer the evacuation is made to the feat of the inflammation.
But it is not always in our power to take away a fufficient
quantity of blooil in this manner. Many inflammations muft
be immediately checked, or the patient is deftroyed. There-
fore, when inflammation affefts a part of f.ich confequence in
the animal economy that it caimot undergo much difturbance,
without life itfelf being endangered, the furg on is not to he
fatisfied with local nieafures. Thus, when the brain, the
lungs, the ftom.ach, the bowels, &c. are inflamed, the inflam-
mation, unlefs fuddenly arretted, will inevitably end in death.
Alfo, when the inflamed parts are endued with inferior
powers of recovery, it fs often neccfiary to have recourfe to
general as well as topical bleeding ; as in inflammation of a
joint. When inflammation is fiiuatcd in an organ, where fup-
puration would certainly dellroy its ufes, it is likevvife ad-
vifabic to moderate the local afFeftion, even at the expence of
the whole fy Hem. Ophthalmy is a cafe of this kind. More-
over, it ought to be well underilood that every confiderable
andextenfive phlegmonous inflammation, wher'efoerer Ctuat-
ed, ought always to be refilled by general bleeding.

There is no utility in bleeding, when the inflammation and
fever are trivial, and the caufe of the dlfordcr can be entirely
removed. Such evacuation muft often be hurtful and dan-
gerous, when the patient is much debilitated by previous in-
difpofition, extreme age, or nnv other circumilance. The
fymptomatic fever, attendant on inflammation, can feldom
be of itfelf a juft ground for bleedinp-, as it ccnftantly in-
creafes and fubfides with the local aflfeftion. We are, there-
fore, to be principally guided by the ftate of the inflamma-
tion. Bleed with a view of diminifliing this, but never for
the folc purpofe of L-flening tlie fever.

It is a principle very generally acknowledged by fur^rcons,
that the efficacy of bleeding is greater the foouer it i? prac-
tifed, the nearer it is done to the part affefted, and the more
fuddenly the blood is diicharged. Hence, when an organ,
like the brain, is inflamed, and it is an objeft of infinite mo-
ment to pnt an immediate check to the inflammation, the
furgeon fltould take away in the firft inftance fixteen or
twenty ounces of blood, if poiTible, from the temporal arte-
ries ; but if that quantity cannot be tiius procured, the defi-
cient proportion ought to be taken from the arm.

Another plan, calculated to check and diminifn inflamma-
tion, and which is neceflary in almolt all csfes, is to give the
patient mild aperient medicines, fuch as Epfom fait, Glau-
ber's fait, magnefi3E fulphas, &c. Strong drattic purga-
tives, by their irritation on the conftitution, are foldom al-
lowable, and almoft always prove hurtful. Gentle purging
is even more invariably proper, in all cafes where inflamma-
tion already exills, or is to be apprehended, than bleeding ;
for this latter evacuation is productive of more lalling
weaknefs, and therefore, in flight cafes, and weak habits,
is generally difpenfcd with. Purging probably counteracls
innammatioii, tirft by increafing the Iccretion of the bowels,
fo as to leffen tlic quantity of the circulating fluids ; and fe-
condly, by fpecifically diminifliing every operation going on
,in the body, and among others, inflammatory aftion.
, In many inllanccs, the ciTcd of the apcrietit medicines is

to be promoted with clyfters. Indeed, there are fome ex-
amples, where the latter are fafer than purgatives given by
the mouth : when the peritoneum and bowels are inflamed,
the prudent furgeon is often afraid to prcfcribe any very ac-
tive opening medicines. Perliaps he ventures to exhibit half
an ounce of the oleum riciui, which frequently does not
take eficcl, although the dofe be repeated, until aflllled with
a clyfter.

Antimonial medicines have acquired confiderable reputa-
tion in numerous cafes of inflammation, and, as far as we
can judge, they are really of eminent lervice. Naufeating
dofes of antimonivmi tartarizatum prove advantageous in fe-
veral ways ; they reheve that oppreflive dryncfs of the (kin,
which accompanies the fever attendant on fevere l«cal inflam-
mation ; they promote all the excretions ; and !hey dim-niflx
the increafed aftion of the inflamed part. The latter effeft
is produced, becaufe, whenever an inclination to ficknefs pre-
vails, the fympathy of the whole con(l:tution with the fto-
maeh is fo intimate, th:\t the fyltem is immediately thrown
into a temporary ilate of debility, every confiderable opera-
t/on in the machine becoming lowered, and, among others,
the procefs of inflammation. When the inflammatior is dan-
gerous, and there is urgent reafon for putting an immediate
chock to it, the employment of antimonials ought never to
be neglected. Thus, when the brain or its membranes are
affected with inflammation, it is ufual to exhibit fmall dofes
of antimony.

Opium is not prefcribedin cafes of common inflammation,
unlefsthe feverity of the pain render this medicineindifpenf^ly
neceflary ; for it is generally confidcred as a powerful llimulant,
and therefore hurtful in regard to the local complaint. In-
ftr.nces, however, certainly do prefent themfelves, in which
opium is proper. Procuring the patient eafe and fleep,
during the violence of many fevere inflammations, is an object
of the hsgheft importance ; and, it may be queflioned wiiether
the inflammation itfelf would not be aggravated more by
leaving the patient to all his pain and relllefsnefs, than by
making an attempt to diminifli his fuffcrings, and lull him to
Deep by opiates. One thing feems certain, that if opium is
to be given in cafes where pain and inflamrmition exift, it
fnouid be prefcnbed in an adequate dofe. Thus, after any
great operation, fuch as an amputation, the rcmovid of a
brealt, S:c. the furgeon fliould give from twenty-five to forty
drops of the tinClura opii ; fmall dofes of opium, in fuch
cafes, always have the effecl of ferioufly increafing the reft-
lefsnefs, fever, &c. inftead of affording eafc, and procuring
lleep.

'i'he patient's regimen and diet arc to be low ; no fpirits
nor fermented liquors are allowable ; and .^hen the inflamma-
tion is at all extenfive, or fuch as to be of confequence, the
patient fliould abftain from eating meat, and hve on thiu
broths, barley-water, tea, &c. The pradtitioner would in
vain make depletions in order to Hop an inflammation, while
his patient was living upon grofs, hot, flimulating difhes.
On the contrary, when the regimen and diet are fuch as they
ought to be, the patient will do with lefs evacuations, and
his health \nll not be fo much injured by the requifite treat-
ment. He fhould be advifed to drink plentifully of diluent
cooling beverages, hke lemonade and acidulated barley-water.
Oranges, llrawberries, fulinc draughts, &c. may be per-
mittcd, as being exceedingly grateful to patients, who are
feverifii and thinly, from being aflfefled with any ferious
degree of inflammation. The patient's chamber fliould be
kept cool, nor ought he to be covered witli two much bed-
ding. The antiphlogidic regimen, moreover, requires per-
fect rcpofe both of bodv and mind.

With

I N F

"With regard to the topical applications, tliefe we gc-
■nerally cither cold aftringciit lotions, or clfc wsrm relaxing
emullients. Heat is well known to promote and incrcafe
all animal aftions, and mud therefore tend to keep up and
augment the procefs of inflammation. Hence arifes the
indication to dimir.ilh the licat of the part affeded, by mak-
ing ufe of cold topical applications, and maintaining a
continual evaporation from the inflamed furface. The com-
mon phn is to dip linen in the fati'.rnine lotion, and after folding
it once or twice, lay it all over the part affecled, taking care
afterwards to keep it conftantly wet with the application. In
fome inllances cold water will anfwer every purpofe ; in
others the aqua ammonioe acctatfe, or lotions of the fiilphate
of zinc, alnm, S:c. may be employed. Poultices made with
linfeed-meal and water, or with bread and milk, are the
ordinary emollient applications when fuch are conlidered
proper. Thofe of the firft kind are frequently preferable
to the latter, which are apt to turn four and acquire an
irritating quality, a circumftance of high importance where
tlic cuticle is detached, ulceration is prefent, or the pnrt is
exquifitely fenfible. When poultices are ufed, fomentations
are alfo frequently proper, as having in all fevere cafes a
great efFeft in leflening the pain. Likewife, when fup-
puration is unavoidable, they accelerate the cure by pro-
moting the formation of matter, and haftening its approach
to the furface of the body. The common method is to dip
flannels in a decoftion of chamomile flowers, or white poppy
heads, wring them, and apply them vt^ry warm to the in-
flamed part.

In difcriminating the cafes which require cold applica-
tions from others to which warm ones are mod ferviceable,
the practitioner ftiould always bear in mind, that when
fuppuration is inevitable, it is invariably moil advantageous
to difcontinue ccld allringents without delay. In general,
where the chance of the inflammation being refolved is great,
cold applications are bell ; but Ibmetimes the choice of the
topical remedies mud be partly regulated by tlic patient's
feelings. There are fome patients who feem to derive moit
eafe from cold applications : there are others who appear
to experience moft comfort from cold ones. The latter
remedies ought perhaps rather to have the preference, when
the profpeft of preventing fuppuration is fair and rational,
and when at the fame time they afford as much eafe as
poultices.

In technical language, hiflammation is faid to have dif-
ferent terminations. When the rednefs, fwelling, heat, and
pain, all gradually fiibfide, without any formation of matter,
the cafe ends in what is termed rcfolut'ioii, which is the molt
favourable event that can happen.

In fome inftances, a change takes place in the adtion of
llie veflels of the inflamed part, and they alTume the power
of fecreting pus, or matter. Thus an abfcefs is formed, and
the cafe (furgically fpeaking) terminates in fuppuration

In certain examples, ulceration is a direft confequence
of inflammation, but in general an abfcefs precedes the
fore.

The lafl: termination of inflammation, to be noticed here,
is in morl'if cation, which is the word, but happily the leaft
frequent refult of common cafes. See Gangkene, Sup-
puration, &c.

For an account of particular kinds of inflammation, fee
Ekysipelas, Anthkax,Carbukcxe, Furuxculus, Scro-
fula, LuKS Veneuea, &c.

The inflammations of various parts of the body are alfo
treated of under diftinft heads. For inflammation of the
eye, fee Ofhthalmy ; for that of the parts about the

INF ■ \

anus, fee Fistula in jino ; for that cf the dura mater, fee
Injuries of the Heed ; for that of the tellicle, fee Heunta
H'.in:oralis ; for ihr-t of the fingers, fee \ViilTLO-\V, &c. &c.

Ikklawmation cfthe Bhicider See Cystitis.

Inflammation- of the Bcwels. See Enteritis.

Inflammation of the Brain See Piirenitis.

Inflammation of the Diaphragm. See Paraphrekitis.

Inflammation of th Ear. See Otalgia.

Inflammation of the Eye. See Oi-hthalmy.

Inflammation of the Heart See Carditis.

Inflammation of the Kidneys. See Nephritis.

Inflammation oflh. Liver. See Hepatitls.

Inflammation of the Lungs. See Pleurisy, Peripneu-
MONY, and Catarrh.

Inflammation of the Pericardium. See Pericarditis,
and Carditis.

Inflammation of the Peritoneum. See Peritonitis.

Inflam.mation of the Spleen. See Spleniti.s.

Inflammation of the Stomach. See Gastritis.

Inflam.mation of theTfles. See Heunia HumoraVts,

Inflammation of the Throat. See Cynanciie.

Inflam.mation of the Tonfils. See Cynanciie Torftllaris.

Inflammation of the Womb. See Hysteritis.

Inflammation, Spontaneous, ofeartliy matters, in Mining.
It 's a curious and important fact, that feveral pyritic and
bituminous thin ftrata which are found accompanying the
coal-feims in fome fituations, will, on being thrown out or
expofed to tlie air in the works, heat and take-fire. This
feems particularly the cafe in the thick coal-feaiii about
Dudley in Staff'ordfliire, as mentioned by Mr. Keirin Shaw's
Hillory of Stafibrdfliire. In difi'erent parts of Derbyfliire
there are alfo thin fl:rata of duns, tows, &c which thus in-
tumefce and t ike fire in the coal- works, as at Heanor, Derby-
hall and other pits, which are particularized by Mr. Farey
in his R'p rt on this county, vol. i. p. 348.

INFLAMMATORY Disease.s, in M.dieine, are all
thife difeafes in which any part or organ of the body 13
affeded with inflammation, as above defcribed ; but thefe
terms, in the general acceptation, imply more particularly
thofe acute and fevere inflammations which excite a degree
of febrile commotion in the fyftcm. In addition to thofe
juft enumerated, with references, the gout, acute rheumatifm,
eryfipelas, &c may be included under the clafs of inflam-
matory difeafes, and, together with them, conllilute, in
fad, a diltind Order, in the fyfliem of our belt nofologift,
Dr. Cullen, under the title of Phlegmafne ; namely, the fe-
cond order, of the firft clafs, Pyrexia, or Feiri'h- difeafes.
See his Nofol. Method.

We judge of the prefnce of an internal inflammatory
difeafe by the occurrence of the following congeries of'
fymptoms ; namely, when, together with a Itate of ^f-y^r,
there is a Ji.xed pain in any internal part, attended with fome
interruption in the exercife of its fun&icns. It is to be ob-
ferved, that the concurrence of all thefe fymptoms is necef-
fary to prove the exiftence of adive inflanmiation in any
organ, and that the occurrence of any one or two of them
may originate from other caufes than inflammation. Thus
pain may arile from a fpafmodic contradion of the mufcular
fibres of the part, and it may be moveable, and pais from
one part to another ; fever may arife with or without pain ;
and the fundions of an organ may be impeded without cither
pafei or fever. In none of thefe cafes are we to conclude
that adive inflammation is going on. We may illuftrate
this with refped to inflammation of the lungs, or perip-
neumony. This difeafe is known to be prefent, when, to-
gether with general fever (('. e. a frequent pulfc, hot fkin,

thirft.

INFLAMMATORY DISEASE.

thirr!:. See), there is a fised putn in fome part of the cheft,
cough, and difficuUy of Ireaih'ing. (Cullen, Nofol, Meth.
Clafs i. Ord. ii. Gen. ii.) Now fiver occwrs from many
other caufes, and without thcfe other iVmptoms ; in which
cafe no pulmonic inflammation is judged to beprafent. Pain
may be fok in the cheft when there is neither cough nor fe-
ver, nor difficult i-efpiratioii, as in the cafe of rheumatifm in
the intercollal mufcles, the diaphragm, or perhaps the me-
diaftinum, or in the cafe of partial or gesieral fpafm in thefe
inufcles. It may be alfo felt, with diifiqulty of breathing,
but without fever, as in the cafe of fpafm of the diaphragm,
in hydrothorax,_ or in angina pectoris-: or it may concur with
fever when there may bo nc cough, as fometimes happens
when the liver is inflamed on the furface contiguous to the
diaphragm. Again, there may be an impeded funftion
(;. e. in this cafe difficulty of refp'iration) without fever or
pain, as in many cafes of afthma and chronic dyfpnxa, con-
nected with a fpafmodic conllridlion of the bronchia) paf-
fages, or a conJiderable fecretion of mucus into the cells and
bronchial tubes. But where tliere is inflammation in "the
lungs, there is neceffarily, in the firft place, a fymptomatic
fevsr ; in the next, from the congeilion and over-dillention
of the veffels of the inflamed organ, there is a fixed ^^/n, and
alfo a difficulty of adaiifllon of air into tlie comprelfed cells,
i. e. difficult breathing; and the irritation upon the nerves
of the bronchia, by this congeilion, as well as by the mucus
fecreted, neceflarily excites cough.

Thefe concurring phenomena, tlien, of pain and impeded
funftion in any organ, with general fever, are the diagnollic
fymptoms of all internal inflammat,ory difeafes. But there
are ftill other phenomena which indicate the degree of vio-
lence of the inflammation which is going on. Thefe are
principally the other conditions of the puhe, befides its fre-
quency, and the appearance of the blood drawn from the
veins. Where an acute inflammation fubfifts, the pulfation
of the heart and arteries is generally very vigorous ; fo that
the pulfe at the wri'ft ilrikes againll the finger with a confi-
derable force, and with a iharpnefs of ftroke which elevates
the finger, comprefhng the artery, even when firmly held on
it. The terms hard, llrong, and fharp, have been ul'ed to
<lenote this vigorous pulfatioii of the artery. The degree
of hardnefs, ftrength, or iharpnefs of the pulfc, however,
varies greatly, not only according to the violence of the
difeafe, but to the vigour of the pationt's natural con-
ilitution ; and it> differs alfo according to the peculiar llruc-
ture of the organ inflamed ; all of wliich circumftances inuft
be taken into the confideration of the phvliciau before he
decide uJ)on the practical treatment which he fl.all adopt.
Even in the moft fevere inflammation, which a very dehcate
liabit is capable of und-rgoing, tiie pulfe may be lefs full
and ilrong than in a flight febrile aifeftion in a robull habit ;
l>ut there is generally a degree of fharpnefs in the ilroke of
the pulfe, even in a feeble habit under the excitement of
acute inflammation, which the taci, acquired by a little ex-
perience, enables the phyfician to eilimate. Befides, in fuch
cafes, the degree of pain and of impeded fundtion, and the
ftate of the pulfe, mutually illullrate each other. If the pain
has remained fixed and fevere for many hours, and the fundion
of the fuffering organis greatly deranged, although the pulfe
may betray but a moderate degree of iharpnefs or hardnefs in
% habit not originally ilrong, the proper evacuations for the
cure of inflammation mull be confidered as indicated. This
is particularly necelfary, as we have juft hinted, in refpedl to
certain organs. When there is an acute inflammation in the
Ungi or liver, and efpecially when tiie enveloping membranes
ere affected, the pulfe is perhaps invariably charafterized by
lardnefs aid llrength. (See H«?ATiiUi and Pleurisv.)
•V.6t. XIX.

But when \.he Jlomach is inflamed, the pulfe is often without
any confiderable hardnefs, and generally fmail, but very
fretiuent. In this cafe, therefore, the exillence of acute in-
flammation might be overlooked, if we judged principally
from the pulfe ; and it is necelfary to compare the ilate of
the pulfe with the degree of fixed burning pain in tin; fto-
mach, and the fudden increafe of that pain, as well as the
vomiting wliich is excited by any thing whatever that is
taken into the ilomach, in order to afcertain the nature of
the difcafe. See G.vstiutis.

The other circumilance, which has been mentioned as aid-
ing us in dift-inguilhing the degree of violence of any inter-
nal inflammation, is the appearance of the blood- drawn from
the veins. When the lancet is ufed in inflammatory difeafes,
the blood, which is drawn, after (landing fome time in any
veffel until coagulation has taken pl.ice, exhibits, on the fur-
face of the coagulum, a thick gelatinous fubllance, with-
out any admixture' of red blood : this has been varioufly
termed the bujy coat, or fimply the biiff, the inflammatory
crufl, &c. ; and has been confidered as a proof of the exilt-
ence of inflammation, and as a teil, in a great meafure, of
the feverity of the difeafe. It is certain, that this buffy
cruft is commonly found in pleurify, peripneumony, hepati-
tis, acute rheumatifm, &c., ar.d is not leen where bl«od flows
from a perfon in ordinary health. It feems to arife from a
difference in the mode of coagulation, fo that the red particles
fubfide and leave the upper portion of the coagulating lymph
unlinged ; and not to confifl of a morbid humour in the
blood, as the humoral pathologifls believed. But experience
has taught us, that the buffy fl.ate of the blood is not a
criterion, by which the necefSty or propriety of blood-letting
can be determined in difeafes. For, not to mention the'ab-
furdity of relying upon a teft, which requires the praftice
to be adopted, to iome extent or other, before its propriety
can be afcertained, (a dodlrine which has often led to the
folly of taking away a little blood, "to fee how it looked,'')
obfervation has proved, that the blood is actually often in
the condition to (hew the buffy coat, where no inflammatory
adtion is going on, and where, akliough a certain degree of
inflammatory adtion may be prefent, yet it will not be removed
by blood-letting; but if the blood-letting be repeated, the pa-
tient may be dellroyed before the buffy coat on the blood
will difappear. Thus the buffy coat is almoll invariably
feen on blood drawn from women in a flate of pregnancy ;
it is likewife feen on that, which is taken from perfons la-
bouring under heftic fever, from pulmonary confumption ;
nay, it has been obferved on the blood drawn from patients
affected with the typhus fever, and with fcurvy (fee Four- ._
croy, Connoiff. Chimiques ; alfo Blood, morbid alteration*',' .
of,); in all which cafes we fhould occafion infinite mifciiief/ : t^
were we to conceive tliat this appearance indicated the neccfj^. 1L
fity of repeating the ufe of the lancet. But, farther, it is
a fadl, which has not hitherto been fatisfadtorily explained,
that in a violent attack of unequivocal infl.immation, as of
pleurify, if, during one bleeding, the blood be received in
two or three different veffels, the coagulum in one or two of
tlie veffels fliall prefent the buffy coat, while none^vill appear
on that in the otliers ; and in like manner, if blood-letting
be repeated two or three times, the blood of the firft draw,
iiig (hall exhibit no buffy cruft, while that of the fubfequent
drawing (hall fliew it in large quantity. This variety has
been principally attributed to the velocity with which the
blood flows from tiie vein ; thus it would appear, that the
blood which trickle.^ (lowly down the arm, fcldom (hews fo
much buff, as that which flows in a full and copious llream.
In a word, then, the appearances of the blood drawn in the
cure of difeafes, is to be confidered as a very imperfed guide
- O ia

I N F

in direfting tlie farther ufe of the lancet, and is only to be
dcemcJ a fccondary adjuvant in determining the proper mode
of praftice, in conjunction witli a careful iuvelligation of
the violence of the fymptonw of the difcafe, its duration, and
tendency, and of the age, llrength, and conllitution of the
patient.

In attempting to form an accurate diagnofts, in regard to
inflammatory difeafes, two difficulties prefent themielves :
the firll of thefe is the difficulty of dilHnguifliing the inflam-
mation of one organ from that of another, which is contigu-
ous to it, or in its vicinity. For inllance, the leading fymp-
toms of inflammation of the lungs, in very many cafes, are
prefent in hepatitis, or inflammation of the hver, on the one
hand, and in carditis, and pericarditis, or inflammation of the
lieart, and of the pericardium, on the other. The dillinc-
t'.on, wiiich is commonly fuppofed to exift between the in-
flammation of the heart and its membranous bag, and inflam-
mation of the lungs, confiftsin the occurrence of palpitation,
fyncope, and an irregular pulfe, in the former difeafe, in
addition to the fymptoms of the latter : but Dr. Cullen
admits that thefe three fymptoms are occafionally abfent in
pericard'tth, and accords with the cbfervation of Vogel,
that " the fymptoms of cardilh are nearly the fame
as thofe of pcripneumony, but more fevere :" i. e. fever,
with pain in the left fide of the chell, difficulty of breath-
ing, and cough. (See Cullen, Nofol. Meth. Clafs i. Ord. ii.
Gen. 1 ^ and 1 1.) In hke manner, thefe four diagnon.ic fymp-
toms of peripneumony and pleurify are commonly prefent
in inflammation of the liver, efpecially when the convex fide
of that vifcus, which hes in contaft with the diaphragm, is
the feat of the inflammation : for in addition to fever, and
pain in the fide, a difficulty of breathing is occafioned by
the fuffering, which any attempt to deprefs the diaphragm
in the aft of infpiration, excited by comprefling the inflamed
liver ; and a cough, which, however, is commonly dry, or
unaccompanied by expectoration, but not always, and which
is excited probably by the vicinity of the feat of irritation
to the lungs. As tlie hepatitis proceeds, tlie other fymptoms
belonging to it, efpeci-al'y the bilious tinge of the Ikin and
eyes, point out clearly the feat of the inflammation.

It is fatisfaftory, however, to know that, in fuch cafes of
extreme fimilarity of fymptoms, no practical evil can arife
from the inability to decide as to the feat of the difeafe : for,
in the firft place, the inflammation actually fpreads, in fome
inllances, to tlie contiguous organs, fo that the fymptoms
indicative of the diforder in both mud neceflarily co-exilt ;
and, in the fecond place, the inflammation requires the fame
praAical meafures to be adopted for its removal, in whatever
vifcus it may be feated ; namely, evacuations proportioned to
its violence, and to the vigour of the patient.

The fecond difficulty, in didinguifliing inflammatory
difeafcs, to which we have alluded, arifes from the occafional
feverity and fixed feat of the pain, which is attendant on
cramps or fpafmodic difeafes, more efpecially in the ftomach
and the bowels. Hence it is often extremely difficult to pro-
nounce, whetlier an acute pain in the belly, for inftance, is
occafioned by the colic, or by enteritis (inflammation of the
bowels), for conilipation accompanies both ; and although
a mere fpafmodic pain is very commonly prefent, witliout
any acceleration of the pulfi-, or febrile heat; yet when
fuch pain is extremely acute, and has continued for fonie
length of time, he conllitution begins to fuller from exccf-
live irritation, and tlie pnlfations of the heart and arteries
are quickened ; and if it (lill continues, aflual inflammation in
the part is hable to enfue, fo that what was colic in the com-
mencement, becomes finally enteritis. It is important to
Uifcriminate accurately in the outfet between tliefe two dates

I N F

of pain ; becaufc that, which is fpafmodic, may be vcnsovcj
by large dofesof opium, and other antifpafmodics ; whereas
the inflammatory pain would be augmented, and the difeafe
itfelf rendered more dangerous, by the exhibition of fpch
medicines. In making this difcrimination, the praititioner
is principally guided by the hardnefs and force, or the foft-
ncfs and we'aknefs of the pulfe; — by the rigidity of fibre
and robuft habit, or the contrary condition of the patient ; —
by the unvarying iiitenfity and feat of the pain, or its occa-
fional remiffions and flight change of place ; — and by a know-
ledge of the nature of former attacks, of a fimilar kind, where
fuch have occurred.

The experienced and accurate obferver of the phenomena
of difeafes, therefore, will feldom be at a lofs in felecting the
proper mode of treatment in fuch cafes : and it is fortunate
here alfo, that the evacuation of blood-letting, which is ab-
folutely neceffary to fubdue a violent inflammatory affedtion
of the bowels, often fucceeds in removing a fixed and fevere
fpafm in the fame organs. And as a fpafmodic affeftion, of
confiderable duration, is liable to terminate in inflammation
and its fatal confequences, the depletion of the blood-veffcls
is indicated, under fuch circumftances, both as a preventive
and as a cure, where the age, ftrength, and conllitution of the
patient do not render the fafety of fuch a depletion very
equivocal.

In regard to the treatm.ent of inflammatory difeafes, we
have already in part anticipated the difcuffion. The great
decifive remedy for fuch difeafes is found, in diminilhing the
quantity of the circulating blood. This operation of blood-
letting is fuppofed to produce its beneficial effects upon the
difeafe, by removing the" ftimulus of dift:ention'' from the
blood-vefTels ; for it is an afcertained property ef tlie living
folid, to contract more forcibly after a great extenfion of its
fibres. It cannot operate by letting out the viorhid mailer
or humour from the circulating fluids, as the older pathologills
imagined ; for if we fuppofe the whole mafs of fluids to be
impregnated with a morbid humour, how can we, by
ab'.lracting a part, purify the condition of the remain-
der ? The fr.a, however, is fully eft:abhrned, and cannot
be invalidated by any error in the hypothefis. which maybe
framed for the purpofe of explaining it. The depletion of
the vcflels may be effected by opening the fmaller branches of
the arteries, where they are fuperficial, and eafily fubjedted
to prefl^iire, as in the temples ;— or by opening the external
veins by the lancet ; or by a more hmited and topical dif-
cliarge by means of leeches, and cupping. The circnmltances,^
under which one or other of tliefe modes of depletion
is to be preferred, vary materially according to the feat and
degree of inflammation, and will be mentioned under the
head of each difeafe. While this mode of reducing inflam-
matory aftion is reforted to, it is generally ncceflary, alfo, to
employ other concurring means ; fuch as purging, exciting
a diaphorefis or gentle perfpiration, procuring a difcharge
from thefl<in in the vicinity of the inflamed organ, by blifters,.
&c, ; and, at the fame time, to employ all the negative
means of diminifliing excitement, wliich conflitiite the anti-
phlogiflic regimen ; fuch as avoiding heat, noife, exertion of
body or mind, and fliunning all folid animal food, condiments,
fpirituous, vinous, or other fermented liquors, which increafe
the action of the vafcular fvllem.

INFLATION, formed from in, and /«//«; oi fo, I
How s blijtving vi, the aft of llrelching or filling any flac-^
cid or dillenfible body, with a flatulent or windy fub-
flance.

INFLECTION, called alfo diffniRion, and defeaioti, in
Optics, is a property of light, by reafon of which, when it
comes within a certain dillance of any body, it will either be

bent

INFLECTION.

■fcent from it, or towards it ; which is a kind of imperfccl re-
flection or rcfraClion. See Diffraction'.

This property was firft taken notice of by Dr. Hooke ;
who ihows th^t it differs botli from refttlhn and refrac-
tion ; and focnis to depend on the unequal denfity of tlic con-
ftitucHt parts of the ray, whereby the hglit is difperfcd
from l!ie place of condenfation, and rarilied or gradually
diverged into a quadrant : and this defleiSiion, he fays, is
made towards the fuperficies of the opaque body perpendicu-
laily. Some writers afcribe the iirft difcovci-j- of it to
Griinaldi, the Jefuit. He firft publiflied an account of it,
in his treatife «' De Lumine, Coloribus, et Iride," printed
in 1666 ; nor did any other perfon lay claim to the dilco-
very, except Dr. Hooke, wlio comnuuiicated his obferva-
tions on this fubjecl to the Royal Society, in 1672. It
appears, however, that Dr. Hooke had not heard of the dif-
coveries of Grimaldi ; for he fpeaks of his own as a diftovery
of a sievv property of light, not mentioned by any optical
writer before him.

Sir li'aac Newton difcovered alfo, by plain experiment,
this inflexion of the rays of ligiit ; and M. de la Hire affures
us he found, that the beams of the liars being obferved, in
a deep valley, to pafs near the brow of a hill, are always
more refracted than if there were no fuch hill, or the obfer-
vations were made on the top thereof ; as if the rays of
light were bent down into a curve, by pafling near the fur-
face of the mountain.

Sir Ifaac Newton, in his Optics, makes feveral experi-
ments and obfervations on the infleiflion of the rays of light ;
which fee under Light, and Ravs.

Although fir I. Newton particularly examined the pheno-
mena, relating to this fubject, under a confiderable variety
of circumftances, his obfervations were not quite correft ;
nor was his hypothetical explanation very plaufible. Sub-
fequent experiments and obfervations feem to reduce the
phenomena of inflection to a fingle principle, •v'lx. to the at-
traction of bodies towards hght ; which attraction becomes
confpicuous when the rays of light pafs within a certain
diftance of their lurfaces. Befides their being bent, the
rays of light are likewife feparated into colours by the vici-
nity of bodies, and this produces the fuigular phenomenon
of the coloured fringes that accompany the inflection.
Various experiments have been made relative to the infleftion
of light by Maraldi, Grimaldi, Delifle, Mairan, Du Tour,
Mufchenbroek, and others, as well as Newton ; an account
of which experiments the reader may fee in Prieftley's
Hiftory of Vifion, Light, and Colours, part vi. ^ 6.

M. de la Hire obferved, that when we look at a candle,
or any luminous body, with our eyes nearlv (hut, rays of
light are extended from it, in feveral directions, to a con-
fiderable diftance, like the tails of comets. The true
occafion of this phenomenon, which has exercifed the faga-
city of Des Cartes, Rohault, and others, feems to be, that
the liglit pafling among the eye-lafties, in this fituation of the
eye, is inflefted by its near approach to them, and therefore
enters the eye in a great variety of directions.

Inflection, in Grammar, the variation of nouns and
verbs, in their feveral cafes, tcnfes, and declenfions.

Inflection is a general name, under which are compre-
hended both conjugation and declenfion.

IxFLKCTlON, Point of, of a curve, in Geometry, is a point
or place where the curve begins to bend, or turn a contrary
way.

if a curve line, as A F K {Plate X. Analyfis, fg. 2.) be
partly concave, and partly convex towards a right fine, as
A B, or towards a fixed point, the point F, which divides
ihc concave from the convex part, and confequenlly is at the

beginning of the one and end of the other, is called thc/wKf
of infledion, as long as the curve, being continued beyond F,
keeps its courfe the fame : when it returns back again towards
that part or fide from whence it took its origin, it is
called the point nf relro^rejfton.

To conceive tliis, it is to be confidered, that any quantity,
which goes on continually increafing or decreafing, cannot
change from a pofitivc to a negative exprefiion, or from a
negative to a pofitivc one, without firft becoming equal to an
infinite, or nothing. It becomes equal to nothing, if it con-
tinually decreafe ; and equal to an infinite if it continually
increafe.

Now, if through the point F be drawn the ordinate E F,
and the tangent FL, and from any point, as M, on the
fame fide of .A F, be drawn the ordinate M P, and the tan-
gent M T ; then in curves which have a point of inflection,
the abfcifs A P continually incrcafes, and the part A T of
the diameter, intercepted between the vertex of the dia-
meter, and the tangent M T, incrcafes alfo, till the point
P fall into E ; after which it again begins to dimiuifli :
whence the line A T mull become a maximum A L, when
the point P falls into the point E.

In thofe curves which have a point of retrogrei^on, the
part A T increafes continually, and the abfcifs incrcafes, till
the point T falls into L ; after which it again diminiflics :
whence A P muft become a maximum, when the point T
falls into L.

If A E z= .V, E F = y, then will A L = ^ - .v (fee
Taxgext), whofe fluxion, which is •^ "^ .. '^ - — x =

'-^-r. '- =— --^, fuppofing X conftant,

being divided by a-, the fluxion of A L muft become

nothing; /". e. — ^ = o: fo that multiplying by, v', and

dividing by — v, j = o ; which is a general form for find-
ing F, the point of infleclion, or retrogreflion, in thofe
curves whofe ordinates are parallel to one another. For the
nature of the curve A F K being given, put the equation of
the curve into fluxions ; from which, or from other pro-
perties of the curve, find the value of x or 1", and put this jc-
or j and its value into fluxions, making both x and v = o :
then by expunging the reft of the fluxional quantities.

AE.

EF, at

fliall determine the value of
the point of infledicn fought.

To diftinguifli the points of inflexion from thofe of retro-
greflion, which arife indifcriminately according to the above
method, it will be fufficient to attend to the progrefs of the
curve, by taking any ordinate very near the point ; which
will always ferve to remove any doubt on that head.

£x. 1. — To find the point of infieftion B in the curve
A B Y {Jij. 3.) whofe equation (putting the abfcifs A C
= J', ordinate C B = y,anil the perpendicular A E =^ a) hax'
= ay + .v'j'. From the fluxion of this equation, viz. 2 ax x

■J + 2

deduce v =

by fubftiluting for_y its value —^ — -,

(a- + x-y

and the fluxion of this equation, making both x and_>' = o
2 a' a" (a" + x^f — (4 ei^ XX -\- 4 .r' x) 2 a^ x x

02

which

INFLECTION.

,., , ■ ,• 1 1 / . ,x, 1 J- •! ji ~, -1 ■ And now makinp; again the- fluxion of this quantity =; V.

Xhich multiphcJ by {a" + x^]* and divided by 2 a' x\ gives ^^^^^ j^^^^_ o s h ;

O = {a" + -v)' -^4 ''' -^■■- - 4 ■■'' i therefore, 4 .v^ + ^ x .i {a .v - x y) = (a' + 4^) (^.v - j- .i - x j) i

j^a'x^ =^ {a' + x") ; which equation divided by x^' + a- ^.i^^^^^^ ^ „ ^ ^. ^

makes 4 k" = a' + *' ; therefore 3 .v^ — a , and .v = - = — x --

o ^/J ; and if this value be fubllituted for it in the given .>' «" — •»" a ~ y

equation of the curve, we {liall have y, or the ordinate at And now equating tlicfe two exprcfiior.s, we hare

ax"' 3 a' , f ^' + •''^ -■'•■ "^ -T- ■''■'' •

t e poin o m ec ion _ -p^— — j^ — ^ a. a' — x^' a — y 2 .v a — y

A C be equal to \ A E, and with the radius <: E, defcribe which being reduced, gives 2 .v' — a' — .r% or 3 .v' = .

the arc E C ; then will C be the point from which the or- and x — a ,/i, the fame refnlt as before ; and this valuo

dinate to the point of infleaion muit be drawn : for c C == § a; x fubllituted in the original equation of the curve, becon
and Ce-eA.-'= A C , i. e. 4 a - ia' = i a' = AC a x'- i a , , ,. , .

= .v^ ; or.v = « V I . y = .^^^fn? = IT ""i"' *'" °'''^'"'"' "' '''' p"'"'

Another method of finding the point of infleaion, or re- ^f infleftlon.
trogreffion, is as follows. From the nature of curvature it 'f [,j; f^cond method differs from the firft rather in enui-

is evident, that while a curve is concave towards its axis, the ciation than in principle, the apphcation of it is thercfoic

fluxion of the ordinate decreafes, or is m a'' xreafmg ratio, omitted.

with regard to the fluxion of the abfcifs ; and on the con- ^_,._ 2.— Again, let it be propofed to Inid the point of in >

trary, this fluxion increafes, or is in an inc ealmg ratio to fleaion in a curve wlioiV equation is iy — a .\-' — .v.
the fluxion of the abfcifs, when the curve is convex towards -phg fl^j^i^^ ^f ^1^:3 exprc-ffion gives
the axis : and iience it follows, that thefc two fluxions are . 2 a x — r, x^

in a conftant ratio at the point of infleaion, or retrogreffion, I- j — rm x x — 7, x- x ; cr — = ■ ^ — .

where the curve is neither concave nor convex ; that is, -, Taking again the fluxion of this expreffion, and making it

equal to o, we have
or -. , is a conftant quantity. But conftant quantities have 2 a h^ x — dh^ x x = o, ot 2 a V = G Ip- x,

, , , • bccaufe j does not enter ; whence .r — ■' a, which is the

no fluxion, or their fluxion is equal to o ; whence we derive ^^^^^^^ anfwering to the point of infleaion fought.
this general rule. Ex. 5. -Let it be propofed to find.the point of infleaion.

Put the given equation of the curve into fluxions ; from or rctrogreflTion, in the cubic parabola, with the equation

.V v J ^ ~ "^ + V(«' — 2a*.v 4- ax).

which equation of the fluxions, find either -, or -7 , and gy taking the fluxion, we have

take again the fluxion of this fraaion, and make it equal j = • ^1^ — , or-^ z= — ^SHJ!'-. ^— .

to o, and from this laft equation find alfo the value of the 3 (a' — -2. a^ x + a x y •*■ (a' - 2 a\v + a xy

— X V ,, .■ .u r » ^ ^„;) Taking again the fluxion of this expreffion, and making'

fame expreffion ., or - ; and by equating thefe two, and j^ ,,j,,i ^^^ -q, according to the above rule, we have a I

the given equation of the curve, x and y will be determined, ^^i _ ^ ^- ^, _(. ^ _^, ^i _ 2(— 2a x + 2.nxx) X {2 ax —lay

being the abfcifs or ordinate anfwering to the point of inflec- :i, [a' — 2 a"' x ■]- a x')i

r\ .u •/■ ..■ »i fl,„;„.,„f''^ _ r. .Lit ;^ becaufe j is not found in the fecond fluxion, which exprcfliion

tion. Or, otherwife, putting the fluxion 01 - = o, tliat is , . , i • j .1 • 1 r i,a» ,» Vi f^,- .

^1, unit.. 11.., ^^ J, ^^ being reduced, gives .\- := fl ; and this value fubltituted tor a-,

..._-. _ gives alfo_y = a ; hence the point required is, that anfwering

'U. Ji— =z o; or .iri — y .v = o, whence X- y = y x, to thefe conditions of the abfcil"s and ordinate, which is a

■>" point of retrogreffion, as will appear from confidering the

or, X : y :: X :y, that is, the fecond fluxions have the fame nature of the curve.

ratio as the firft fluxions ; and therefore if x be conftant, or j,^, _Let it be propofed to inveftigate the point of

x = o, then fliall >■ = o, which gives the following rule, ^.^_^^_.^,.+ ^^^^^^.^ -^ the curve comn^cnly called the luilch i

'"'"• of which the equation is y x = a — a x.

Take both the firft and fecond fluxions of the given cqua- Taking the fluxioa of this expreffion, we have
tion of the- curve ; in which make x = o, andj- — o, and . _ , , _^_ ,x

the refulting equations will determine the values of x and 1, z y y x -f / .v = —ax; or 7 = ^ ; •

or the abfcifs and ordinate anfwering to the required point. x ■ ^y -v

rx,, • • u J ., „u ;„ ,„l,;^». Now, again, making tlie fluxion of this expreffion z=. C,

Thus repealing again the preceding example, in w'hich ' b ' 6 r

the ffiven equation is a A-' = a" V -f X' V ; anii of which the ^ '- ' .,,,.,

point of infleaion is required. - A f j >: + {2 xy f 2y .v) [a- + f) = o, or

2 X {^a -Y y )y — 4 y xy 4- 2 v X [a -\- y J = o >

By the f.vjl ruL; the fluxion of a x' = a- y + x"- y, ^^j^^_^^^

is 2 ax.i ~ a'j + 2xyx + x y ; whcHce :? = Z = =^f ^^' + f) .

•^ Ji' X 2 X (d' + y) - 4/ A'

^ * "^ ^ And now equating this value of r with the foregoing,

there

INFLECTION.

there is obtained

■or, 4J.'
•whence -

I y ("' + /•) . _

2 X la"- -i-y') -4/-V
-2A- {a- -i- y) - ^y'

a' + /'

-yx .
or 4 y' = rt"

t ; which being fubllitutcd in the original
equation, gives ,v - ^ a ; which arc therefore the values of x
and J' anfwerin^to the required point of infledion.

At prefcnt we have only confidered thofe curves that have
parailtl ordinares, and which are refi nvd to one common
axis ; but it is neceflary to employ a difForent method when
the curves are referred to a common focus ; it will therefore
be proper now to attend to this latter cafe, obferving only,
\vith regard to the form.er, that in order to know whether
any curve be concave or convex towards any point alTigned in
the axis, find the value of j' at that point ; tlien if this value
be pofuive, that curv;; will be convex towards the axis, and
if it be ne;^ative, it will be concave. The rule for deter-
mining the points of contrary fl-xure and retrogreffion of
curves, which fuppofes the fecond fluxion of the ordinate to

be nothmg or uitinite.

o or CO, is liable to fe

exceptions, as is (htrwn Very fully and clearly by Maclaiirin
in his Treatife of Fluxions, book i. chap. 9. bookii. chap. j.
art. 866 and S67.

The ordinate jj paiTes through a point of contrary flexure
when, the curve being continued on both fides of the
ordinate, is a niaxmuim or minimum. But this does
not always happen when y = o, or oo. Maclaurin ob-
ferves, in general, that if ',■, y, j, &c. vanifh, the number
of thefe fluxions being odd, and the fl;ixions of the next or-
der to them having a real and finite value, then y pafles
through a point of cDntrary flexure; but if the number of
thefe fluxions that vanilh be even, it cannot be faid to
pafs through fuch a point ; unlefs it fliould be allowed that
a double infinitely fmall flexure can be formed at one
point.

The curve being fuppofed to be continued from the or-
dinate y, on both fides, if jf be infinite, the extremity of
the ordinate is not therefore always a point of contrary
flexure, as > is not always, in this cafe, a maximum or
minimum ; and the curve may have its concavity turned
the fame way on both fides of the ordinate. But thefe cafes
may be diflinguiflied by compai-ijig the f.gns of } on the
diSerent fides of the ordinate ; for when thefe figns are dif-
ferent, the extremity of y meeting the curve is a point of
contrary flexure.

The .fuppofitions of )'. = o, or 00, and of v = o,
or ce, ft-Tve to direft us where we are to fearch for the
maxima and minima, and for points of contrary flexure ;
but we are not always fure of finding them. For though
an ordinate or fluxion that is pofitive, never becomes ne-
gative at once, but by increafing and decreafing gradually,
yet after it has decreafed till it vanilb, it may th. reafter in-
creafe, continuing dill- pofitive ; or after increafing till it
becomes infinite, it may thereafter decreafe without changing
its fign.

Of th: points of iiifleclhn and retrogrejfton of curves referred
fo a common focus.

Let AD E (fgs. 4. and j.) reprefent a curve referred
to the focus Q, from whence the ordinates Q D, Q D
proceed ; and let Q d be indefinitely near to Q D. l)r;.w
Q T perpendicular to Q D, and Q / pi vp'rndicuhr to Q^/.
Draw D T a tangent to the point D, and d t a tangent in
the point d. Let Q / (produced if necen"ary) meet D T
in the point o. Now it is plain, that as the ordinates in-
creafcj if the curve be concave towards the focus Q (jT^. 4.),

Q i will be gi-eater than Q T ; but if the curve be convex
towards the focus Q (fg. 5.) Q t wiUbc lefsthan Q T ; and
therefore, as the curve changes from being concave to con-
vex, or -vice verfd, that is, in the point of inficftion, or retro.
grclTion, the line or quantity 0 /, from being pofitive, ought
to become negative, or the contrary ; and therefore mull
pafs through nothing or infinity.

Therefore make Q D y, D M = .v, and with the
centre Q, let the indefinitely fmall arcs D M, T H, be
defcribed: then the two triangles ^Z M D, </ Q T will
be fimilar, as alfo d Q 0, T H 0, and therefore it will be

</M:MD:^r/Q(orDQ): Q T, or , : .v :: y : :y ^ QT.

But the two fcclors D Q M, T Q H are alfo fimilar; whence

D O : D M :: Q T : T H,or^ : .v : : ^'- : '^.i = T H ;

and becaufe of the fimilar triangles d Q 0, and T H 0, it
willber/Q (or D Q) : Q 0 (or Q T) :: T H : H 0 ; that

is,y:-^-^ ::-'-: ±- ^ H 0. But H t {fg. 5.) re-

prefents the fluxion of Q T, that is, H / = -^ — '^^-Ul^
by taking x as conftant. Therefore to z= /H -f-Ho =
, which muft be equal to o, or to «,
infinity ; and confequently multiplying by jr% and dividing
byi.it willbe>= - y y + x' = o, or yt.

■^" .^o 4- 0 ' becomes negative, and tht^rcfore 0 t =z

■ ■ Tz — , and multiplying and dividing this

expreffion as above, we have again

y" —yy + *■' = c, or co,

which therefore is the general formula for finding the point
of infleftion or retrogreffion in curves that are referred to a
focus.

Let us now make an application of this formiJa to an-
example, by propofing to find the point of contrary flexure
in the curve, which is generated as follows :

A E D being a circle defcribed from the centre B, let
A F K be fuch a curve, that, drawing any radius B F E,
the fquare of F E may be always equal to the rettangle of
the correfponding arc A E, 'into a right line b. See

Let the arc A E = a, B A = B K = «, B F = y, and
F G = jr, drawing B E' indefinitely near to B E, and with the
centre B, and radius B F delcr;be the fmall arc F G ; then
by the nature of the curve, it will he b ■:. — a' — 2 a y -j- y- ;
and taking the fluxions we have l> ~
i y i — 2 a
b
fimilar fedors B E E', and B F G, ft will be as B E : B F : j

whence i. .=

"y + 2JKJ,
= B E'. But becaufe of the

E E' : F <

that

: X ; -whence

■ay.

; and now taking the fluxions agaia
and making x conftant, we \\a,te /^yy'' ^. 2 y''^ — 2 ay'

, r .: a i'^ — 3 y v^
thereiore v y = -^ — -.

■Z ayy

■yy

yy

Now the general formula above is x'
and therefore fubftituting for thefe quantities llielr refpec-
live values, th# expreffion becomes

4>^

I N F

y\r- - ^ a y' y- + 4 "" y'-

— ~ = o, and thefe again reduced to a com-

y - a
mon denominator will be
4j'> — \2ay' -u 12 ^'y' — ^ a'' y"' + Ja^^'j— 2 a' !,'-

a- b'- {y - a)
= O, or M ; the roots of which equations will give thofe
values of y, or of B F, that anfwer to fo many different
points of contrary flexure. In p;eneral the number of roots
in the iinite equation always indicate the number of points
of inflexion or retrogreiTion belonging to the curve which
is the fubjecl of invelligation ; and confequently, in thofe
curves that have but one fuch point, it is determined by a
llniplc equation.

Curves may alfo have another kind of retrogreffion different
from that we have been confidering ; which is, when the
turve returns backwards towards its origin, turning its ca-
vity the fame way that it did before its retrogreflioii, as in
the following cafe.

Let the curve be BAC(/^. 7.), with a contrary
flexure at A, and let it be evolved by a thread beginning
at any point D, different from the point of contrary flexure
A : the evolution of tlie portion D C generates the curve
T) G, and that of the portion A 13 generates the curve E F ;
lii fuch manner that the evolution of the whole curve B A C
will form the entire curve F EDO, which has two retro-
grefTions, one at D of the ufual form, becaufe the two
branches D E, D G, turn their convexity ; the other at
E of the fecond fort, becaufe the branches E D, E F,
are concave towards the fame parts. Let now m N, N« m,
he any two radii, indelinitely near, of the evolute D A ;
and N H, and « H, two perpendiculars to the fame ; the
two indefinitely fmall feftors N m M, H N «, will be
funilar, and therefore H N : N M : : N n : M w. But
in the point of contrary flexure A, the radius H N
ought to be either infinite, or nothing ; and the radius
N m, which becomes A E, continues finite. Therefore, in
the cafe of contrary flexure A, that is, the point of retro-
greffion E, of the fecond fort, the ratio of N n, M m, or the
ratio of the fluxion of the radius M N, to the element of
the curve, ought to be either infinitely great, or infinitely

T T-1 T>._^ .1 _ f i_ _r *!,« — i:..o AT M \c- V ' .' '

l.ie

—

xy '

confidering .v as

conllant

the flu

XIO

n of >

vhich

19

-

.1 -^ ^

.i

•v/ (.v'

■f .v"-)

-t-

-V

(v^

+_

1

a*

V <-v^

y +

o, or CO i

v/bicli is the formula for points of retrogreffion of the fe-
cond order.

For other methods of finding the points of inflexion and
retrogreffion of curves, the reader is referred to Simpfon's
a'ld Maclaurin's Fluxions ; Donna Agnefi's Analytical In-
Jlitutes ; and to the Traite Elementaire deCalcul Differen-
ticl, par La Croix.

INFLORESCENCE, in Botanical Phrafeology, wjloref
rcnt'ia of Linnxns, is ufed to exprefs the particular manner
in which flowers are difpofed upon a plant, and which pre-
ceding writers denominated the modus Jlorenili, or " manner
of flowering." The fcveral kinds of inflorefcencc come
under the heads of Feitkillus, Racnnus, Spka, Corymhuh

1 N F

Fafaciihu, Cop'itulum, Umhelk, Cyma, Pankuk and Thyrfm,
which the reader will find in their proper places. A
flight correction of the definition which {lands under our
article C.■\^ITlLl;.^I is neceffary, the Slatke Armnui
Tlirift, and Gomphrcna globofa or Globe amaranthus, b. :
better examples of that kind of inflorefcence than any c
pound flower.

For the reafons againfl taking generic characters fioia
the inflorefcence, fee Cyme and Gk.nu.s.

INFLUENCE, a quality fuppofed to flow from t! -
bodies of the liars, either with their heat or light, to wlnu
allrologers vainly atU'ibute all the events w^bich happen i i
the earth.

Alchemifts, alfo, who to this afcribe the philofopliei 'o
fl.one, tell us tlsat every thing in nature is produceil by tin'
influences of the fliars, whicli, in their paffage through ti c
atmofphere, imbibe many of its moid parts, the grolll :i
whereof they depofit in the fands and earths where they fali ;
that thefe, filtrating through the pores of the earth, defec; ,'.
even to the centre, whence they are driven, by the ce.i:.
fire, back again to the furface ; and in their afcent, !
natural kind of fublimation, as they find earths duly difp>
they form natural bodies, as metals, minerals and \
tables, &c. Thus it is pretended, that chemiftry, conlii
of an artificial imitation of thefe natural operations, ;:
in applying aClive principles to paffive principles, can lej::,
natural bodies, make gold, &c. See TuANSMUTATio.^,
and Philosopher's Stose.

INFLUENT, a term ufed where a liquor or juice, by
the contrivance of nature, and the laws of circulation, falls
into a current or receptacle.

Thus with refpefl: to the common receptacle, the chyle
is its influent juice ; and fo is the bile to the gall-bladder ;
the venal blood to the heart in its diaftole ; and the like.

INFLUENZA, in Medicine, a term generally employed
to denote an epidemic catarrh, which has at different times
fpread more rapidly and extenfively than any other epidemic
diforder. For it has feldom occurred in any one country of
Europe without appearing fucceffively in every other part of
it ; it has fometimes apparently traverfed the whole of the
old world; and, in fome infl;ances, it has been even trans-
ferred to America, and has fpread itfelf over that continent
likewife. The French give it the name of La Grippe.

In truth, this extenfive prevalence of the difeafe confti-
tiites its moft remarkable peculiarity : for in all the inftances
of its occurrence, from the fourteenth century down to the
prcfent day, its phenomena have not only been pretty uni-
formly the fame, but have differed little, except in fevcrity,
from thofe of the common febrile catarrh. ( See C.VTARRH. )
This will appear from the following defcription of the dif-
eafe, when epidemic in 1782, which is taken from a compre-
henfive view of it, compiled by the late Dr. Gray, of the
Britifli Mufeum, from a number of accounts given by phyfi-
cians, in various parts of Great Britain, from their own per-
fonal obfervation (fee Medical Communications, vol. i.
art. I. Lond. 1-S4); and from a fimilar account publifhed by
the College of Phyiicians. Med. TranfaCtions, vol. iii. art. 8.

Very little authentic information was procured refpedting
the hiltory of this epidemic, before the time of its appear-
ance in London: all that was dated, on good authority, was,
that it prevailed at Mofcow in the months of December
1781, and January 1782, and at Peterfburgh in February
1782 ; and it was traced to Tobolflii, to which place it was
fuppofed to have been brought from China. In confirmation
of this opinion it was obferved, that feveral accounts from
different parts of the Eaft Indies made mention of a dilorder,
fimilar in its fymptoms, which prevailed in thofe parts in the

INFLUENZA.

moutlis ef OAober anti November i^Sr. At all eveiits, its
courl'e was in the beginning weihvard ; for it was in Dcn-
maik. in the latter end of April 1782, or the beginning of
May ; and many people were faid to have died of it at Co-
penhagen before the nth of May. It appeared at New-
caille-;ipon-Tyne about the end of April, and in the fecond
week in May it was certainly in London ; fome perfons in-
deed thought that it had reached the metropolis fooner.
According to the accounts received from various parts of
England, it did not begin to appear in moll of them until
after its prevalence in London, namely, until the latter end
of May, or the beginning of June. In Scotland and Ire-
land it feems to have been ratlier later, and in the foutli of
Europe later (lill ; for it prevailed in France in the months
of June and July ; in Italy, in July and Auguft ; and in
Portugal and Spain, in Auguft and September. The fourth
week in May was the period of its mod general prevalence
in London : from that time it began to decline, and in the
fpace of tv/o or three weeks ceafed to exift as a general dif-
order ; bat it did not altogether leave the city till the month
of September.

No attempt was made to afcertain with accuracy th.e pro-
portional number of perfons attacked by this influenza :
the number was every where very great ; the proportion of
the inhabitants affected in fome places being elliir.ated at
three-fourths, in other places at four-fifths of tlie wliole 1
and in London it was afTerted, from a pretty competent
view of the matter, that the number of thofe attacked by
it was much greater tlian that of thofe who efcaped it. Botii
fexes appeared to be equally liable to it ; but perfons of the
middle age wei-e more fubjedl to its attacks than old people,
and thefe more than children ; while infants were confider-
ably lefs pre-difpofed to it than either, though not entirely
exempt from it. When old perfons were attacked, they ge-
nerally had the difeafe very violently.

This epidemic appeared with a confiderable variety of
fymptoms ; but the moil general form of it was certainly
that of catarrh ; and the great debility or depreffion of
llrength whicli accompanied its attack, and the rapidity with
which its fymptoms came on, (which in fome inftances was
truly wonderful,) feein to have been tlie moil remarkable
characters of it. Perfons, apparently in perfedl health, were
feized inftantaneoufly, as it were, with a violent cold, to
which fncceeded head-ache, running at the nofe, &c. ; while
others were as fuddenly feized with giddinefs, ftriclure on
the cheft, ficknefs at the ftomach, and cold fweats, which
were fpeedily followed by the pcftoral fymptoms. The
mod common courfe of the fymptoms, however, was the
following :

The dileafe generally began with fits of chillinefs and heat
alternately fucceeding each other ; fometimes with a flight
(hivering, followed by more or lefs of fever ; anxiety of the
prsecordia ; pain in the back and liinbs ; flitches and cramps
in the mufcles fabfervient to refpirdtion ; a very great dif-
charge of their lymph from the eyes and nofe ; a fenfation
in the eyes as if they w'cre about to ilart out of the feead ;
fneezing, hoarfenefs, and frequently an inceflant cough,
forcing up large quantities of mucus, and fometimes attend-
ed with a forenefs of the bread. In many indances the ap-
petite and fcnfc of tade were lod or much impaired, with
fome degree of naufea ; and a few vomited. Mod of the
patients laboured under great lafTitude and rcdlefsnefs. The
fleep was general'y mneii broken ; and many could liardly
ftccn at all. The pulle was frequent, but feldom hard or
tenfe. Languor, debility, and dejection of fpirits were ge-
neral, and very great in all ; far beyond what might have
beeft expe£led from the degree of all the other fymptoms.

But the fymptom which univcrfally prevailed, and which ap-
peared to be almod a pathognomonic of the difeafe, was a
diilrefung pain and fcnfc of condriclion in the forehead,
temples, and fometimes in the whole face, accompanied \«ith
a fenfe of forenefs about the cheek-bones under the mufcles.
This, now and then, was felt previoufly to the catarrh, and
not imfrequently was followed by very little or no catarrhous
affeftion.

The didemper was by no means fo uniform as to prefent
the fame identical appearances in every fubjedl whom it at-
tacked; nor vet fo various, but that the refemblance conld
eafily be difcovered ; diverlified perhaps by the pccuhar
habit and conditution of the fufferer, or by fome other cir-
cumdances not eafily explained. In fome, a part only of
the mucous membrane was afleCled, in otliers the whole. In
the latter, a forenefs of the throat was common, with fre-
quent excretion. Upon infpecting the fauces of thefe, a
rednefs might be obferved ; but in few indances any confi--
derable fwelling, and in none any ulceration. In fome there
was a great propenlity to perfpiration ; it could be readily
excited in moil, and ofte?i appeared where no means had
been employed for that piu-pofe ; but in a few the fl<in was
dry throughout the whole complaint. Dailv exacerbations
and remillions of the cough and lever were obvious in many
indances ; in fome, they either did not take place, or if they
did, were very obfcure. The date of the belly was very-
different in different patients ; in fome it was- regular, iu'
others difpofed to codivenefs ; which, however, was eafily
removed : and feveral had a fpontaneous purging at various
periods of the difeafe, fometimes with pain, but oftener with-
out. Nothing in general could be collected from the urine
that deferves notice.-

Thefe were the mod general and frequent appearances of
the influenza of 17S2. But it mud be obferved, that not
only in London, but in all parts of the illand from whence
accounts were received, it now and then degenerated into^
pleurify or peripneumony ;. yet thefe affections ftill mani--
feded themfelves as particular modifications- of the epidemic,,
being either preceded or accompanied by fome of its cha-
racleriflic fvmptoms. Some, thus attacked, had in the be.^
ginning either that didinguifliing pain in the face and fore-
head, or catarrh, or both : and in all there was that debility
of body and depreffion of mind, which are not eflfential to
inflammation ; the prefence of which- here,. liowever,\va* ob-
vious and iiidifputable..

The rarer occurrences were in fome few an imufual difpo--
fition to fleep ; in others, drangury independent of bliflers,-
and in fome indances attended with bloody urine for three or-
four days ; hemorrhages from the nofe, with relief to the-
catarrhal affeaions ; and one indance of a clear difcharge
from the ears, as copious as others had it from the nofo-

Extenfive as the range of this epidemic was, its influence
was neither very fatally exerted, nor long continued. Very
few died of it ; and of thofe to whom it proved fatal, the-
greater part were old, afthmatic, or h-.id been debilitated by
fome previous indifpofition. The continuance of the dif-
temper in any one place was not above fix weeks : where it
appeared in May, it vaniflied before the end of June ; and
where it did not break out before June, it remained until the
middle, or towards the dechnc of July. Its duration with>
each individu-al whom it attacked was as various as the de-
gree of violence with which the attack was made.. It feldom
held any one above a fortnight ; in fome its duration was
not above a day or two ; but it ufually ladedabout a week,
or longer. In fome parts of the country relapfes were com-
mon a fecond, third, or even fourth time; this was alio ti.e
cafe in London, but to a ids extent. The cough was fome-

INFLUENZA.

times troubiefome for a confiderable time after the febrile
ftate of the diforder had ceafed ; and a great weaknefs often
rL-mained after the difeafe. '

The influenza, as above defcribed, maybe taken as an ex-
ample of the epidemic at nil times of its appearance ; but it
lias fometjmes afliimed a more violent and inflammatory type,
been mare frequently accompanied with fymptoins of pleu^
rily and peripneumony, and therefore more frequently fatal,
and alio laid the foundation for more numerous cafes oF pul-
monary confumption, than in the inftance of 1782. Such
Mas the fact, in regard to the influenza of 1762 in particu-
lar; which, indeed, appeared to be far more fatal, both at
the time of its raging, and in its confequences, as feveral
perfons continued languilhing under the remains of it for one
or two years, and never recovered.

The caufes of the influenza have been the fubjeft of much
difference of opinion ; and all that has been faid in refpeft
to them rather tends to prove the difficulty of obtaining a
fufficient number of unqueftionable facts to found a clear
opinion upon, than to fet the fubjeft at reft. Three differ-
ent views of the matter have been taken by different phyfi-
cians : i. Some attributed the difeafe folely to the Hate of
the weather ; i. e. they believed it to be a common catarrh,
occafioned by changes in the fenfible qualities of the atmo-
fphere, fuch as cold, moillure, &c. : 2. Others afcribed it to
a particular and fpecilic morbid principle, totally different
from and independent of the fennble qualities of the atmo-
fphere, but refident in and conveyed by the air: 3. While
the greatell number concurred in the opinion, tliat the infln-
enza was contagious, in the ordinary acceptation of the
word, /. e. was propagated only by the contad, or at leall
by the fufficiently near approach, of an infefted perfon.
The Jir/l opinion, however, that it originated in the fenfible
variations of the air, feems to be untenable: for not only
was there no peculiarity of the atmofpherical temperature,
moifture, Sec, which was common to the different periods
when the influenza prevailed, or wasobvioufly different from
that of other feafons, when it had not appeared ; but the
ienfible ilate of the air preceding -and accompanying
the fame epidemic was different in different places. Thus,
tliough in moft parts of England it had been uncominonly
cold and wet, yet in the other parts of the world, as in
Germany, wliere the diforder \\'as equally general, it had been
very dry. Again, it wak obferved in feveral places, that
great alterations happened in the weather during its preva-
lence, without any fenfible change in the fymptoms of the
diforder.

The /-ron'/ opinion, that'the caufe of the difeafe, though
not connefted with the fenfible qualities of the atmofphere,
was vet refideat in it, and thus conveyed from place to place,
was Supported upon the following grounds : 111. That thofe
who were moft expofed to the air were generally the firft
perfoBS attacked : zdly. That many had the diforder with-
out having -had any communication with a difeafed perfon :
^dly. That feveral cfcaped though furrounded by perfons ill
of the difiaA; : 4tiily. That (nme'zuhok families were feized
at once : and, fthly. That fomc perfons had the diforder a
week or a fortnight before it began to be taken notice of as
a general one. Without prefuming to decide -upon fo diffi-
cult and intrfcate a que'.ljon,. we may itate the following ob-
.jeftions to 'thefe argument?.

The firft argument, that thofe who were moft expofed to
the air were generally the firfl perfons attacked, (which, by
the way, was altogether denied by many obfervers,) is furely
bv no means in favour of the opinion, tTiat the caufe of the
diforder redded in the atmofphere ; for if it had refided
there, what ftiouid have prevented tiofe who ftaid at home

from being infefted ? fince the air which they breathed mulfc
ncceffarily have been the fame as that breathed by thofe who
went out. But if, on the other hand, a communication with
fomeinfeAed perfon was neceffary to produce the diftemper,
it is very clear that thofe who went out of doors, and mixed
with the world, were more likely to get it than thofe who did
not ftir from home.

Before the fecond argument, namely, that many were at-
tacked v.itliout having had any communication «-ith a dif-
eafed perfon, can be allowed to liave any weight, it muft be
clearly pVoved, nof only that the perfons themfelves had not'
had fuch communication, but alfo, that no perfon, who had
b^ near them, had previonfly been where the diforder ex-
iile^ for it is pretty clearly eftabhfhed, with refpcft to
other aflive contagions, fuch as the fmall-pox, &c. that a'
perfon, who has already fuffered the difeafe, may never- ,
thelefs convey the contagion from one place to another.

From the third argument, that many efcaped tliough fur-
rounded by perfons affefled with the difeafe, no infcrenee of
any confequence to the prefent queftion can be drawn ; it^
being certainly not lefs difficult to account for their efcape"
when furrounded by difeafed perfons, than when fuirounded
by the fame air, which had (according to the hypotliefis)
caufed the difeafe in thofe perfons.

With refpeft to the fourth argument, that fome -whole fi-
mihes were feized at once, without having been expofed to in-'
feclion, it may be remarked that, when we confider what
has been faid in anfwer to the fecond argument, it will be
very difficult to prove that they were not expofed to it ;
and equally difficult to give any reafons v.hy, if the exciting
caufe of the diforder refided in the air, any whole family Ihould
have been affefted by that caufe, rather than an equal num-
ber of perfons in divers families ; but if we fuppofe the dif-
eafe to have been propagated by perforial infercourfe, it is
very eafy to conceive in what manner it may have been com-)
municatcd to fome whole families at the fame time. Aiid,
in anfwer to tlie laft argument, that fome perfons had the
diforder a week or a fortnight before any others were known
to have it, it may be fufficient to remark, that, admitting
thefe cafes to have been really influenza, the fuppofition,
that the caufe of it exiiled in the air, will not render it more
eafy to explain why thofe perfons only Ihould at that time
have been affcfefed by this caufe.

Thefe confiderations tend to favour the third opinion
above-m.entioned, that the difeafe was propagated by con-
tagion, in- the common acceptation of the term, tliat is, by
perfonal communication with the difeafed ; but they are'
very far from being decifive of the queftion. Indeed, the
queftion of contagion, as connected with any particular epi-'
demic, in which there is no palpable matter produced, by
which the difeafe can be communicated, is always difficult,
and has been agitated even with regard to the plague itfeUV
(See Contagion- and Epidemic.) But it has been fatis-
fatlorily demonftrated, that the contagion of all malignant
and eruptive fevers cannot be conveyed through the air to
any diftance (even many feet) from its fource. If the con-'
tagion of the influenza, therefore, could be fufpended and
conveyed through the atmofpheric air, fo as to fpread the
difeafe far and wide, it would form an exception to the ge-
neral properties of known contagions. Several fafts, re-
corded during the epidemic of 1 782, militate ftrongly againil
fuch a fuppolition. It was remarked, for example, that the
difeafe was prevalent in one piace a week or two before it
appeared in another, only a few miles diftant from tiie firft.
Thus it fliewcd itfelf at Edinburgh on the 20th of May, and
foon raged very much, and was prevalent at Glafgow in the
firft week in June ; ytt it did not appear at Mufielburprh. a

INFLTTr.vr^A.

■ :ibout fiTc miles fouth-eaft of Edinburs-''. "n>'l ''"^
loth of June. Again, it was prcva'-nt at Dartmouth
! joncr than at Exeter, and yet i» appeared at Exeter
fjoner than at Tinmouth, aWough the laft mentioned
;5 fituated between Darti^vJUth and Exeter.
^ " opinion, that it wa« propagated by perfonal inter-
, was alfo favoureiJ by its progrefs in numerous in-
. Thus it was frequently obferved, that fomc one
.^al in a family was firft attacked, and that tlien fe-
:i ore, and fometimes tke whole of the fame family,
jry foon afterwards feized with it, in fome inftanccs
lee, but in others fuccelhvcly. Very early in June,
' iniilies, conlifting of feventeen perfons, came on the
.iv to the hotel in the Adelphi buildings ; they were
rfecl health when they ai-rived ; and they were all
■J the next day with the fymptonis of the illnefs
tii::i reigning in London. In fome cafes, it feemed to be pro-
pagated, like contagious difeafes in general, hj fom'tUt, that
is, by articles of clothing or furniture impregnated with the
morbiSc efBuvia. One phyfician, Dr. Meal'c of Strabane,
in Ireland, fays, " I have no Ihadow of doubt that the
diforder was contagious ; and am certain, I myfelf received
the infeAion from a fmall trunk of wearing apparel, which
came from Dubhn, where it then raged. I may add, that
this was the firft ir.troduClion of it into this town." The
difeafe appeared to be carried on board two Ihips of war, on
their ar.-ival at Gravefend from the Wed Indies, by three
cullom-'isufc officers, who were put on board : in a few
hours after, the crews of both fnips, till then in good
health, were feized with fymptoms of the influenza ; hardly
a man in either fhip efcaped, and fome had it very feverely.
In fome inftances it was obferved, that the epidemic did
not fhew itfelf in certain places, until fome one or more ar-
rived at thofe places, either aslually labouring under the
difeafe, or coming immediately from other places, whofe
inhabitants had been affefted by it for fome days. In ge-
neral the difeafe appeared earher in towns, than it did in the
fjtrrounding villages, and in villages earlier than in the de-
lached houfes in the neighbourhood.

On the whole, the progrefs of the diforder is perhaps
more eafily explained, upon the fuppoiition that it was pro-
pagated by perfonal communication, than by any other. In
dbjection to this hypothelis, however, it is credibly affirmed,
that the crews of feveral fhips were feized with the influ-
enza many miles diftant from land, and came into various
ports of England labouring under it ; and the fame thing is
iaid to have happened to ihips in the Eall Indies, and other
parts. But great caution is requifite in admitting fuch
ftatements as fafts, from which any fatiifaclory inferences
can be deduced.

A limilar epidemic catarrh, or influenza, is recorded as
having vifited Europe, and even other parts of the globe,
two or three times in the fourteenth century, and at fe-
deral fubfequent periods ; namely, in the year ijic, 157,,
and ijrfo, the lalt of which is faid to liave originated, like
fcveral of thofe which fucceeded, in Afia ; and again in I59I»
in 1658, in 1675, in 1709, in the latter end of 1732, and in
the beginning of 1733, in 1743, in 1748, in 1762, in 1767,
in 177), in 1782, and in 1803. Thofe who are deiirous of
inveitigating the records of thefe epidemics, will find refer-
ences to the works in which they are contained, arranged
in chronological order, in Dr. Cullen's Synopfis Nofologise
Method, under tlie head of Catarrhus, Gen. xl, and fpecies
%. C. d contag'to.

Cure of the InfluttiTut. — Since tiie efTeifts of this difeafe
Vox-. XIX.

were difTcient in ditTerent Individuals, no general method of
cure could rationally be followed. Many, indeed, wore fc»
(lightly indifpofed, as to require but little or no medicine.
Nothing more was wanted for their cure, than to abilain for
two er three days from animal food and fermented liquors,
and to ufe fome diluting tepid drink. A lenient purgative,
given at the beginning of the diieafe, was ufeful in mo-
derating the fever ; and nature fometimes feemed to point
out the repetition of it afterwards, when there were pains
in the (lomach and boweli, and a tendency to a diarrhaa.
The fame was obferved in the epidemics of 1732 a;;d 1762.
Nothing likewife was obferved fo fuccefsfuUy to mitigate the
cough, as to open the bowels with a gentle purgative, and
afterwards to give a flight opiate at night. It was obferved
by numerous praditioners, that emetics, exhibited upon the
iirll attack, were evidently of ufe in relieving the head and
bread, and alfo in producing a fpeedyand free perfpiration.
All attempts to force much fweating appeared to do Iiarm,
efpecially by means of the ftimulating diaphoretics, fuch as
contrayerva, ammonia, wine whey, &c. In fad, in moft of
the mild and fimpler forms of the difeafe, an early perfpi-
ration generally came on fpontaneoufiy, which feldom failed
to relieve the fymptoms materially, and it was only neceflary
to give tepid aqueous liquors, the neutral falts, or antimoniaU
in fmall doles, to keep up a regular and gentle moillure
upon the ikiw.

But in the more fevere forms of the diforder, other re-
medies became neeelfary, according to the feverity of the
fymptoms. Whenever fymptoms of pleurify or peripneu-
mony appeared, the propriety of biood-lelting was com-
moiily admitted, notwithitanding the languor and depreflion
conncded with tiio difeafe. There was, lipwever, confider-
able difference of opinion upon the fubjed of blood-letting.
Several learned and experienced phyficians, if called at the
beginning of the difeafe to a perfon flrong and plethoric,
and labouring under great heat and inquietude, even in cafes
where no dired fymptoms of pneumonic inflammation ap-
peared, ordered bleeding w ithout hefitation ; and under
fnch circumftances, they feveral times obferved, that tlie
languor, oppreflion, and fv verirti anxiety, were abated by
the lofs of a few ounces oi blood ; that both the head
and the breall were relieved ; and that the difeafe proceeded
to its termination with fewer difficulties both to the patient*
and to rhemfelves, and without any fubfequent inconve-
nience. Yet others were of opinion that the blood-letting,
although indicated by the fymptoms, and alfo by the ap-
pearance of the blood drawn, not only failed to procure
that relief, which might have been expeded from it under
ordinary catarrhal or pneumonic fymptoms, but in fome
cafes even proved prejudicial. Blifters were applied to va-
rious parts with good ettec^s : when there was pain in the
breall or fide, the application of them to the part affeded
was found very beneficial ; and- it was frequently tliought
proper to keep them open for fome time. In fome cafes, it
was remarked, tl'..-r., a fecond bliiler, applied a few days after
the firft, produced great relief, when the firft had failed to
do fo. On account of the great debihty, v.-hich feldom
failed to accompany or follow the diforder, bark and cor-
dials were often deemed iiecefiary, efpecially towards the
clofe of the difeafe ; but tuey wojild probably be deemed
lefs neceflary by the praditioners of the prefcut day ; for
when a difeafed condition is removed, the coiiftitution com-
mofily recovers its ftreiigtU with rapidity, when care is
taken the food be light and nutritious, and there is a free
accefs to pure air. See Medical Tranfad. vol. iii. art. 8.— .
Medical Commuaications, vol. i. art. i. — Hiil. de la Soc.
P Rovale

I N F

Royale do Med. de Paris, pour 1776. — Edin. Med. Eflays,
Vol. ii. art. 2. — Rutty, Hill, of Weather.

INFORCED. ■) c; fRKixFORCED.

INFORCEMENT. J ^" |REis-KoncK>rK\-T.

IN FORMA PAUPERIS, in Law. See Forma
Paupens.

INFORMATION, for the king, is much tlie fame with
wtiat is called declaration fur a common perfon : it is not
always done directly by the king or his attorney, or the
clerk of the crown-office ; hut fonietimcs by another, who
flies as well for the king as hinil\-lf, on a breach of fomc
penal law or llatute, wherein a penalty is given, one part to
the ufe of the king, and another to the ufe of the informer.
And it differs from an i-.idiclment, which is found by the oaths
of twelve men ; and is only the allegation of the officer who
exhibits it. The latter fort of informations, which are
partlv at the fuit of the king, and partly at that of a fubjetl,
13 a fpecies of qui tarn actions, fo called becaufe they arebrought
by a perfon qui t am pro domino rege, &c. quam pro fiipj'o in
h:ic parte ft-quitur, and carried on by a criminal inifead of a
civil procefs. By 31 Eli/, c. 5, no profecution of this kind
an be brought by any common informer, after one year

expired fince the commiliion of the offence ;

of the

country where the offence was committed ; nor on behalf of
the crown after the lapfe of two yeai-s longer ; nor, where
the forfeiture is originally given to the king alone, can fuch
profecution be had after the expiration of two years from
the coir.mifTion of the offence. It is alfo enacted by
18 Eliz. c. 5, that if any perfon, informing under pretence
of any penal law, makes any compoiition without leave of
the court, or takes any money or promife from the defendant
to excufe him, he fhall forfeit ten pounds. Hand two hours
on the pillory, and be for ever difabled to fue on any popular
or penal flatute. And by the fame ftatute, if a perfon ex-
Iiibits his information onlv for vexation, the defendant may
bring information againfl the informer. See Co.mpousu-
ING of Informations.

Informations that are exhibited in the name of the king
alone arc of two kinds ; thofe which are truly and properly
his own fuits, and filed cv iifficio by his own immediate officer,
the attorney-general ; and thofe, in which, though the king
is the nominal prolecutor, yet it is at the relation of fome
private perfon or common informer ; and they are filed by
the king's coroner and attorney in the court of king's bench,
ufually called the mafter of the crown-office, who, for this
purpofe, is the flanding officer of the public. The objefts
of the king's own profecutions, hied cv oficio by his own
attorney-general, are properly fuch enormous mildemeanors
r.s particularly tend to ditlurb or endanger his government,
or to moleft or affront him in the regular difcharge of his
royal fundlions. The objedts of the other fpecies of in-
formation are any grofs and notorious mii'demeanors, riots,
batteries, libels, and other immoralities of an atrocious kind.
And when an information is. lilei'i in either of thefe ways, it
inuft be tried by a petit jury of the county where the offence
arifes ; after which, if the defendant be found guilty, he
tnufl be rcfortcd to the court for his punifluuent. Thefe
informations, which are as ancient as the law itfelf
(i Show. 118.), of every kind, are confined by the confti-
tutional law to mere miliiemeanors only, without extending
to any capital offence. The opprefTive ufe ot information
by the court of Star-chamber, &c. in the times preceding the
Revolution, occafioned a ffruggle foon after the acceflion
of king William, to procure a declarption of their illegality
by tlie judgment of the court of king'-s bench. But fir
John Holt, who then prelided there, and all the judges,

I N F

were cleail, of opinion, that tjiis proceeding \vas founded
on the common law, and could not then be impeached. .
However, in a few years afterwards, it was cnafted bv '
4 & 5 W. & M. c. 18. that the clerk of the crown flial'l
not file any informati<m wnhout exprcfs direction from the
court of king's bench ; andthrt every profecutor. permitted
to promote iuch information, /hall give fecurity by a recog-
nizance of twenty pounds (a fum now too fmall), to profc-
cute the fame with tfled ; and to pay cofls to the defendant,
in cafe oi his acquittal, unlefs the judge, who tries the in-
formation, fhall certify there was reafonable caufe for filinjr
i[=„^r'' ^';>""-^-"f^' "> P'-'V C"^t«. «"'l^fs the information
ftall be tried within a year after ifhie joined. But there is
a provifo in this aft, that it fliall not "extend to any other
informations than thofe which are exhibited bv the maflcr
of the crown office : and, confequently, informations at the
king's own fuit, filed by his attorney-general, are no wav
reftraiiied thereby. '

There is one fpecies of informations, flill farther regulated
by 9 Ann. c. 20, •ui-z. thofe in the nature of a writ of qno'
ivarranto, which is a remedy given to tlic crown acrainft
fuch as had ufurped or intruded into any office or franchife.
The modern information tends to the fame purpofe as the'
ancient writ, being generally made ufe of to try the civil
rights of fuch franchifes ; though it is commenced in the
fame manner as other informations are, by leave of the court,
or at the will of the attorney-general • being properly a
criminal profecution, in order to fine the defendant for his
ufurpation, as v.-ell as to oull !iim from his office ; yet ufually
confidered at prefent a.s merely a civil proceed in<r.'

An information on behalf of the crown, filed" in the ex-
chequer by the king's attorney-general, is a method of fuit
for recovering money or other chattels, or for obtaining
fatisfaaion for damages in any perfoiial wrong committed iii
the lands or poffeffioiis of the crown. (Moor, 375.) The
moft ufual informations are thofe of intnifon' mi. debt;
the former being for any trefpafs committetl on the lands
of the crown (Cro. Jac. 212. 1 Leon. 48. Savil. 49.), as
by entering thereon without title, holding over after a leafe
is determined, taking the profits, cutting down timber, or the
like ; and the latter, upon any contract for monies due to
the king, or for any forfeiture due to the crown upon the
breach of a penal llatute. There is alfo an information
m ran, ufually hied in the exchequer, where anv goods are
fuppofed to become the property of the crown, if no man
appears to claim them, or to difpute the ti'le of the king
There is alfo another information, filed cv officio by the attorl
ney -general, in the court of chancery, at the relation of fome '
informant, called the relator, for the proper ellablifhmenf
of chanties, of winch the king lias the general fuperinteiid-
ance. lilackil. Com. b. iii. and iv.

INFORMATUS xoN- ..um, or ^n f„„ i„fonr,atus, a
formal anlwcr made of courle by an attorney, who is com
manded by the court to fay any thing he thinks good in'
behalf of his client : who having nothing material to urge
makes aniwer, he i.s not informed : on wliich judgment paffes
for the other parly. j o r

INFORMER,' I.NFOKMATOK, a perfon that informs
agamlt, or profecutes in any of the king's courts, thofe that
offend againft any law or penal llatute. See Inpokm\-

TION. , " ■ .

INFORMIS, UN-roitMED, that which has not the''
form or perfertion it fliould have.

lNFOK.M.:.s 5/,//-, in JJronon^y, are fuch .ftars as ha.* not

Tlrah' '"'" ""'■ ''""'^^■"'"'"» ; otherwife called

5 Of'

I N F

Of this kind there was a great number left by the ancient
aftronomers ; hut Hevelius, and fome others of the moderns,
have p'-ovided for the greater part of them, by making new
•onftella'ions.

INFORTUNIUM, Homicide f.y. See Homicidk.

INFRA, Lai. belo-w. See Hvpo.

INFRACTION, formed from in and the fupine of
frango, I break, a rupture or violation of a treaty, law, ordi-
nance, or the like.

INFRALAPSARir, in Ecckfaflkal Hi/lory, the name
of a feCt of Predeftinarians, who maintain, that God li.->.s
created a certain number of men only to be damned, without
allowing thorn the means neceflary to fave themfclves, if they
would ; and they are thus called, becaufe -they hold that
God's decrees were formed infra lapfinr., after his knowledge
«f the fall, and in confequence thereof; in contradiiiinction
to the Supralapfarians.

INFRASCAPULARIS, in jlnatamy, a name of the
infrafpinatus mufc'e. See the following article.

INFRASPINATUS, is a mufcle of the (hoiilder, called
by the French fous-epinenx, a!id fous-fcapulo-trochitciien.
It is placed at the back of the fhoulder, covering that divi-
Con of the dorfum of the fcapula which is below the fpine,
and extends from the balls of the fcapula to the great tubercle
of the humerus. It is thick, broad, and triangular.

Its poilerior furface is covered above and on the outfide
by the deltoid ; above and within by the trapezius, and be-
low by the latiflimus dorfi : in the reil of this furface it is
covered by the ikin. A thin aponeurofis, common to this
mufcle and the teres minor, immediately invells its pofleriur
furface. This aponeurofis is continuous above with thofe
of the trapezius and deltoid, it is attached on the infide to
the bafis of the fcapula ; is continuous below, with a feptum
placed between tlie two teres mufcles and the infrafpinatus ;
and is fixed ou the outfide to the poilerior edge of the infe-
rior margin of the fcapula.

Its anterior furface covers the fcapula below the fpine, to
the poilerior three-fourths of which it is attached. It is
feparated from the anterior fourth of this lower divifion of
the fcapu'a by the fuperior and external fcapular vefTels, by
the fcapular nerve, and by cellular fubftance. Beyond the
fcapula this furface of the mufcle covers the fhoulder joint,
to the orbicular ligament of which it is ftrongly connecled.
The inner edge is fixed to the bafis of the fcapula, from the
fpine almoft to the inferior angle. Its upper edge is attached
to the lower furface of the fpine of the fcapula, and to the
aponeurofis of the deltoid : the outer portion of this margin
is parallel to the inferior edge of the fuprafpinatus. The
lower border is oblique from below upwards, and from within
outwards. This is united to the teres major by an aponeu-
retic feptum, which is loon divided into two layers : one of
thefe paiTes between the two teres mufcles, the other be-
tween tlie teres m.inor and infrafpinatus. The lower border
of the latter is then united to the teres minor through about
half its length ; for the reft of their extent they are fepa-
rated by a cellular hne. In many fubjeCls the fibres of
thefe two mufcles are fo confounded at this part, that they
cannot be feparated.

Tlie fuperior and inferior edges are united at a tnmcated
angle, which is large and thick, and attached to the middle
of the great tubercle of the humerus.

The infrafpinatus mufcle is compofed of tendinous and
mufcular parts. It is attached to the humerus by a broad
and thick tendon, v/hich expands into an aponeurotic plane
continued into the fubftance of the mufcle beyond its mid-
dle, and nearer to the poilerior than to the anterior furface
of the mufcle. The mufcular fibres arife from the dorfum

I N F

of the fcapula, from the under furface of its fpine, from
the aponeurods of the deltoid, and from tlic aponeurolic
feptum, whicli feparates this from the two teres mufcles.
They join the common tendon, which they accompany
nearly to the humerus, purfuing, however, very different
directionj. The fuperior fibres proceed nearly horizontally
from within outwards : all the others are oblique from
witliin outwards, and from below upwards, and their obH-
quity increafes as they are placed lower down. Thofe
fibres, which arife from the aponeurofis of the deltoid, and
from the lower furface of the fpine of the fcapula, defccnd
(lightly, and terminate on the poilerior furface of the ten-
don, on which they are extended almoll to its attachment to
the humerus.

The motions wliich this mufcle can produce in the hu-
merus, differ according to the pofition of that bone. ^Vhen
the arm is hanging by the fide, the humerus will be moved
on Us axis, fo as to be turned from before outwards
a!id backwards. If the humerus has been previoufly ele-
vated, the infrafpinatus will carry it backwards. When
the arm is fixed, this mufcle wil'l draw the fcapula, and
through it the trunk alfo, forwards. The ftrength and
breadth, of its tendon enable it to fupport the head of the
humerus, and to prevent it from being thrown out of the
glenoid cavity, when the arm is moved fuddenly forwards.

INFULA, a name anciently given to one of the ponti-
fical ornaments worn on the head. Feftus tells us that the
infulx were filaments or fringes of wool, covering that part
of the head where the hair grows as far as tite temples,
whence, on each fide, hung down two ftrings called tiillt,
for binding it, wherewith the ancients ufed to adorn their
priefto, their viclims, and even their temples. The infula
was the fame tiling to priefts that the diadem was to kings ;
■J'iz. the badge of their dignity and authority. The dif-
ference in (hape between the diadem and the infula confifted
in tliis, that the diadem was flat and broad, and the infula
was -rounded and twilled.

INFUM.A, or DiKJEScnoFT, in Geography, a town of
Africa, in the kingdom of Ante, where the Englifli built a
fort in 1691.

INFUNDIBULA of BirJs. See Anatomy of Birds.

INFUMDIDULIFORM Fi.ower.s in Boia'„y,?^\s fucn
as referable the figure of a funnel ; being broad and ample
at top, and contracted into a neck at bottom ; fuch as that
of the bear's ear, or auricula-.

INFUNDIBULUM, a Latin word fignifying ^funnel;
whence divers parts in the human body, having a refeiublaiice
thereto in (hape, are called by the fame name.

Hence alfo certain parts of plants are called infur.dibuli'
fornus.

The word infundibulura is alfo ufed by the metallurgic
writers to fignify a velfel of a conic fhape, ufed to pour a
melted metal out of the crucible into.

iNft'NuiBULir.M, in ylnaiomy, a fmall procefs in the brain,
See Bn.UN-.

INFUSION, in Pkarma.y. an operation whereby the
virtues of plants, roots, and the like are drawn out by"
letting them lleep in fome convenient fluid meaftruum
without boiling them therein ; fmce boiling is found to
dilTipate the finer parts of many bitter and aromatic fub.
fiances, without carefully Cktra£tiiig their medicinal prin-
ciple.-i.

Infiifion is ufed in bodies of a lax texture, whofe parts
are fo light as not to admit of a gieatcr motion without ha-
•/ard of flying awar in vapour.

Its chief ulV is to communicate the virtues of bodi-s t*
P J liquori,

INFUSION.

orJt-r to regulate their force, or corrcft

Infufo^

liquors, cithi
their in qualities.

Some infufions are made in common water, others in wine,
vinegar, milk, fpirit of wine, &c. Boiling water is fome-
times efTufed upon any fiihllancc,' and allowed to ftand upon
it for fomc time. Water is alfo occafionally effufed cold
in the fame manner ; and in this cafe the fpecilic form of
cold infufion is ufed.

The fame operation is applicable to thofe fubftances
which contain any parts volatile in the heat of 212 , to the
reparation of more readily foluble conllituent parts from
thofe which are lefs fo, and to the preparation of flighter im-
pregnations than boiling for a length of time produces. The
boiling temperature of the water is fo foon loft in this mode
of application, that even with the nioft delicate fubftances
it does no injury, and it affifts in loofening the texture of the
vegetable, and efTei^in-j the folution much fooner than cold
vater alone does. InUifions are ufually matters of extem-
poraneous prefcription, and cannot generally be kept ready
prepared in the (liops without fpoiling. Their number has
been extended to moft of the articles in common ufe, and
the ftrength of each is accommodated to the n-.oft ulunl
ftandards of pradlice. We ftiall recite fome of the prin-
cipal.

The lUter infvfwn is prepared by cutting the tops of the
lefler centaury and chamomile flowers of each half an ounce,
and the yellow rind of lemon and orange peel, of each two
drams, in fmall pieces, and infufing them in a quart of boil-
ing water. A tea-cupful of this infufion may be taken twice antifcorbutic infi
or thrice a day for indigeftion, weaknefs of the ftomach, or
want of appetite.

Infufion of the Bark is made by infufing an ounce of the
powder in a pint of boiling water, with the addition of four
or five table-fpoonfuls of brandy, for two or three days. In
diforders which require the bark, a tea-cupful of this may be
taken two or three times a day.

Infflon of Cnhmha, infufum Calumbs, is prepared by
flicing a dram of Calumba root, and macerating it for two
hours in half a pint of boiling water in a covered veflel, and
ftraining it. See Coi.UMBO.

Infufion of Camomile, 'laivL^am anthemidis, is made by ma-
cerating for ten minutes, in a covered veffel, two drams of
camomile flowers in a pint of boiling water, and {training.

Infufion of Caiduus is made by infufing an onnce of the
dried leaves of carduus benedictus in a pint of common
water for fix hours, without heat, and then filtering the
liquor through paper. This infufion, which may be fla-
youred at pleafure with cinnamon, or other aromatics, may
be beneficially ufed in weaknefles of the ftomach, w here the
common bitters do not agree.

Infufion of Cafcariila is prepared by macerating for two
hours, in a covered velfcl, half an ounce of Cafcariila bark
bruifed in half a pint of boihng water, and ftraining. See
Cascakilla.

Inffi.n of Catechu is obtained by taking i\ drams of ex-
tract of c-.techu, and half a dram of bruifed cinnamon bark,
macerating them for an hour, in a covered vefTcl, in half a
pintof boiling water, and ftraining. See Catechu.

Irfufion of. Cinchona, infufum cinchona;, is obtained by ma
■lig '

of Cujparia is procured by macerating for tuo
hours, in a covered vefl<:l, two drams of brnifcd Cufpan ■
bark in half a pint of boiling water, and ftraining.

Infufon of Fox-glove, infufum digitalis, is obtained by mv
cerating for four hours, in a covered veftel, a dram of purpl-
fox-glove leaves, dried and powdered, in half a pmt et
boihng water, and ftraining ; then adding half a fluid-ounec
of fpirit of cinnamon. See Digjtalis.

Infufion, Compound, of Gentian, mfufum amaram fimph >:,
P. L. 1745, is procured by ircicerating in a covered veil
gentian root fliced and orange-peel dried, of each a dm
two drams of freih lemon-pcc-1, in tv\'elve ounces of bull"
water, and ftraining.

Infufion, Compound, of Horfe-radi/h, infufum armor:u i
compolitum, is procured by macerating for two hours, in .'
covered veflel, frefti horle-radifli root Iliced, and mulhr. J
feeds bruifed, of each an ounce, in a pint of boiling wat,/,,
and ftraining ; then adding a fluid-ounce of compound
fpirit of horfe-radilh. An infufion for the paUy may ' -
made by infufing horfe-radilh root ftiaved, multard I
bruifed, of each four ounces ; and one ounce of the o
rind of orange-peel in two quarts of -boiling water, i-
clofe veflel tor twenty-four hours. A tea-cupful of thi,
warm ftiniulatiiig medicine may be taken three or four tin,,-;
a day, in paralytic complaints. It excites the action of ll,c
fohds, proves diuretic, and, with warmth, promotes peri[.i-
ration. If two or three ounces of the dried leaves ot mas iii-
trefoil be ufed inftead of the muftard, we ftiall have the

Infufion of Linfeed, infufum hiii, is prepared by infill'
two fpoonfuls of linleed, or an ounce of hnfeed bruifed, .;
half an ounce of liquorice root fliced, in two pints of boil-
ing water by the fire for four hours, and then ftraining off
the hquor. The pedtoral infufion is made by adding to
thefe ingredients an ounce of the leaves of colt's-foot.
Thefe emollient hqui>rs may be taken in difficulty of
making water, and in coughs and other complaints of the
breaW.

Infufion of Qjiajia is obtained by macerating for two
hour.-., in a covered veffel, a fcruple of quaflia-wood fliced,
m half a pint of boihng water, and ftraining. See
Quassia.

Infufion of Rhubarb, infufum irhei, is procured by ma-
cerating for two hours, in a covered veflel, a dram of fliced
rhubarb-root in half a pint of boiling water, and ftraining.
See RiiUB.\RB.

Infufion of Rofss, infufum rofas, tinttura rOfarum, P. L.
1718, tinftnra rofarum rubrarum, P. L. 1720,15 made by in-
fufing half an ounce of the petals of red rofes, dried, in 2^
pints of boihng water; afterwards pouring in three fluid-drams
of dilute fulpliuric acid, and 1 i ounce of double refined fugar.
Pour the water upon the petals of the rofe in a covered glafs
veffel : then add the acid, and maceraie for half an hour.
Laftly, ilrain the infufion, and add the fugar to i:. A tea-
ciipful of this aftringent infufion may be taken every three
or fjur hours, in an exceflive flow of the menfes, vomiting
of blood, and other hsinorrhages. It will likewife ferve as
a very good gaigle.

Infufion of Senna, infufum Scnnoe, is prepared .by mace.

cerating tor two hours, in a covered veffel, half an ounce of rating fur an hour, in a covered veffel, i^ ounce of Senna

lance-leavcd Cinchona bark in half a pint of boihng water, leaves, a dram of fliced ginger-root, in a pint of boiUng

and ftraining. water, and ftraining the liquor. An infufion of Senna,

Infufion cf Cloves, infufum caryophyllorum, is obtained named" infufum Senna tartarizatum," may be had by adding

by nruiccrating for two hours, in a covered veffel, a dram of extemporancoufly to each pint of the infufion tv.o drams of

cloves bruifed in half a pint of boihng water, and ilruinr fupertartrate of potals, ia fuch proportions as circumftanees

iii^,-. , may require.

Infufioi

I N G

Ir.fujton of Senna ami Tamarinds, is prepared by infufiiig
f.)r tour or five hours one ounce of tamarinds and fcnna, and
cryila'.s of tartar, of each twu drams, in a pint of boiling
w.itor ; ftraining the liquor, and adding to it an ounce or
\\\o of the aromatic tindure. Ferfons who are cafily purged,
may leave out either the tamuriiids or the cryrtals of tartar.
A tea-cupful of tiiis agreeable cooling-purge may be taken
ev.ry half hour till it operates.

Infiifwn of S'tmarouka is made by macerating for tttt) hours,

'• ". covered veflcl, half a dram of Simarouba bark, bruifed,

■}-i a pint of boiling water, and Itraining; See Sima-

hfufton, Span!/L;h made by infufing an ounce of Spanifh
L cut into Imall pieces, and three drams of fah of tartar
' quart of boiling water for a night ;" a'ld adding to the
r.ed liquor an ounce and a half- of the fyrup of poppies,
■cent colds, coughs, and obllrudions of the breaft, a
upful of this infufion may be taken with advantage
• ■ or four times a day. See Liql'orick.

Ir.fiifion of Tobacco, infufnm tabaci, is made by macerating
To! an hour, in a covered vefiel, a dram of tobacco leaves in

■jint of boiling water, and Itraining. This iufufion is
A'.ed to be uled as a clyilerj to which purpofe it is often
ed.

- ■■ FUSION is alfo ufed to fignify the action of conveying
i...uor into tiie body by the veins. See Injection.

Some phyficians have found out a new m.ethod of purging,
by infufing a cathartic into the veins, which operates pretty
much after the manner of a civ tier.

ING, in Agriculture, a provincial term, emplo;. ftd to fig-
nify a common paftiire or meadow which lies low or wet,
and which is chiefly employed as hay lands.

INGA, in Bitauy. See Mimosa.

INGANNO, Itai. a trick, a difappoiiitment, a difap-
pointed cadence, or clofe, is, whenj after preparing for a
regt:lar termination, fome unexpcftcd chord or modulation
occurs to lengthen the movement and poftpone the cadence.
See Cadence.

TNGARD Point, in Geography, a cape of Ireland, on
the fouth coaft of the county of Wexford, within wl.ich
lies the fmall dry harbour of Feathard, which is only fit
for fmall vefffls.

INGARYD, a town of Sweden, in the province of Sma-
land ; five miles S. of Jonkioping.

INGATESTONE, a fmall town in the hundred of
Chelmsford and county of Effex, England, is fituated 23
miles from L .indon, on the high road to Colchell--r. It
confifls principally of one ftrcet, and ^.-ontained, according
to the late return to parliament, 120 houfes and 645 mh;-
bitants. In the church, which has a high embattled brick
tower, are feveral elaborate monuments of the Petre family,
whofc burial place adjoins the chancel on the north lide. A
confiderable market was formerly held here, but having
greatly declined, it has been for feveral years wholly dif-
continued ; but a very large fair for Scotch and^ Welch
cattle is flill held on the firlt of December, annually. An
alms-houfe, for feven v.omen and three men, was founded,
in the year 1557, by fir William Petre, and eudov.-ed by iiim
to the amount of 90/. ijx. 4^/. per annum.

Near the town is Iiigalellone-hall, a venerable, but irre-
gular ftrufture, which was the family refidence of the lords
Petre, previous to the building of a new manfion at Weft
Thorndon. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v.

INGATORP, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Sniaiaud ; 40 miles N. of Wexio.

INGELt'iNGi'N, a town of Germany, in the princi-

I N G

pality of Hohenloe, on the Kochcr ; eight miles N. E. of

Olirenburg.

INGELHEIM, Onun, a town of France, in the de-

partmcnt of Mont Tonnerre, fituated on the Selz ; 12 miles

W^ of Mentz. N. lat. 49'' 56'. E. long. 81'.

LvGELiiEiM, Killer, a town of France, in the department

of Mont Tonnerre, one mile from Ingelheim Obcr.

INGELLY, a town of Hindoollan, in Bengal, at the

mouth of the Hoogly ; 60 miles S. of Calcutta.

INGELMUNSTER, a town of France, with a caftle,

in the departmeut of the Lys, and chief place of a canton,

in the diilrift of Courtray ; five miles N. of Courtray.

The town contains 4873, and the canton 14,284 inhabitants,

oii a territory of 52^ kiliometres in four communes.

INGELSBURG, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtlar.d ;

nine miles S.S E. of Oelfnitz.

INGELSTAD, a town of Sweden, in the province cf

Smaland ; 10 miles S.E. of Wexio.

INGEMIN.-\TED Flowek.s, are thofe where one

flower Hands on, or naturally grows out of another ; called

alfo prohferous flowers.

INGEN, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the North fea,

near th' coaft of Lapland. N. lat. 70" 56'.
INGENDRING. See Engendering.
INGENERATE, in Natural Hijhry, is a term ufed to

exprefs tliL- kind of petrifaCliuns produced by intromifllon,
or the introdudlion of the mineral particles into the internal

texture of the original organized. Martin's " Outhnes,"
p. 67.

INGENHOUZ, John, in Biography, an eminent pny-
fician and chemift, was born at Breda in the year 1730.
Little is known of his early life; but in 1767 he came to
England with a view of obtaining information on the Sut-
tonian method of inoculation for the fmall-po>:, and in the
following year he went, on the recommendation of the late
fir John Pringle, to Vienna, to inoculate the archduchefs
Therefa-Elizabeth, only daughter of Jofeph II., and the
archdukes Ferdinand and Maxin.ilian, brothers of the cm-
peror. For thefe fervices he obtained rewards and honours :
he was made body-phyfician and counfellor" of ftatc to their
iinperial majefties, with a penfion of 6og/. per annum. In
the following fpring he went to Italy; and inoculated the
grand duke of Tufcany : after this he returned to England,
to which he was much attached, where he fpent his time in
fcieiitific purfuits. He publiihed a very valuable work, en-
titled " Experiments on Vegetables, difcovering their great
power of purifying the common air in funlTiine, biit injuring
it in the (hade and night." This work was firlt pub!ifi;cd
in 1779, and has been frequently referred to by Dr. Prieftley
and others, who have carried their obfervations much far-
ther. It was tranflated into the French and German lan-
guages, and highly eftecmed by all the experimental philoio-
phers of that period. He afcertained, that not only from ■
the green matter found on ftagnant waters, but likewif^ •
from the leaves of vegetables, from the green branches and •
flioots, even from the entire vegetable, when placed under
water and expofed to the folar light, oxygen gas, in a Itate
generally of great purity, is evolved; and as the refult of
his numerous experiments he adopted the' conclufion, that
oxygen is elaborated in the leaves ar.d "other organs of vege-
tables, by a vital adtion excited and fitftained by the folar 'light.
The doctor, through the whole- bflifc,'was fo:id of CAhibiting
among his friend?, parUcularly young perfoiis, expernoent's
of this kind, which rcqmrcd fcarccly 'any apparatus, except-
ing a bell glafs and a phial or two, and with the oxygen i^us
which he obtained from cabbage kaves or other vegetal le.'.,
lie would exhibit the coaibultjon of iron wire, whicli is a
7 ilrJtifg

I N G

ilriking and very brillianl experiment. Dr. Iiige«iliouz was
author of many papers iufertcd in the Tranfaftions of
the Royal Society, of whieli body lie was an aaive and
ufcful member. Of thefe papers vre may notice the fol-
lowing : Experiments on the torpedo : — Itlethods of mea-
furing the diminution, of bulk taking place on the mixture
of nitrous with common air :— Experiments on the eleftro-
phorus : — New Methods of fufpending magnetic needles :
■^Confiderations on the influence of the veo-etable kingdom
on the animal creation. He died in the year 1799, highly
cfteemed for the fimplicity of his manners, and for the dif-
coveries which he had made in the feveral departments of
experimental pliilofophy. Monthly and Gentleman's Ma-
gazine. Murray's Cheniillry.

lNGENITE,lMioKN,llgnifiesany difeafe or habit which
comes into the world with a pcrfon,' nearly the fame witl»
hereditary.

INGENUITAS Regni, anciently figniCed the free-
holders and commonalty of the kingdom : the title was
alfo fometimes given to the barons and lords of the king's
council.

INGENUOUS, IxGEXurs, among the Romans, a title
applicable to a perfon born free, or of free parents.

Ilidore fays, they are called tngenui, qui libertatem habent
in gcnere nnn in faSo ; thofe who are born free, not thofe who
acquire their freedom.

A perfon was accounted ingenuous, if only the mother
were free, and the father a flave.

Thefe could give their votes, and enjoy offices, from
which the liLerti, or freedmen, Sic. were debarred.

IxGCNi-ou.s is fometimes alfo ufed to fignify a native of a
country in contradiftin£tion to a foreigner.

INGERAM, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the ftraits
cf Malacca, near the coaft of Salengore. N. lat. 3^ ij'.
E. long. 1 01- 26'. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in the
circar of Rajamundry ; 50 miles S.E. of Rajamundry.

INGETORP, a to\vn of Sweden, in the province of
Schonen ; 10 miles E of Yftad.

INGINEER, or Engineer. See Engineer.

INGKALU, in Gecgraphy, a fmall illand in the North
fea, near the coail of Lapland. N. lat. 70^ 50'.

INGLEDOROUGH, a mountain of England, in the
N.W. part of the county of York, faid to be 20 miles in
circumference. The height is dated by Houfman to be
39S7 feet ; but by the barometrical meafurement of Mr.
Ewart 2377. 1 2, and by trigonometrical meafurement 23S0.7
feet above the level of the fea.

INGLOTT, WiLLi.\M, in Biography, an organift of the
cathedral church of Norwich, wlio feems, by an infcription
on his monument in that church honourable to his luemory,
to have been a man of no common abilities. We have never
heard or feen any of his productions ; but in all probability,
Dr. Croft had ; who, a hundred years after his deceafe, had
his monument repaired. Inglott died in 1621.

INGI.UVIES. See Cu.vw.

INGOLSTADT, in Geography, a town of Bavaria,
r.tuated on the Danube, and furrounded with a niorafs. It
has an univcrfity, founded in the year 1472, which embraced
tlie Reformation in 1743 ; 37 miles N. of Munich. N. lat.
48 43'. E. long. 11" 22'.

INGOT, a mafs or lump of gold or filver, from the
mines, melted down, and call in a fort of mould, but not
coined or wrought.

The word feems formed from the French Ungot, which
fignifics the fame.

Ingot is alfo a name given to the moulds or cavities,
wherein they call melted metals, or regulus of femimctals.

I N G

INGOULT, Nicholas Louis, m Bl(,graply,zTv::
Jefuit, was born at Gifors, devoted himfelf to an ecu
allical life, and became a very eloquent preacher. He j
liflied the eighth volume of the Memoirs of the Millions i.t
the Society of .lefus in the Levant. He was author alfo
of fermons which were highly applauded. He di;d in
I7J3-

INGOLTVELLE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a
canton, in the dillrift of Le Havre. The place contains
5500, and the canton 10,347 inhabitants, on a territory of
40 kiliomctres, in fix communes.

INGRAFTING, or Engrafting. See Engkafi-

ING.

INGRAILED. See Engrailed.

INGRAM, Robert, in Biography, was born in York-
fhire, and educated at Beverley fchool, from v.hence he was
fent to Corpus Chrilli college, Cambridge, of which he be-
came fellow, and took there his degrees in arts. His firft
preferment was the perpetual curacy of Bridhurft, in Kent,
after which he obtained fuccefiively the fmall vicarage of
Orllon, in Nottinghamfhire, and the vicarages of Worm-
ington and Boxted, in Elfex. He died in 1804, leaving
behind him a high character for fimplicity of manners, great
integrity, and genuine benevolence He had a high fenfe
of the dignity and importance of the clerical functions,
and for 50 years of his life was indefatigable in his attention
to profe'fiional duties. He was author of " A view of the
great events of the feventh plague, or period, when the
myilery of God {hall be fininied." " Accounts of the ten
tribes of Ifrael being in America, originally pnblifted by
Manaffeh Ben Ifrael, &c." " A complete and uniform
explanation of the prophecy of the feven vials of wrath, or
feven la(l plagues contained' in the Revelations of St. John,
&c."

INGRASSL^S, John Piiiiip, was a native of Sicily.
He ftudied medicine at Padua, where he took the degree of
doctor in medicine in the year 1537, with fmgular repu-
tation ; infomuch that he foon received feveral invitations
to profelTorfliips from different fchools in Italy. He ac-
cepted tlie chair of medicine and anatomy at Naples, which
he occupied for a number of years, lecturing to the mod
crowded audiences drawn by his fame from all parts of the
country. He pofTefTed peculiar qualifications for the office,
having united a confummate knowledge of the writings of
the ancient phyficians with great practical ikill and a loiind
judgment, which led him to eftimate jultly the merits and
defects of thofe fathers of the art. A Angular teftimony
of his talents and unremitting attention to the improvement
of his pupils was given by the latter, w ho caufed his portrait
to be placed in the fchools of Naples with the following
infcription : «« Philippo Ingralliie Siculo, qui veram medi-
ciiUE artem et anatomen, publice enarrando, Neapoh rellituit,
Difcipuli memoriie caufa, P. P." At length he quitted
his fituation at Naples in order to return to his native ifland,
where he fettled at Palermo. Here alfo he received many
marks of public diftinition. The rights of citizcnftiip were
conferred upon him ; and in 1563, Philip II. king of Spain,
appointed him firft phyfician for Sicily and the adjacent
ifles. By virtue of the powers attached to this office he
rellored order in the medical conflitution of the country,
by preventing all parfons, unqualified by their education and
abilities, from praitifing there. His zeal for the credit of
his profeffion rendered him rigid and fcvere in his examina-
tion of candidates : and he e.xercifcd his art himfelf in the
moil honourable manner. When the plague raged at Pa-
lermo ill ij75, lie adopted fuch cicclleut regulations, in

quality

I N G

quality of deputy of health and fiid: confukant, that he put

a (lop to the calamity, and relloiod the city to Iicalth, and

was hailed by all the citizens, the Sicilian Hippocrates.

Tiie magiftrates were fo grateful for his fervices, that they

V )tcd him a reward of two hundred and fifty gold crowns

?. : -ionth : but he difintereiledly declined to accept any more

what ferved for the maintenance and decoration of the

1 of St. Barbe, which he had biiik in tlie cloiller of

Dominican convent of Palermo. He died greatly re-

■_,: tted in i jSo. at the age of 70 years.

I-grafTias cultivated anatomy witli great alliduity, and is
{ lecmcd one of the improvers of that art, efpecially in
re.;ard to the ftrufture of tlie cranium, and the organ of
liearing. He difcovcred the fmall bone of the ear, called
tWjl.spes, which has been claimed as the difcovery of others,
br.t is admitted even by Fallopius to have been his. He
i'. fcrihed minutely the cavity of the tympanum, the feiie/lra
r:'-!r:Ja and ova/is, the cochlea, femicirculai' canals, malloid
Cells, S:c. ; and Eloy thinks, from a view of his plates, tliat
he was acquainted with the mufcle of the malhiis, the dif-
coverj- of which is afcribed to Eullachius. He is faid alfo
to have difcovored the feminal veficles He was author of
the following works : i. " Jatropologia ; Liber quo multa
adverfus Barbaros Medicos difputantur," Venice, 1544,
IJ58, Svc — 2. " Scholia in Jatropologiam," Naples, 1J49,
8vo. — 3. " De Tumoribus prxter naturam," ibid. 155J,
folio, vol. i. This is properly a commentary on fome of
the books of Avicenna.— 4. " Raggionamento fatto fopra
I'infermita epideniica dell' anno IJ58," Palermo, ij6o,
4to., together with " Trattato di due moftri nati in Palermo
in diverfi tempi." — j. " Conltitiitiones et Capitula, necnon
Jurifdic\iones Regii Proto-Medicatus officii, cum Pan-
deftis ejufdem reformatio," Palermo, 1564, 1657, 410. —
6. " Qusftio de purgatione per medicamentum, atque obiter
etiam de fanguinis miffione, an fexta die poffit fieri," Ve-
nice, 1568, 4to. — 7. " Galeni Ars Medica," ibid. IJ73,
folio. — 8. " De frigidae potu pod medicamentum purgans
Epiftola," ibid, l^'^, 4(0., reprinted at Milan, 1586. —
9. " Informatione del pellifero e contagiofo morbo, il quale
afflige e habe afflito la citta di Palermo, e molte altre citta
e terre del regno di Sicilia, nell' anno 1575 c 1576," Pa-
lermo, 1576, 4to. This work was tr.inflated into Latin
by Joachim Camerarius, and publifhed under the title of
" Methodus curandi pelliferum contagiuni," at Nurimberg,
1583. — 10. " Li Galeni Librum de offibus doftiillma et
expertiffima Commentaria,"apollhumous publication, printed
at Meffina, in I'Soj, under the infpedlion of his nepliew,
Nicholas Ingraffias. This, which may be deemed the prin-
cipal work of Ingraffias, contains the text of Galen, in
Greek and Latin, with a very difFufe and learned commen-
tary, in which there is much minute and accurate defcrip-
tion, particularly of the parts belonging to the organ of
hearing. The figures arc thofe of Vefalius. The author
defends Galen as far as he is able, but not againft the truth
of modern difcovery. See Eloy. Dift. Hift. Gen. Biog.
Haller Bibl. Anatom.

INGRAVING, or Ekgiiaving. See EvGnAviNG.

INGRE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Loiret, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftricl of Orleans ; four miles N. \V. of Orleans. The
place contains 2905, and the canton 10,810 inhabitants, in
a territery of 16 kiliometrcs, in 10 communes.

INGREDIENTS, all the fimples which go into the com-
pofition of any medicine, ointment, fauce, or the like.

INGRESS, in yijbronomy, tlie fun's entering the firft
fcruple of one of the four cardinal figns, efpecially Aries.

liJGKESS, Egrefs, and Rcgrtfs, in Law, are words in

country

I N G

leafes of land, fignifying a free entry into, a Foiiig out of
and returning from fome part of the' premifcs leafed to
another ; as to get in a crop of corn, &c. after the term
expired.

INGRESSLT, a writ of entry, whereby a perfon feeks
entry into lands or tenements. It lies in various cafes,
and has various forms. It is alfo called precipe quod
redjat.

INGRIA, or In-gek.manl.\xd, \n Geography, that part
of RufTia, wliich was wrelled by Peter the Great from the
Swedes, and confirmed to Ruffia at the peace of Nyftadt in
1721. It is now called the " Government of St. Peterfburtr ;'
which fee. ^

INGRIN, or Grain-, a town of Africa, in the
of the Fonlahs ; 30 miles S.W. of Cavor.

INGROSSATOR Magni Rotu/i,'k the fame as clerk
of the pipe.

INGROSSER, or Esgkos.skr, in Common Law, is one
who buys up corn growing, or any provifions by wholefale,
before the market, to fell again. See Foue.st,vj,i,ing.

It alfo fignities a clerk, who writes records, or inilrumenta
of law, on fkins of parchment. See Engiiossing.

INGROSSING of a Fin.; is the making the indentures
by the chirographer, for delivery of them to the party to
whom the fine is levied.

INGROWITZ, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in
the circle of Brunn ; 30 miles N.N.W. of Brunn. N. lat.
49' 36'. E. long. 16 2'.

INGSKAR, a fmall idand in the gulf of Bothnia. N.
lat. 61 1 j'. E. long. 17 54'.

INGUE-LOUKA, a town of Chinefe Tartary. N. lat.
42" l6'. E.lung. 124" 44'.

INGUEN, in Amilomy, the technical term for the groin.

INGUIMBERTI, Do.MiNic-JosEPii-MAnv d', in Bio-
graphy, a learned French prelate, was born at Charpentras
in 1683. He devoted himfelf from a verv- early age to the
ecclefiallical profeffion, became a member of the Dominicans,
and afterwards joined the Cillercians, in order that he might
fubmit to what he conceived the more perfccl rules of nio-
nallic difcipline. In this lad order his merits raifed him to
the highell offices of honour and confidence. Being deputed
to Rome on the bufincfs of his monailein-, he fo highly re-
commended himfelf to the citeem of pope Clement XII.
that in the year 1733, he was raifed to the rank of biffiop of
Charpentras, and other ecclefiallical preferment. He died
in the year 1757, and is known in the republic of letters by
feveral original works, and tranflations of others. As a
bifhop he obtained univerial refpeft, and employed his wealth
in ferving the pubhc and in relieving the poor. He built a
large and noble hofpital, and he collected the mod extenlive
and valuable library in Provence, which he gave for the ufe
of the public.

INGUINAL Gi\ym, in Surgery. See Glands.

Inguinal Hernia, a rupture, or protrufion of the boweb
at the abdominal ring; a bubonocele. See Hernia.

Inglinal Ligament. This, which has been alfo called
from its difcoverer ligamentum Fallopii, is an aponeurotic,
or ligamentary band, fadcned by one end to the anterior
and hiperior part of the os ilium, and by the other to the
fpine of the os pubis. The middle portion of it is very
narrow, but it expands confiderably towards both its ex-
tremities. It is clofely joined to the mufcles of the abdo-
men, and to the aponeurotic fafcia of the thigh, but leems
to be often v.-anting.

INGUINALIS, in Anatomy, an epithet fometimes ap-
plied to the external iliac artery and vein.

INGUL,

I N H

INGUL, in Ge6p-aphy, a river of Rufiia, which runs
uito the Bug, near Matvicvka.

INGULETZ, a river of RufTia, wliich runs into the
Dnieper ; 12 miles N.E. of Chcrfon.

INGULPHUS, in Biography, a monaftic hiHorian, was
the fon of a courtier of Edward the Confeflbr, and was born
at London about 1030. He purfned his matarer ftudies at
Weftminfter and Oxford, and diftinguilhed himfelf as a
great adept in the Peripatetic philofophy. Scarcely had he
attained the ii^e of manhood when he was appointed fecre-
tary to duke AViniani, by whofe pcrmiflion lie- vifited the
Holy Land and Conllantinople in 1064, and upon his return,
he entered into the order of the Benediftines at the abbey
of Fontenelle, in Normandy, of which he became prior.
When his patron, Wi'liam, obtained the crown of England,
Ingiilphus was created abbot of the rich monaftery of Croy-
land, which being in a dilapidated ftatc, he rebuilt, and for
which he obtained many privileges. He died in 1 109, leav-
ing beluRd him as evidences of his great learning, a work
on the life and miracles of St. Gnthlac, and a hiltory of the
monaftery of Croyland. The lall gives the author rank with
the Englilh hittorians. It was pubhlhed at London, by fir
Henry Saville, among the quinque fcriptorcs, in 1596, being
ahnoft five hundred years after the death of the author. It
has been ieveral times reprinted : the bell edition is that of
Oxford, ill 1684.
' INGULSK, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Ekaterinoflav, on the Ingul ; 28 miles S. of
Elizavet.

INGURTY, a town of Hindooftan, in the province of
Golconda ; 22 miles S.E. of Warangole.

INGWEILER, a town of France, in the department
•of the Lower Rhine, on the Hotter ; 21 miles N.N.W. of
Strafburg.

INHALER, in Surgery, a machine lately invented by
Mr. Mudge, and fo contrived, that the air drawn through a
tube in refpiration, pnfTes firft through hot water, and thus
comes to the lungs loaded with warm vapour. The fame
air, when expelled in expiration, pafles back through the
tube, and thence through a valve, when by proper manage,
ment it may be dillributed over the furface of the body and
thus aft as a vapour-bath. The author's dircQions for the
procefs are as follow •

In the evening, a little before ied-time, the patient, if of
adult age, is to take three drams, or as many tea-fpoonfuls
of elixir paregoricum in a glafs of water : if the fubjeft is
younger, e. g. under five year5 old, one tea-fpoonful ; or
wiiliin that and tan years, two. About three quarters of an
hour after he fhould go to bed, and being covered warm, the
inhder, filled three parts with water nearly boiUng, and
wrapped up in a napkin, but fo that the valve in the cover
is not obftrufted by it, is to be placed at the arm-pit, and
the bed-cloaths being drawn up, and over it clofe to the
throat, the tube is to be applied to the mouth, and the
patient fliould infpire and expire through it about twenty
ininutes or half an hour. This, he allures us, is an infal-
lible and immediate cure for the cough confequent on catch-
ing cold. Mudge's radical and expeditious Cure for a
recent Catarrhous Cough, jy-S.

INHALLOW, in Geography, one of the fmaller Ork-
ney idands, between Pomona and Roufa.

INHAMBANE, or Innanbam, a kingdom of Africa,
in the country of Mocaranga, bounded N. by Sabia, E. and
S.E. by the Indian fea, S.W. by the river Manica, and
N.W. by an unknown country.

INHAME, in Botany. See DiOSCOREA.
INHA.MOIT, jn Geography, a town and diOrift of

I N H

Africa, in the country of Mocaranga, fituated about S. ki.
17° 30'. E. long. 31^ 20'.

INHAMPURA, a river of Africa, in the kingdom of
Iiihan.bane, which runs into the Indian fea, S. lat. 24° 30'.
INHANBANO, a river of Africa, which runs into the
Indian fea, S. lat. 23' 15'. ,

INHANGOMA, an ifland of Africa, in the river Zam.
beze. S. lat. 17" 4j'. E. long. 32' 20'.

its'HAiraARA, a town of Nubin, in Sennaar ; 30
miles from Gieflen.

INHAQUEA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Sofala, polfefled by the Portuguefe, near the fca-coaft ; 20
miles S.W. of Sofala.

INHARMONICAL Relation, in Muftc. Sec Rela-
tion, mharmonlcal.

Inhaiimonical, is faid of an interval or chord that is im-
prafticable in harmony, and, confequenlly, in melody. Notes
out of tune are inharmonical.

INHARMONIOUS, or unnatural relations, according
to Mr. John Holden (Eflay, p. 331.) are fuch intervals m
refult from the Turns of notes or intervals not contiguous in
the fcale, as a minor third to a major feventh, &c.

INHASATO, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Indian
fea, near the coaft of Africa. S. lat. 20'' 35'.

INHERENCE, in Philofophy, is applied to the junaure
or connection of an accident with its fubllance.

Thus quantity has a neceiTary inherence in a natural body.
INHERENT, in Naiural Hiflory, is a term ufed by
Mr. Willian, Margin lOuthiies, p. iSo.) to exprefs that clafs
of orgL^i ' liquia, v.hich ilick in the furface of

the ma; I ..: extraneous foffils of veins are fre-

quently t .ite.

INHEi; [TABLE Blood, in Laiu. See Blood.
INHERIT.-XNCE , H.^ekepit.nSj aproperty in lands and
tenements to a man and his heirs. See Estate, in I,a'x\

Inheritance is not only underftood v.here a man hath in-
heritance of lands and tenements by defccnt or heritage ; but
every fee-fiinple or fee-tail, that a man hath by his purchafe,
may be faid to be an inheritance, becaiife his heirs may in-
herit it after him. (See YEE-fmp.'e and Fee Uil.) The
inheritances mentioned in our law are either corporeal or
incorporeal ; the corporeal relate to houfes, lands, &c. that
-may be touched or handled ; and the incorporeal are rights
ifTuing out of, annexed to, or exercifed with corporeal in-
heritances; as advowfons, tithes, annuities, offices, commons,
franchifes, &c. (See Hereditaments.) There is like-
wife another inheritance denominated feveral, that is, where
two or more hold lands feverally ; as when two perfons hold
to them and the heirs of their two bodii!s, in which cafe thefe
two have joint-eftate during their lives, but their heirs have
feveral inheritances. Goods and chattels cannot be turned
into an inheritance. For the rules of inheritance, fee Dr-
.SCENT, collateral.

INHIBITION, a writ to inhibit or forbid a judge from
farther proceeding in a caufe depending before him.

Sometimes prohibition and inhibition are put together, as
of the feme import ; but inhibition is moll commonly a writ
iffuing out of a higher court-chriftian to a lower ; and
prohibition out of the king's court to an inferior court.

Iniiibitiox, in Scots t-anu, is a perfonal prohibition,
vhich pafTcs by letters under the fignet, prohibhing the
party inhibited to contraft any debt, or do any deed, bjr
which any part of his lands may be aliened or carried off in
prejudice of the creditor inhibiting. It muft be executed
againft the debtor, perfonally, or at his dwelling- iioufc, as
funimonfes, and afterwards pubhH-.ed and regiftcred in the
fame manner with interdiftions. Inhibition may procecdeithcr

upoa

I N J

Upon a liquid obligation, or even as an aclioii commenced
by a creditor for making good a claim not yet fullained by
the judge ; which laft is called " inhibition upon a depend-
ing- action."' Although inhibitions, by their uniform ftyle,
d^l ible the debtor from felling his moveable as well as his
heritable ellate, their effeft has been long limited to heritage,
fiom the interruption that fuch an embargo upon moveables
n-.ii.l have given to commerce; fo that debts, contracted after
inhibition, may be the foundation of diligence againll the
debtor's perfon and moveable eftate. An inhibition fecures
the inhibitor againft the alienation, not only of lands that
belonged to his debtor, when he was inhibited, but of thofe
which he Ihall afterwards acquire ; but no inhibition can
extend to fuch after-purchafes as lie in a jurifdi£tion where
the inhibition was not regiftered ; for it could not have ex-
tended to thofe though they had been. made prior to the in-
hibition. An inhibition is fimply prohibitory ; fo that the
debt on which it proceeds, continues perfoiial after the dili-
gence. The heir of the perfon inhibited is not reilrained
from alienation by the diligence ufed againft his auceflor,
for the prohibition is perfonal, affecting only the debtor
againft whom the diligence is ufed. Inhibitions do not of
themfelves make void the pofterior debts or deeds of the
perfon prohibited. When payment is made by the debtor
to the inhibitor, the inhibition is faid to be " purged."

INHOC, or IxHOKE, in our Old Writers, is ufed for any
corner or part of a common field ploughed up and fowed
with oats, &c. and fometimes fenced in with a dry hedge
in that year wherein the reft of the fame field lies fallow
and common. It is called in the North of England an iiitoci,
and in Oxfordfhire a hitchlri. And no fuch tnhoke is now
made without the joint confent of all the commoners, who
in moft places have llieir fhare by lot in the benefit of it,
except in fome manors where the lord has a fpecial privilege
in fo doing. Rennet's Paroch. Antiq. 297, &c. and his
Cloffary.

The word is Saxon, compounded of in, luilhin, and hole,
a earner.

INHUMATION. See Blrial and Ixtermext.

IxHUMATiox, in Chemijlry, a method of digelUng fub-
flances together, by burying the velfel in which they are
put in horfe-dung, or in dry fandy earth expofed to the
fun. See Digestion.

INIA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which runs into
the Oby, 50 miles N.E. of Kolivan. — Alfo, a river of
Ruffia, which runs into the X.ena, N. lat. ^y 20'. E. long.
1 16 14'.

INJAMBI, or Tiete, a river of Brazil, wliich runs
into the Parana, 180 miles N.W. of St. Paul, on the borders
of Paraguay.

INIARA, atownofRuffia, in the government of Penza;
4.S miles W. of Penza.

INJECTION, in Anatomy, is the art of filling the blood-
vefTels or other hollow organs of the dead body witli various
fubftances, for the purpofe of inveiligating tlieir ftructure,
lituation, &c. or for difplaying any facts connected with
thefe fubjccls by fubfequent artificial preparation. See
PliEPAR.VTloxs, Anatomical.

Injection, in Pharmacy, any liquid medicine made to
be injected or thrown into the body, or any of its parts, by
a fyringe, clyfter-pipe, or other inftrumcnt.

Injection, or InjtP.ing, in Stu-gcry, the throwing in
fome liquor or medicine into a vein opened by incifion. This
praftice, and that of transfufion, or the conveying the
arterial blood of one man, or other animal, into another,
were once greatly praclifed, but are now laid afide.

The method of injefting is thij : a veiil is to be opened in
Vol. XIX.

i N I

the arm with a lancet as in bleeding, and a fmall pipe of ^
fynnge being introduced at the orifice, the liquor intended
to be mixed with the blood, and contained f . that purpofe
in the body of the fyringe is to be forcibly injcded, or
thrown into the vein upwards, or toward tlie heart ; wliich
done, the orifice is to be fecured with comprelfcs and ban-
dages as in bleeding.

Whether this practice of injefting proper medicines into
the blood may not be found of ufe in apoplexies, quinfics,
hydrophobia, &c. is worthy to be tried by repeated experi-
ments. The method of injefting liquors 'into the blood of
living animals, is faid to be the invention of fir Chriftopher
Wren. His method was by making ligatures on the veins,
and opening them on the fide of the ligature towards the
heart : then putting into them fmall fyringes or quills faf-
tened to bladders in the manner of clyfter-pipes, containing
the matter to be injefted. Mr. Boyle foon made the expe-
riment upon dogs, with infufions of opium and crocus me-
tallorum ; all which he circumftnntially defcribed, in his
Ufefulnefs of Experimental Philofophy, part ii. eff 1
Phil.Tranf.N .y.p. 128. ^ ^ ^•

The ingenious Dr. Hales made a variety of experiments
this ' ■ ' "'"' ■ ■ - - . -

vol.ii.1

Many dilorders of particular parts are no way curable,
unlefs the parts affected are injefted with a proper liquor by
means of a fyringe and proper tube. The method of per-
forming this is too obvious to need any direftions ; but thefe
general cautions are ncceffary in regard to it, that the fyringe
or tube be applied tenderly and carefully to the parts, efpe-
cially in very fenfible or nervous parts, to avoid giving the
patient any pain ; and that the liquor to be injected be nei-
ther too hot nor too cold.

In ulcerations and inflammations of the uvula, tonfils, and
fauces, injcftions are generally ufeful : but care muft be
taken to prefs down the tongue with a fpatula, or with the
flat end of a fpoon, and having introduced the fyringe two
or three fingers breadth into the mouth, the injection is to be
carefully and gently thrown in at feveral times. In gonor-
rha;as, injections are often ncceffary to allay the heat
and forenefs of the urethra, and to wafh out the matter.
The fafeft and beft injeftions on this occafion are warm milk
and barley-water, fweetened with fugar, honey, or fyrup
of marfhmallows ; and towards the end a little faccharum
faturni, diffolved in plantane water.

INJELI.EE, in Geography, a province of Bengal, on
the right fide of the Hoogiy, near its mouth.

INIO, a fmall iiland in the Baltic, near the coaft of Fin-
land, with a town. N. lat. 60 26'. E. long. 21^' ij.'.

INIS, a word in the Irifti language fignifyingj/7^W; and
therefore ufed as a prefix to the names of many iHands on the
coat! of Ireland, fwine of which are noticed in fucce'eding
articles, but a much greater nuii\ber palled by as too iiifigni-
ficant.

INISBEG, in Geography, the name of feveral fmall
iflands on the coaft of Ireland, the na'me fignifying'- Little
IJland. One of thefe is in a fmall bay of ilie county of
Cork, near the town of Skibbereen ; another is on tlie weft
coaft of Kerry, near the Great Blafliet ifiand ; and a third is
on the north coaft of the county of Donegal, about 6 miles
N.E. of Bloody Farland Point.

INIS-BOFFIN, or Ennisboffin i'. e. the ifland of the
While Co-M, an ifland near the weft coaft of Ireland, con-
taining 1200 acres. It is about a mile and a half from the
main land of the county of Galway, and is a parifti in tlie
duice e of Tuam. There was formerly an abbey Iiere.
There is an ifland of the fame name on the coaft of Done-

I N I

jral, about four or five miles E. by N. of Bloody Farland
Point ; and a third in Lough Ree, an expanfion of the river
Shannon, in which was an abbey that the Danes plundered
and deilroyed in 1089. Beaufort, Carlifle.

INISCALTRA, or Ixiscalthra, an i/land fituated in
the river Shannon, belonging to the county of Galway,
about two miles S. from mount Shannon, and eight N. by
W. from Killaloc. In this beautiful iJland are a fine ancho-
ret tower, above feventy feet high, and tlie remains of feven
fir.all churches.

INISCATTERY, ©r Ikiscathrie, an ifland belong.
5ng to the county of Clare, province of Munfter, Ire-
land. This rich and beautiful little ifland is fituated at the
entrance of the river Shannon, between the counties of
Kerry and Clare, two miles S. by W. from Kilrufli, and
nc;ir!y oppofitc to the calilc of Canrigfoile, which was
litjitged and taten by iir W. St. Leger in i;So. Ac-
cording to Mr. Archdall, a monaflery was founded in Inif-
eiittery, of wiiich St. Senan was the lirft abbot. There
were eleven churches for the monks, and no women were
permitted to land on the ifland before the coming of the
Danes into Ireland. In procefs of time it became a priory
of regular canons. The monument of St. Senan is dill to
be feen here, with the remains of eleven fmall churches and
feveral cells : in the ftone that enclofes the top of the altar
window of the great church is the head of the faint with his
mitre, boldly executed, and but little defaced. An ancient
round tower of 1 20 feet in height, and in complete repair,
graces the fcene. This ifland is remarkable for the refort of
pilgrims on certain feltivals. Archdall, Carhfle.

INISDRISUL, or Inkdriscol, an ifland belonging to
the county of Cork, province of Munrter, Ireland, fitHated
in Roaring IVa.'er Bay, a little north of Cape Clear
ifland.

INISDUFF, or InnisdC!!, a fmall ifland off the coaft
of Donegal, in the province of Ulfter, Ireland, about fix
miles N.E. from Bloody Farland Point. Carlifle.

INISFREE, the name of two iflands off the weft coaft
of the county of Donegal, province of Uiiler, Ireland : one
of which is in the clufter of the North Arran ifles, a little
fouth of Rutland ; the other, which gives name to a fmall
harbour, lies between Rutland and Bloody Farland Point.
M'Kenzie, Beaufort.

INISGLORA, a fmall uninhabited ifland off the weft
coaft of Mavo, in the province of Connaught, Ireland.

INISGO'ULA, an ifland in Clew bay, county of
Mayo, province of Connaught, Ireland, on the eaft fide of
■which is t^ood anchorage for large velTels. Mackenzie.

INISHARK Island, an ifland near the weft coaft of
Ireland and county of Galway. N. lat. ^^° 34'. W. long.
10'' 14'.

INISHEGIL, or^ according to Mackenzie, InlfbegiU
an ifland off tte coatl of Mayo, Ireland, between Achill
iiland and the main land.

INISHERKAN, an ifland near the fouth coaft of Ire-
land, belonging to the county of Cork, on the weft fide of
Baltimote harbour. N. lat. 51" 24'. W. long. 9° 19'.

INISHONAN, or Inishannon, a poft-town of Ire-
land, in the county of Cork, ;ind province of Munfter. It
is on the Bandon river, ten miles from Cork, three from
Bandon, and i ^S.W. from Dublin.

INISHOWEN. a large peninfula and barony of the
county of Donegal, Ireland, which ftretches N.E. from
Londonderry, bounding Lough Foyle. It is a dreary
mountainous region, but great exertionf have been made to
ineiicrate its satural rudencfj. It indeed returns a greater

I 1^1 I

rent than any other part of the county. The mountam*
feed a number of cattle, and the flats produce tolerable
crops. They have manure of the beft quality in abundance,
fuch as limeftone, fliells, and fea-ware, which ad powerfully
upon the barrennefs of the foil. Robertfon.

IxLsiiowEN- Head, a cape in Ireland, forming the eaftern
extremity of the peninfula, a liltle north of the en-
trance into Lough Foyle. N. lat. 55.^ 15.'. E. long. 6^
48'.

INISKEA, the name of two fmall ifiinds off the weft
coaft of Ireland, between which there is good anchorage^
They arc about two miles from the peninfula of the Mullet,
in the county of Mayo ; between 54^ 7', and 54° 10' N. lat.
ani 10' W. long.

INISLIRE, an ifland m Newport or Clew bay, county
of Mayo, Ireland, ^^ich gives name to one of the beft fta-
tions for veftels in that extenfivebay. Mackenzie.

INISMURRY, IxisMURUA, ox Imh-mmdhr, an ifland
which lies off the coaft of Sligo, Ireland, about three miles
diftant from the main land. It contains ijo acres, two
wells of excellent water, and fomebogoi remarkably good,
tui-f. The inhabitants are few, and live by fifliing. There
are the remains of fome chapels within a ftone wall ten
feet high, and from five to feven and eight feet thick, with-
out cemeii'. Mr. Archdall fays it isimpoffible to determine
whether it is round or oval ; and that more rude, inelegant
workmanfliip was never feen. There are a few cells under-
ground, which receive their light, forae through a hole atth'e-
top, others through a loop-hole in the fide ; they are dark
and horrible dungeons. Gen. Vallancey infers from part of
thefe ruins, that in Pagan times, the ifland was dedicated to
the worfhip of Boodha, and fays that a monument in this
ifland is an exadl reprefentation of the Mahoody of the Gen-
toos found in the ifland of Elephanta, near Bombay, by
captain Pyke. Many devotees ftill flock to this ifland to do
penance in the cells, and many are brought from great dif-
tances to be buried in the churches. There is a ledge of
rocks running from this ifland, which require the attentiott
of all who enter the bay of Sligo. Vallancey's Profpedus
of a Dictionary ; Carlifle.

INISTIOGE, a fmall poft-town of Ireland, in the
county of Kilkenny, and province of Leinfter. It is fituated
on the river Nore, which is navigable to it, and over which
it ha^ a bridge with ten arches. Iniilioge is one of thofe places
which before the Union fent two members to the houfe of
commons of Ireland. It is 63 miles S.W. from Dublin.

INISTUISKAR, an ifland off the weft coaft of the
county of Kerry, Ireland, about four miles from Caunfza
head, and north of the Blafquets. N. lat. 5-2° 8'. W. long.
10' 25'.

INISTURC, an ifland fituated about feven miles from
the weil coaft of Mayo, Ireland, not far from the Killcries.
N. lat 5'3''42'. W. long. 10''.

INITIALIA, a name anciently given to the myfteries
of Ceres. See Cerealia.

INITIALIS et paufa generaUt, the beginning of a mufi-
cal compofition, and the end. See Tempo, Prol.\tio.s',
and Pau.se.

INITIANS Pinctum. See Punctum.
INITIATE, Tenant by Curtefy, in Lain. See Tesa\t.
INITI.aTED, a term properly ufed in fpeaking of the
religion of the ancient heathens ; where it fignifies being
admitted to the participation of the facred myfteries. •

The word conies from the Latin inhialus, of initiare,
initial-! ; which properly fignifies to begin facrificing, or to
" -:eive or admit a perfon to the beginnmg of the myfteries,
of ceremonies of lefs importance.

^ The

I N J

The ancienrt never difcuvcrcd the deeper myfteries of
4lieir religion, nor even permitted fome of their temples to
Ij? opened to any but thofe who had been initiated. See
Mysteuy.

INJUNCTION, hi I.a-j), a writ generally grounded
upon an interlocutory order or decree out of the court of
chancery or exchequer, fometimes to give pofFeflion to the
plaintiff, for want of the defendant's appearance ; fome-
times to the king's ordinary court, and fometimes to the
•court-chriftian, to ftop proceedings in a caufe, upon fuggef-
tion made, that the rigoiir of the law, if it take place, is
Bgainft equity and conicience in that cafe, that the com-
plainant is not able to make his defence in thefe courts for
want of witnelfes, &c. or that they aft erroneoufly denying
him fome juft advantage. The writ of injnnftion is direfted
•not only to the party himfelf, but to all and fmgular his coiin-
fellors, attornies, and folicitors ; and if any attorney, after
liaving been fcrved with an injunftion, proceeds afterward
contrary to it, the court of chancery will commit the attorney
lo the fleet for contempt. But if an injunftion be granted
by the court of chancery ia a criminal matter, the court of
king's bench may break it, and proteft any that proceed in
contempt of it.

INJURY, Injuria, in a general fenfe, fignifies any thing
contrary to juftice and equity ; that is, any wrong or damage
done to a man's perfon, reputation, or goods.

The word is derived from the Latin prepofition in, which
liere has a negative power ; and jus, lanv, right : injuria,
ti'd/ur omne quod non jure Jit. The ancients made a goddefs
of irjury, and called her Ate. Homer makes her the
daughter of Jupiter, and fays fhe did mifchief to every body,
even to her father ; that fhe was very nimble and tender-
footed, and walked altogether on men's heads without ever
touching the ground.

Civihans define injury a private offence, committed de-
fignedly, and with an evil intention to any man's prejudice,
■with regard to his perfon or his property. All civil in-
juries are of two kinds ; the one without force or violence,
as Cander or breach of contraft ; the other joined with force
and violence, as batteries and faife imprifonment. The
author of the Rhetorics to Herenniiis fays, " Injuria etl qns
aut pulfatione, aut convitio, aut turpitudine, corpus, aures,
aut vitam ahcujus violavit."

By the Roman law, the aftion for an injury was annual :
that is, no reparation could be required after the expiration
of a year. By the law of the twelve tables, where the injury
■was the breaking of a limb, the injured perfon might demand
talionem, that is, that he might break the fame limb of the
criminal.

For the breaking of a bone there were alfo confiderable
pecuniary punifhments affigned : for other injuries only
twenty alfes were decreed, which the poverty of thofe times
thought a fiifficient penalty ; but tha praetors afterwards
finding this too flender a fatisfattion, in lieu thereof, ap-
pointed the injured perfon to fct a rate on the injury, which
thev afterwards increafed or lefTened as they thought good.

Some of our lawj-ers make a dilUnftion between a damage
and an iniurj' ; and indeed there are many afts which may be
done to the prejudice of a third perfon, which may be pro-
perly faid to be dammimfme injuria.

As the abfolute rights of individuals are thofe of perfonal
fccurity, perfonal liberty, and private property, the wrongs
or injuries affecling them muft confequcntly be of a cor-
rcfponding nature. Injuries that affeft the perfonal fe-
curity of individuals are injuries againll their Hves, their
limbs, their bodies, their health, or their reputation. For
•the firfl clafs of injuries, fee Ho.micide, MAK-SLAfCJlTEK,

I N J

and Murder. The two next fpecics of injuries, afTedmg
the limbs or bodies of individuals, may be committed tr
threats, ajfauh, battery, iioitnding, viayhem, which fee refpec-
tively. For the four lafl injuries now enumerated, an iii-
diSment may be brought as well as an adlion ; and frequently
both are accordingly profccuted, the one at the fuit of the
crown for the crinie againft the public ; the other at th.e
fuit of the party injured, to make him a reparation in da-
mages. Injuries affefting a man's health art tiiofe by vvhith
any unwholcfome praflices of another caufe a man to fuftaiii
any apparent danger in liis vigour or conRitulion : as by
felling him bad provifions, as wine (l Roll. Abr. 90.) ; by
the exercife of a noifome trade, which alTects the air iij
the neighbourhood (9 Rep. 52. Hutt. 135.) ; or by the
ncgleft or unilcilful management of his phyfician, furgeon,
or apothecary. (Lord Raym. 214.) For tiitfe injuries,
unaccompanied by force, there is a remedy in damages, by
a fpecial aflion of trefpafs upmi the cafe. Injuries affcfiiiig
a man's reputation, or good name, are, firft, by malicious,
fcandalous, and flanderous words, tending to his damage and
derogation. (See Wouds and Scand.^lum Magnalum ;
and Actios upon the cafe.) A fecond way of affeding a
man's reputation is by printed or written libels, piftures,
figns, and the like ; which fet him in an odious or ridiculous
light, and thereby diminifn his reputation. (2 Shaw. 314.
II Mod. 99.) See Libel. A third way of dellroying
or injuring a man's reputation is by preferring malicious
indiftments or profecutions againft him ; which, under the
raafk of juftice and public fpirit, are fometimes m.ade the
engines of private fpite or enmity. For this, however,
the law has given a very adequate remedy in damages, either
by an aflion of confpiracy (Finch. L. JOj.), which cannot
be brought but againft two at the leail ; or, which is the
more ufual way, by a fpecial aflion on the cafe for a falfe
and malicious prufecution. (F. N. B. 116.) The violation
of the right of perfonal hberty is efPefled by the injury of
falfe imprifonment, for which the law has not only decreed
a punifhment, as a heinous public crime, but has alfo given
a private reparation to tlie party ; as well by rem.oving the
aftual confinement for the prtftnt, as, after it is over, by
fubjefting the wrong doer to a civil aclion, on account if
the damage fuftained by the lofs of time and hberty. (See
I.MpniiONMEKT, and F.\lse Imprifonment.) The injuries
that affefl the rights of perfonal property, affefi it either as
it is in pofTelfion or in aftion. (See Pkoperty ) The former
kind of property is liable to two fpecies of injuries, fi~.
the amotion or deprivation of that poffeflion, and the abufe
or damage of the chattels, while the poffeffion continues in
the legal owner. The deprivation of poffcDion compre-
hends the unjnft and unlawful taking away, and the ui;juft
detention, though the original taking might be lawful.'
The remedy which the law has provided for the wrongful
taking of goods, is the reftitution of them, with damages
for the lof> fuftained by fuch unjull invafion, which is cf-
fefted by aflion of " replevin,'" which fee. Other remedie-
for other unlawful taking of a man's goods confift only
in recovering a fatisfaftion in damages, by an action of Irrj-
pafs vi et annis, or aftion of Iraver and cnnverfion, which
fee refpeftively. For unjyft detention of another's goods,
when the original taking was unlawful, the remedy fgr tlif
recoverv of pofTelfion i« by action of de'.inu.' ; or aftion of
trover, which fee. The remedies given by tlic law to rcdrefs
damages, which the things detained may have fuffered, arc
aftion of trefpafs vi et armis, where the aft i:: in itfelf inj-
mediately injurious to another's property, and accompanied
with fome degree of force ; and fpea'al afli<m on the cafe,
where the aft itfelf is indifferent, and the injury only con fe-
Q 2 . qucntial,

INJURIES.

quential, and therefore arifing without any breach of the peace.
As to injuries that regard things in aalon only, they pertain to
fuch rights as are founded on, and arife from contraAs,
which may be eitlier exprefs or implbd. The former are
dells, coiK'iiants, and promifis ; fee each term: the latter are
fuch as reafon and juftice dictate, and which the law pre-
fumcs that every man has contracted to perform. Tlius
it is that every pcrfon is bound, and hath virtually agreed
to pay fuch particular funis of money as are charged upon
him by the fentence, or atreffed by the interpretation of
the law. A debt is thus contrafted, and the defendant is
bound to pay it. The fame reafoning will apply to all
penal ftatutes, that is, fucli ads of parliament by which a
forfeiture is inflifted for tranfgrefling tlie provifions therein
enadled. The party otfcndiiig mull pay the forfeiture in-
curred to fuch perfons as the law requires. Another clafs
of contrads includes thofe which arife from natural reafon,
or the juft conftruftion of law. (See Assumpsit.) The
laft clafs of contrafts, implied by reafon and conllruftion
of law, arifes upon this fuppofition, that every one who
undertakes any office or employment, trull or duty, contracts
with thofe who employ or truft: him, to perform it with
integrity, diligence, and llvill ; and if for want of thefe
qualities any injury accrues to individuals, they have their
remedy in damages by a fpccial -aftion on the cafe.

Befides the fpccial aftion on tlie cafe, there is alfo a pe-
culiar remedy, entitled an aftion of deceit, (F. N. B. 95.)
to give damages in fome particular cafes of fraud, and
principally where one man does any thing in the name of
another, by which he is deceived or injured.

As to thofe injuries that affeft men with regard to their rela-
tive rights, they may be done to perfons under the four follow-
ing relations: hulhand and wife, parent and child, guardian and
ward, mailer and fervant ; and they comprehend in the re-
lation of a hufband, alduBion, adultery, and beating or other-
wife abufing the wife. In the relation of a parent, the in-
jury is abdu^ion, which is remedied by a writ of ravi/hment,
or aftion of trefpafs vi et armis, dejilio vel^lia, rapto -vel ab-
du£}o. (F. N. B. 90.) See the other terms above fpecified.

Having briefly recited tiie principal injuries that may be
offered to /jr/oW property, with their feveral remedies' by
fuit or aftion, we (hall next direct our attention to thofe in-
juries which affeft that fpecies of property which the laws of
England have denominated real. Re<al injuries, or injuries
affefting real rights, are principally the following fix ; oujler,
trefpafs, mtfance, nvafle, fnbtraaian, and di/lurbanee ; which fee
relpedlively. Blackil. Com. b. iii.

INJURIES of the Head. Some fubjecis, conneaed with
this highly intereiling part o{ forgery, have already been
treated of in the preceding volumes of this Cyclopxdia.
See COiMPRESsiox ; Con'cussion ; and Extkavasation.
Here it is incumbent upon us to confider certain other cafes,
which are the confequence of external violence applied to the
head, as wounds and contufions of the fcalp j inflammation
of the dura mater, and fuppuration under the cranium ;
fraftures of the fl<ull, &c.

Injuries of the Scalp — Injuries done to the fcalp by exter-
nal violence are generally of a more ferious nature than a
fimikr degree of mifchief done to any other part of the
common integuments. Surgical authors have endeavoured
to account for this faft by advernng to the prodigious quan-
tity of nervous iiiaments diilrlbuted to the fcalp, the many
different parts which compjfc it, its llrudlure, conneflions,
ice. We are not, however, to fuppofe every injury of the
external coverings of the head dangerous. A mere cut with
a (harp inftrument ufnally heals as favourably in this fitua-
tion as in any other, and often more fo, perhaps^ in confe-

quence of the great vafculan'ty of the (Icin of the head, md
the very fteady manner in which the edges of the wound ad-
mit of being kept in contaft, fupported as they are upoa
the fixed furface of the cranium. But punftures, lacerated
wounds, and contufions of the fcalp, as every experienced
furgeon well knows, are cafes frequently followed by fuch
fymptoms as may terminate fatally.

We fliall pafs over incifed wounds of the fcalp, fince they
are attended with no peculiarity, and only require the fame
treatment as ordinary cuts upon any part of the furface of
the body.

Lacerated wounds of the fcalp are divided by Mr. Pott
into two kinds ; vi-z. thofe m which the fcalp, though torn,
or unequally divided, ftill keeps its natural fituation, and is
not ftripped nor feparated from the cranium to any confider-
able diftance beyond the breadth of the wound ; and thofe,
in which it is confiderably detached from the parts it ought
to cover.

The firft of thefe, if fimple, and not combined with the
fymptoms, or appearances of any other mifchief, do not re-
quire any particular or different treatment from what the
fame kind of wounds require on all other parts ; but the
latter, or thofe in which the fcalp is feparated and detached
from the parts it ought to cover, are not only, by the dif-
ferent methods in which they may be treated, frequently
capable of being cured with a confiderable deal more or lefs
eale and expedition, but are alfo fometimes a matter of great
confequence to the health and well-being of the patient.

Not many years ago furgeons were accuftomed to treat
this laft fort of cafe in a moll objetlionnble way. Too
•haftily convinced of the impoffibihty of the feparated and
torn pieces of the fcalp ever becoming united again, practi-
tioners ufed, without hefitation, to cut tiiem away, fo as to.
occafion a large fore, requiring a long time to heal, and
leaving confiderable deformity. Far different is the prac-
tice of the moll approved modern furgeons, with whom it is
an invariable maxun, that the prefervation of the fcalp ought
always to be attempted. Tlie reafons for this line of con.
duct are plain and obvious. The detached portions of the
fcalp were formerly cut off, becaufe it was fuppofed that
they were in fuch a Hate as precluded all chance of their
union. But the fa£t is, it can never be forefeen with cer-
tainty whether the detached torn edges of a lacerated wound
will (lough or not. Now, as no harm can arife from trying
wliether they will live and unite ; as confiderable benefit will
rcfult from the fuccefs of fuch an attempt ; and, as the ex-
cifion of the part is painful, and productive of no folid ad-
vantage, even when floughing is unavoidable, the method is
fupported neither by reafon nor experience. Whatever may-
be the courfe of the cafe, the proceeding is only calculated
to caufe unneceffary pain, lengthen the time required for
the cure, and render deformity, which is uncertain, quite-
inevitable. The head having been fliaven round the wound],
the torn piece of the fcalp is to be firft freed from all dirt
and extraneous fubilances, and then rellored as quickly and
as perfeaiy as p.-ffible to its natural fituation. Strips of ad-
helive plaller fully fuflice for bringing the parts together
without the afiillance of futures, which, unlefs abfolutely
neceffary, ought never to be ufed. It has always appeared
to us a very beneficial plan to maintain the pieces of the
fcalp clofely applieJ to the cranium by means of fmall Hnt-
comprelfes, bound on vwlh adht live plaller. Thus, no cavity
will be left for the lodgment of matter, and the parts will
have tiie fairell opportunity of uniting. Sometimes the
loofencd fcalp wi 1 unite v\ith the parts from wliich it was.
torn and feparated, and there will be m other fore than

what

■INJURIES.

■ Viliat arifes from the impoflibility of brin;;ing tlie lips of the
wound into finooth and immediate contact, the fear of wliich
fore mull be fmall in proportion. Sometimes fuch perfeft
re-union is not to be obtained ; in which cafe matter will be
formed and colled^ed in thofe places where the parts do not
coalefce ; but this will not hinder the prefervation of the
coverines of the head, the cure being only a little retarded
by a few fmall abfccfles, and the matter admitting of being
■let out by one or two fmall openings.

Occafionally, the whole fepar.ited piece will unite per-
feftly, efpeciaily in young and heahhy perlons. In certain
inttances the union will take place in fonie parts, and not in
others ; and, confequently, matter will be formed, and re-
quure to be difcharged, perhaps, at feveral different points.
In other particular cafes, circumlb.nces, and habits, there
will be no union at all, the torn cellular membrane, or the
flaked aponeurofis will inflame and become doughy, a con-
Cderable quantity of matter will be collected, and, perhaps,
.the cranium will be denuded. But even in this cafe, if the
furgeon takes proper meai'ures, and refrains from being too
much in a hurry to cut, things will be more profperous than
inay_ be expected. Let him take care to keep the inflam-
mation I'.uder by proper means ; let him have patie'.ice till
the maUer is fairly and fully formed, and the Houghs per-
feftly feparated ; and when this is accompliflied, "let him
make a proper number of dependent openings ; and let him,
by bandage and other proper management, keep the parts
in conilant contadt with each other, and he will often iind,
that, although he was foiled in his firil intention of pro-
curing immediate union, yet he will frequently fucceed in
this his fecond ; he will ftill fave the fcalp, fliorten the cure,
and prevent the great deformity ariling, particularly to wo-
men, not only from the fear, but from the total lofs of
hair.

Many perfons have erroneoudy thought, that, when the
pericranium is flripped off the cranium by external violence,
or is afterwards call off, the fcalp cannot unite to the de-
nuded cranium, which mull of neccfllty exfoliate. However,
thefe notions are now well known to be unfounded. The
expofed part of the (kuU, uniefs much injured by contufion,
or improperly irritated by llimulating applications, will ge-
nerally live, throw out granulations, and become united to
the feparated fcalp, without any exfoliation

Pun^ured •wounds of the fcalp are more apt than cuts to in-
flame and give trouble, and are indeed frequently the caufe
of fevere and alarming fymptoms.

According to Mr. Pott, if the wound affects the cellular
membrane only, and has not reached the aponeurofis, or pe-
ricranium, the inflammation and tumour affeCl the whole
head and face, the (kin of which wears a yellowifli call, and
is fometimes thick fct with fmall bhfters, containing the fame
coloured ferum ; it receives the impreffion of the lingers,
and becomes pale for a moment, but returns immediately to
its inflamed colour ; it is not very painful to the touch, and
the eye-lids and ears are always comprehended in the tume-
faftion, the former of which are fometimes fo dillended as
to be clofed ; a feverifli heat and thirlt generally accompany
it ; the patient is relllefs, has a quick pulfe, and moil com-
monly a nnufca and inclination to vomit.

Cafes are moll difpofed to affume this form in perfons of
bilious habit, the inflammation being in fadl erylipelatous.
The diforder is fomewhat alarming to look at, but it is not
ofcen attended with dantjer. Mr. Pott remarks, that the

fuffer the IcnCve pain, and fatiguing reftleffncfs, which gp-
nerally attend mifchief underneath the flcull.

Such eryfipelatous inflammation commonly foon yields to
phlebotomy, lenient purges, and febrifuge medicines, parti-
cularly thofe of the neutral kind. When the inflammation
is gone off, it leaves on the fl<in a yellowifli tint, and a dry
fcurf, which alio, in time, difappear. Immediately the dif-
order fubfides, the wound puts on a healthy ai'pedt, and heals
without trouble.

Surgeons muft carefully diftinguifh from the foregoing
cafe another kind of erylipelatous fwtlling and inflammation
to wliich the fcalp is liable, as one of the effedts of inflam-
mation and fuppuration of the dura mater. In this laft im-
portant diforder the febrile fymptoms are much higher, the
pulfe harder and more frequent, the anxiety and reftleffnefs
extremely fatiguing, the pain in the Iiead intenfe ; and as, in
thefe circumllances, the fwelhng of the fcalp is moll fre-
quently the immediate precurfor of matter forming between
the Ikull and dura mater, it is generally attended with irre-
gular fliiverings, which are not followed by a critical fweat,
nor aftord any relief to the patient. When the inflammation
is confined to the parts on the outlide of the fltuU, the e-r^-fi-
pelas generally appears within the liril three or four days :■-
but when the dura mater is affeded, it feldom comes on till
feveral days after the accident, when the fymptomatic fever
is got to fome height. In the finiple eryllpelas, although
the wound be crude and uudigelled, yet it has no other
mark of mifchief; the pericranium adheres hrmiy to the
fliuU, and, upon the cefiation of the fever, all appearance*
become immediately favourable. In that which accompanies
injury done to the parts underneath, the wound not orly has
a Ipongy, glaffy, unhealthy afpeft, but the pericranium in its
neighbourhood feparates fpontaneoufly from tlie bone, and
quits all cohelion with it. In fliort, fays iVlr. Pott, one is
an accident proceeding from a bilious habit, and not indi-
eating any mifchief beyond itfelf; the other is a fymptom,
or a part of a difeafe, which is occafioned by injury done to
the membranes of the brain ; one portends little or no ill to
the patient, and almofl always ends well ; the other implies
great hazard, and mod commonly ends fatally.

When the wound is fmall, and reaches to the aponeurofis
and pericranium, dilagreeable, and even alarming lymptoms
fometimes arife. In the cafe alluded to, the inflamed fcalp
does not rife into that degree of tumefaction as in the ery-
fipelas ; neither does it pit, or retain the impreffion of tiie
fiii'^ers of an examiner. It is of a deep red colour, unmixed
with the yellow tint of the erylipelas ; it appears tenfe, and
is extremely painful to the touch. The ears and eye-hds are
feldom comprehended in the tumour, though they may par-
take of the general inflamm.ation of the Ikin. It is gene-
rally attended with acute pain in the head, and fuch a degree
of fever as prevents fleep, and fometimes brings on dehrium.
A patient, thus affected, may be more freely bled than one
labouring under an erylipelas. Wami fomentations are pro-
per in both cafes; but emollient poultices, which are for-
bidden in eryfipelatous difeafes, may be employed in the
prcfent inrtance with much advantage.

In exceedingly urgent cafes, Pott recommends making a
divifion of the wounded part down to the bone, to the extent
of half an inch, or an inch, as the bell means of Hopping the
fever, and preventing the aponeurofis and pericranium from
becoming floughy.

Mere contufions of the fcalp, unattended by fra£lure, or in-

wound does, indeed, neither look well, nor yield a kindly jury of the parts within the cranium, are not of ferio-.is im-
portance, confidered abftractedly. It frequently happens,
that when a fevere bruife has been inflicted on the fcalp, a
large tumour, containing estravaiated blood, quicklj ril'eg

upon

difcharge, while the fever continues ; but ftill it has none ot
that look which befpeaks internal mifchief; the fcalp con-
tinues to adhere firmly to the IkuU ; nor does the patient
6

INJURIES.

^ipon tbe head, or blows on this part with ftones, flicks, &c.
Bat, notwithltanding the immenfe disfigurement aUonding
this fort of accident, if the Ilcull and its contents be free
'from injury, the cafe is no: of a dangerous nature. The
efTufcd blood generally admits of being removed by abforp-
■tion, provided the furgeon is careful to keep the patient's
bowels wi-11 open with faline purges, and apply to the tu-
mour itfelf linen wet with the fatuniine lotion, or with a
lotion compofed of fpirit of u-iiic, vinegar, and the muriate
■ot ammonia. Many furgical authurs countenance the plan
of difcharging the coUedion of blood by a fmall punfture.
As far as our obfervations extend, thio praftice fliould be
avoided in the generality of inllances. When an opening
is made, fui)puration within the fwclling becomes inevitable.
On the contrary, abfcefl'es may frequently be prevented
altogether, by allowing the abforbents to do the office of
.taking away the efFufed blood, aiTilled by the means already
recommendejd. It is not to be denied, howevei-, that matter
will fometimes form, and then tiie method of making an
opening for the difcliarge of the contents of the fvvelling is
undoubtedly proper.

With regard to thofe tumours of the fcalp, which are the
■confequence of blows, falls, &c. and which arc filled with
effufed blood, J. L. Petit made a remark, which has been
repeated by all fubfequent writers, namely, the facility with
which the centre of the fvvelhng may be deprefl'ed, while the
circumference fcems hard and prominent, circumflances which
may eafily impofe upon the inexperienced furgeon, and lead
■him to miftake the cafe for a frafture of the cranium with de-
prefTion of the bone. If, upon fuch a fuppofition, lie imme-
diately makes an incifion into the tumid fcalp, he may give
the patient a great deal of unnecefTary pain, and endanger
his own reputation.

It is obferved by Mr. Pott, that in this cafe the touch is
fo liable to deception, that recourfe fhould always be had to
other circumflances and fymptoms, before an opinion is
.given. If a perfon, with fuch tumour occafioned. by a
"blow, and attended with fuch appearances and fcel, feems to
"labour under dangerous prelTure upon the brain, a divifion
of the fcalp, in order to enquire into the ilate of the (Icull,
is right and nfceffary ; but if the patient is well, or not
■ferioutly affefted with any fymptoms of compreflion, the
mere feel of fome thing like a frafture, nay, we may add,
.even the acluaSexiftence of a frafture itfelf, will not autho-
rife or vindicate cutting the fcalp.

For an account of the fymptoms of prelFure on the brain,
fee CoMPiUissioN and Extravasation.

InflantKuition of the Dura Mater, and Suppuration under the
Skull. — The fymptoms attending an inflamed or doughy ilate
of the membranes of the brain, in confequence of external vio-
lence, are all of the febrile kind, and never at firil imply any un-
natural prefl'ure upon the brain. When, in thefe cafes, the
fymptoms of prefTure come on, it is not until the latter esd
of the difcafe, that is, until a con fiderable -quantity of matter
is formed, which matter raufl prefs like any other fluid.

The late eminent Mr. Pott has written a mofl aMe de-
fcription of the inflammation and fuppuration of the dura
mater from external violence. The following obfervations
are chiefly from his jien.

When there is neither fiflure nor frafture of the flcuU, nor
oxtravalation, nor commotion underneatli it, and the fcalp is
neither confiderably bruifed nor wounded, the mil'chief is
feldom difcovered or attended to for fome few days. The
firfl attack is generally by pain in tlie part which received
the blow. This pain is foon extended all over the head, and
is attended with a languor or dejeftion of flrength and
^irits, which are foon followed hy a naufea and inclination

to vomit, a vertigo or giddinefs, a quick and hard puMe, and
an incapacity of fleeping. A day or two after this attack,
if no means preventive of inflanmiation are ufed, the part
ftricken generally fwells, and bet;omes puft'y and tender, but
not painful. Neither does the tumour rife to any confiderable
height, nor fpread to any great extent. If this tumid part
of the fcalp be now divided, the pericranium will be found
of a darkifii hue, and either quite detached, or very eafily
feparable from the fl<ull, between which and it will be found
a imall quantity of a dark-coloured ichor. If the diforder
is fo advanced, that the pericranium is quite feparated from
the fliuU, the latter will be found fomewhat altered in colour
from a healthy bone.

From this tune the fv-mptoms generelly advance more
haflily and more apparently; the fever increafes, the flcin
becomes hotter, the pulfe quicker and harder, the fleep more
difturbed, the anxiety and reflleffnefs more fatiguing ; and
to thefe, fays Mr. Pott, are generally added irregular rigours,
which are not followed by any critiual fweat, and which,
inflead of relieving the patient, add confiderably to his fuf-
ferings. If the fcalp has not been divided, until the fymp-
toms are thus far advanced, the altwation of the colour oF
tlie bone will be found to be more remarkable ; it will be
found to be whiter and more dry than a healthy one ; or,
as Fallopius has obferved, it will appear rather like dead
bone.

There will be more fanies or fluid under the pericranium,
and this membrane will have a more livid afpefl.

In this ftate of matters, if the dura mater be denuded, it
will be found to be detached from the infide of the cranium,
to have loll its bright filver hue, and to be fmeared over
with a kind of mucus or pus. Every hour after this period
Jill the fymptoms are exafperated ; the he;id-ache and thirll
become more intenfe, the flrength decrcales, the rigours are
more frequent, and, at laft, convulfive motions, attended in
fome with delirium, in others with paralyfis, or comatofe
ftupidity, finifli the tragedy.

If the fcalp is now divided, a very offenfive difcoloured
fluid will be found lying on the bare and altered cranium.
If, at this period, a perforation is made in the bone, matter
will be found between it and the dura mater, generally in
<;onfiderable quantity, but different in diflerent cafes and
circumflances. Sometimes it will be in great abundance,
and diffufed over a very large part of the membrane ; and
fometimes the quantity will be lefs, and confequently the
fpace which it occupies fraaller. Sometimes it hes only on
the exterior furface of the dura mater ; and fometimes it is
between it and the pia mater, or alio on the furface, or in
the fubrtance of the brain

Tlie foregoing mifchief is entirely the confequence of the
contufion which the head has fuff.-red. But it defervei
attention, fhat as the inflammation and feparation of the
dura mater are not immediate confequences of the violence,
fo neither are the fymptoms immediate, feldom coming oa
until fome days have pafled.

We have next to conlider the cafe where the fcalp has
been wounded, either by the accidental violence, or by
the furgeon making an inciiion immediately afterwards
for the examination of the bone. Here the wound will,
for fome little time, have nothing particular about it ;
but after a few days, any favourable appearances which
it may have put on will vanifli ; the fore will loi'e its florid
complexiim and granulated furface ; will become pale,
glaliy, and flabby; inflead of good matter, it will dif-
charge only a thin difcoloured fanies ; the hnt with which
it is drelfed, inflead of coming off eafily, as in a kindly
fuppurating fore, will Hick to all parts of it ; and the pen-

cranittjn

INJURIES.

crmuiTn, in.lencTofHdliering firmly to tJie bone, will fepa-
rr.re from it all round to fome diftance from tlie cdfjes.

This alteration in the face and circumftances of the fore is

'.'iced merely by the difeafed itate of tlic parts nndemcath

icull, as is demonftrably proved, by obferving that the

.fpeft of the woand, and the fpontanijous feparati«n of

- ricranium, are always confined to that part which covers

I'-'ercd oi-injiired portion of the di;ra mater, and do not at

; .'^L-(\. the refl of tiie fcalp ; nay, obferves Mr. Pott, if it

' y accident been wounded in any otiier part, or a por-

has been removed from any part where no injury has

: Jone to the dura mater, no fuch feparalioir will happen.

• detachment above wi lalvvayscorrefpond to that below,

10 found no where elfe.

. ■. firll the expofed part of the (kull appears whiter and'

dry than natural, and in proportion as the dura mater

irates or beco.-n;3 floiigliy, the bone inclines more and

. \; to a kind of purulent hue, or whitifh yellow. It

u.-LL-rves notice, like.vife, th;it if tiie blow has occurred near

a future, and thj fubjeft is younj, fuch future often fepa-

rates fo as to let through it a loofe painful fungus. At

this period iilTo the head and face are freq^uently Attacked

with eryfipelas.

The above defcribed effefts of certain contufions of the
kead are frequently found to accompany filTures and unde-
preiTed fraftures of the cranium, as well as extravafations of
ihiid, where the bone is entire ; and on the other hand, fays
Mr. Pott, all thefe do often happen without the concurrence^
of this individual mifchief. Al!' this is matter of accider/t ;
but let the other circum'lar.ces be what they may, thefpon-
raneous ieparation of the altered pericranium., in eonS-quence
of a fevere blow, is almollr always followed by a fuppuration
between the cranium and du'-?. mater ; a circumilance, which'
Mr. Pott points out as highly worthy af attention in fi/Tures
and undeprefifed fractures of the llvull, becaufo it is from this
eaufe principally that the bad fymptoms, and the liazard'in
fuch cafes, arife.

The fituation of e>:travafated blood within the cranium is-
eften uncertain ; but that of inflammation and fuppuration
of the dura mater, in confequence of external violence, is
almoft furely indicated, even whea the (\dn is quite free from
■wound, or other mark of injury, by a puffy, circnmfcribed;
indolent tumour of the fcalp, and a fpontaneous feparation
of the pericranium from the iltuU under the fwelling. ■

It fhould be underitaod that none of the bad fynvptoms
are owing to tlie feceiTion of the perrci-anium, but to the
inflamiTiation of the dura mater. Hence, though the fcalp
may be fo wounded or torn by airy accident, as to leave a
part of the Ikull quite bare, the pericranium being feparated
by the violence, yet if the force has not been fuch as to
affeft the dura mater, the alarming train of evils above ex-
-plained do not follow. Here the bell praftice is to lay
down the fcalp in its natural fituation again, and give it the
opportunity of uniting.

It remains for us to confider the treatment of the refpcC'
tive cafes, where there is either danger of an inflammation of
tJie dura mater coming on, or where the affeftion atlually
prevails, attended with the formidable fymptoms already de-
tailed.

Every man of experience will coincide with Mr. Pott, that
of all the remedies in the power of art, for Inflammations of
membranous parts, there is none equal to p'llebotomy, and
thit if any thing can particularly contribute to the preven-
tion of the ills likely to follow fevere contufions of the head,
it is tiiis kind of evacuation ; but then it mail be made ufe
of in fuch a manner as to become tr'aly a preventive ; that
is, it muil be made ul'e o£.i:aui2diatcly and freely.

There will often be feme difficulty iti perfuading a pcrfon,
who has had what may be called only a knock on tlie par-r,
to fubmit to fuch difcipline, tfpecialiy if he finds himfe
tolerably well : yet, in many inllanccs, the timely ufe.. or the
neglect of this fingle remedy, makes all the dificrcFce be-
tween fafety and fatality. It is true, thafby this n^ethoj
patients mull fometimes be b'ed, who would efcape inflam-
mation of tlie dura mater without fuch evacuation ; yet, let
it be remembered, that the lofs- of blood, howevtr '.nne--
celTary in theie cafes, never endangers life, while it is fre-
quently the means of prefcrving it. In fliort, we muft agree
with Mr. Pott, tliat if every perfon who meets with a fe-
vere blow on the head were to be bled, as he undoubtedly '
ougiit to be, many a very valuable life would be prcfcrvcd,
which, for want of thi-i kind of alTiflance, is loll. Acce-
leration, or hardnefs of pulfe, refileiiiitfs, anxiety, and any
degree of fever, after a fiiiart blow on the head, are always'
to be fufpecled and attended to. Immediate, plentiful, and
repeated evacuations have, in many iuttances, removed thefe -
complaints in perfons, to whom, Mr. Pott bclie\''es, very
terrible niilchief would have happened, had not fuch precau-
tion been ufcd. From thefe obfervations, however, let it not
be concluded, that early bleeding will always prove a certain '
prefervative ; like all other human means it is fallible ; but,
if it fometimes fails, it alfo fucceeds to a greater extent than •
atiy other known plan.

When the inflammation; of the dura mater has produced'
matter under the ci"aniura, the fluid ougjit to be difcharged
through a perforation of the bone. This operation ought'
always to be done immediately when the above defcribed-
lymp.toms ir.aaifetl the nature of the cafe. The fpontaneous"
Ieparation of the dura mater, if attended' with general
diforder oFthe patient, with chiliinefs, borfipilatro, lang^i'.or,'
and fever, was invariably conlldered by Mr. Pott a fure in-.,
dication of mifchief underneath, and an urgent reafon for'
perforating the bone without delay. In fonie cafes one per-
ibration will fuffice ; in others, more openings mu!): be made.
This variation will depend upon the fpace of' detached
dura mater, and the quantity of matter collected.

The repetition of blood-letting, of cooLng laxative me-
dicines, the ufe of antiphlogillic remedies, and a moil drift
oblervance of a low diet and regimen, are as indifpenlably.
requifite after trephining as before. The perforation obvi-'
ates the dangerous effefts of the confinement of matter;-
but it does nothing more : and the inflamed ftate of the'
parts under the ilcuUftill' calls for our moft earikft attention.
See Pott on Injuries of the Head.

Fr,%ilures of the Shull. — 'Whenever the head is ilricken with-
a certain degree of viofonee, tlie eS'eft is not limited to a
vehement concuflion of this part of the body, or to the
bruifing and wounding of the fcalp ; the bont s forniiog the*
cranium are alfo liable to be broken. When the weapon,
or thing with which the blow is given, prefents an angular
or a projefting furface,- the frafture generally happens where
the violence is immediately applied ; but it may occur at a
different part of the head, when produced by a body of a
certain widtii. The poflibillty of fi-achires happening in a
fituation more or lefs diftant from tUat which received i.'.e
blow, is explicable on the principle of the unequal re-
fi.laiice oQered by the pai'ietes of the cranium at different
points of their extent. It is to fuch cafes that the name of
cour,:er-_fJfures is given.

In order to explain the manner in which counter-fiflures
are produced, let us fuppofe a blow to fall upon the os '
frontis, with a force equivalent to twenty, which bone,
being in the fituation of the forehead fomewliat thick, makes
a reuitar.cc equal to twenty-five. The falution of coDtinu-

INJURIES.

jty, therefore, cannot happen direftly in the place ftricken ;
the force is tranfmitted to the orbitar procefs, a part which is
thin, eafily broken, and only capable of making a refiftance
exprefled by twelve ; confeqiiently the violence, ttiough
weakened in its tranfmilTion, is ftill fufHcient to fradure this
laft procefs. The foregoing reafoning coincides with expe-
rience. Many fraftures of the orbitar procefFes of the os
frontis are met with in practice, while that part of the
bone, which forms the forehead, remains free from in-
jury. This firft fpecies cf counter-fiffiire, though not
exaftly in the fituation where the external violence was
applied, happens on a part of the fame bone which received
the blow. There are other cafes, where counter-fifTures oc-
cur on fome bone adjoining that which was rtrickcn, not-
withllanding the check which the impulfe muft experience
in croiTing the futures. Thus, blows on the parietal bone
frequently break the fquamous portion of the os tem-
poris.

Such counter-iiffiires as happen to a part of the flvull,
diametrically oppofite the point which received the blow,
notvi'ithftandlng the equal thicknefs of the bones in both
places, admit of explanaiion by the imperfetl fpherical
form of the cranium. Richerand, Nofog. Chir.. tom. 2.

Fraftures of the inner table of the fl<ull, while the exter-
nal is fimply contufed, are explicable by its great fragility^
whence it has alio been named by feveral authors vitreous.

Diredl fraftures, as well as counter-fifTures, differ in point
of fituation, the extent of the folution of continuity, their
particular fliape, and the fymptoms with which they are fol-
lowed. Sometimes the crack is exceedingly fine and minute,
which cafe is often called a capillary Jifure. Sometimes the
edges of the breach are attended with a feparation, more or
lefs confidcrable. In fome cafes, the frafture runs in a
■flraight line ; in others it is ftellated. In certain examples, the
fplinters of bone are beaten inwards, and comprefs the brain :
thefe inftances are ufually named fradures ivilh dcprejjion.
On other occafions, the broken pieces keep their proper
level. But even in the latter fort of cafe, the brain may fuf-
fer a dangerous degree of prcifure from an cxtravafation of
blood under the bone, fuch preffure, indeed, as may urgently
require the application of the trephine. Yet, it ought to
be well underfiood, that this operation is not performed
fcecaufe the Ikull is broken, but becaufe the brain is dangcr-
oufly comprcfTed by a quantity of extravafated blood, that
lies confined under the bone, and was poured out of vefTels,
which were ruptured by the fame violence as broke the
bone itfelf.

Not only may fraftures of the fl^ull be complicated with
cxtravafation, they may be conjoined with the efFefts of con-
cuflion. Depreffed fradlurcs are frequently accompanied
with an adlual laceration of the membranes and fubftance of
the brain. The recoveries wliich have been known to fol-
low the moft terrible wounds of this orcn, as detailed in
the Memoirs of the French Academy of Surgery, are bolh
curious and fiirprifing. But, generally fpeaking, the danger
of all injuries of the head is in proportion to the mifcliief
aivi violence done to the brain. A frafture of the flcull, could
it be occafioned, and exill without the leaft irritation and dif-
turbance of the brain and membranes thereof, would
be attended witli no ferious fymptoms, and; of courfc,
would require only Ample treatment. In fliort, the breath
of continuity would be repaired with callus, juft like a
fimihr injury in any other bone. It is tlie nearnefs of the
brain, and the manner in which it is afTeiftcd, either by the
dcpreiTion or inequality of the bone, o;- by the blow itfelf,
wliich con fvitute at once the importance and danger of all
fractures of the cranium. The ignorant and injudicious are

apt to think, that becaufe the flcull is broken, the trepart
mull be employed, as a matter of courfe. Perhaps the
doftrines of jNI. Quefnay, Pott, &c. might fanclion the
invariable ufe of the trephine ; for, if the argument be al-
lowed, that this operation is proper as a preventi-ve of tlie
bad fymptoms to be apprehended in cafes of fradlured
lliulls, there cannot very well be any cafes where the praAice
would not be juftifiable. Let not an opinion of fuch con-
fequence, however, be taken up too hallily, and we fliall
prefently adduce convincing reafons againft its validity.

We muft firit confider what are tlie fymptoms by wliich
the exiftence of a frafture of the licull may be known I
It mull be acknowledged, confidcrable obicurity prevails in
the diagnofis of fuch accident, unlefs it fo happen, that the
nature of the cafe admits of being afcertained by the eye,
or the touch. What are termed the rational fymptoms are
exceedingly fallacious. When a frafture of the fliull oc-
curs, attended with a wound of the fcalp, and a denudation
of the broken part of the bone, the fuigeon may both fee
withliis eyes, and feel with his fingers, what has happened.
The exiilence of a fracture may hkewife be afcertained by
the touch, even when the foft parts are entire, if the folu-
tion of continuity in the bone is fplintered, or accom-
panied with a confidcrable deprefilon. When feveral of
the fragments are entirely detached, a palpable crepitus
will often render the nature of the accident ftill more
clear.

Setting out of confideration fuch fymptoms, there are
none which can be regarded as charafteriftic of a frafture
of the Ikull. Some writers direft us to enquire whether
the patient was fenfible, at the time of receiving the injury,
of any noife, hke that of a pot breaking. But how are we
to gain information on this point from patients who are
always ftunned at firft, and often remain fenfelefs and fpeech-
lefs a long while afterwards ? Other authors lay flrefs on the
bleeding from the nofe and ears, a circumftance entirely
incidental, or, at moft, indicative of nothing elfe, than that
the head has fuftained fome kind of blow, or concuflion,
without at all informing us of the degree of violence that
has been applied. Belides, every one" knows what flight
fhocks will caufe this kind of bleeding in particular perfons,
fo that it cannot be received as a proof that the blow has
been very powerful. Even did it prove that the blow has
been violent, it would not juflify the inference, that the
Ikull is certainly broken. In fiiort, we may aiTert, that a
frafture of the cranium, without depreflion,' without cxtra-
vafation, and without concuflion, is generally not only not
produftive itfelf of any alarming efFefts, but is alfo unmarked
by any particular fymptoms. Its exiftence can only be
afcertained by the eye or the touch ; and therefore its diag,
nofis is only eafy, when the injury is expofed in confequence
of a wound. However, a furgcon need nut be I'olicitous to
find out an undeprefTed frafture ; for if fymptoms demand
the apphcation of the trephine, he is to apply it to the
bone, whether it is fraftured or not ; and if tliefe fvmptoms
are abfent, the frafture itielf cannot be a juft reafon for the
operation.

We muft not take our leave of the diagnofis of thefe
cafes, without cautioning fui-geons nst to he too hafty in
pronouncing the fkuU to be fraftured. Bloody tumours
of the fcalp often feel fo much like fraftures of the era-
nium with dcprcffion, as to make the moft experienced men
incapable of a pofitive decifion. Thefe cafes have already
been noticed in the prefent article. When the bone is bare,
it i' poflible to miftake a future, or the furrow of ablood-
vefTe!, for a frafture, and Hippocrates has gained confideraKltf

honour

INJURIES.

honour by the candour with which he acknewlcJgcJ his
having fallen into an error of this kind.

We (hall conclude this fubjcil with a few obfervations on
the treatment of fractures of the ilciill. For the rehef of
thefe cafes, there cannot be a doubt that the ufefalnefs of
trepanning has been nioft unreafonably magnified. Tiie
necefiity of only pradlifing this operation wlien it is abfo-
liitely requifue, mull be manifcll to every one, who reflects,
tliat cutting auay a portion of the (kull is a proceeding by
no means free from the hazard of very dangerous confc-
quenccs. We have alfo the tclliniony of fcvL-ral eminent
furgic;J writers, tliat it is an operation, generally fpeaking,
attended with remarkable ill fuccefs. It is not our inten-
tion, however, to endeavour to inllnuate, that the fatal
terminations are not chiefly afcribable to the ferious mifchief
which commonly exifts when tlie operation is performed.
Be this as it may, we cannot help looking upon trepanning
ts a thing, to which reconrfe (hould never be had without
flrong and urgent reafon. Default, the moll eminent of the
modern French furgeons, entirely abandoned tlie operation
in the latter years of his praftice, as he found conliderable
fuccefs arife from the emplnyment of evacuations. " Cell
une obfervation fort ancienne, que le pen de fucces de I'opc-
ration du trepan pratiquee a I'llotel-Dieu de Paris ; foit,
que I'air des falles, vicie pir le grand nombre d'individus,
qui s'y trouvent raflembles, ou par I'humiditc dont le voi-
fmaore de la riviere le charge conftamment, exerce fur la
place, que fucccde I'oplration, ou far les membranes du
cerveau mifes a nu, une influence dclctere, foit que ce fait
conilaiiT depende d'une autre caule ignoree. Pope-ration du
trepan eft prefque toujours fuivie de la niort des indivi-
dus." Richerand, Nofographie Chirurgicale, torn. ii. p. 266.
Edit. 2.

That the operation of trepanning is itfelf not exempt
from ferious danger we moil firmly believe. Wc have fcen
it prove fatal, when performed with a view of relieving a
Tiolent inveterate head-ache. Yet we cannot bring our mmd
to beheve, that Default was right in rejecting the operation
altogether. There certainly are ca'es in whicli it may be
the means of prefer\'atinn as well as others, in vvliich it may
exafperate circumftances and render them fatal.

We have noticed that, in fraclures of the Ikull, the ope-
ration of trepanning was advifed by Pott, as a preventive
of ill confequences. It gives us pleafure to llate, that tiiis
practice is now never adopted by the moft eminent furgeons
in this country-, great as tlicir veneration is for fo diltin-
guiflied. an authority. Many modern writers of the highcll
reputation have forcibly remonllrated againll the method,
as M. Default, of Paris '; Mr. Deafe, of Dublin ; Mr. John
Bell, of Edinburgh ; and Mr. Abernethy, of London.

The reader cannot be furprifed, that fractures without
depreffion are not, abllraCtedly confidered, a jull caule for
trepanning, when he is informed, that the ikull is often
broken and deprelTed, and yet the fymptoms may not be
fuch as to demand the operation, and the patient has the
bed chance of recovery when it is not performed. The
more the prefent fubjeit is lludied, the greater will be the
conviction, that there is only one genuine reafon for tre-
panning, and that is, when fymptoms of a dangercnis
degree of preffure on the brain exilt, v.-hich fymptoms are
enumerated under the head of ExTii-\v.v.s.\Tio>i. When
they prevail, the operation is to be done, whether the (liull
is broken or not ; whether it be depreded or retain its pro-
per level.

Mr. Abernethy has related feveral cafes of fradture of
the cranium with deprcflion, which terminated favourably,
although no operation was performed. This judicious fur-

VoL. XIX.

geon thinks, that thefe cafes, as well as a grcidt many others'
on record, prove, that a flight degree of prelfure docs not
derange the funftions of the brain for a limited time after
its application ; and all thofe patients whom he had an op-
portunity of knowing for any length of time after the acci-
dent, continued as well as if nothing of the kind had hap-
pened to them. In Mr. Hill's Cafes in Surgery, two
inilances of this fort are related, and Mr. Hill knew both
tlie patients for many years afterwards ; yet no inconveni-
ence arofe. Indeed, it is not eafy to conceive that the prel-
fure which caukil no ill effvfts at a time when the contents
of the cranium filled its cavity entirely, (hould afterwards
prove injurious when they have adapted themfelves to its
altered lize and (hape. Severe illuefs, it nuill be confelfed,
does often intervene between the receipt of the injury and
the time of recovery ; and many furgeons might be in-
clined to attribute this to the preifure on the brain ; but it
occurs quite as fbrmidably when the depreffed portion is
elevated. If a furgeon, prcpoffefled with the opinion, tliat
elevation of the bone is neceffary iu every inllance of frac-
ture of the fliuU witii depreffion, Ihould have adlcd upon
this opinion in feveral of the cafes which Mr. Abernethy
has related, and afterwards have employed proper evacua-
tions, the patients would probably liave Had no fatal fymp-
toms, and the recoveries would naturally have been imputed
to the particular mode of treatment ; yet thefe cafes ended
well without any operation.

It cannot be too often repeated, that the neeeffity of
trepanning depends entirely on the urgency of the fymp-
toms, which are known to proceed from the exiilence of
preffure on the brain. (See Extravasatio.v.) To tre-
pan the flvull merely becaufe it is broken, is as abfurd as ta
cut the arm becaufe it is fraftured : it is only adding one
fpecies of violence to another. Wc have feen that, even
when the fraCture is depreifed, it does not neceflarily follow
that the operation is proper : in fact, it is always improper,
unlefs there are evident figns that the degree of preffure,
thus produced, is the caufe of exiiling dangerous fymp-
toms.

If, then, fraftures of the cranium with deprcflTion do not
invariably require trepanning, it may readily be conceived,
that the operation mull be ftill lei's frequently neceflary
when the fradture is undcprcfled. In fuch cafe, indeed,
the fradture itfelf can never demand this proceedmg. But,
neverthelefs, it may be right and indifpenfable on other ac-
counts, fince the brain may at the fame time be dangeroully
compreffed by an extravafation of blood, or, in the conrfc
of the diforder, by matter formed under the Ikull in con-
fequenee of inflammation. However, it fliould be wcU
underltood, that the uiflammation and fuppuration of the
parts beneath the Ikull, which Mr. Pott was fo anxious to
prevent by trepanning early, do not arife from the occurrence
of a breach in the cranium, but are chiefly, if not altogether,
the confequences of the fame violence, which was the occa-
fion of the fraCture. Hence, it is obvious, that removing
a portion of the bone cannot have the leait tendency to pre-
vent the inflammation and fuppuration, wliicli mult ine\ita-
bly refult from the external violence that was firit applied
to tlie head ; but, on the contrary, fuch a removal being «n
additional violence, mull rather have the efl'ect of increafmg
the unavoidable inflammatory mifchief.

A fracture of the ftuU, unattended with urgent fymii-
toms, and noi brought into the furgcon's view by any acci-
dental wound of the integuments, often remains for ever
undifcovered and unknown ; and as no benefit could arile
from laying it hare by an ineifion, fncli practice Ihould never
be adopted. The practitioner ought only to i*inkc hVinfelf

I N K

«fSciou3 in this way, when he can accomplifh hy it fomc
better objeft than the merely fatisfyinjr his own curiotity.
Now, fince the removal of prcfPure oii" the furface of the
brain is tlie only admifllble reafon for ever perforating the
cranium, and fince dividing the fcalp cannot be ufefiil, unlefs
preparatory to fuch operation, it is clear that neither the
one nor the other Ihould ever be done, excepting fuch fymp-
toms exill as unequivocally denote the prevalence of a dan-
gerous degree of prelTure on the brain, caufcd either by
matter, extravafated blood, or deprciTed portion of the
Ikull.

The true mode of preventing the bad effefts frequently
following, but not arifiug from lln>ple fraftures of the llcull,
(by which we mean cafes unaccompanied by urgent fymp-
toms of prefTure,) is not to trepan, but to put in pradice
all kinds of antiphlogilHc means. For this purpofe, let
the patient be repeatedly and copioufly bled, both in the
arm and temporal arteries ; let him be properly purged ;
give hiir. antimonials ; keep him on the lowell diet ; let
him remain in the mod quiet fituation poflible ; and if, not-
withftanding fuch Heps, the fymptoms of inflammation of
the brain continue to incrtafe, let his head be fiiaven, and
a large bliilcr be applied to it. When, in fpile of all ihefe
meafures, matter forms under the cranium, attended with
fymptoms of prcflure, a puffy tumour of the injured part
of the fcalp, or thofe changes of the wound (if there be
one), which Mr Pott has fo excellently defcribed, and we
have already related ; not a i.iOment fhould be loit in de-
laying to perforate the bone with a trephine, fo as to give
vent to the matter collected u..derneath.

Before concluduig, we have one important caution to
offer, which is, in all cafes of injuries of the head from
external violence, to continue an antiphlogiftic regimen at
lead, a month after any ferious accident of this defcription ;
for it is by no means uncommon for inflammation of the
brain to follow injuries of the head a very conliderable time
after the patients have had reafon to fancy themfelves in
perfedl; fafety. Pott on Injuries of the Head ; Difeafe on
Wounds of the Head : Hill's Cafes in Surgery; Aberne-
thy on Injuries of the Head ; Cooper's Diftionary of
Pr^dlical Surgery, &c.

Other fubjedl':, immediately connefted with the preceding,
will be found under the articles Compression, Concussion,

EXTHAVASATIUN, and TUEPANNING.

INK, a liquor wherewith to write on paper or parch-
ment.

Ink, Pr'mi'mg. See Printing.

Ink, Writing, is commonly made of copperas and galls,
and gum ar-bic ; but other aftringent plants may ferve tlie
fame purpofe ; fuch as oak-bark, red rofes, logwood, or
fumach. Mr. Boyle feems to doubt whether all aftringent
vegetaiiles will do the fame.

Many are the preparations and methods of compounding
the materials for making of writing ink. For many years
the ink molt generally ufed by European writers has been
the infufion of galls and other ailringent vi-getables, con-
taining gallic-ftcid, rendered black by fulphate of iron, and
thickened by the addition of a little gum or fugar. This
jtompofition, however, is liable to fade ; but fince the dif-
covery of the method of totally difcharging the traces of
common ink by the application of the oxigenated muriatic
acid^ more ferious confeqitences are to be apprehended from
the .univcrfil iife of the common atranientous fluid, than the
decay of its colour from age ; for it is well known that,
wliilc tlie fulphate of iron remains on the paper, the colour
of the writing may be rellored by wafliing the MS. with
frefh jjifufion of galls. We have fevcral receipts in Nichol-

I N K

fon's Philofophical Journal, vol. iv. p. 479, 410., for c*m'
pofing ink capable of refiftirg the oxigenated muriatic
acid.

Macqiier, in the Chemical Diftioiiary, gives the follow-
ing receipt for making good ink. lu four French pints of
ctmimon water or beer, let a pound of bruifed galls be in-
fufed twenty-four hours without boiling ; to this add fi.t
ounces of gum arabic ; and when the gum is diflblved, fix
ounces of green vitriol, which will foon give it the black
colour ; the liquor is then to be llrained through a hair-
fieve.

The following method lias been recommended by expe-
rience, and is eafily and fpeedily praciifed. To a gallon of
boiling water, put fix oimces of blue galls, grofsiy pounded,
and three ounces of copperas ; llir the mixture well toge-
ther, and then add fix ounces of gum arabic pounded.
After ftirring the whole thorouglily, leave it to fettle, and
the next day ftrain it off from the dregs for ufe. See Iris
littea pahtfiris .

The following compofition will make a very good black
writing ink. Take a gallon of foft water, and boil in it
a pound of chips of logwood for about half an hour ; pour
the decoiftion boiling hot on a pound of the bell Aleppo
galls powdered, and two ounces of pomegranate peels, put
into a proper vefiel. After having ilirred them well toge-
ther with a wooden fpatula, place them in the funlhine in
fummer, or within the warmth of any fire in winter, for
tluee or four days, ftirring the mixture occafionally ; then
add half a pound of green vitriol powdered, and let the
mixture remain four or five days more, occafionally ftir-
ring it ; and then add four ounces of gum arabic diffolved
in a quart of boiling water ; and after the ink has fettled,
ftrain it off through a coarfe linen cloth, and keep it well
flopped for ufe.

Mr. De'aval in his " Treatife on Colours," p. 37. in-
forms us, that with an infufion of galls and iron filings, he
had not only made an exceedingly black and durable ink,
but by means of it, withotit the addition of any acid, dyed
Clk and woollen cloth of a good and lading black. But
this kind of ink, th.ough the colour is far fuperior to that
of any other, may be eafily difcharged, cither by the fmalleil
quantity of any acid, or even by fimple water ; becaufe it doth
not penetrate the paper in fuch a manner as is necefiary to
preferve it from the inftantaneousaftion of the acid or of the
water. During the action of the infufion of galls upon the
iron in making this kind of iiik, a very confiderable effer-
vefcence takes place, and a quantity of air is difcharged, the
nature of which has not yet been examined.

Manyof themore volatile kinds of oil may beufed in writing,
if reduced to a proper cor.fiilcncc by the addition of gum or
refin. Tolerable ink may be made by diflialving 30 grains ol
common refin in 90 grains of oil of turpentine, and tem-
periiig the folution with 17^ grains of ianip-black, and i\ of
indigo. In a dry ftate, this compofition refills the aftion of
water, but not of fpirit. Copal is much iuperior to refin ;
it will diffolvc in only few liquid.'!. It may be diflblved,
however, in oil of lavender. The only inconvenience at-
tending the ufe of copal in the compofition of ink is, that it
is foKiblc at a low temperature. Ink may be compofed of
oil of lavender, copal, and lamp-b'ack in the manner fol-
lowing ; Take oil of lavender zoo grains, copal, in powder,
2J graii'.s, and lamp-black from 2^ to 3 grains. With the
alfilTance of a gentle heat, diffolve the copal in the oil of
lavender in a fmall glafs phial, and then mix the lamp-black
with the folution upon a marble flab, or other fmooth fur-
face. Put the compofition into the bottle, and keep it from
tkc air. After the repofe of fome hours, the ink muft be
8 well

I N K.

well (hakcn, ami (llnvd witli a piec& of wire befare it is ufcd ;
if ii be too thick, it mull be diluted with a little oil of la-
\ .Jlt, oil of tuiper.tine, or alcohol. The faaility of .wri-
. :; with this compolition depends much on the quantity of/
'.; ■ ^-.ilourins; matter. Nicholfon's Journnl, vol. ii. 8va.
■'. j the duration of records, and other valuable writing?,
■uls much on the goodnefs of the ink employed, Dr.
s has thought this fubjecl worthy of his attention.
. a. ciiicf imperfection of common inks is, that they decay in
I : r, and at lall the writing becomes invifible. From ex-
; 1 in-.ents made by that autlior, he infers, that the dtxay of
':■''■■■ ii chiefly owing to a deficiency of galls ; that the galls
•he moll pcrilhable iiijrredient, the quantity of tliefe,
!i gives the grcatell biacknefs at iirft (which is about
■1 parts with the vitriol) being infufficient to maintain
ll. • colour ; that for a durable ink, the quantity of galls
cannot be much lefs than three times that of the vitriol ; that
it cannot be much greater without IcfTening tlie blacknefs of
tliv? ink ; that by diminilhing the quantity of water, the ink
V. 1 , rendered blacker and more durable ; that diflilled water,
r.v.n v,-atcr, and hard fpring-water, had the fame cffeds ;
That white wine produced a deeper black colour than water ;
tiiat the colour produced by vinegar was deeper than that by
wine ; that proof fpirit extracted only a reddifii-brown
tinge, and rectified fpirit a paler brown ; that the lafl men-
tioned tindlures funk into, and fpread upon the paper ; and
hence the impropriety of adding fpirit of wine to ink, as is
frequently directed, to prevent mouldinefs or freezing ; that
other aflringents, as oak bark, billort, floebark, S;c. were
not fb effeclnal as gall^, nor gave fo good a b'ack, the co-
lour produced by mod of thefe, excepting oak -bark, being
greenifh ; that tlie juice of floes did not produce a black
colour with martial vitriol ; but that, neverthek-fs, the
writing made with it became black, and was found to be
more durable than coir.mon ink ; that inks made with fatu-
rated folutions of iron in nitrous, marine, acetous acids, in
tartar, or in lem.on juice, were much inferior to the ink made
with martial vitriol ; that the colour of ink was depraved
by adding quicklime, which was done with an intention of
dellroying any fuperabundant acid which might be fuppofed
to be the caufe of the' lofs of the colour of thj ink ; that
the bell method of preventing the efffcls of this fuperabun-
dant acid is probably by adding pieces of iron to engage it ;
and that this conjeclure was confirmed by an inftaiice the
author had heard, of the great durability of the colour of
an ink in which pieces of iron had been long immerfed ; and
lalUy, that a decoction of logwood ufed inftcad of water,
fcuiibly improved both the beauty and deepnefs of the
black, without difpofing it to fade. The fame author ob-
ferves, that tlie addition of gum arabic is not only ufeful, by
keeping the colouring matter fufpended in the fluid, but alfo
by preventing the ink from fpreading, by which means a
greater quantity of it is collected on each itroke of the pen.
Sugar, which is fometimes added to inks, was found to be
much lefs effectual than gums, and to have the inconvenience
oj preventing the drying of the ink. The colour of ink is
found to, be greatly injured, by keeping tl.c ink in vcfll's
made of copper, or of lead, and probably of any othir
metal e>:cepting iron, which the vitriolic acid can diflolvc.
The foregoing experiments point out for the bell propor-
tions of the ingredients for ink ; one part of green vitriol,
one part of powdered logwood, and three pan^ of pow-
dered Aleppo, or blue galls. The bell meallruu™ appears
to be vinegar or white wine, though for conution ufe water
is fufficient. If the ink be required to be of a fu'l colour, a
quart, or at mod three pints, of liquor may be allowed to
ijjrcc ounces of jalh, and to one ounce of each of the

other two ingredients. Half an otincf of gum may be
added to each pint of the liquor ; though the more gum we
can employ, confillently with due freedom of writing, it is
probable that the ink will be the more durable. The in-
gredients may be all piit together at once in a convenient
veflel, and well fliaken four or five times each day. In ten
or twelve days the ink will be fit for ufe, though it will im.
prove by remaining longer on the ingredients ; or it may be
made more cxpeditioudy, by adding the gum ard vitriol to
a decoction of galls and logwood in the menllruum. Ta
the ink, after it has been feparatcd from the foculencies,
fome coarfe powder of galls, froui which the fine dull has
been fiftcd, together with one or two pieces of iron, maybe
added, by which its durability will be fccured.

It has been often remarked, fays tl;e fame ingenious
writer, that the inks ufed in former times were far more
durable than thofe of later years ; many modern records being
more decayed than manufcripts of mticli greater antiquity,
of which we have inftances in the Letters of Camillo Pa-
derni, puWifiied in the Philofophical Tranfadions for 175;
and 17)4. O""- Lewis made fevoral experiments, in order to
recover the compofition of this durable ink. Inllead of oil
which is ufed in the printers' ink, he mixed both lamp-black
and ivory -black with a folution of gum arabic ; this Jiquor
wrote of a fine black colour, but when dry, it rubbed ofF
entirely by moiiture. Concluding, therefore, that the co-
lour could no'i. be fufiicienlly *ixed on paper witliout an oily
cement, and as oils are made miicible with watery fluids by the
intervention of gimi, he mixed fome of the fofter printers'
varniili with about half its weight of a thick mucilage of gum
arabic, working them well together in a mortar, and beat
this mafs with lamp-black, adding water by little and little,
and continuing the rubbing, till the mixture became of a due
confillence for writing. This produced charafters of a full
brownifii black colour, which could not be difchargcd by
rubbing, nor walked out fo readily as the foregoing. Inftead
of the printers' varnifli, or boiled oil, linfeed-oil was mixed
in the fame manner with mucilage and lamp-black, and the
mixture diluted with water ; and the ink thus obtained was
much the fame as the other. To prevent the difcharge by
water, fome of the more finking kinds of paper, or common
paper made damp as for printing, mull be ufed, which will
admit the ink to fink a little into its fubltancc; and thus
tlic characters will be as fixed as can be defired. Such Dr.
Lewis found to be the ancient inks, that were fo durable,
Pliny and Vitruvius exprefsiy mention the preparation of foot,
or lamp-black, and the compofition of writing ink from
lamp-black and gum. Dioiceridcs fets down the propor-
tion of three ounces of the foot to one of gum. This mix-
ture was formed into cakes or rolls, and dried in the fun,
which were occafiojially tempered with water, as the Indian
ink is with us for painting. Theancionts were fcufible that
thefe inks wei-e liable to be difcharged by water, and cn-
deavourcd to obviate tliis impcrfediion, according to Pliny,

iinKing
be dii".

by ufing vinegar, inftead of water, for teniperin<r the mix-
ture of lamp black and gum, which promotes tlie "
into the paper. After all, noiie of thefe inks can
charged otherwifo than by dcfign ; which is the cafe with
refpedt to the vitriolic inks, and thofe of printed books and
copper-platos.

In the courfe of Dr. Lewis's experiment!!, a farther im-
provenu'jit occurred to him, which was that of uiing the
common vitriolic ink, iiilleiKl of water, for tempering the
ancient mixture of gum and lamp-black. By this method
the writings will have the durability of thofe of former times,
with all the advaut.ige that refults from the vitriolic ink
fi.xing itlllf in the paper. Comuion writing ink may, in
R z many

I N K.

many cafes, be improved by a fmall addition of the ancient common ink, a ground of Pruflian Blue is formed under
pofitiun, or of tlie common Indian ink. Lewis's Com- every ftrok<;; wliich will remain ftrong after the black has

been decayed by the weather, or deftroyed by acids. The

• of tlie common Indi
merce of Arts, &c. § i6.

Mr. Aftle, in his " Origin of Alphabetical Writing,'' in-
•ulcatcs the nccoflity of making ink durable ; and for this
purpofe fuggefls a comparifon of tlic rolls and records that
have been written from the 15th century to the end of the
17th, with the writings that remain from' the 5th to the 12th
centuries. Thefe arc in excellent prefervation ; but the
former, though of more modern date, are defaced to fuch a
degree that they are fcarcely vifible. Mr. Aille agrees with
Dr. Lewis in the opinion, that the ancient inks were com-
pofed of foot or ivory black inllcad of the galls, copperas,
and gums, which form the compofitiou of our's. Befides
their black ink, the ancients ufed various other colours, as
red, goW and filver, purple, &c. Green ink was frequently
ufed in Latin MSS., efpecially in the latter ages : and it
was frequently employed in fignatures by the guardians of
the Greek emperors till their wards were of age. Blue or
yellow ink was feldom ufed except in MSS., but, according
to Mr. AiUe, the yellow has not been much in ufe for thefe
600 years. Some kinds of cliarafters, particularly the
metallic, were buniifhed. Wax vs'as ufed by the Latins
and Greeks as a varnidi, efpecially by the former, and par-
ticularly in the 9th century. This continued a long time
in vogue. Dr. (Cr Charles) Blagden, in the Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ixxvii, p. 45i,&c. has propofed a new method of re-
covering the legiliiHty of decayed writings. With this
view he made fome experiments on parchment and vellum
MSS., with which he was furnidicd by Mr. Aftle, employ-
ing thofe chemical re-agents which feemed bell adapted to
his purpofs, -viz. alkalies, both iimple and phlogiilicated,
the mineral acids, and infufion of galls. The general re-
fult fhewed, that the ink anciently ufed, at leaft in thefe
MSS., was of the fame nature as the prefent ; and the
greater durability of the more ancient inks appeared to de-
pend very much on a better preparation of the material upon
which the writing was made, viz. the parchment or vellum.
He fufpefted, however, that the ancient inks contained a
rather lefs proportion of iron than the more modern ; and
perhaps more gum was ufed then, or pofiibly they were
wafhed over with fome kind of i.-arnifli, though not fuch as
gave any glofs. It occurred to our author, in the courfc of

decayed by the weathe . , .

ink will thus bear a larger proportion of vitriol at firft, and
will have the advantage of appearing blacker when firft
written.

Ink Powder may be prepared, by infufing a pound of-
galls powdered, and three ounces of pomegranate-peels, in a
gallon of foft water for a week, in a gentle heat ; and
then llraining off the fi\iid through a coarfe linen cloth.
Add to it eight ounces of vitriol diffoUed in a quart of
water, and let them remain for a day or two ; preparing
in the mean time a decotlion of logwood, by boiling a
pound of the chips in a gallon of water, till one-third be
wafted, and then ftraining tlie remaining fluid whi'e it is hot.
Mix this decoftion and the folution of galls ai:d vitriol to-
gether, and add five ounces of gum arable, and then evapo-
rate the mixture over a common fire to about two qirarts ;
when the remainder mud be put into a veflel proper for that
purpofe, and reduced to drynefs in balnco Marui, i.e. by
hanging the veffel in boiling water. The remaining mafs,
after the fluid is wholly exhaled, muft be Well powdered ;
and when it is wanted for ufe, may be converted into ink by
the addition of water.

A portable or extemporaneous ink may be made without
galls or vitriol, by mixing half a pound of honey and the
yolk of an egg, adding two drams of gum r.rahic finely le-
vigated, and thickening the whole with lamp-black to' the
confillence of a ftilT pafte ; which being put to a proper
quantity of water, may be ufed as an ink.

Ink, Indian, or Chine/:, is an admirab'e compofition, in
vain attempted to be imitated in Europe. It is not fluid,
like our writing inks, but folid, like our mineral colours>
though much hghter. They make it of all figures, but the
moft ufual is reftangular, about a quarter of an inch thick.
Some of the tticks are giit with figures of dragons, birds,
flowers, &c. In order to do this, they have little wooden
monlds, fo curiouffy wrought, that we could hardly equal
them in metals.

To ufe this ink, there rauft be a little hollow marble, or
other ftone, with water in it, on which the (lick of ink mnil
be ground, till the water becomes of a fufBcient blacknefs.
It makes a very black (hining ink ; and though it be

go mig

It be to

join

bis

rcrtoring legibility to decayed writing ^^... .., ._ j...
phlogiilicated alkali with the remaining calx of iron. In
order to bring this idea to the teft, he made fevcral experi-
ments, for which we refer to his paper, ubi fupra. The
method now commonly praiftifed to rellore old writings is
the wetting of them with an infufion of galls in white wine.
This has certainly a great effeft : but, like the phlogiilicated
alkali, it is apt to ftain the fubllance in which the writing
was made. Sir Charles Blagden fuggefts, that a phlogiili-
cated alkali, better adapted to this purpofe than the common,
might be prepared, by rendering it as free as poffiblc from
iron, diluting it to a certain degree, or fubftitutiig the vola-
tile alkali for the fixed. This would ferve to bring out a
prodigious body of colour upon letters whicli wen- before
fo pale as to be almoft invifible, and it would be preferable
to the infufion of galls in this rcfpeil, that it produces its
effect immediately, and may be confined to thofe letters

Only for whidi fuch affillance is wanted. ^^_

In the "Monthly Review" of the volume of Tranfaftions material is lamp-blackrio which ir'added in one of tlurm
above cited, the following method is propofed forpreventing a quantity of horfe-chefmits, burnt till the fmokc ceafes'
-Ik from decaying. It conlifts n, watlung over the paper ou The couglutinating matter, in one of the prefcriptions, isa"
which tjie writing is o be made with the colouring matter thin lize of neat's leather ; in another, a folution of gum tra-

pcriments, that perhaps one of the beil methods of apt to fink when the paper is thin, yet it never runs or

"■"^ *" J— —J . . 1-- L ._ :- _ fpreads; fo that the letters are always fmooth, and evenly

terminated, how big foever they be. It is of great ufe in -
defigning, becauie it may be weakened or diminiihed to
any degree ; and there is abundance of things which cannot
be reprefented to the life without it.

From an analyfis of this ink, Dr Lewis concludes that it
contains an animal fubftance foluble in water, and confifts of
a black powder, mixed with fome animal glue. He tried
to imitate it, by mixing fome lamp-black, prepared from
Iinfeed-oil, by hanging a large copper pan over the flame ot
a lamp to receive its fmoke with as much melted glue as gave
it fufficient tenacity for being formed into cakes. Thefe
cakes, when diy, anfwered as well as the genuine Indian ink,
m regard both to the colour, and the freedom and fmooth-
nefs of working. Ivory black, and other charcoal blacks,
•levigated very fine, had tlie fame cfTcd with the lamp-black.
It appears from three receipts for the preparation of ludian
ink, in Du Halde's Hiftory of China, that the colouring

cf PruOiaii blue ; and by wriiin

upon it afterwards with gaeantli, and in the otlier, a mixture of fize, with a de-
corum

I N JC.

"•ion- of certam vegetables, unknown to us. Du Halde

rves, tliat the Chinefe have inks of different goodnefs and

e ; that the mod eflential difference proceeds from

r ' quality of the lamp-black, and that tlie beft is the

'.••r^t of oil, burnt in lamps, in apai-tments fitted up for

t!ii' pm-pofe.

Tho Chinofe have often attempted to ufe this in their
porcelain, to give the colour of black to the figure traced
in white veffels, but it has been a vain attempt ; for how-

■ beautiful and ftrong the figures might appear when firft
:i, and even when the veffels were dried, it all difap-
rcd on the baking, 4nd they came out quite white as
t' .y were put in. The colours for this ufe mail be fuch
aa can penetrate the \-<iriiifli,- and endure the fire. Mineral
colours are found to have tliefe qualities, and thefe alone
theieioiv are to be employed ; fuch light ones as this black
buniii'g off from the furface, and wholly difappearing. Obf.
!ur les Coutumes de 1' Afie,p.-32Q.

fsK is alio an appellation gi\-en to any coloured liquor
v.lej in the fame manner as black ink ; as red, green, blue,
-L How, &c. inks. Aif</ writing ink is prepared by infufing
a quarter of a pound of the rafpings of Brazil wood for
two or three days in vinegar ; boiling the infufion for an
feour over a gentle fire, and afterwards filtering it, wliile hot,
through, paper laid in an earthen cullender ; then put it
again over die fire, and diffelve in it,-firil, half an ounoe of

fum arable, and afterwards alum, and white fugar, of each
alf an ounce. Red ink may be alfo made of vermilion, bv
beating together the glair of four eggs, a tea-fpoonful of
wliite fugar, or fugar-candy, powdered, and as much fpirit
of wine, till they be of the confillence of oil ; then adding
fuch a proportion of vermilion as will produce a red colour
of fufficient ftrength ; the mixture (liould be kept in a fmall
phial, or welUlopt mk bottle, and well Ihook before it
be ufed. Gum-water is often ufed inftead of the glair of
eggs; but thm fize made of ifinglafs, with a little honey, is
much better for the purpofe. Red ink may be made by
tempering the folution of copal with red fulphuret of mer-
cury, e.g. take of oil of lavender, 120 grains, copal, in
powder, 17 grains, and red fulphuret of mercury, 60 grain;,
diffolve the copal in the oil, and then mix the fulphuret with
the folution upon a fmooth furface. This, and a!fo tlie black
ink made with copal, poflefs a permanent colour, and other
effential properties of the ink ufed in printing. The oil of
lavender being diffipated with a gentle heat, the colour is
left on the paper furrounded with copal, a fubftance iu-
feluble in -.vater, in fpirits, in acids, or in alkaline folutions.
For red printing ink,, fee Printing.
Green ink may be made, by putting an ounce of pow-
dered verdigris to a quart of vinegar, and Itraining the
fluid, after it ha* ftood two or three days : or, inllead of
this, the cryllals of verdigris diffolved in water will anfwer
the purpofe ; then diffolve in a pint of either of thefe
folutions, five drams of gum arable, and two drams of white

Blue ink is made by grinding indigo with honey and the
whhe of eggs, and making it fluid with water.

Tello'M ink is made by an infufion of faffron in water, with-
a little alum and gum arabic : or, by boihng two ounces of
Avignon, or French berries, in a quart of water, with half
an ounce of alum, till one-third of the fluid be evaporated,
and then diffolving in it two drams of gum arabic, and one
dram of fugar, and afterwards a dram of powdered alum.

I-n general, inks of all colours may be made by ufing a
fiioug dcco^ion of the ingredients ufed for dyeing, miNcd

with a little ahim and gum arabic. Sec the feveral colour
Blue, Gkkf.k, &c.

Inks, Synipalhtlk, or Sca-el. Every fort of liquor with
which a perfon may write, fo that the letters do not appear
till there is fome particular means ufed to give them a colour
different from that of the paper, is called by the name of
fytnpathelic ink ; and of this there are a great many kinds
dcfcribed in the writings of Baptifta Porta, Lemcry, and
otiier authors.

AW thefe inks may be regularly diftributed into different
claffes, according to the different means which are to be ufed
t-o n>ake them appear ; and thefe arc in general the four fol-
lowing. I. By giving a new hquor, or the vapour of new-
liquor, a place on the papir, on which the letters arc written
with the natural invifible ink. 2. By expofing the paper to
the air, by which means the letters at firft invifible will ap-
pear. 3. By paffing gently over the letters a matter of
fome remarkable colour reduced to fine powder. And
4. By expofing the paper to the fire.

This lall is by much the beft method, and is fo general,
that it may be prudently ufed to all papers fufpected of con-
taining any fecret writing, as it feldom fails to difcover it.
All the common inks of this kind, however, when they have
been once made to appear, either by fire or by s.uy other me-
tliod, can never be made to difappear again ; but there is
one kind deferibed by Mr. Hellot, in the Memoirs of the-
Acaderay of Sciences at Paris, and fince tried many times
with us, and elfewhere, which, though the letters it gives are
in themfelves invifible. and appear like thofe of fome other
of thefe inks, on their being held to the fire, yet they after
that win fade and- difappear- on the paper again, and may. be
reproduced in this manner feveral times. This, therefore, is
tlie firft known ink of a fifth general clafs, of which fu-
ture refearches may difcover perhaps more.

Of the firft clafs of fympathetic inks, or thofe which do
not appear till the paper on which they are written be made
to imbibe another liquor, or the vapour of another liquor, are
the following kinds.

To two or three parts of unflakedlime put one of yellow
orpiment ; powder and mix the two, adding fifteen or fix-
teen times as much water as there was orpiment ; flop up tlie
phial with a cork and bladder, and fet it in warm embers*
(hake the phial now and then for five hours, and wariiy de-
cant the clear part, or rather filtrate it. In the room of this
preparation may be ufed a faturated folution of common
brimftone, made by boiling the brimftone either with quick-
lime, or in ftrong alkaline ley. In the mean time, burn a
piece of cork thoroughly, and when well inflamed, quencli
it in common water, or rather in brandy. Being thus re-
duced into a friable coal, grind it with fair water, wherejn
gum arabic has been diffolved ; and it will make a liquor as
black as the common ink.

While thefe are doing, diflolvc, in three times as much
diftilled or ftrong vinegar, over warm embers, a quantity of
red lead,- or of- faccharum faturni, in thrice the quantity of
water, for three or four hours, or till the liquor have a fweet
tiiftc. This liquor will be as clear as common water. Solu-
tions of lead in aquafortis anfwer the fame end, except that,
when written with, they are apt to corrode the paper.

The hquors thus prepared, write any thing on paper v.-ith
this laft fort, dry it, and nothing will appear. Over the
place, write what you pleafe with the fecond liquor : it will
appear as if written with common ink : when dry, dip a
fmall piece of rag or fpunge, in the firft liquor, rub it over
the written place, and the black writing will vanilh ; and that
wrote with ike inviiible ink will appear black and legible.

Again

1 N K.

Again, take a book four or fivp inches thick, and on the
flrli leaf write any thing with the lull liquor ; turn to the other
riid of the book, and nib there with a rag, dipt in the fiift

liquor, on that

the writing, and leave alfo the rag there," clapping a paper
over it ; tlien nimbly /hutting the book, ftrike four or five
fmart ftrokcs thereon with your hand, and turning the other
fide uppermoft, clap it into a prefs, or lay it under a good
weight for a quarter of an hour, or even half that time ;
then will the writing done with the invifible ink be found le-
gible there.

The above operation may be varied, by writing the invifi-
ble charafters with the folution of bifmuth in nitrous acid,
and expofing them tn the \'apours of liv^-r of fulphur, or moif-
tcning them with a folution of liver of fulpliur.

Diffolve white or green vitriol in water, and writing with

or three months ; but at the end of that time it will begin to
appear, and will by degrees become of a deep violet colour.
So long as tlie gold remains united to its dilfolvent. it is yel-

part, as near as you can guofs, oppofite to low ; but the acid that diflblves it bemg of a volatile nature,
" ' ■ ■ ■ the greater part of it evaporates, and leaves no more than is

jufl neccfTary to colour the calx of gold which remains upon
the paper.

The fecond of thefe is the filver ink, m.nde by a folution
of iilvcr in aquafortis, weakened by diftilled water, till it
will not llain the paper. Letters written with this will be
iovifible for three or four months, if fiiut up in a box ; but
if they be expofed to the fun they become legible in about
an hour, becaufe by this means the evaporation of the acid
is accelerated. The letters written with this ink are of a
(late colour ; and that fron^ the fulphureoiis nature of the
aquafortis, every thing that is fulpliureous blackening fil-

the folution, nothing will appear. Boil galls in water, and ver. This blackilTi colour, however, is not permanent ; for

dip a linen rag in the decodHon, and with it rub the place be-
fore writ, and it will appear black and legible. Rub it over
again with fpirit of vitriol, or its oil, and the writing will dif-
appear again ; rub it over again with oil of tartar per deli-
quium, the letters will appear again, but of a yellow co-
lour. If the blacknefs of ordinary ink be dellroyed by a
fufficient quantity of nitrous acid, the writing made by it
will remain invifible till it be moillened with liquid fixed
alkali.

The golden fympathet'ic tni. — This is made by difiblving
in aqua regia as much gold as that menftruum can take up,
and then adding to the hquor five or fix times as much water;

in another
giai

uing
■efii^l

there mull be fomc tin dilTolved

the fulpliureous part finally evaporating, the letters are left
to their natural appearance, and are of a fine true filver co-
lour, if the filver that wasufed was fine, and the place open.
In this clafs there may alfo be placed fcveral metaUic dif.
folutions ; as thit of lead in vinegar, and of copper in aqua-
fortis, which give at length a brownifli colour upon the
paper ; as alfo the folution of tin in aqua regia, of mercury
in aquafortis, of iron in vinegar, of emery and fevcral of
the pyrita in fpirit of fait. But all thefe, though they
give letters which are after fome time legible, on being ex»
pofcd to the air, are alfo made to appear inltantly on the
paper, holding tliem to the fire. Each of thefe folutions
gives its own particular colour ; but they have all this difad-

d when that menftruum has alfo taken up as much of vantage, that in time they eat away the paper, and the letters

are fecn in the lliape of fo many holes.

Of the third clafs of ink, or that which appears on rub-
bing over the paper with a brown or black powder, are alnioll

all the gh;
fel ^-

effedi

the metal as it can, there is to be added to it an eqtial

tily of common water. The letters mud be written on white

paper with the folution of gold, and the writing being dried

in the fliade, the letters will not appear, at lead not for feven

or eight hours afterwards; dip a pencil in tht- fohition of tin,

and rub that over the folution of gold with which the letters

were written, and they will appear of a beautiful purple.

It might be fuppofed, that any other metals which were fo-

luble in the fame acid menftruum would equally produce this

effeft ; but experiment (hews, that this is not the cafe ; and

filver and copper, though both foluble in aquafortis, yet

produce no change of colour by thefe precipitations made by

mixing the folutions of them on paper; and this example of Mem"! Acad. Science, Par. 17^7

of plants, which are thi

of no remarkable colour, the mtlk of animals, or any
other thick and vifcoiis fluids. To ufe thefe, the letters
muft be written on a white paper, and when dry, there is to
be thrown over them the fine powder of any coloured earth,
or other fuch fubftance ; and the writing will afterwards ap-
pear coloured, becaufe its vifcous quality remains fufiiciently
in it for the entangling and retaining this fine powder,
though it falls eafily off from every other part of the paper.

luch an effedl in the folutions of gold and tin, is an excep-
pon to the geneial rules in the folutions of metals, and their
effedls on one another.

The purple colour of thefe letters may be again effaced by
rubbing fome fimple aqua regia over the paper, and may be
made to appear again by rubbing over that the folution of
tin. Kunkel, Caflius and Orfchal, with fome other writers,
made the firfl ftcps towards this difcovery, by their attempt
to give cryftal, by means of gold, the colour of the oriental
rubies. There are, bcfide thefe mineral preparatioss, fome
vegetable ones, which give the fame phenomena, but thefe
arc the more certain.

Among the methods which Ovid teaches young women to
deceive their guardians, when they write to their lovers, he
mentions that of writing with new milk, and of making the
writirig legible by coal-duft, or foot.

" Tuta quoque eft, fallitque oculos, e lafle rccenti
Litera : carbonis pulvere tange : leges.''

De Arte Amaudi, 1. iii. v. 629,
Aufuiiius propofes the fame means to Paulinus, and he after-
wards teaches other methods of fecret writing. Aufon.
Epift. xxiii. v. 21, &c. Eneas, in Poliorccticis, cap. ^i,
, . . , , , , . , ""^ Gellius, lib. xvii. cap. cj, mention the like. Plinv,

Ot the fecond kind of fympathetic inks, or tliofe which lib. x.-<vi. cap. 8. mentions the milky fap of certain plants
appear on bi-ing expofed only to the air, is the golden ink for a (itnilar pnrpofe.

made by adding to a folution of gold in aqua regia, fo much Of tiie fourth clafs, or thofe inks which become vifible
.'^i!?^" '., ?i • '^"'n'' '. ""' '^^.'n ^/''^''^ P^'P'-*'" • •'-■"'^''s ?" holding them to die fire, there are a vaft number ; and

indeed all infulions, the matter of which is readily burnt

written with this will not appear till the paper has b

pofed fome hours to the open air, and they will then begin to
acquire a colour by degrees, till they at length become of a
deep violet colour, tending to black. If, inftead of ex-
pofing the paper to the air, it be kept.in a box clofe Ihut up,
or cli»fcly folded in other paper, it will remain invifible two

to a fort of charcoal by a little fire, will anfwer tliis pur-
pofe. The nicell of this kind is the fal ammoniac ink,
made by diffolving a fcruple of fal ammoni.ic in two ounces
of fair water. Letters written with this folution arc in-
vifible on the paper, till it ie held before the fu-e, or has an

I N K.

I iron a little heated paflcd over it. The rationale of this
! is, that the iiiSammable part of the fal ammoni.io is burnt
i to charcoal by a hc-at wliich is net fuflicicnt to Icoroh the
paper ; and this is tlie cafe with all the rcll of this clafs.
The letters written uitli this folution are, however, of no
great duration ; for the fait being apt to moiften in the
air, the Liters foon fpread, and run together in a confufed
manner.

Dr. Lewis fays, that all the falts which he has tried:

produce this efFecl in a greater or lefs degree ; nitre, alum,

I tartar, very weakly ; fea-fiilt more ftrongly ; fixed alka-

I line falts ftill niflre fo ; but fal ammoniac the ftrongeft of

! all. Metallic folutions, made in acids, and diluted fo as not

' to corrode the paper, aft in the fame manner. The juice of

lemons and milk have alfo been ufed as fympathetic inks,

the writing with whicli -appears upon the application of , heat

' fnfficient to decompofe the oily and mucilaginous parts of

thefe iiquoFS.

Ti'.e fifth clafs of fympathetic ink contains only one yet
known kind.

This, though in itfelf invifible, becomes of a blueifh green
when held to the fire ; and this colour difappears again as the
paper cools, and is to be produced again on holding it again
to the fire : and this for a long time, and a repeated fe-
ries of trials. It may alfo, according to the different
manner of treating it, be made to appear blue, green, ycllo'v,
red, and fome other colours. This property of the tinging '
matter of bifmuth ore was publilhed at full length by a Ger-
man lady, in 1705'.

A certain German cliemift fliewed the academy at Paris
0 fait of rofe-water, which became blue on holding it to the
tire, and at the fame time {hewed the ore from which he pro-
cured the fait, which he called an ore of marcafite, a name
given by many to the bifmuth ore. He added, that this was
the mineral from which the fine blue fmalt of Sneeberg was
prepared, and that no other ore but this afforded it, and that
lie made the tinfture from this mineral with aquafortis,
which he fixed with fea-falt.

This was the fubftance of what the German declared,
and from what Mr. Hellot, in 1736, took the hint for
his difcovery of this remarkable ink. The fait was, after
many experiments, at length found to be produced from
an arfenic ore ; and it was found, that all the cobalts and
ores of bifmuth afford a tincture capable of thefe changes
by fire.

The method of preparing it is this : pour upon two
ounces of arfenic ore, grofsly powdered, a mixture of five
ounces of aquafortis, and five ounces of common water.
After the firft ehulhtion is over, place the veffel in a
gentle fand-heat, and let it ftand there till no more air-
bubbles feem to afcend ; after this increafe the fire, fo as
to make the liquor boil for about a quarter of an hour ;
after this the liquor will become of a reddilh colour, and
when cold it is to be decanted clear off from this fediment
into a phial; and after ftanding in that fome time, it is
to be again decanted off from what is precipitated there ;
and fo on for three or four times till it is quite clear ; for it
muft not be filtered, left the acid fhould take fomeihing
from the paper that might fpoil the effedts. When the
liquor is clear, there muft be added to it two ounces of white
fea-falt; this mixture is to be evaporated over a gentle fand-
heat, till there remains only a dry faline mafs. When the
liquor is grown hot, it changes from its orange colour to a
fair red ; and wlion the aqueous humidity is evaporated,
it becomes of a beautiful emerald colour, and from this,
as It dries up, it changes by degrees to a dirty green, like
that of verdigris in the cake. As it becomes nearly dry.

it muft be ftirred about with a glafs rod or peftle, to keep
it from uniting into a mafs ; and it muft not be kept over
the fire till perfeftly dry, hecaufe by that means the colour
is often loft, and the fait from green becomes of a dufliy
yellow ; but if it be taken from the fire while it is green,
it gradua ly becomes reddifti as it cools, and finally is of a
rofe-colour. The manner of uling this fympathetic ink
is this : write with it on a fine and fniooth paper, or draw
with a black-lead pencil the figure of a plant or tree on the
paper ; then trace over tlie fame hues with this liquor ; let
it dry in the open air, and then rub off the black fines
with bread, and the paper will appear altogether fair,
though the lines made by the ink are in reality funk deep
into it. On holding this paper to the fire the lines will all
appear, and the figure of the plant or the letters will be
painted in a beautiful blueifh green, which will continue
fo long as the paper is warm ; but when it is cold again,
they will wholly difappear. The lines, therefore, dif-
appear much fooner in winter than in fummer ; and in very-
hot weather it is often neceffary to lay the paper on a
marble, or other very cold body, in order to produce this
effeft. At any time, if the paper be fcorched in the ex-
periment, the colour of the lines will not difappear again,
even if ice be laid upon them. If the writing be ex-
pofed for three or four days to a humid air, the hnes will
appear of a fine pale red. If the impregnation of the ore
of bifmuth, inftead of fea-falt, have alum added to it,
and the whole proccfs be continued as before defcribed ;
and if letters be written with the red liquor as it is takea
out of the veffel, the letters will not appear even on hold-
ing it to the fire ; but if the paper be wetted over with a
clear folution of marine fait, and then left to ilry, and
afterwards held to the fire, the letters will appear blue.
The fame alfo will be the effed, if the writing be cxpofed
to the vapour of hot fpirit of fait. When this preparation
is thus made with alum, inftead of common fait, the
liquor never becomes green, but continues red, and never
changes colour in the drying, or afterwards. The green
colour feems to be wholly the effeft of the fea-falt ; for not
only this aluminate impregnation, but others in which other
falts had been employed, were always found to be of a dif-
ferent colour.

Glauber's fait, ufed inftead of common fea-falt, left
the mafs red in the fame manner as alum did. Nitre
added, inftead of fea-falt, gave the precipitate or dried
fait a beautiful purple colour, which became white on the
inllant that water was poured upon it, and a rofe-coloured
tindture was drawn from it, which gave fines or letters
on paper, which continued invifible as long as they were
cold, but aflumed a beautiful red oa holding the paper
to the fire ; which colour they retained no longer than
wl'.ile the paper centinued warm, difappearing afterwards
in the iVme manner with the green colours made by the
fea-falt ; and if a fimple folution of fea-falt be rubbed
over the paper, and fuffered to dry, and the paper be af-
terwards heated, the lines appear blue. Borax has the
fame effect in this preparation with the nitre. All thefe
experiments were made with the neutral falts ; but in or-
der to try what would be the effefts of alkalies in tlte
mixture, Mr. Hellot added to three ounces of the im-
pregnation of the ore in aquafortis, pure fait of tartar,
till the ebullition ceafed ; but the confequence of this
was no great precipitation, but merely the fubfiding of a
fmall white fediment ; this mixture being evaporated
nearly to a drynefs, the remaining mafs, fo long as it wras
warm, appeared of a beautiful purple ; but this becam-
paler as it dried, and turned while in an iuftant on pour-

inj

I N L

ing water upon it. This diffolvcd in water, in tJie man-
ner of the others, gave lines on paper of a faint rofe-
colour, which appeared or difappeared in the manner of
thofe made by the other fohitions, according as the paper
■was hot or cold ; and the wetting of the paper with a fo-
Iiition of fea-falt, had the fame effefts on this as on the
others, making the lines appear blue on holding to the
■fire. Mem. Acad. Par. 1737. See Colours from Me-
tals.

The ink may be eafily made by digefting zaffre, com-
monly fold by druggills, in aqua regia ; and tims is ob-
tained the foluhle part of zaffre, which is the calx of co-
balt. Tliis folution is tlicn to be diluted with a little
common water. In expofing the paper written with this
folution to the fire, care mull be taken not to heat it too
much ; for in this cafe, the writing will not again difap-
pear by expoluro to cold. This ink, fays Macqiier, the
author of the Chemical Dictionary, may Ije applied to the
drawing of landfcapes, in which the earth and trees defti-
tute of verdnrc, being drawn witli common ink, give a
profpetl of winter ; and which may be made to affame
the appearance of fpring, by expofure to a gentle heat,
which covers the trees with leaves and the earth with
grafs, by rendering vilible thofe parts of tlie landfcapes
which arc drawn with thiii fympathetic ink ; and, as the
folution of regiilus of cobalt or zaffre in fpirit of nitre
acquires a reddilh colour by the application of heat, the
red folution miglit be contrived to reprefent the fruits and
flowers.

IsK-fiJl), in Ichthyology. See CvTTLz-fJlo , and Sepia.

INLAGATION, Ixlagatio, a reitoring of one out-
lawed to the proteftion of tlie law and benefit of a
fubjeft.

The word comes from the Saxon ialaghim, i. e. infag/jre.
Terms of Law.

INLAGH, Ini.aoatu.s, he that is of fome frank-
pledge, and not out-lawed. It feems to be the contrary
to ut/aqh.

INLAND implies any thing fituate in the main land, or
heart of a country, far from tlie fea-coafts.

Hence iidand bills, in traffic, are fuch bills as are
payable in the fame land, wherein they are drawn. See
-Bu.l..

IxLASD Na-vigallon, is applied to the pafTagc of boats,
barges, and vefTels on canals and navigable riveri, within a
country, to dillingnifh it from navigation, properly fo called,
by means of fliips on the open feas or the largeft of tlie
lakes. No country in the world can vie with the Britifli
jflands at the prcfent day, for the extent and importance of
their artificial inland navigation or Caxai-s, under which
article we have given a connecled view of thefe, and of the
navigable rivers and railways, forming altogether a fyftem
of improved communication no where to be equalled ; and
yet nearly tlie wliole of them originated and was completed
iy individuals without the afliflance of the (fate. Sec alfo
the names of the feveral canals, rivers, ice. for further in-
formation.

INLAYING. See Venkeuinc, Mosaic, and Maiu

.«iLF.XHV.

INLEASED, in our Old IVriters, fignifics entangled or
cnfnared. It is ufed in the champion's oath. 2 Inft. 247.
Blount.

INLETS, Bay of, in Geography, a bay on the coall of
New Holland, fo called by Cook, in June 1 770, lying be-
iwcen cape Palmerfton and cape Towndiend.

INLI, a town of Corca j 45 miles W. of Hoang-tcheou,

JNLISTING, in a Military Scnfe. See LiSiiNC;.

INN

TNMATES, fuch perfons as are admitted, for tnclF
money, to live in the fame houfe or cottage with anoth.-r
man, in difi'eicnt rooms, but going in at the fame door ;
being ufually fuppofed to be poor, and not able to maint;'.i,i
a whole houfe themfclves. Thefe are inquirable in a couri-
leet.

No owner or occnpier of a cottage (ludl fuffer any inmatr^
therein, or more families than one to inhabit there, on pain cI
forfeiting I OS. per month to the lord of the leet.

INN, in C:ogrnphy, a river which rifes in the country ef
the Grifons, about 12 miles S.W. of Zuh, and runs into
the Danube near PafTau. — Alfo, a river of Auflria, which
runs into the Danube near Efferding.

Ink, a place appointed for the entertainment and relief of
travellers.

Inns are liccr.fed and regulated by juftices of the peace,
who oblige the landkjrd to enter into recognizances for
keeping good order. See Aleiiou.sks.

If a perfon who keeps a common inn refnfes to receive
a traveller into his houfe as a guett, or to iind him vitluaU
and lodging, on his tendering liim a reafonable price for
them, he is liable to an aclion of damages, and may be in.
dieted and lined at the king's fuit. (i Ventr. 333.) By
the yearly acts againfl mutiny and defertion, the conftable,
and in his default a juflice of the peace, may quarter foldiers
in inns, livery-ftables, ale-houfes, and viftualling-houfce.
The rates of all commodities fold by innkeepers, accord-
ing to our ancient laws, may be afTefTed ; and innkeeper*
not felling their hay, oats, beans, &c. and all manner of
viiStuals, at reafonable prices, without taking any thing for
litter, may be fined and imprifoncd, &c. by 21 Jac. I. c. 21.
Where an innkeeper harbours thieves, perfons of infamous
charafter, or fuffcrs any diforders in his houfe, or fets up
a new inn where there is no need of one, to the hindrance
of ancient well governed inns, lie is indidtable and fineable ;
and by ilatutes fuch inn may be fiippreiTcd. (i Hawk.
P. C. 225'.) Aetion upon the cafe lies againlt any inn-
keeper, if a theft be committed upon his gueit by a iervant
of the inn, or any other perfon fiot belonging to the guefl ;
though it is otherwifc where the guell is not a traveller,
but one of the fame town or village ; for in that cafe the
innkeeper is not chargeable ; nor is the mafler of a private
tavern anfwerable for a robbery committed on his gueft.
It is faid that even though the travelling guoll does not
deliver his goods, &c. into the innkeeper's poflV'fTion, yet
if they are llolen he is chargeable. An innkeeper is not
chargeable for any thing out of his inn, but only for what
is within it ; yet where he of his own accord puts the
gucll's horfe to grafs, and the horfe is flolen, he is anfwer-
able ; he not having the guelPs orders for putting fuch
horfe to grafs. The innkeeper may juitify Itojiping tlie
horfe, or other things of his gueit, for his reckoning ; and
may detain the fame until it be paid. Where a perfon
brings his horfe to an inn and leaves him in the liable, the
innkeeper may detain him until fuch time as the owner
pay for his keeping ; and if the horfe eats out as much as
he is worth, after a reafonable appraifemeiit made, he may-
fell the horfe and pay himfelf. But when a guell brings
feveral horfes to an inn, and afterwards takes them all away,
excepting one, this horfe fo left may not be fold for pay-
ment of the debt of others ; for every horfe is to be fold,
only to make fatisfaclion for what is due for his own
meat.

Any perfon found tippling in an inn, is adjudged within

the ftatutes againll drunkennefs ; and innkeepers, or ale-

houfc-keepers, permitting tippling in their houfe«, are liable

7 to

I N N

to die penalty cf los. Sec. by i Jac. cap. 9. i Car. cap. 4.
t\ Jac. cap. 7.

Inns. Oar colleges of municipal or common law pro-
feflbrs and Undents, are called inns : tlie old Englifli word
for houfes of noblemen, bilhops, and others of extraordinary
note, being of the fame fignincation witli tlie French word
iolel.

Inks of Court are fo called, as fome think, bccaafe the
ftudents there are to fcrve and attend tlie conrts of judi-
cature ; or elfe, becaufe anciently thefc colleges received
none but the fons of noblemen, and better fort of gentle-
men, who were there to be qualified to fcrve the king in his
court ; as Fortefcue affirms. And in his time he fays, there
were about two tlioufand ftudents in the inns of court and
chancery, all of whom were Jilii nobilium, or gentlemen born.
Biit this cuftom has gradually fallen into difufe ; fo that in
the reign of queen Elizabeth, fir Edward Coke does not
reckon above a thoufand ftudents, and the number at pre-
fent is very confiderably lefs ; for which judge Blackllone
afligns the following reafons : i . Becaufe the inns of chan-
cery beiug now almoft totally filled by the inferior branches
of the profeflion, are neither commodious nor proper for
the refort of gentlemen of any rank or figure ; fo that there
are very rarely any young ftudents entered at the inns of
chancery. 2. Becaufe in the inns of court all forts of re-
gimen and academical fuperintendence, either with regard
to morals or ftudies, are found impracticable, and therefore
entirely neglefted. Laftly, becaufe perfons of birth and
fortune, after having finiflied their ufual conrfes at the uni-
verfities, have feldom leifure or refolution fufficient to enter
upon a new fcheme of ftudy at a new place of inftruclion ;
wherefore few gentlemen now refort to the inns of court,
but fuch for whom the knowledge of practice is abfqlutcly
necelTary in fuch as are intended for the profeflion. Comni.
bosk i. p. 25.

Our inns of court, juftly famed for the produftion of men
of learning in the law, are governed by mafters, principals,
binchers, rtewards, and other officers ; and have public halls
for exercifcs, readings, &c. which the ftudents are obliged
to attend, and perform for a certain number of years, before
they can be admitted to plead at the bar. Thcfe focietics
hnve not, however, any judicial authority over their mem-
bers ; but inftead of this they have certain orders among
tiemfelves, which have by confent the force of laws. For
Dghter offences perfons are only excommoned, or put out of
■commons ; for greater, they lofe their chambers, and are
expelled the colltge ; and when once expelled out of one
fociety, they are never received by any of the others. The
gentlemen in thefe focicties may be di\'ided into benchers,
«uter-barrifters, inner-barrifters, and iladents.

The four principal inns of court, are the Inner Temple,
and Middle Temple, heretofore the dwellir.g of the Knights
Templars, purrhafed by fome profefibrs of the common law
about three liuridi-cd years ago ; Lincoln's Inn and Gray's
Inn, anciently belonging to the earls of Lincoln and Gray.
The other inns are the two Serjeants Inns

Inns of Chancery were probably fo called, becaufe an-
cienfly kihabited by fuch clerks as chiefly Ihtdied the forming
<jf writs whicli regularly belonged to the curfitors, who are
cfficers of chancery.

The firft of thefe is Thavies Inn, begun in the reign of
Edward III. and fince purchafed by the fociety of Lincoln's
inn. Befides this we have New Inn, Symond's Inn, Cle-
ment's Inn ; ClifFord's Inn, anciently the houfe of lord
Clifford ; Staple's Inn, belonging to the merchants of the
ftaplc ; Lion's Inn, anciently a common inn with the fign of
the lion ; Ffrnival's Inn, and Bernard's Inn.

Voi- XIX.

r N N

Thefe were heretofore preparatory colleges for younger
ftudents ; and many were entered Iicre before they were
admitted into the iiin^ of court. Now they rn'e moflly taken
up by attornies, folicnors. Sec.

Th.^y all belong to fome of the inns of court, who for-
merly ufed to fend yearly fome of their barriflter.s to read to
them.

Inn, or Iniur, in the Mnncge, is applied differently, ac-

cording as the hurle

rht or left upon the

■olts, or as lie works along by a wall, a hedge, or the like.
For along or by a wall, the leg that is of a fide with, or next
the wall, is the outer, and the other tlie in or inner leg.
And if upon volts, the horfe works to the right, the right
heel is the inner, and the left the outer heel, and fo of
the other parts of the body, furniture, &c. The direft
contrary of this will h.appcii, if the horfe works to the
left.

INNATE Air. See Air.

Innate Force. See Vjs Irjlla.

Innate Heat. See Heat.

Innate Ideas, or Principles, are certain primary notes or
charaders, by many fuppofed to be ftamped on the mind of
man when it firft receives its being, and which it brings into
the world with it.

But the docliine of innate ideas is abundantly confuted by
Mr. Locke. See Idea.

Innate, in Natural Hiftory, particularly in that branch of
it which treats of foflll remains or reliquia, is applied to fuch
parts of the animal bodies as have been produced independ-
ently of any effort of the animal, and are either internal parts,
as the bones, which often give the form to extraneous foffds,
or external parts, as the fcales and fins of fifh, the horny
covering in fome of the amphibia, and the integument which
inclofes the whole of the body in inlefts, all of which are
fometimcs found in a foffil ftate, as Mr. William Martin ob-
ferves in his « Outlines," p. 86. The genera of reliquia
which do not depend on innate parts, but on fabricated parts
of the animal parts, which are fuperadJed to the body by
fome voluntary effort of the animal, are called conchy liolilliu»
and erifmatolithus.

INNER Barrister. Sec Bakrister.

Inner /'»,'?, is an additional piece of oak timber brought
on to the forefide of the main poft upon which the traufonis
are let on or feated ; it adds to the fecurity of the planks, as
the main poft is feldom fufficient before the rabbit for that
purpofe, and greatly ftrengthens the ftern or main poft.

Inner See, in Geography, a river which rifes about five
miles N.W. of Goflar, and runs into the Leine, iii the
bifhopricof Hiidedieim.

IwEvi SaunJ, a ftrait of the North fea, between the ifie
of Skye, and the N.W. coaft of Invernefsfliirc, in Scot-
land.

INNERSHON, afmall idandon'the weft fide of the*,
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 61^ 34'. E. long. 17" 6'.

INNICHEN, a town of Germany, iu the Tyrolefe
fituatcd near the Drave ; anciently called " Aguntum ;"
29 miies E. of Brixen. N. lat. 46 41'. E. loiig. 12' 20..

INNINGS, lands recovered from the fea, by draining
and banking.

INNITFOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 48
miles N. of Dacca.

INNO, Ita!. a hymn, or fpiritual fong.

INNOCENT I. pope, in 7;%;w//.>j', wasa nativeof AI-
bano, and was unaniuioufly elefted to the popedom by the
clergy and people, on the death of Anallafius in the year
402. He obtained from the emperor new and fevcrc lawa
i'.gainft the Donatifts, in confequencc of which that feft was
>».iij.j .i»^ ...-. J .i..ug. cruelly

1 N N O C E N T.

pa:

cruelly perfecutcJ, and tl.ofe wlio refufed to return to the tUe kinfr's camp, lie found, vliat Le little expefted, that ^
bofom of the Catholic church were punifhed with fines, ba- had fallen into the hands of a generous enemy ; the vidior:
riifhnient, theconlifcation of goods, and in fonie inilaiices king fent fome of_^his principal officers to beg Ins hulnn
with death. He efpoufed the caufe of Chr\ foftom, and
even refufed to hold communion with the eallern churches,
on account of their treatment of that eminent man. He
\va3the firft who perfecutcd the Novatianj at Ron:e, by de-
priving theui of their churches, and preventing their
alTcmbling in public, for religious \> orfhip ; the Pelagians
: likewife under his lalh ; he declared them not only un

^ and to affurc him he was ready to enter into an

cominodation upon the terms which he had formerly offered
by his deputies. Innocent readily acceded : the terms wxni
drawn up and executed, in confequence of which the poj-
abl"olved Roger from excommunication, and folemnly invciU
him with the kingdom of Sicily, the dukedom of Apuli;
and the principality of Capua ; while, on the other hand.

worthy of Chrillian communion, but of human fociety, and the king acknowledged Innocent for lawful pope, and en-

even of life. He died in the vear4i7, after having pre- gaged to affill him whenever his aid fliould be required,

'" ' '" ' ■ Upon the recovery of his liberty Innocent returned to Rome;

fided over the chnrcli about fifteen years. He Mas a per-
fon of great addrefs, and a lively genius, and wa.s well ac-
quainted with the traditions of the cliurch. His decretats
lufltciently (hew his ufurping and domineering fpirit, and his
wilhes to make the Chrillian world fubmit to his infolence ;
they have been frequently quoted by the advocates oi the
fee of Rome, to dcmonilrate how early the popes claimed,
as the fuccelTors of St. Peter, an univerfal authority and ju-
rifdiftion. Tliir^y-fonr letters, in the firll volume of tiie
" Letters of the Popes" have been attributed !o this pon-
tiff, but by many of the ableft critics the greater part of
them has been regarded as Uippofititious.

'iKXOCr.KT II. pope, a defcendant from a noble family at
Rome, afcended the papal throne in the year i i :;o. He had

nocent i
but the remainder of his life was fpent in much difquiet.
The laft two years of his life were wholly occupied in re-
ducing fevcral cities which attempted to (hake off the yoke
of the apoliolic fee, and to recover their ancient liberty.
Tlie Romans alfo refufed to obey him as their prince, reftored
their fcnatc, and created their own magillratcs. In the
midll of thefe calamities the pope fell fick, and died in
114:;, after a pontificate of nearly fourteen years. In pri-
vate life he was moil highly elleemed on account of the fua-
vity of his manners, but from the fevcral revolts which took
place while he was head of the church, it has been fufpefted
that his adminilbation of government was not conduced
with prudence and wii'dom, and that his zeal for exalting

already filled fome refpcdable offices in the church, and the papal pretenfions was not behind that of any of his pre-
js faid to have led a moll exemplary hfe from his infancy, deceflbrs. Forty-three of his letters are inferted in the
and to have been diilinguilhed for eminent abilities and ftri'a tenth volume of the Colleft. Concil.

probity, while he was at the fame time of a mod humane and Innocent III. pope, originally called Lotharius, was a

courteous difpofition. He was promoted to the facred col- defcendant from the illultrious houfe of the counts of Segni,

lege by the title of cardinal St. Angelo, and was employed and born at Anagni about the year 1 161 After purfuing

by feveral of the popes in important negociations at home his lUidics at Rome, he went to the univerfity of Paris,

and abroad. Upon the death of Honorius II. he was where he was admitted to the degree of doftor. Fiom this

elected his fuccefTor by a part only of the conclave, the reft period he was advanced very rapidly in the church ; was or-

choofing Peter de Leon, the fon'of a Jew, who took the dained fub-deacon by Gregory VIII., and preferred to the

name of Anacletus II., and was acknowledged by the kings dignity of cardinal-deacon by Clement III., under the title

of Scotland and Sicily, while Innocent was received by the of cardinal St. Sergius, and St. Bacchius. On the death

Other princes of Europe. Being driven from Italy, he fled of pope Celelline III. in the year 1198, Lotharius was

to France, where he held feveral councils, at one of which elefted his fucceffor, being then only in his thirty-feventh

he thundered out a fentence of excommunication againft year. Being at this period only in deacon's orders, he was

Anacletus, and all his adlierents. He crowned the emperor firft ordained prieft, in order to his being able to undertake

Lotharius with great folemnity, and for the fupport of his the high office of pope, when he affumed the name of Inno-

new dignity granted to him, to his daughter, and to his fon- cent HI. From the moment of his exaltation, he feems ta

in-law, during their lives, all the cftates of the countefs Ma- have fet before him, as objects for his imitation, the cha-

tilda. On the death of Ins rival, another pope was chofen racier and conduct of pope Gregory Vll., and with equal.

by the fame party, who took the name of Vittor, but who, intrepidity and addrefs, purfued his plans of ambition, till

probably, feeling himfelf unequal to contend with the power he arrived at a height of dcfpotifra, which the world beheld

of Innocent, threw himfelf at the feet of tlie pontiff, and with wonder and aftonifiiment, but to which the Hates of,

thus put an end to the fchifm in the church. Innocent, Europe fubmitted with a filence that was highly difgraceful

having now no enemy to diflurb his peace, took up his len- to them. " Under this young and ambhious priefl," fays.

dence at Rome, and fummoncd a general council to meet in Gibbon, " the fucceffors of St. Peter attained the full me-^

the Lateran in the year 1 139. This was the mod numerous ridian of their greatnefs ; and in a reign of eighteen years,

council that had ever been held, confiiling, it is reported, he exercifcd a defpotic command over the emperors and kings

of a thoufand bilhops, befides a crowd of abbots and other wliom he raifed and depofed ; over the natians, wliom an in-

ecciefiaftics, who, befides other Imfinefs, declared the ordi- terdift of months or years deprived, for the offence of their

nations of Anacletus null ; excommunicated Ro^er, king rulers, of the exercife of Chriftian worlhip. Tr\ the council

of Sicily, and condemned the opinions of the famous Ar- of the Lateran he nfted a? the ecclcfiaftical, almoft as the tem-

iiold of Drefcia. Innocent, after this, was not contented poral, lovcreign of the Eaft and Weft. It was at the feet,

with- the pacific duties of his office, but aflually marched in of this legate that John of England furrendered his crown ;

perfon, with his army, againft the prince who feemed tn fet and Innocent may boaft of the two moll fignal triumphs

at his defiance the fentence of excommunication. Roger over fenfe and humanity, trie eftabliHiment of tranfubftantia-

was too well (Icilled in military taflics to leave the event of tion, and the origin of the inquifition. At his voice, two

the contcft doubtful, he attacked the epifcopal army, which crufades, the fourth and the fifth, were undertaken ; but

he pi-t to flight, aiid was fo completely fuccefsful, as to take except a king of Hungary, the princes of the fecond order

the holy: pontiff prifoncr, with feveral cardinals, and other were at the head of the pilgrims ; the forces were inadequate-

perfoiis of diftinftion. When lunocent was condudled into to the dcfign ; nor did the effeds correfpond with the hopes

and

INNOCENT.

and wi(his of the pops and the people." Innocent did not
coniiue his efforts to the Holy Land, he promoted a crufade
«gainit the Albigenfes. He liril attempted to convert
them by his miilionaries, one of whom was murdered, which
was the fignal for the difplay of all his wrath ; he did not
even deign to inftitutc an inquiry, but ordered the whole
race to be piirfiicd with fire and fword, and to be treated
with more I'evcrity than the Saracens themfdves. Immenfe
numbers of lives were facrificed in liis holy war, and bar-
barities pradil'ed, before unheard of; but the perpetrators
of them were applauded and rewarded by the cruel pontiff,
and the infernal fpirit by which tliey had been aftuated was
impioully called zeal in fupporting the caufe of God and of
the church. In 1 2 1 5, the fourth general Lateran council was
held at Rome, which was fo managed by the all-controlling
power of the pontiff, thatinfteadof exercifmg the funftions
of a deliberative body, it was made ufe of only as an in-
ftrument to regiller canons and decrees wliich Innocent had
drawn up, and which he permitted to be read for their appro-
bation. In this council a fentence, which had been pro-
nounced fome time before, fufpcnding Stephen Langton,
archbifhop of Canterbury, was coniirmed. The pope,
liltewife, thundered out a fentence of excommunication
againft the barons, which they treated with merited contempt,
and bravely perfilled in defending thofe privileges, the char-
ters of which they had lately compelled their monarch to
fign. In the year 1216, Innocent undertook, a journey to
Pifa ; but on his arrival at Perugia he was attacked with a
violent diforder, wliich put an end to his life in a few days.
According to Mr. Berington, " Innocent was learned, mag-
nificent, perfeverant, wife. In the knowledge of laws and
politics he had no equal : he pofTeffed the art of govern-
ment, and was obeyed more from fear than love. Ambition
was his ruling palfion, to gratify v/hich, he overftepped tTie
bounds of decency and jullice, playing as wantonly with the
folemn cenfiires of the church as if they had been inilituted
for t!ie common purpofes of wayward caprice or rel'entful
vengeance. To look into him for the amiable virtues of life,
or for thofe which iliould form the paftoral character,
would be lofs of time. The prerogative of the holy fee,
built up by adulation and misjudging zeal, filled his mind ;
its aggrandizement he fought fometimes, perhaps, from
motives which the cool reafoner may excufe ; and the meteor
of univerfal empire gleaming on his fenfes, did not permit
the operation of a difpafiionate and unbiaffed judgment. No
tears were fhed when Innocent fell, but thofe which Religion
*vept, too juflly pained by the inordinate exertions and
worldly views of her firll miniller." Innocent was the
author of a variety of works, which are enumerated by
Dupin, but the molt valuable are his " Epiflle^," which
threw confiderable light on the ecclefiallical hillory of his
time. His works have been collected in two volumes folio ;
the bed edition is that publiilied at Paris in 1682.

IxN'ocEXT IV., pope, was a native of Genoa, and being
diitinguifhed for his learning and attainments, he was in early
life made canon of Parma, from which he was promoted to
the chancellorfhip of the Roman church. In 1227 he was
raifed to the purple by Gregory IX., and in 1243 he was
elevated to the papal throne, when he took the name of
Innocent IV. Previoufly to this he was on terms of llriA
intimacy with tiie emperor Frederic II., who had been en-
gaged in a contell with the court of Rome, and that prince
no fooner received the news of his exaltation, than he lent a
fplendid embafly to congratulate him upon his eleftion, and
to affure him tliat nothing fhould be wanting to re-eftablilli
harmony between t!ie church and the empire. The pope,
however, began to alTume a dignity inconfulent with friend-

fliip, and he plainly declared that he was rcfolved to main-
tain the higheft pretenfions of the apollolical lee. Legate*
were dilpatched to accommodate all differences, but it was
of no avail, and hope.s of reconciliation being at an end,
Frederic prepared to reduce the pope to reafon by the terror
of his arms. Innocent, unable to refill the power of the
emperor, fled for proteftion to his native city, where he was
received with every mark of 'dillindion. Hei-e he affembled
a council, confiding of about 140 prelates, fome princes, and
the ambaffadors of mod of the crowned heads in Europe ; he
laid before this augud alfembly the motives which induced
him to call them together, defcribing the emperor as a tyrant,
a perfecutor of the church, and as guiky ofherefy, facrilege,
and other grievous crimes. The council gave credit to the
pontiff, and fanclioned the fentence of excommunication
pronunced againft him. This led to a moft deftruftive war,
which was carried on in Germany and Italy till the death of
the emperor Frederic in i2i,'o, who was fucceeded by lii;;
eldell fon Conrad, who took up his father's caufe with fo
much Zealand intrepidity, as rendered Innocent fully fenfible
of his inability to withiland that prince with his own forces
only. He accordingly made many imfuccefsful attempts
for obtainmg afTiilance, and iiis army was defeated, which fo
affected the pontiff, that he fell fick «nd died in the month of
December 1254, after he had prclided over the church nearly
twelve years. He had high notions refpefting the power
and authority of the papal fee : he pofTcflTed confiderable
learning ; was well acquainted with the divinity of the times,
and was regarded as the beft civilian of bis age. He was
author of a work entitled " Apparatus, Libris quinque
dillin£tus, in totidem Libros Decretalium," firft printed at
Venice in IJ/O ; and of feveral other pieces, befides twenty
letters, whicii are inferted in the eleventh volume of the
Collect. Concil. He was not only learned, but a great en-,
coiirager of learning, and is faid to have been the firft wh»
gave red hats to the cardinals.

IsxoCEST v., pope, was born at a town on the If ere, in
Burgundy. When very young he entered the Dominican
order of preaching friars, and purfued his ftudies in divinity
with fo much fuccei's, that he was appointed to fill the theo-
logical chair in the nniverfity of that city, and was confidered
as one of the moll learned divines of tiie age. He obtained
confiderable preferment in the churcli, and about 127 1 was
nominated by pope Gregory X. archbifiiop of Lyons, and
foon afterwards was promoted to the facred college by the
title of cardinal bilhop of Oftia. On the death of Gregory
he was Uiianimoufly chofen his fnccefl'or in the papal dignity,
and took the name of Innocent V. Befides reconciling thofe
ftates of Italy which were carrying on the moil bloody wars
againft eadi other under the oppofite denominations of
Guelphs and Gibellines, and bringing about a peace between
the republics of Lucca and Piia, he projected the million of
a fplendid legation into the Eall, to obtain from the emperor,
Michael Palaeologns, the confirmation of the articles of union,
but he died before he could carry his delign into execution,
after a fhort pontificate of about five months. He wrote
" Commentaries" upon the Pentateuch, the Canticles, aI^^^
tlie Gofpels: " Notes on the Epifll.".> of St. Paul," uA
other pieces, which have been publilhed fince his death.

Innocent VI., pope, formerly called Stephen Aubert,
was brought up to the ftudy ai:d practice of the law, and in
J 33 J he was profeffor of the civil-law r.t Touloufe, and chief
judge of that city. In two years after we find him bilhop
of Noyon, and in 1340 he was tranflatcd to the fee of Cler-
mont. In 1342 he was raifed by pope Clement VI. to the
dignity of cardinal bifhop of Ollia, and at the fame time tip.
pointed grand pcnitcatiary of the Romifu churcIi. In I'JjS
S I ii-

INNOCENT.

he wa§ uhanimoudy diofen pope, and took the name of In-
nocent Vr. He made it his burinefs to corredl abufes, and
alfo aboliihed the heavy impoiitions laid upon the clergy,
when prefcn-ed to any new benefice or dignity. He re-
trenched all the unnecefiiiry cxpcnces of the papal covirt, con-
tenting himfelt even with a fmall number of attendants : he
obliged the cardinals to follow his example, urging them to
beilow the fuperabundance of their weidth in relieving the
'neccfiities of the poor. Innocent maintained the decrees of
his predeceiTors againft thofe Minorite friars who affumed
.the title of " Spiritual Bi-othren,' ' and who contended againil
the right of tlie clergy poffefllng any property. Two of
this defcription were arrelled at Montpelier in the year 1 354 ;
the pope attempted to convert them from the error of their
ways, but finding th.em obitinate, he gave them up to the
inquifitors to be burnt alive. In the following year he fent
a legate a latere to Home to crown Charles, king of Ger-
many, and his quceii Anne with the iinperial crown, but not
before that prince h;',d fubfcribed to the molt humiliating
conditions. After this, nothing occurs during the remainder
of Innocent's pontificate which requires to be noticed. He
died at Avignon in 1362, after he had filled the papal chair
nearly ten years. He has been highly commended for his
■probity and the fanClity of his life : he was generous to the
wants of the poor : an enemy to vice, the patron and pro-
tector of virtue in every condition of hfe; He left behind
him many cpilUes, fome of which have been printed, and
others ar^ preferved in the Vatican.

lN>foci;>rT VII., pope, was born at Salmona, in Abruzzo,
about the year 1339, obtained a high reputation for his
knowledge of the civil and canon law, was made clerk of the
apoftolic cliamber by pope Urban VI., and was afterwards
employed to colled the revenues of the apoilolic fee of
England. As a reward for his fervices in thofe fituations
lie obtained confiderable church preferment, and was at
length raifed to the fiicred college under the title of car-
dinal pfelbyter of Santa Croce. On the death of Boni-
face IX. he was choien to the popedom, and took the name
of Innocent VII. Scarcely had he been coniecrated, when
a dt-eadful tumult broke out in Rome between the Gibel-
iines and the Guelphs : this led to other difturbanccs, which
lailed during the pontificate of Innocent, who died in about
two years after his elevation. He is reprefented as of a mild
and pacific difpofition ; of a generous and beneficent temper ;
an enemy to all pomp and fliovv ; free from pride and ambi-
tion, and of great addrefs in ilate affairs. He is much blamed
for having been the occafion of elevating unworthy perfons
to the highell po fs of dignity and trull. He is author of a
difcourfe " On Church Union," and fome " Letters."

Innocent VIII., pope, was born at Genoa in the year
1432 : at an early age he was fent to the court of Naples,
where he lived feveral years during the reigns of Alphonfo
and his fon Ferdinand, and received fubitantial marks of
favour from both princes. After this he removed to Rome,
and obtained coniiderable church preferment, till at length
b& was raifed to the pnrple by the title of cardinal of
i>t. Balbina in ihe year 1473. Upon the death of Sixtus IV.
in 1484, he was elciled his fucce/for, and took the name
of Innocent VIU., having been previoufly known by that
.of John Baptilt Cibo. As foon as he was feated in his
government, he attempted to procure another crufade, but
Without fu-.-cefs. Hiselforls, however, contributed to bring
liiuchHvealth into the apoilulic treafury, part of whicli the
pope appropriated to his own ufe ; and the rcll he expended
on the repair of ancient y/orks of art, or in fupport of a war
in which he foon became involved with Ferdinand, king of
Njplcs. Imiooent fpent ihe concluding years of his ponti-

ficate in endeavouring to maintain Order and good govcrrr*
ment in the church, and in cvdtivating th.- arts of peace. He
cleared the country of robbers and aflaffir.s, with which it was
at that time much infefled ; adopted meafures for the regular
fupply of Rome with provilions, and adorned it with many
magniliceiit buildings. He died in llij y ;ir 1492, aged 6c,
after he had filled the papal tluo I. . ' -ars. He

was poffeffed of a very moderate ^ - ;;d talents,

but fecured the attachment of -.'M .■ . ■ .eetnels of

his temper and the gentlenefs of his r-i;ir.ncr. His character,
in a moral point of view, will not bear examination : he uili
blufhingly acknowledged himfeif the father of a numerous
progeny of natui-al children, and is faid to have been the lirft
of the popes who introduced that new and exiraordinary
proceeding of owning publicly his fpurious iflue, heaping
upon them riches without meafure. He left behind him
fome letter.'!, and one to Henry VII., king of England,
againft citing the clerical orders before fecular tribunals.

I.NXOCDXT IX., pope, known originally under the nama
of John-Anthony-Facchinetti, was born at Bologna in the
year ijig, where he received his education, and was ad-
mitted to the degree of doftor in 1544. He now became a
domeftic in the family of cardinal Farnefe, who fent him in
the capacity of vicar to Avignon, and again to Parma. In
ijGC, he was fent by Pius V. as nuncio to Venice, whera
he had a principal concern in eftablidiing the confederacy
between the pope, the king of Spain, and the repubhc
againft the Turks. After this he vi^as created patriarch of
Jerufalem, prefident of the inquifition, and cardinal. In
1591, he was unanimoufly elefted to the popedom, when he
took the name of Innocent IX. He immediately projcfted
grand plans of improvement, of an eccleiiaftical and econo-
mical nature, none of which did he hve to execute. He
died in the fecond month of his pontificate, at the age of
feventy-two.

Innoc E.XT X., pope, was born at Rome about the year
1575, where he was educated and brought up to the pro-
feffion of the civil law, of which he was adniitted doctor
when he was only in his twentieth year. He obtained many
inftances of preferment in the church, and, in 1627, a car-
dinal's hat was prefented to him by pope Urban VIII. He
was next made prefeft of the ecclefiaftical immunities, fu-
preme judge of the inquifition, and protedtor of the king-
dom of Poland. On the death of Urban he was elefted
pope ; he had already carried on an illicit commerce with
his brother's widow. Donna Olympia Malilachini, to whoia
he now abandoned himfeif, the adminiftration of his tem-
poral aftaivs, and the government of the church. All be-
nefices, all employments, whether ecclefiaftical, civil, or
military, ivere difpofed of by her to tlie higheft bidders^
without any regard to friendihip or merit, or to the cha-
raifter of the piirchaferb. She induced the pope to forget
all fenfe of right and wrong when it interfered with her
wifiies. In 1645, upon the apphcation of the Dcminicanii,
who were aflbciated wiih the Jefuits in the million to China*
Innocent condemned the indulgence whicli the Jciuits had
(hewn to the Chinefe fupcrftitions. The moft remarkable
tranfadtion of his pontificate, was his condemning, by a bull,
in '.he year l65'3, the five propofitions feleited by the Jefuits
from .lanfenius's " Auguitinus." He died in 1655, about
the age of eighty-one, iiaving filled tlie papal throne little
more than ten yeai-s.

Innocent XI. was l)orn at Como, in the duchy of
Milan, in the year i6l 1. He v«s the fon of a rich banker,
and liis firft profelTion was that of a foldier, in whidi he
dillinguilhed himfeif by iiis gallantry. Quitting the mili-
tary cliarader he embraced the ecclefiaftical proieffion, and

I N N"

Went t9 ftiidy at Naples, where he was admitted to the
degree of doAor. Having filled, with high reputation,
feveral offices in the church, he was raifcd to the purple in
1645', and, in 1678, he was eletlod to the popedom. He
■began his high career with abohfliing abufcs, and fupprcfTinw
many grofs fnperftitions then prevailing in the church of
'Rome. He likewife attempted, by wife inftitutions and
judicious regulations, to reform the manm-rs of the clergy,
and to ftem the torrent of licentious morals among the laity.
In 1677, he fuppreffed " the right of afyliun," enjoyed by
foreign minilters at Rome, extending much farther than
their palaces, the immunities of wliich it was not deligncd
Jto violate. Moll of the ambafiadors from foreign courts
readily actjuiefced, but the miniller from the court of France
Tefufed to fubmit to it, and the pope, unwilling to enter into
a conteft with Lewis XIV., allowed his ambaliador to enjoy
•his ancient privileges. He had nov/ a contell vi'ith the
■French king, about the right of difnoling of benefices and
church lands claimed by that monarch, and confirmed to
.him by an affembly of the clerijy, which nearly terminated
in a feparation of the Gallican church from the Roman com-
munion. It was on this occafiou that Lewis fummoned the
famous alTembly of billiops, which met at Pans in the year
1682, and drew up the four celebrated propofitions declar-
ing the power of the pope to be merely fpiritual, and inL-rior
to that of a general council, and maintaining the inviolability
. of the rules, inftitutions, and obfervanccs of the Gallican
church. Innocent died in 1689, having prefided over the
..Roman fee twelve years and a half. He was virtuous and
pious, but without pretenfions to learning. His zeal for
the reformation of abufes, the improvement of morals, and
the reftoration of church difcipline, has given him a rank
among the bed of the popes.

Innocent XII., pope, originally named Anthony Pigna-
'telli, was defcended from an illuftrious family at Naples, and
bom there in the year 16 15, and fucceedcd to the popedom
in 1691, as fucceflbr to Alexander the Vlllth. In imita-
tion of the example of pope Innocent XI. he applied him-
felf to the reformation of the church and court of Rome.
He was unwearied in his endeavours to reform the corrupt
manners of the clergy, which were not wholly unfiiccefsful,
though he found that the entire accomplifhment of the Her-
culean ta& was a confummation, which all his prudence and
refol-.ition were unable to effect. He was anxioufly devoted
to tlie interells of the poor, and the wealth which many of
his predecefTbrs had been accuflomed to accumulate, or to
beftow 0:1 worthlefs relatives, he devoted to the public be-
nefit, employing it in the ereftion of hofpitals^ and other
ufefnl inftitutions, and particularly in the improvement of the
ports of Anzio and Nettuno. Innocent died in the year
1 700, at the advanced age of eighty-five, after prefiding over
the church about nine years. He had rendered himfelf uni-
verfally refpedled by his talents, and beloved on account of
his many virtues.

Innocent XIII , pope, formerly named Michael-Angelo
Cbnti, fon of Charles Conti, duke of Poll, was born at Rome
in the year 1655. He rufe fuccccffively to the highell
offices in the diurch, till at length he was clefted fucceffor
to Clement XI , in the papal dignity, in the year 1721.
He died in 1724, leaving behind him a charafter for great
wifdom, virtue, and learning. When a cardinal he diilin-
guifhed himfelf above molt of the members of the facred
college ; but the infirmities to which he had been fome years
fubject, prevented him from diilinguidiing his pontificate by
any actions which are worthy of being recorded. As autho-
rities for the foregoing articles, fee Bower's Hilt, of the
Popes; Moreri, Gibbon, &c.

I N O

INNOCENTS Day, the name of a fcaft celebrated on
tlie twenty-eighth day of December, in commemoration of
the infants murdered by Herod.

Heretofore it was the cultom to have dances in the
churches on this day, wherein were perfons, who rcprefented
bifliops, by way of dcrifion, as fome fuggelt, of the cpifco-
pal dignity ; though others, with more probability, fuppofe
it done in honoiu- of the innocence of childhood. See
Htnacorvs piierortim.

By a canon of the council of Cognac, held in 1260, thefe
were exprefsly forbidden ; but they were not wholly fup.
prefied, at leall in France, before the year 1444, when the
doftors of the Sorbonnc addreffed a fpirited letter on this
fubject to all the bilhops of the kingdom.

INNOMINATA Arteria, \\, yinaiowy, the firft large
trunk fent off from the arch of the aorta. See Artery.
JssoMiSATAglarutuln, the lachrymal gland. See Eye.
INNOMINATl, 67/ Irwominati, y/nonymi, perfons who
have no name.^, a title by which the academifts of Parma
diltinguifli themfelves.

Moll cities in Italy have an academy, and each has its
proper name. Thus thofe at Parma entitle tliemfelves Gli
innominati, as if it was their charader to have no name
at all.

INNOMINATUM, O.s, in Jmlomy, the large bone
compofing the chief part of the fides of the pelvis, and re-
ceiving the articulation of the lower extremity. Sec
Extremities.

INNOVATION, in Laiv. See Nov.vtion.
INNUENDO, oi innuo, I nod, or beckon, is a word fre-
quently ufed in writs, declarations, and pleadings, to afcer-
tain a perfon or thing which was named, but left doubtful,
before ; as, he [innueiiflo the plaintiff) did fo and fi) ; men-
tion being before made of another perfon. In common ob-
fervation or writing, an innuendo deriotes an oblique hint, or
dillant reference; in contradiftinttion to a direct and pofitive
charge.

INNY, in Geography, the name of two rivers in Ireland;
one which rifes in the county of Wellineath, and having
paffed through Loughs Derveragh and Iron, forms a bound-
ary between this county and Longford, for feveral miles,
after which it croffes the fouthern part of the latter, and
flows into Lough Ree, an rxpanfe of the Shannon ; the
other is a mountain dream in the barony of Iveragh, Kerry,
which empties itfelf into Ballin Skelig's b?y.

INOCARPUS, in Botany, from ir, '"r, a fibre, or nerve,
and zzj^or, afru'il, becaufe the drupa of this genus is com-
pofed of fibres or nerves. Schrcb. 297. Foriter. Gen. jj.
Linn. Siippl. :5y. Thunb. Nov. Gen. 45. Wilid. Sp. Pi. v. 2.
624. Mart. Mill. Diet. v. 2. .Iu(r. IJ2. Lamarck Dic't.
V. 3 253. Illuftr. t. 362. Clafs and order, Dccanelr'm Mono-
gyma. Nat. Ord. Dumop, Linn. Sapot^, Jufl,

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf (campanulate, ac-
cording to Thunberg) in two, roundifh, nearly equal feg-
mcnts. Cor. of one petal, tubular; tube cyhndrical, longer
than the calyx ; limb longer than the tube, divided into
five, linear, acute, undulated, often reflexed fegmcnts.
Slam. Filaments ten, very Ihort, infertcd into the tube ;
the lower ones alternate ; anthers ovate, twin, erefl. P[l!.
(iermen oblong, hairy, fuperior ; ftyle none ; lligma a hol-
low point. Pcric. Dnipa ovate, incurved, comprcffed,
large, fingle-fecdcd. Satl. A nut compofed of woody
fibres ; kernel oval, comprefTed.

Efl". Ch. Calyx bifid. Corolla funnel-fhaped. Stamens
in a double row. Drupa fingle-fccdtd.

I. I. eilulis. Wiild. Sp. PI. v. 2. 624. (Gvijanus ; RumpL.
Aoiboin. v. i. 170. t.6j.) Anaiiveof the Society, Friendl;>

an J

I N O 1 N O

and New Hebrides Iflands, in the South fcas, and alfo of from the wood or not. The mod general rule is, whci

Amboina. Forfter defcribes this as a' lofty tree, having a buds are found to be formed at the extremity of the .

trunk as thick as a man's body, with a brown chinky bark, year's (hoots, which is a flgn of their having finiflied t:

Brunches woody, fpreading, varioufly divided. Leaves ovate- vernal growth. The firft fort commonly inoculated is

oblong, fearcely cordate, netted with abinidance of veins, apricot, and the lall that of the orange-tree, which fii

Floivers dulky white, fearcely lialf an inch in length. From never be done until the middle of Auguil.

Cook's lall voyage we learn, that the nuts of Iiwcarpus are !„ doing this fort of work, choice fhould be made cf

called E—ifi. The kernel of thefe, which is kidney-lhaped, cloudy weather, as when done m the middle of the day, ir,

and about an mch m diameter, is eaten roafted by the na- very hot weather,the {hoots perfpire fo fail as to leav.- thebu,'..,

tives. It IS fweetiHi, but lefs pleafant than the chefnut, dellitute of moilhire ; nor fhould the cuttings be taken olf

harder, and not io fannaceous. The bark is aftringent, from the trees long before they are ufed ; but if fetched from

and ufed m the dyfentery. In New Gmnea, they fmear their fome diftance the leaves (hould be cut off, but all the foot-

^"'TrT^i'ii^'iTT a^^-'ixT^'^^ rehnous juice. ftalks left, and then wrapped up in wet mofs. and put in a

INOCULAT ING, in Gardening, the art or praflice of tin-box to exclude the adion of the external air upon them.

mfertingthe buds of trees of the fame kind into their Hocks But tlie praftice of throwing cuttings fnto water is highly

or other parts. It is a fort of grafting which is often had improper, as it faturates the buds fo with moifture, thnt

recourfe to ui tlie lummer feafon for raihng different kinds thev have no attraftive force left to imbi'oe the fap of the

of trees and plants, as it frequently fucceeds better tlian tiiat iioc'k, for want of which they very ofteH mifcarry, and dif-

of the common method. It is ufually executed in the man- appoint the operator

ner defcribed below. A fharp knife with a flat haft for the j, 5,^3 ^^^^ remarked by Mr. Forfvtli, that when the

purpofe and proper cuttings of the trees defigned to be ^^,.^,.,„ ^,^,1, are grafted in the fpring have not taken!

propagated being: provided, a choice (liould be made of a u u j r .1, ...■ .i_ /r 1 ■ 1 . 1 , '■"'^'=">

r *^.i . f . u A 1 II- >-'=" y "'""': ""''■'c ui d he would advife the cutting them off a little below the eraft at

fmooth part of the ftock which IS to be inoculated : five or • • . , j t-i . .1 .1 ^"cgaiLai.

-\ joint or bud. The tree then throws out a great number of

" except

"" V'n'r^l'Cr't '"""' T'"" "'X "I'r "\ '"'^ "'"•■^' ^o prevent the wind from breaking them. About the^Iatt?

as ant, about two mches in length, downwards end of .Tnlv the (hoots will be f^trn Jnnr,,!.^. wh;,-!, ,l,„,.l,

gatea being provded a choice (hould be made of a ^^ ^^^^y ^j,.,f^ .^e cutting them off a little below the graft at

. \ P=>';' °f ^l^ ft°=k which IS to be inoculated , five or , j„i„, „^ ^^j, ^he tree then throws out a great numbe- ~^

fix inches from the ground, where intended to be dwarf, but j^^^^ fl^^.^s ; all of which (hould be rubbed off, exc

when for a ftandard at the height of f.ve and a halt or f^^x ^ J ,3 J^ f^^jg^;^,,, ,^ ^,, ^,^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ', ;•'

feet ; and a horizontal cut made acrofs the rmd of the ftock, ,„ „,„,!, ,, „ . • , ,- „ u_, ■_ „._ ' . ■ „.» J,":,!

from the middle of that cut, taking care not to go deeper

end of July the fhoots will be fit to inoculate, which ibould

Inn ;C, Tn> nf X h, I r V ft ""7" S" "^H" then be do.ie, leaving a little of the wood on the inllde of
than the thickncls of the bark, left the flock be wounded ; ,. , i „,, „., „„ :„f .f j ; . .1 ,. i i 1 1 ■ • r
then having the cutting in readinefs, the leaf fhould be cut off "^l^"'^ when nferted into the Hock, and nd^b.ng in feme
from the bud, leaving the foot-ftalk remaining, but taking off "^ ^'^ compofition tying on the bafs at the fame time,
the bud lengthways fomewhat longer than the flit in the Having grafted fome fummer bonchretiens with the ber-
ftock, with part of the wood adhering to it J which being S^""'' de Pafque (or^ Ealler bergamot; and pear d'Auch
done, flip the wood from the bark with the knife by means '" "^''e fpring, moil of which failed, he cut them off below
of a fudden jerk, obferving whether the eye of the bud be left '^e grafts, and in July following they had produced (hoots
or not, as fuch buds as lofe their eves in dripping are quite f'°"i ''^'"^ '° '""^ ^^^t long, which he inoculated in the latter
■...''elefs : as foon as this has been done, the bark (lioiild be '^"'^ "^ "^^at month with the before-mentioned forts, which all
gently raifed on each (ide of the flit in the flock with the >°ok. About the beginning of September he ordered the
handle of the knife, and the bud inferted into it, being care- ^^'^"^^ '° ^^ flackened ; which being left too loofe, the barks
ful to place it fmootli between the rind and the woody part began to feparate. He then made them be tightened, letting
of the ftock, cutting oft' that part of the rind of the bud '^'-''" '"'^rna'" till the following fpring. About the beginning
which may happen to be too long for the flit : having thus °^ April, when he faw the buds begin to ftioot, he cut the
exadly fitted the bud to the ftock, they fhould be tied ^wts near to tlie buds ; but finding many where the bark
clofely round with wetted ftrong bafs, taking care not to ''ad not united, and fome of the eyes apparently dead, he
pafs any ligature round the eye of the bud, which mull ^^.°^ ^. "^^'P penknife and cut out all the decayed bark, rub-
always be left open and at liberty. In the courfe of three '^'"S '" '^"'"'^ "^ ^he compofition in a liquid ftate,. till the
weeks, or a month, the buds will require to be loofened hollow parts were filled up ; he then finoothed it off with
of the bandage, and which, if not executed in time, will be 'he finger even with the bark of the ftock. He alfo rubbed
highly injurious to them ; but they fhould not be wholly ^""^^ °' '''e compofition over thofe eyes that were in the
diveiled of tiie binding, it being proper to tie them again ^^'0''ft tta'e, being quite black, but with very little hope of
flightly, by which the bark of the ftock will be prevented recovery. " To his great aftonilhinent, many of thofe which
from becoming open, which fometimes takes place, and the kerned perfe^ly dead recovtred, and by the middle of July
bud is thereby greatly injured, if not wholly deftroyed. had (hoots from five to fix feet long (many of the fhoots

There is nothing further required until the following "hich took well having fruit-buds formed for next year),

March, when the ftock fhould be cut off about three inches ^'"^ covered a fpace of wall larger than a young tree would

above the place of inoculation, floping it the contrary way have done in eight years ; all the cavities where he cut out

to the bud. This length of ftock left is beneficial in faften- 'he dead bark and applied the compofition were, in the courfe

ing the (hoot wliich fprings from the bud, and which might °^ 'he fummer, filled up with found wood, and the bark

otherwifc be blown out by ftrong winds : in the autumn fol- between the ftocks and grafts perfcftly united,
lowing, however, it fliould be cut away quite dofe iuft «' Tiiree years ago he inoculated fome brown beiirres and

above the bud, that the wounded part may the more readily crafanes with pear d'Auch, one of which now covers a wall

become barked ovx;r. fixteen feet high and fifteen long, and has more fruit on it

It may be noticed, that the moil proper feafon for this this year than a maiden tree would have produced twenty

/ort of work .3, f-rom the middle of June until the middle years after planting." But he « never recommends inocii

of Auguft, according to the forwardncfs of the feafon, and lating or grafting of old trees, except when bad forts, or

the particular lorts of trees to be increafed ; but it may he more of any fort is wanted for a fupply • in that cafe he

cafily kaown by trying whether the buds wiU come off weU would recommend to inoculate or graft with pear d'Auch,

colmars.

INOCULATION.

?, and winter bonchrctiens, which keep much longer
'Liirrcs, crnfanes, &c."

.1 for ftandards that have been grafted in the fpring and
iviiiicd, he advifts tliat they flioiild he cut below the
. as, when fo treated, they throw out a great number
i >'o;s, wliich fliould by no means be too foon thinned,
:;> in that cale they will be hable to be broken by the wind.
The weakeft (hoots may be begun to be taken off about
the latter end of May or beginning of June. About the
middle of the latter month they will have acquired confi-
fiderable llrength, then thin them, leaving as many ftrong
regular (hoots, and of tliofe nearoll the top of the (tern,
as will form a liandfome liead. If the ilcm be very ftrong,
it will be neccfTary, perhaps, to leave more than aie intended
to be inoculated on purpofe to receive the fap, which will
flow in great abundance from a large trunk, and without
this precaution be apt to burft the (lioots. He has often
feen (hoots as large as his arm burll by a fuperabundance of
fap. When that is likely to happen, the bell tiling is to
fcarify the (hoots and nib a little of the compolition into the
wound. See Bi'n, BiUDixti, and Giiaftixg.

INOCULATION, among Gardcntrs, fignilies an ope-
ration in the management of fome forts of fruit-trees, which
is frequently denominated budding. See Budding, and the
preceding article.

IxocuLATios, in a furgual and medical fenfe, denotes
the practice of delignedly communicating from one perfon
to another certain difeafes, which is generally done by in-
troducing fome of the infeftious matter into a Cmall wound,
or puufture, made witli the point of a lancet. The com-
mon purpofe of idch operation is to diminilh the feverity
and peril of a dlllemper, which, taken in a cafual way,
proves exceedingly dellruftive, and the hazard of catch-
ing which, at fome period of life or another, is very con-
fiderablc. A chief objeft of the plan is alfo, in general,
to render the patient incapable of being again affected by
the dreaded contagion. Hence inoculation is fcldom per.
formed, but for a difeafe with which the human conilitu-
tion can only be affected once, as the fmall-pox and cow-
pox. The latter, which is fo mild as fcarcely to deferve
the name of a difeafe. being only communicable by con-
tact, and exifting originally no where except upon the teats
and udders of cows j would never perhaps have troubled any
other perfons than a few milkers, had it not been for the
difcovery of the important fact, that perfons who had un-
tlergone the complaint were made completely unfufceptible
of the fmall-pox contagion. The cow-pox inoculation has
row, therefore, been very generally fubitituted for that
with variolous matter, and the bei;e(icial confequences of
this change are fo truly important that the Jennerian dif-
coven/ will ever be regarded as a moil memorable event,
not only in the annals of medicine and furgery, but in the
hiftory of the world. See Cow-pox and Vaccination.

Although it is our intention to devote this article to the
hitloiy of the fmall-pox inoculation, v.e may here remark,
that the meafles iiave been propagated by inoculation. Dr.
Home, of Edinburgh, was the lirft who a£tually made the
experiment. Not being able to coUedt either matter, or a
fufficient quantify of broken cutiele at the lime of defqua-
mation. to produce the dilcafe, he drew blood from a fu-
perncial cutaneous vein, where the eruption was thickcft.
Cotton was then dipped in this blood, and applied to a wound
made in each arm of the perfon about to be inoculated.
In this manner Dr. Home inoculated twelve perfons. The
eruptive fever generally began fix days after inoculation ;
the fymptoms were lefs fevere ; the cough was milder, or
entirely abfeot ; and the inflammation of the eyes was trifling.

Notwithftanding Dr. Home's fuccefs, inoculation for the
meafles is feldom or never praftifed, others, who have
made tlic experiment, not havhig given reports equally fa-
vourable.

Inoculation for the plague has likewife been tried,, in or-
der to afcertain whether that diftcmper might not be ren-
dered lefs fatal and lefs prevalent in particular parts of the
world. In Egypt, Dr. Whyte inoculated himfcif with
matter taken from the buboes of an infLcted perfon. Tiie
attempt failed twice ; and the third proval fatal in three
days after the commencement of the fymptoms. See fir R.
Wilfoii's Hiit. of the Expedition to Egypt.

I[i the prefent Rate of our information, inoculation for
the plague appears unjuftiliable. It was alcertaincd in
Egypt, that many of the convalefcents took the plague a
fccond time ; nor, in all probability, does inoculation render
this diftemper milder. Indeed, what M Sonnini ohferves,
feems to lead to a contrary conchilion ; for he mentions, thai;
a Rulhan furgeon, who was a prifoner at Conllantinople,
with a number of his countrymen, took it into his head to
inoculate thefe unfortunate men with the plague, under the
idea of rendering the contagion lefs deflructive ; but the
refult was, t!iat t\^'o hundred loil their lives, as well as the
furgeon, who had alfo inoculated himfelf. See Sonuini's
Travels into Greece and Turkey, p. 497.

The idea of intentionally imparting any kind of difeafe to
the human body would appear, to perfons unacquainted with
the rcafon of the thing, equally extraordinary and cruel.
But the defign and utility of the inoculation for the fmall-
pox are now fo fully known among all clafTes of fociety,
as fcarcely to need explanation. When it is remembered,
that the fmall-pox contagion has, at various periods, nearly
depopulated extenfive kingdoms, and occafioned greater de-
valtation than the raoft deftruftive wars, any meafure, cal-
culated to render milder fo terrible a difeafe, mull be looked
upon as a difcovery of tlie very higheil importance. It has
been eftimated, that, upon an average, before the intro-
duction of inoculation, one out of every fix perfons affefted
with the natural fmall-pox, or fometimes even a half, perifh-
ed ; but that the proportion of deaths, among fuch as have
been inoculated in the mod improved manner, does not
amount to more than one in feveral hundreds. Belides this
circumftance, we have to mention, that before inoculation
became common, the fmall-pox frequently committed ra-
vages like the plague, and the fury of the dillemper was
always dreadful whenever the contagion made its flrll viht ta
a country. If, then, we are to hail the fmall-pox inocula-
tion a?- a general and momentous benefit to fociety, on the
principles jult now fpeciiied, with what joy and admiration,
mail we behold the difcovery of a complete fecurity againfl
the fm.all-pox infettion, in the new and perfectly fafe kind
of inoculation with vaccine lymph. The fmall-pox inocu-
lation materially alleviated the calamities arifing from that
contagion, by making the difeafe milder, and leffcning its
mortality. But, (till, the diftemper was not unfrequently
feen in a fevere form ; at lead one oat of every three or
four hundred inoculated died ; and the countenances of
thofe who furvived were often miferably pitted and dif-
figured. On the other hand, the vaccine inoculation Imrdly
ever produces any ferious indifpofition, and being followed
by no eruption, cannot deform the face. Its iafety a'.id
eiucacy are daily receiving more and more confirmation
from all quarters of the world, and wc have no doubt
that, after prejudices have had time to fubfide, the fmalU-
pox inoculation will be univcrfally fuperfeded.

The original introduftion of inoculation, however, will

always conliitute a moll memorable eveht ia hillQry, and \%

< a fubjcft

INOCULATION.

3 fubjeft too mterefting to be omitted incur work. After
a few obfervations on tlie commencement of the fmall-pox,
we ihall lherefi)re endeitvour to give fome account of the
rife and progrcfs of the pra<jticc.

Oi-i^in of the Small-po\-. — The fmall-pox, like the meafles,
pnd feveral other diieafes, is produced by a matter fui ge-
jicils, or, in other words, by a fpecific contagion, and it
has originated from caufcs fo perfeclly incomprchenfible, as
to fet at defiance all rational conjedure. From tlie filcnce
of tlie ancient Greeks and Romans refpefting a difeafe fo
very fatal, and of fucli peculiarity, as the fmall-pox, it is
reafonablc to conclude, that its date is fubfequent to their
times, and, coufequenlly, that the world cxiiled feveral
thoufand years before it was vifitcd by this dreadful pelli-
lonce. Rhazes, an Arabiaa phyfician, who praAifed at
Bagdad in the beginning of the ten-;h century, is one of tlia
oldelt writers on the fmall-pox, whofe works are ftill ex-
tent. On this fubjeift, however, he quotes feveral of his
predeceffors, the mod ancient of whom is Aliron, who was
a prieft and phyficinn at Alexandria, when that city was
befieged by the Saracens. Ahroii's book has, therefore,
been deemed the fuil in which any notice is taken of the
fmall-pox. The introduction of the difeafe, at that time,
into Egypt, might have been by the armies of Amrou,
whicli, in the kaliphate of Omar, poured in thitlicr from
Arabia.

The celebrated Dr. Friend conceived, that the Arabians
might originally have derived the contagion from fome of
the more diftant regions of the Ealt, and Pere D' Entrecolles,
a miffionary jefuit at Pekin, informs us, that, upon looking
over fome Chinefc books, he found the fmall pox mentioned
in them as a difeafe known in very ancient times. See
«' Lettres editiantes et curieufes,'' tom. 21. p. 33. ed. 1781.

Mr. HoUvell, a Bengal furgeon, has likcwife'endeavoured
to confirm the accuracy of Dr. Friend's opinion, obfcrving,
that, " at the period in which tlie Anghtonah Bhade fcrip-
tures of the Gentoos were proniulgcd, (according to the
Bramins 3366 years ago,) this difeafe mud; then have been
of fome Handing, as thofc fcriptnres inftitute a form of di-
vine worlliip, with poojuhs, or offerings, to a female divinity,
ftyled by the common people Goote ka Tagooran, the God-
dcfs of Spots, whofe aid and patronage are invoked during
the continuance of the fmal!-pcx feafon ; alfo in the meafles,
and every cutaneous eruption that is in the fmallell de-
gree epidemical. See " An Account of the Manner of ino-
culating the Small-pox in the Eaft Indies," p. 7.

On the otlier hand, Dr. Woodville is unwilling to admit,
that the fuppofed antiquity of the fmall-pox in India is
at .all proved by what DEnlrccolles and Mr. Holwell
have ob.''crved. Tie remarks, that the former has adduced
no dire£l faft, (liewing, that the difeafe was really defcribed
by the ancient Chinefe phyficians; while Mr. Holwell's
reafons mu!l be inconclufive, not only as founded on the
verity of the Hindoo chronology ; but becaufe the God-
defs of Spots was not fuppofed to jirefide over any parti-
cular eruptive diforder, but over all cutaneous affeaions
that were epidemical. Bcfides, as Dr. Woodville juftly no-
tices, had the fmall-pox cxiHed in India more than 3366

years, it could not fail to have been tranfportcd in early
times both to the Greeks and Romans, by the conilant in-
tercourfc, whicli they indirectly maintained with the Indian
liations.

Dr. John James Reiflce mentions, that, in an old Arabic
MS. preferved in the public 1 brary at Leyden, heread, that,
in the year of the birth of Mahcmiet, the meafles and fmall-
pox made tlieir firft appearance in Arabia. Difp. inaug.
X.ujjd. Bat. 17.^6. Now it appears alfo from fome Arabian A. 15. No. 30,

annals, procured by that adventurous traveller, Mr. Br jce,
that the era of the fu-fl appearance of the fmall-pox in
Arabia attaches to that of the fiege of Mecca, and that the'
Abyflinian army, commanded by Abrahah, was the firft
viftim of its fury. Mr. Gibbon ftates, that the fiege of
Mecca happened only two months before the birth of Ma-
homet ; a fa£l, which Dr. Woodville points out as deferving
very particular notice ; for if the year of the birth of Maho-
met be afcertained to be alfo that of the fiege of Mecca, the
Arabian MS. cited by Dr. Reifl'ce, and that written by
Hameef)-, the Arabian author mentioned by Mr. Bruce,
perfectly coincide. According to Gibbon, Mahomet was
born A.D. 569 ; which, on the above independent autho-
rities, is to be confidered as the period when the fmall-
pox firft ma je its appearance in Arabia.

From this era, to that of the conqueft of Alexandria in
640, no traces of the exillence of the fmall-pox are to be
difcovered ; but the difeafe certainly fpread into that city
at the time it was inverted by the Saracens ; and, as Dr.
Woodville ftates, it may therefore be fuppofed to have been
brouglit into Egypt by the Mahometan army, which, fix
years before, had invaded Perfia and Syria, where this de-
ftruftive peftilence probably had already made aconCderable
progrefs.

After this period, to the revival of litei-ature in the 13th
century, fucceeded that general ftate of ignorance and bar-
iarifm, during which the prefent fubjeift, in common with
many others, is fo obfcured in the darknefs of the times as
to elude the mcft diligent refearch.

It is raanifeft from the works of Rhazes, that many of
the Arabian phyficians had written on the fmall-pox before
the lOth century ; and notwithftanding the Saracen hiftory
is filent on the ravages which muft have accompanied the
general diffufion of the fmall-pox during the empire of the
cahphs, the progrefs and prevalence of the diilemper are
to be inferred from collateral evidence. Thus, the caliph
Yczid, who died in 6S3, is mentioned as being pitted witk
the fmall-pox ; and the caliph Abul-Abbas AlfafFah ac-'
tually died, in 753, of this difeafe.

The time when the fmall-pox contagion firft fpread into
Great Britahi is involved in doubt. Moft writers fuppofe
that the diftemper was imported into Europe by the cru-
faders, upon their return from the Holy Land in the 13th
century. The improbability of this iiatement is infilled
upon by Dr. Woodville, who adverts to the knoivn aftivitj'
of variolous matter, the long time it retains its infettious
quahty, and the unlikely circumftance of the fmall-pox'
prevailing fix or feven centuries over various parts of Afia,'
having free infercourfe with Europe, before it was conveyed
into this kingdom. It is indeed furprifing, that the dreadful
eftedts which muft have attended the firft introduflion of
th.e fmall-pox into this as well as any other country, have'
efcaped the notice of all our hiftorians and medical writers.
But, by examining fome of the MSS. of the Harleian and'
Cottonian colleflions, preferved in the Britifh Mufeum, and
bearing indubitable evidence of having been written before
the year 900, Dr. Woodville f\icceeded in tracing the ex-
iftence of the fmall-pox in our ifland, and on the neighbouring
continent, long before the crufades took p'ace. In thcfe'
curious records the word variolx occurs feveral times in the'
fame fcnfe in wliich it is nowufed. We likewifeiearn from-
the MSS. that the people in tliofe early times lived in con-
tinual dread of the fmall-pox, as feveral prayers, exorcifms,
nd incantations, to which they had recourle for preferva-

tion, are to be found. Dr. Woodville refers us to No. j-Sc,
of the Harieian Catal. vol. i. and Bibl. Cotton. Cahgula'

The

INOCULATION^.

*llic ilrll Britilli medical writers of any note were thofe
of the 1 3th century, and they, as well as all their fucceflbrs,
from John of Gaddcfden to the immortal Sydenham, &c.
have beRowed much attention on this important diftempcr.

H'lftory of Inocuhitlon of the SmaU-pox.—Tht exaa part
of the world where inoculation was lirll adopted is quite
imknown ; nor do we poITefs any information of the circum-
ftances which originally fuggcfted the benefit that might
refult from tlie pradice. From the Arabian phy ficians having
been tlie firll informed of the nature and treatment of the
fmall-pox, it has been fuppofed that inoculation had its
origin amon^ them. (See Second Memoire fur I'lnocula-
tion par M. de la Condamine.) Avicenna, who lived at
Bokhara on the eaft coall of the Cafpian fea, or his dif-
ciples, have in particular been fufpe£led of being the authors
of this valuable invention, in confequence of the countries
between the Cafpian and Euxine feas being the fuppofed
centre from which inoculation fpread to other places. Dr.
Woodville, however, conliders this conjefture as very ill-
founded. He contends that we have no evidence that any
of the people near the Cafpian fea were the firll pradtifers
of inoculation. Had the invention originated in this part
of the world, the Tartars could hardly have been fo igno-
rant of the praftice, as, according to D'EntrecoUes, they
■adtually were in the year 1724. Nor is it probable that the
method fpread from weft to eaft ; for as the fame author
has obferved, inoculation is more ancient in the eaftern parts
of China than it is in the weftern provinces of that empire.
Dr. Woodville remarks that inoculation was certainly firft
introduced into Conftantinople from the Morea ; but as the
event did not take place till towards the end of the 17th
century, we may conclude, that, had the art been pradlifed
for many ages, at fo fliort a diftance from that metro-
polis, it would have been known there much fooner. Be-
fides, in various countries, very remote from the Cafpian
fea, it is proved to have been an immemorial ufage.

Inoculation was introduced into London as a foreign
invention, and, from its fuccefs upon the younger branches
of the royal family in 1732, became the fubjecl of public
converfation, when, to the great furprife of the learned, fe-
veral communications proved that it was already a practice
known in South Wales, where it had exifted under the
denomination of buying the fmall-pox as far back as tra-
dition could be traced. The manner of inoculating, or
buying the fmall-pox, here alluded to, was fubjec\ to
variety. Some perfons either rubbed the matter, taken from
the puftules, when ripe, on feveral parts of the fiiin of the
arms, &c. or pricked fuch parts with pins, or other pointed
things, firft infefted with the fame matter. Some fcraped
the ikin with a knife, until the blood began to flow, before
they apphed the variolous pus. Others produced the dif-
tempcr by holding a certain number of dried puftules, for
a confiderable time, in the palm of the hand. (See the
Xettci-s of Dr. Williams, Mr. Owen, and Mr. Wright, in
the Pliilofophical Tranfactions for 1722, and Dr Jurin's
account of the fuccefs of inoculation in 1723.) The in-
habitants of the Highlands of Scotland have alfo for many
ages performed a kind of inoculation by tying worlled
threads, moiftened with variolous matter, round the wrifts of
their children. ( Monro on Inoculation in Scotland. ) The
fame cuftom likewife prevailed in many other parts of
E irope, Afia, and Africa ; and, what is highly curious, the
practice was, in feveral of thefe diftant countries, termed
luy'm^ the fmall-pox, jirft as it was in South Wales ; for it
was fuperftitiouUy imagined that inoculation would not pro-
duce the proper effect, uniefs the perfon from whom the
Afanolous matter was taken received a piece of money, or
Voi. XIX.

fome other prcfent, in exchange. Tlie praftice of buying
the fmall-pox has been found to have prevailed from time
immemorial, not only in South Wales, but alfo at Naples,
Pavia, in Auvcrgne and Perigord, and among the peafantry
in many parts of Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. Sec
Second Mem. fur I'Inoculation, par M. de la Condamine;
Murray'sHiftoria Iiifitionis Variolarum in Suecia ; Schultz's
Account of Inoculation, &c.

In Barbary and the Levant the variolous matter was
alfo purchafed, and inferted in a fmall incifion made in the
flefhy part of the hand between the thumb and the fore-finger.
(See Shaw's Travels into Barbary and the Levant.) In
Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers, an incifion was made on ths
back of the hand, between the thumb and fore-firgcr, and
a little of the variolous matter put into the wound. Ac«
cording to Dr. P. Ruffel, inoculation is fo ancient in thefe lail
kingdoms tliat nobody remembers its firft rife ; and it has
been pradlifed not only by the inhabitants of the towns, but
alfo by the wild Arabs. (See Phil. Tranf. vol. Ivi. p. 140.)
It appears, moreover, from this gentleman's account, that
buying the variolous matter and inoculating have been an-
cient cuftoms at Bagdad, Moful, and BafTora, in Armenia,
at Damafcus, and all along the coaft of Syria and Palelline.
The Arabs affured Dr. Ruftll that the punfture might be
made indifferently in any flefhy part ; but he moftly found
the mark between the thumb and fore-finger. Some
of the Georgians had been inoculated in the fame part,
though moft of them in the fore-arm. Some of the Arme-
nians had been inoculated in both thighs ; but the greater
part, like the Arabs, bore the mark upon the hand.

D'EntrecoUes, by obtaining accefs to feveral medical
books at Pekin, difcovered one in v.hich an account Nvas
given of the introduftion of inoculation into China. The
author of the book here alluded to, lived in the latter part
of the dynafty of Ming. Hence it has been concluded that
inoculation has not yet been practifed in China 2co years.
But in Hindooftan the cuftom can be traced much farther
back. The methods of praftifing this art by the Chinefe
and Hindoos are alfo fo widely diflerent, that they cannot
have been derived from the fame origin. TI;e Chinefe take
from two to four dried variolous puftules, or fcales (ac-
cording to their fize), between which they place a fmall
portion of mufli ; the whole is then wrapped up in cotton,
and introduced into the patient's noftril. The fcales befort-
ufed are kept in a clofe jar for feveral years, and when the
Chinefe are obliged to employ recent puftules, they think
it neceffary to corrcft the acrimony of the matter, by cx-
poiing it to the fteam of an infufion of the roots of fcor-
zonera and liquorice. They fometimes reduce the dried
fcales into powder, and form them into a pafte for the puc-
pofe of inoculation.

Dr. Woodville very properly obferves, that tlie appli-
cation of variolous matter, wiapj^ed in cotton, within tic
noftrils, rauft be an exceedingly precarious mode of com-
municating the fmall-pox, and may peihaps afford a reafoii
why inoculation in China is lefs fuccei'sful than in other
countries ; for if the matter acls in the way of inoculation,
a troublefome inflamniation of the Schneiderian membrane
muft enfue ; and, (hould not this take place, the variolous
efBu\-ia, by being inhaled intio the lungs, will produce tlie
natural fmall-pox.

In Hindooftan inoculation is performed by a particular
tribe of Bramins. They do not refufe to inoculate on any
part ; but, in males, they prefer the outfide of the arm, mid-
way between the wrift and the elbow, and, in females, the
fiioiilder. The operator firft rubs the part with a dry-
cloth for eight or ten minutes, and then ilightly pricks it
T ar.

INOCULATION.

at many points. He next takes a fmall pledget of cotton,
charged with the variolous matter, moiftens it with two or
three drops of the Ganges water, applies it to the punClured
part, fixes it there wiih a bandage, and orders it to be kept
on for fix hours. The bandage is then to be taken off,
the pledget being left to fall off of itfclf. The matter in
the cotton is always taken from pullules of the preceding
year, frcfii matter, and fuch as is the prodiift of the natural
fraall-pox, being confidered improper. See Holv.-ell's Ac-
count of the Manner of inoculating in the Eaft Indies.

It was immediately from Conftantinople that the Englifli
firft derived a full knowledge of the advantages of inocula-
tion. The benelicial confequences of the praftice among
the Turks, were detailed by Dr. Emanuel Timoni, com-
municated by Dr. Woodward to the Royal Society, and
pubhfhed in the Tranfaftions of that body for the year 1714.
The Byzantine mode was to take fome frefli variolous
matter in a glafs veflfel, and drop it on punftures or fcratches
made with a needle or lancet in any flefhy part, but efpe-
cially in the arm and fore-arm. The matter, which was
•dropped on the punftured place, was well blended with the
drops of blood ifluing from the wounds, by means of a
blunt ftile or ear-picker. The part was then kept covered
with a walnut {hell for a few hours, in order to prevent the
matter from being rubbed away.

Another account of the Byzantine mode of inoculation
was afterwards publifted by Dr. Pylarini in the fame volume
of the Tranfaftions of tlie Royal Society for 17 16. But
the year before this gentleman's obfervations appeared, fur-
geon Kennedy had printed an account of the new method of
inoculating at Conllantinople, in his " EflTay on External
Remedies," and he feems to be the firft Britifh author on
the fubjeft of inoculation. Soon afterwards, lady Mary
Wortley Montague, the wife of the Englirti AmbafTador at
Conftantinople, in her letters, confirmed the accounts of the
remarkable manner in which the feverity and mortality of the
fmall-pox were diminifiied among the Turks by means of
inoculation ; and, in one of her epiltles from Adrianople,
{he expreffcd her intention to try the experiment upon her
own little fon. See vol. ii. let. 3-1.

The mode of performing the operation at Conftantinople

fradually became more and more fimple. We learn from
ylarini, that, in 1 701, incifions were made in the forehead,
cheeks, chin, and alfo in the extremities, for the purpofe of
inoculation. Timoni likewife, twelve years afterwards,
mentions, that the operator is to make feveral little wounds
in one or more places of the fkin, and thefe fucceedbeftin
the flefhy parts of the arm. In the year 1717, the iiifertion
of variolous matter, at a fimple pundture in each arm, feems
"to have been the prevailing method of inoculation, as will
appear by the following relation : Mr. Maitland, furgeon to
the honourable Wortley Montague in his diplomatic charac-
ter at the Ottoman court, informs us, that the ambaflador's
lady, being convinced of the advantages of inoculation, de-
termined that her only fon, then fix years of age, fliould
undergo the operation. For this purpofe, (he dcfired Mr.
Maitland to procure the variolous matter from a proper fub-
jeftx which being done, an old Greek woman, many years in
the conftant habit of inoculating, was employed to infert it.
«' But (fay.s Mr. Maitland) the good woman went to work
fo awkwardly, and, by the (liaking of her hand, put the
child tofo much torture with her blunt andrufty needle, that
I pitied his cries, and therefore inoculated the other arm with
my own inftrument, and with fo little pain to him, that he
did not in the leaft complain of it." (Maitland's Account
of Inoculating the Small-pox, p. 7.) The confequent dif-
eafe was very mild, and, if .the mode of buying the fmall-

pox be excepted, this inoculation, which was done at Por.j ,
near Conftantinople, in March 1717, was the fii-ft ever pr.ic .
tiM upon any Englifh fubjecl.

The inoculation of the fmall-pox was firft regularly at'i ;
ed in England in the month of April 1721. The pra6'.i^ .
in all probability, would not have been fo foon purfued oy
the faculty, had it not been for the enlightened and philofo-
phic mind of lady Mary Wortley Montague. After this
celebrated lady had wilnefTed the good effects of inoculation
upon her fon at Pera, (he determined alfo to try it upon
her daughter, then an infant three months old ; but for cer-
tain domeftic reafons, the operation was at that lime deferred,
fo that this child was fortunately relorved to be the firft ex-
ample of inoculation in England, which was done by Mr.
Maitland, in April 1721. According to Dr. Woodville,
writers have univeifaliy erred, in dating this event in April
1722, and making it fubfequent to the inoculation of the
malefaftors at Newgate. He notices that Mr. Maitland's
pamphlet, in which all the circumftances are ftated, was-
publilhedin February 1722, as appears by the advertifement
prefixed to the work. Therefore Mr. Maitland, in faying
April Lifl, could mean no other than that in the year 172 1.
Befides, Mr. Maitland exprefsly mentions, that this was the
firft example of inoculation in England.

After the fuccefsful refultof this cafe, Mr. Maitland per-
formed the fecond inoculation ever done in this country, in
the month of May 172 I, upon the fon of Dr. Keith, and
with the beft eftedls. Notwith Handing thefe confirmations
at home of the favourable accounts of the pradlice which
had been already received from Conftantinople, and notwith-
ftanding the firm and powerful patronage which the Byzan-
tine inoculation met within lady Mary Wortley Montague, it
is a faft, that fuch was the fufpicious caution with -.vhich the
method was received, that feveral months elapfed before a
third trial of it was made in London. Indeed, tlie very next
experiment that wa.s undertaken ftrikingly evin,.es the dan-
gerous light in which inoculation was ftill regarded ; for it
was determined that feveral culprits in Newgate, who had
forfeited their lives to the laws of their country, fhould, on
fubmitting to be inoculated, receive full pardon by the royal
prerogative. Six condemned criminals were inoculated by
Mr Maitland, on the ninth day of Auguft 1721, in the
prefence of feveral eminent phyficians and furgeons. Thefe
malefactors all obtained a remilTion of their fentcnce on very
cafy terms. None of them had the difoafe feverely, and one,
who had already had the fmall-pox, was of courfe not affccL-
ed a fecond time A feve nth criminal, a young woman, was
next pardoned, on condition of having the Chinefe method
of inoculating tried upon her, at tiie wifh of Dr. Mead.
Confequently, fome cotton, moiftened with variolous matter,
was introduced in her noftrils ; the diftemper followed in a
mild form : but the patient fuffered violent pains in her head,
from the commencement of the eruption to the maturation
of the puftulcs.

After thefe public proofs of the fafety and advantage of
inoculation, obj'.Aions and doubts were ftill adduced againil
the method. Some confidered the cafes too few, while
others, in confrqucnce of the fiiiall number and mildncfs of
the puftules, thought it doubtful whether the genuine fmall-
pox had been at all communicated. Hence, in the courfe of
the following fix months, Mr. Maitland inoculated only ci^^ht
fubjefls, who all J^covered, though two, it muft be con-
feffed, iiad the fmall-pox fo feverely, as to be for fome
time in danger. See Maitland's Account' of Inoculating
the Sn-.all-pox, 1722.

Maitland's p\iblication was immediately afterwards fot-
lowed by a letter -from Dr. Nettleton, who, in December

INOCULATION.

3721-, and the two fubfequent months, had inociJated with
■fuccefs upwards of forty perfons at Halifax, in Yorkfliire.
This relation influenced the public very confiderably in favour
of the new mode of communicating the fmall-pox.

Early in the fpring of the year 1722, inoculation began
to be adopted in vai-ious parts of England ; and by order of
her royal highnefs the princefs of Wales, it was praftifed
firft upon fix, and afterwards upon five charity children, be-
longing to the parilh of St. James's. The fuccefs of thefe
trials induced her royal highnefs to have the princefles Ame-
lia and Carohna inoculated on the nineteenth of April 1722,
by ferjeant furgeon Amyaud. Both thefe younger branches
of the royal family pafTed through die fmall-pox, in a very
favourable manner; and inoculation, in confequence of this
illuilrijus example, was now making a rapid progrefs : when
unfortunately the praftice received a great check, by the
death of the earl of Siuiderland's fon, and by that of lord
Bathurft's fervant, after being inoculated. A Mifs Rigby
alfo died, about eight weeks after her inoculation, making
the third death. Therefore, out of 182 inoculations, in
1721 and 1722, three died ; or nearly one in fixty.

About the time when the firft death happened in London,
accounts were received in town. Hating that the praftice
had been tried to a much greater extent in New England.
It appears that, after an abfence of nineteen years, the
fmall-pox had broken out with a great mortality at Lofton,
in April 1721. This induced the Rev. Mr. Mather to pub-
lifh the account of inoculation, as related in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfaftions by Tinioni and Pylarini. This publication,
which was diftributed to all the medical praftitioners at that
place, was the means of inciting Dr. BovUlon to commence
the praAice of inoculation upon his own child, and two
negro fervants, at the latter end of June 1 721. In the
courfe of fix months, he inoculated in and about Bofton
2^4 perfo;;s. Of this number fix died.

The reports wliich came from New England, were em-
ployed with great exaggeration by the opponents of inocu-
lation, who fci/.ed with avidity every circumftance that
might have the leall tendency to retard the progrefs of the
improvement.

During 1723, the praftice of inoculation became much
more general in England, the number of inoculated this year
far exceeding the numbers in the two preceding years taken
together. It amounted to 292, which, added to 182, makes
tlie whole number of inoculations in the years 1721, 1722,
and 1723, to be 474, of which number, according to Dr.
Jurinj.nine died.

It deferves notice, that leveral of thefe nine cafes were
not generally admitted as deaths altogether in confequence
of inoculation. But even allowing that they were fo, the
chance of recovering from the inoculated fmall-pox mull
appear infinitely greater than from the cafual. For it was
proved, that at this time, out of 14,559 perfons who had
been affected with the natural fmallpox, 235 1 died; nearly
one in fix, or five out of thirty-one.

In 1724, there were only forty perfons inoculated. Their
royal highnciTcs prince Frederick and prince William, how-
ever, were in this fmall h(l. Dr. Jurin accounts for the
feeming dechne of inoculation this year, by the fa£t that peo-
ple will not eafily fubmit to a practice in which they appre-
hend rifle, unlefs' impelled by the dread of a greater danger.
Now it appears that in 1724, the natural fmall-pox was much
lefs fatal than in 1722 and 1723, and it is to this caufe v.e
are to refer the above fmall number of inoculations. That
tlrt; praftice had not fallen into difrepute is manifeft ; for Dr.
Jurin informs us that in 1725 the natural fmall-pox was very
jncrtal, and of courfe, people being frightened, refortcd to

inoculation again in a larger number. Of the above-men-
tioned forty, one is recorded to have died.

In 1725 and 1726, 256 perfons were inoculated, of which
number four died.

In the years 1727 and 1728, the praftice of inoculation
did in reality begin to decline ; for, thou;(h the fmall-pox
was very prevalent and fatal, only 1 24 inoculations took place
in thefe two years, and three of the cafes proved fatal.

We find that up to 1729, 897 perfons had been ino-
culated in England, of whom feventeen are reported to have
died. But on the other hand, the records faew, that of
18,229 P'-'''fons, who had been afi'eded with the natural
fmall-pox, during the firit eight years of inoculation, 3008
died under the difeafe ; or about one in fix ; whereas, the
deaths by inoculation, admitting the utmoll number con-
tended for, does not exceed one in fifty. 'I'lie rcafon why
more died of inoculation at this early period of the practice
tliaii has been the cafe of late years, is juftly afcribable to
the better manner lately adopted of treating jnocuhted pa-
tients. Befidos, formerly it was common to inoculate adults,
in \\ hom the difeafe is more difpofed to aflume a fevere form
than in children.

Inoculation was not regularly praflifcd in Scotland till
the year 1726, when Mr. Maitlaiid performed tliis opera-
tion upon ten perfons ; but as one of theie cafes was un-
fuccefsful, the practice was difcontinued in that country for
twenty years afterwards, and was not revived again with-
out confidcrable difficulty. At Dumfries, indeed, where
the calual fmall-pox had committed great ravages, inocula-
tion was had recourfe to in 1753 ; but in moft other parts,
of North Britain the method was not introduced till

In Ireland, inoculation was firft performed at Dublin in
1723. Twenty-five perfons were inoculated in that and the
three following years. Of this fmall number, tliree cafes
terminated fatally.

Inoculation at Hanover was firft performed in 1724, by
Mr. Mailland, upon his royal highnefs prince Frederick,
and afterwards upon eight children of the Baron de Schulen-
berg. The example and fuccefs of thefe cafes had the effedl
of eftabhfliing the practice in that country.

After 1729, inoculation was ferioufly on the decHne in
England; but it made confideiable progrefs in the tranfat-
lantic world. In South Carolina, about the year 1738, not
lefs than 800, or 1000 perfons were inoculated, of whom
only eight died. The account of this fuccefs contributed
materially to revive the pradice in Great Britain. In Phila-
delpliia, hkewife, inoculation proved foon afterwards ftili
more favourable ; and in St. Chriftopher's 300 flaves were
inoculated, without the lofs of one.

Such fads in favour of the pradice, and the great fatality
of the natural fmall-pox in Britain, foon led people to adopt
inoculation more extenfively than ever, and from the year
1 73S, this beneficial m.ethod may be regarded as having been
completely and generally cftablilhed, though partiid oppoli-
tion prevailed long afterwards.

In the year 1746, the inftitution called the Inoculation
Hofpital had its rife, though it was not at firll fo confidcr-
able an edablifhment as at prefent. Here the fuccefs of
inoculation did not difappoint the hopes and zeal of its
patrons ; for out of 593 cafes of perfons fucceffively ino-
culated, from the year 1 75 1, only one proved unfuc-
cefsful.

In 1754. it was determined to inoculate the three royal

children, who had not yet had the fmall-pox. In the mean

time, his prefent majeily took the difeafe cafualiy, fo that •

only the prince Edward, and the princefs Augufta, were

T 2 ir.uculated.

INOCULATION.

inoculated. Thefe great examples, and the public appro-
bation of the praflicc declared by the College ef Phyficians,
gained numerous advocates to the caufe, wliich never after,
vards loft ground, till the ftill fafcr and milder mode of
inoculation with vaccine lymph was brought into notice by
the immortal Jenner.

In France, Dr. Boyer is the firft writer who has noticed
inoculation, which he did in 1717. In 1723, the fuccefs-
ful trials of inoculation in England were publiflied at Paris
by Dr. de la Coftc, and the confequence was a declaration
by the phyficians of that city, " that for tlie benefit of the
public, it was lawful to make tri.ils of inoculation." The
practice was on the point of having a beginning in the hofpi-
tals, under the fanftion of the duke of Orleans, the regent,
■when, unfortunately for the experiment, this nobleman died,
and foon afterwards Dr. Hecquet publilhed his «' Raifons de
doute contre I'Inoculation." The fentimcnts contained in
this publication, and in a thefis written at Paris in 1723, the
reports of the ill fuccefs of inoculation at Bofton, and the
great mortahty of the natural fmall-pox in London, in
1723, falfely afcribed to the new praftice, foon brought the
method into difrepute in Fj-ance, and the defign of trying it
there was laid afide.

The French paid httle attention to the fubjed again till
1752, when Dr. Biittini, of Montpelier, publiflied at Paris
his " Traite de la Petite Verole communiques par I'Inocula-
tion." Two years afterwards, M. de la Condamine read
his excellent memoir upon the advantages of inoculation,
before a public aflembly of the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Paris. But, according to Dr. Woodville, the praftice
was not introduced into France till the i ft of April ly^J,
when, at the defire of M. Turgot, a child, four years old,
was inoculated at Paris. On the 14th of May, M. Chaf-
tcllux, aged 21, voluntarily fubmitted to the operation.
About this time, Dr. Holly, who had been attending the
fmall-pox and inoculation hofpitats in Lo.ndon, at the re-
qucft of the French niinifter, publiflied at Paris the follow-
ing report : — " That out of 463 cafes of perfons laft ino-
culated in the hofpital, only one had been unfuccefsful ;
whereas, in the Small-])ox hofpital, it appeared bv the re-
gifters, that nearly one in four had died of the natural fmall-
pox." — " That Mr. Ranby, principal furgeon to his ma-
jefty, had inoculated 1 600 perlbns ; and that Mr. Bell,
pupil to Mr. Morand, had inoculated 903, without the lofs
of one." — " That in order to form a jult comparative view
of the fatahty of inoculation and of the natural fmall-pox,
it is only requifite to vifit the two hofpitals in London, the
difference of their reports being fo remarkable, that It muft
convince the moft incredulous of the advantages of inocu-
lation." Laftly, " with refpedl to the inoculation of other
difeafes along with the fmall-pox, that no inftance of the
kind has ever been produced ; and that perfons have been
inoculated with variolous matter, taken from a patient af-
fefted with tlie venereal diftemper, yet have thereby received
the infeSion of the fmall-pox only."

This ftatement had immenfe effecl in promoting the intro-
dudlion of inoculation into France; and in the year 1756,
the family of the duke of Orleans, and great numbers of the
firft rank, were inoculated by Drs. Tronchin, Hofty, and
others. In 1758, the practice had diffufed itfelf over various
parts of France. Tlie inoculated were not, however, very
nnmerous, and one or two unfuccefsful cafes, joined with
falfe reports, that fome perfons had taken the natural fmall-
pox after undergoing inoculation, once more caft difcredit
upon the plan, and excited a violent controverfy. The
great fatality of the fmall-pox at Paris in 1763, being im-
puted to inocuktioD, tlie praftice was forbidden by parha-

ment. At length the faculty of phyfic, and that of theo-
logy, were called upon to decide, whether inoculation
ought to be tolerated or profcribed. This meafure feryed
to increafe the difputcs ; nor was it till a very late period
that inoculation was extenCvely praciifed in France.

In Holland, inoculation was begun at Amfterdam in
1 748 by Dr. Tronchin, who, on finding one of his fons feizcd
with the natural fmall-pox, immediately inoculated the other.
This phyfician, after his return from Geneva, in 1754, ino-
culated a great many perfons in Holland. Dr. Schwenke,
at the Hague, likewife promoted the practice ; and fo did a
fociety of phyficians and furgeons at Rotterdam, who were
afibciated for the purpofe in 17^7. The method was not,
however, very generally adopted by the Dutch, till after
1 764, about which time Morand and others had praftifed it
at Amfterdam w'ith ftriking fuccefs.

Inoculation was firft introduced into Denmark in Septem-
ber 1754, when th6 countefs of BernfdorfF underwent the
procefs. In 1758, two inoculation houfes were eftabliflied
at Copenhagen ; and, in 1760, the prince royal was inocu-
lated with fuccefs.

In Sweden, the firft trial of inoculation was made by
Haartman in 1754. The rapid progrefs of the method in
Sweden was owing to the encouragement afforded by the
Swedifli court. Dr. D. Schultz was deputed to enquire
into the fuccefs of the plan at the inoculation hofpital ii>
London, and the accounts which he gave upon his return to
Stockholm in 1755, led to the eftabhfliment of inoculation
houfes in different parts of Sweden. In 1757, the benefits
of inoculation were commemorated by a medal.

Inoculation was firft introduced at Geneva in 1751,
whence it paffed into Switzerland in 1753. In the latter
country, it was firft performed at Laufanne by a lady on her
own child.

Inoculation commenced in Italy during the great morta-
hty occafioncd in Tufcany and Rome by the fmall-pox in
1754. Dr. Peverfni was the firft inoculator, putting out
of confideration the cuftom which had long prevailed in the
interior of the country, of women fometimes artificially
communicating the fmall-pox to their children. In 1 735, M»
de la Condamine was at Rome, where, by his writings and
perfonal influence, he fucceeded in reconciling many to the
praftice. Before 1765, inoculation was praftifed with fuc-
cefs at Venice, Padua, Verona, Brefcia, Mantua, Bologna,
Milan, Parma, .Sec. In ftiort, Naples was the only import-
ant place where the method had not been introduced.

Inoculation was begun at Hanover almolt as foon as in
England. The opposition of De Haen, however, kept
back the improvement in moft other parts of Germany.
The Pruffians and Auftrians were the laft to adopt it. At
Vienna, inoculation did not make any progrefs till
1763. The younger branches of the imperial family were
inoculated in 1768, and fliovlly afterwards the emperor efta-
blilhed an inoculation hofpital in the fuburbs of Vienna.

Owing to fome unfortunate events of the firft inocula-
tions at Berlin, the praftice was foon difcountenanced in
Prufila, nor was it revived till 1774, when Dr. BayUes was
united from Drefden to fupcrintend the method.

Although fome perfons had been inoculated in Livonia
by Dr. Sclnilcnius at an earlier period, the praftice was un-
known at St. Petcrftiurgh till 1768, when it was eftablifhed
there under baron Dimldale. This event muft have been to
the Ruflians an immenfe bklling, fince in their country, the
natural finall-pox ufcd to rage with fuch feverity, that it i»
faid to have annually deftroyed two millions of fubjefts. On
tlie 28th of July, 176S, baron Dimfdale inoculated the em-
prcfs and the grand duke, both of whom fpeedily recovered/

The

[NOCULATION.

pidctict; made rapid progrefs ; an inoculation hofpital
.lablifhed; and at length Dimfdalc returned to Eng-
i loaded with wealth and honours.

; 1 Spain, inoculation was not extcnfivcly adopted before

- 1 , though it had been introduced by a furgeor. forty-two

..;:i before at Jadrique, n fmall town in that kingdom, and

1 iiad not been difcontinued in that particular place. Dr. Don

' Miguel Gorman vifitcd London for the purpofc of learning

j the Suttonian method of inoculation, and returned to Ma-

drid in 1772, where lie praftifed the art upon feveral of the

■ Hobility to the great fatisfaclion of the court.

Of the ObjeHions '■juh'ich rx'ere urged a^amjl Inoculation. —
' Having related the rife and firft progrels of inoculation in
feveral parts of the world, it feems proper, before reciting
the particular methods purfued by the Suttons and baron
Dimfdale, to notice the various objeftions and arguments
which were adduced for the purpofe of fupprefling the
praftice of inoculation altogether. The clamour again ft
the method, indeed, was for many years exccfiively violent ;
' both phyfical and moral reafons were brought forward againft
the fyftem, and men of different profeflions entered ir^'b the
cortroverfy.

r. To the objeftion that inoculation did not produce the
genuine fmalUpox, and confequcntly could not fecure any
one from having the difeafe afterwards, the celebrated Dr.
Mead made the following judicious reply. " Now I own I
cannot underlland how contagion, that is the very feed of
the dilcafe, fhould produce not its own proper diftempcr, but
another of a different kind. Neither, certainly, does it mat-
ter by which way the infeAion is received, provided it brings
forth manifeil marks of the difeafe. And as to thofe, who,
after having been inoculated -with fuccefs, arc, notwith-
ftanding this, faid to have fufFored the fmall-pox, I mull
proteil that, after the moll diligent enquiry', I have not
been able to find out one convincing proof of tliis kind.
But to fpeak plainly, if fuch a thing happened once, why
do we not fee it come to pafs oftener ? Or, what can a fmgle
example, fuppofing it to be true and certain, avail, when
innumerable have produced nothing bke it I"

1. One formidable objetlion was, the fuppofed danger
that inoculation might be the means of communicating other
terrible and fatal difeafes, when the matter was taken from
unhealthy fubjefts. The variolous matter being a poifon
fill generis, it cannot by inoculation communicate any other
diftcmper. The venereal difeafe is known to be as commu-
nicable as any, yet feveral perfons have been inoculated from
patients labouring under confiderable degrees of the venereal
difeafe, and no ill confequences were ever yet known to fol-
low. Mr. Burgefb informs us that he knew of one intlance
where the matter was inadvertently taken by a furgeon from
a young woman, who fell ill of the fmall-pox, after being
admitted into St. Thomas's hofpital to be falivated. Three
patients were inoculated from this matter, and had the fmall-
pox in the mofl favourable manner. Nothing particular
happened about the wounds, and the patients all grew up
healthy fnbjecls. See Burgefs's " Account of the Prepa-
ration and Management necelTary to Inoculation, 1754."
Dr. Kirkpatrick alfo mentions in his " Analyfis of Inocu-
lation," that he was affured by a refpcAable furgeon,
that a young lady was inoculated by an apothecary from a
gentleman's fervant, who had a venereal bubo together with
the fmall-pox. The lady, notwithdanding, did verj' well,
and never had the flightcil fymptom of vencreil infedlion.
The affcrtion, then, that other difeafes may be communicated
by inoculation remains quite unproved. That other difeafes
may follow the fmall-pox no man uf common fenfe will deny ;
for it is no fecurity againll them. Nay, the debility whicli

it fometimes induces, may even promote the acccflion of fcro--
fula, confumption, &c. ; but fincc inoculation tends fo ma-
terially to diminifh the feverity of the fmall-pox, it muft
alio have a great effed in lefienin^ and preventing any cir-
cumllances, which are to be regarded as confequences of fuch
feverity.

3. Perhaps the difeafe may never attack in the natural
way. This objeftion, one would think, muft give way to
the bare ftatement, that, previous to the praftice of inocula-
tion, thecafual fmall-pox annually deilroyed about two mil-
lions of lives in the Ruffian empire alone, and committed
equal devaflation in feveral other parts of the world. It has
been obferved by Dr. .Turin, in an in.;cnious pap-r inferted
in the Philofophicul Tranfa£lions, that it is difficult to af-
certain the ex at number who die without having the fmall-
pox ; but that of all the children that are born, there will,
fome time or another, die of the fmall-pox one in fourteen ;
and tiiat of perfons of all age> taken ill of the fame diflem-
per, two in eleven will fall victims to it.

From a table of burials it appears that in Edinburgh and
St. Cutlibcrt's parifh, during ten years, about one-tenth of
the dead wiki killed by the fmall-pox.

It may likewifc be noticed, that no individual is originally
unfufceptible of the fmall-pox, and though a proportion of
mankind might pofTibly cfcape the contagion, ilill the num-
ber of victims to the diforder cafually taken would be very
confiderable During the controverfies concerning the ad-
vantages and difadvantages of inoculation, enquiries were
made from houfe to houfe, in feveral towns, in order to af-
certain the number of people, who had had the fmall-pox
in one twelvemonth, when it appeared that nearly one died
in every five who had taken the difeafe ; and tliat of eighty -
two perfons who were inoculated in thefe places in the fame
year, not one died.

Dr. Nettleton, Dr. 'Whitaker, and fome others, made an-
attempt to find out how many perfons had had the fmall-pox,
and how many had died of it. in the year 1722, The refult
was as follows :

.Sk-kofllieSmri!!-l.o

.' Pird.

In feveral towns in Yorkiliire

Chichefler

Haverfordwefl

994

227

6^6
lbs
52

Total

4626

i 856

This table will ferve to depidl the general event of the
cafual fmall-pox. The mortality was confiderable ; but it
was even much greater at fome periods, and in particular
parts of the world. On the other hand, inoculation has
fometimes been purfued with fuch remarkable fuccefs, that
out of a thoufand perfons insculated one after the other,
fcarcely one has perifhcd.

We fhall not fwell this article with a detail of the numerous
phyfical reafons urged againft inoculation, the prefent ftate
of knowledge renders fuch a talk unneceffary ; and all the
. objeclions alluded to, have been fo often and completely
proved to be frivolous and unfounded, that of late years the
praftice has encountered no oppofition, if wc put out of
prefent confideration the praifeworthy cndeavonrs to fubfti-
tute ever\- where the vaccine for the variolous inoculation. -

4. The moral and religious objections which were adduced

againft the pni£licc of inoculation, gave rife to as much dif-

pute as the medical differences of opinion, and certainly

operated ftill more pcrnicioudy in prejudicing the mafs ef

6. people:

INOCULATION.

people againft tlie art. The plan of bringing dlfeafes upon
ourfelves, was reprefented as a Circafiian impiety, altogether
irreconcileable to a Chriftian confcience. Thofe wlio adopted
the praftice were branded with the appellations of poifoners
and murderers, and were faid to be inltigated by atheifm,
quaeker)-, and avarice. One anonymous writer implored
tlte interference of parliament. He obferves, " while this
licUilh principle has lb much hold upon mankind, 'tis highly
necefTary that there fliould be no doors left open for the
praftice, at lead none that can be fiuit ; that there Ihould
be no room for the covering of fiich horrid things from the
n-ach of the law. Phyficians they have already too much
latitude in praftice, to make havoc of mankind for the fatis-
fadlkjn of their judgment in phylic, and increafe of their ex-
perience.; but every quack now maybe a hireling to the
devil, and, like that banditti in Italy, be ready to do the
drudgexv of removing heirs, and other obftriicting incum-
bents of many kinds, and to do this under the mafic of a
cure, inoculating death inllead of a difeafe, and making ufe
of an art never before praciifcd, in a manner not forefeen,
and by -the laws not yet fufficiently guarded againft." See
a pamphlet entitled " The new Practice of Inoculation con-
lidered, and an humble Application to die approachuig Par-
liament for the Regulation of that dangerous Experiment,
1722."

A feitnon was preaclied on Sunday, July 8th, 1722,
againft inoculation, at St. Andrew's church, Holborn, by
the Rev. Mr. MafTey. His text was " So went Satan
forth from the prefence of tlie Lord, and fmote Job with
fore boils from the fole of his foot unto his crown,'" chap. li.
V. 78. In this difcourfe, the Devil was depiCled as having

— A Short and Plain Account of Inoculation, Sec. hj
I. Maffey.

Dr. Maddox, bifliop of Worcefter, was an able ?!■:*
zealous friend to the caufe of inoculation, and preacht-d '
excellent fermon in fupport of the praiice. He obfcrv
that it was needlefs to enter into a difquiiition, which is t
moll proper method of defignedly raifing the fmall-pox 1
the human frame, by carrying the perfon that is to recf i^
it to the contagious fteams, or effluvia ; or bringing ' ~
him the infefted matter. Religious difficulties (if any It I
remain, concerning a praftice that has preferved lo ma' /
lives, and prevented the heawft grief in fo many families. >
are exaftly the fame, in either method of voluntary commu-
nication.

For it is no more invading the prerogative of heaven to
occafion one eafy and voluntary conveyance of the infeftioa
than another, by a flight and hardly fenfible rafure upon the'
arm, than communicating the fame diilemper, by invifible
particles, to that tender organ the lungs, which are fo fre-
quently aftedled by the venom of this difeafe, when coh-
tradlC* by the breath, or receiving into the body infected
particles in wliat is called the natural way.

Were this preventive method (continues the learned pre-
late) univerfaliy fuccefsful, and never once to fail in any iu^
ftance whatfoever, it is fcarcely to be prefumed that any ob-
jedion would be raifed againft a falutary expedient, to pre-
ferve from deftruclion fo great a part of the human fpecies
as daily fall by this mortal enemy, when it attacks men as it
were in the dark, ignorant of, and unprepared for the af-
fault.

This method of inoculation would then be no more liable

iirit put inoculation in praftice upon Job. Inoculation was to cenfure than the making i voluntary wound, by incifion,

ftigmatized as a diabolical operation, and an anti-providential ^° fo']'" a neceffary drain; or adminiftering any operati
project, that infuks our religion, and banifhes providence ""' "^ .- 1 ^ i-

out of the world.

It is almoft unneceftary for us to fay, that Job's being
afflicled with the fmall-pox was nothing more than an un-
vi-arrantable aflertion, and a whimfical conceit of the Rev.

dicine, which, upon repeated trials, iiad proved an unfail-
ing fecurity againft any other dangerous and prevailing pef-
tilence or contagion.

But, in order to excite and fecure a dependence upon his
divine proridence, the great Governor of the world has ap-

T^- ■ T'l f 11 • • .1, r u- .n. J ■ pomted that no human affairs, not even our necelTary fufte-

Divme. The following epit;ram on the fubject appeared m :„„„, n , . . ... j j lu r 1 irt / luiie

,- ,, -,.^ „ '^ r * '^ r » ■* ^'^ nance, iiiouln he ntrenneri with \iirh nhrnlnfo /.^.-f^intir . r»

the Monthly Mifceilany for March 1774.

We're told, by one of the black robe,
The Devil inoculated Job ;
Suppofe 'tis true, what he does tell.
Pray neighbours, liiJ not Job do -well ?

nance, flionld be attended with fuch abfolute certainty ;
very wile appointment, that vain man might not fancy him-
felf an independent being ; but, among all the changes and
chances of this mortal life, ftiould ftill look up unto, be-
caufe he can only be defended by, God's moft gracious and
ready help.

Experience alone muft determine the good or bad confe-
Dr. WagftafFe had averted, that it never came into men's quences of this artificial infeftion, as it ought to do in all
heads to lake the work out of nature's hands, and raife other medical attempts, v.'hich, in many inftances, are, in
dillempers by art in the human body. (See " Letter ftiew- reality, little more than curing or alleviating one diftemper,
ing the Danger and Uncertainty of inoculating the Small- by exciting or introducing another. And, hi this view, the
pox.") To this Mr. Maitland replied in his Vindication, method now under confidcration, of lelTening the hazard of
" that the praftice of phyfjc is founded upon the principle a very mortal difeafe, (hould be confidered in the fame lin-ht
of curing natural by raifing artificial dijcafes. What is as every other antidote, or preventive attempt in phyfic^or
bleeding, but an artiilcial hemorrhagy ; purging, but raifing furgery, againft any probable, almoft certain malady, inter-
an artificial diarrhcea ? Are not blilters, iflues, and fetons, nal or external.

artificial impofthumations ?"

The virulence and farcafm by which the oppofers of inocu-
lation were aftuated, are well exhibited in the rejoinder,
made by another writer, to the foregoing very fenfible ob-
fervj^tion. " Very .good, fir, but go on, — what is corredlion
at the cart's tail, but the noble art of mufcular phlebotomy ?
What is burning in the hand, but the art of applying a
cauftic? What is hanging but an artificial quinzy, which

The philanthropic prelate fcrebore to derive any ftrength
to the argument, from the great number of noble, venerable,
and worthy pcrfons, of every rank and profelllon, who were
in his time the public advocates of this conipnfTionate defign :
he wiihed to ftaiid upon its own proper evidence and found-
ation.

He remarked, that a fafe pafiTage through this diftemper,
like the emancipating flaves, is a deliverance to vaft numbers

makes the patient feel for the ground, and chokes him? of people kept, as "it were, in bondage; who, before they

What is breaking on the wheel, but the art of making dil- have undergone this abhorred difeafe, are excluded from

locations and fra£lures, and differs from the wounds and am- many offices in life, and prevented from purfuin r their ne-

putations of furgeons only by the manaer and . iiitentioa .' ceiTary bufinefs; and it gives tranquillity and cheerfulnefs

. * " ' 3 to

INOCULATION.

to rrrfons of better condition, wlio, under apprehenfion of
this lo.ithfome and infeftious difoider, were all their former
days fubjeil to groat anxiety and conltant fear.

The biihap commented with great ability upon the ad-
vantage that inoculation afTords of communicating the fmalU
pox at the mo'.l favourable time of life, viz. infancy, when
the difeafe is mod inclined to put on a mild form. He men-
tioned, authirntically, that, out of ijoo perfons inoculated
ty Mr. ferjeant Ranby, Mr. ferjeant Hawkins, and Mr.
* •Middieton, only three died.

: - He ilated to his congregation, that, from the annual ac-
f count within the bills of mortality, (in which many places in
i land near the city were omitted,) it appeared that, in twenty
I 'years, viz. from the year 1731 to the year 1750, inclufive,
no hfs than 39,11 J perfons died of tiiis fatal diftemper ;
' which, including tiie piaces not infertcJ in the weekly bills,
, muit have been coniiderably rhore than 2000 every ycai", that
fell in the two Edjjining cities and parts adjacent. And, he
I noticed, thai if only one in feven is fiippofed to die by the
I diftempea- taken in the natural way, then the whole number
of perfons who, in this period of twenty years, were thus in-
fefted, muil have amounted to 280,000, of which number
■no lefs than 40,000 perifhed. But if one in every 200
■fliould be fuppofed to die under inoculation, which is really
more than fall by that artificial infeflion, inftead of 40,000,
"only 1400 would have died in one diftritt in twenty years,
tad inoculation been univerfally adopted. Thus the differ-
ence in that Ihort period, in one fpot, would have been no
lefs than 38,600 lives prcferved, befides the numerous polle-
lity that might have been derived from them.

The learned divine infilled, that humanity, regard to our
tountr)'-, the diftates of reafon, and the precepts of religion,
are all in favour of the fyftem of inocXiiation.
■ During the oppofition to the introduction of inoculation,
■many afFeCled to be aftnated againii it by religious fcruples,
and the praftice was alleged to be unlawful.

In anfwer to this, the fcriptures afk, Is it lawful to fave
life, or to dellroy it ? Luke, vi. 9. We Ihould alfo remem-
ber, that, as the fail of man brought the danger of difeafes
into the world, fo to evade, oppofe, or deftroy it, is not only
liis right, but duty, if in his power. When danger fiir-
rOunds us, no conduct is more proper than to inquire into,
and purfue the means of efcape. To neglect our fafety is
to fnik below brutes, which are taught by inftinft to fhun
- the evil to which they are expofed. Inoculation is certainly
in many inftances a means of laving life, and of moderating
the feverity of affliction. And, in a moral point of view,
wilfully neglefting the means of preferving life muil appear
almofl as bad as the guilt of murder.

' The bringing of a diftemper on ourfelves was likewife re-
prefented by bigotted individuals as ufurping the facred
prerogative of God.

As to the firit part of this objeftion, if by diflempers are
meant ficknefs and pain, the fame thing is prattifcd daily in
Other inftances, in concurrence with the fcripture dictate,
wz. of two evils choofe the lead. Inoculation is not done
from a mere wanton defire of imparling any difeafi-, but is
performed in order that the patient may go througli an un-
avoidable diltemper with the leaft difficulty, and tlie greatefl
chance of recovery. The natural fmall-pox being highly
i)erilous, it muft be a great defideralum to avoid it, and in-
oculation enables us to do fo, by deftroying that difpofition
in the body, without ■which-the difeafe cannot take place.

Refpedting the olTence given to God, a reliance ou provi-
dence does not im.ply that wc are not to prevent or oppofe
the evils which we forefee, iud which we'have it in oiit

power to guard againft by prudent precautions. Would
thcfc objedtors, in other inftances, refnfe the means of lef-
fening the malignancy and danger of difeafe, than which the
practice of inoculation is no more ? Let the alTertors of the
'rights of God fay, whether, when God permits the difcovery
of preferving ourfelves, he forbids our ufirg it ? If our Ma-
ker ofters us a remedy, it is offending h'm to rejeft it.

It was moreover objeded, that the decrees of God liave
fixed the commifliou of every difeafe, and that our precau-
tion cannot prevent ■what He has determined.

To this it was anfwered, that, however tr\ie it is, our days
are determined, &c. yet it is Gods revealed will, and not
his fecret purpofes, which we are to regard as the rule of
duty. God lias required of us to have a tender regard of
our lives ; and they who difobcy hini therein are guilty of a
degree of felf-nnirder, and will never be acquitted of that
guilt by the fecret determination of Heaven concerning
them. Belidcs, God, who has ordained the end, has alfo
determined the means leading to it. St. Paul, in his dan-
gerous voyage, had a fpecial revelation to allure him, that
all who were with him flionld efcape ; and yet, when the
feamen were getting out of the fhip, he declares, that if they
did not Itay in it they could not be faved. Acts, xxvii. 31.
God pnrpofed -to preferve them in the way whereby they
were afterwards delivered.

It was likewife contended that we ought not to do evil,
that good may come.

On the other hand, it was acknowledged, that if inocu-
lation is, in its own nature, a moral evil, it certainly fhould
be rejected, however great its advantages may feem to be.
The prolpect of relief from any calamity in life fhould not
tempt us to offend God. But they who make the foregoing
objection proceed upon a miftake. Their principle is true
with regard to moral evil, but is not fo when applied to phy-
fical. It is certainly lawful to pull down one hoiife to fave
a great number from being burnt. This is a phylical evil,
which can hardly take place without fome degree of moral
evil ; and many other inftances may be pointed out, where,
for a greater good, a leffer ill is fubmitted to.

It was further objected, that the patient might die, and
then his laft moments would be diilreffed, and the future rer
flections of his friends grievous.

This objeftion led many to decline the praftice of inocu-
lation, even while they allowed the theory of it to be reafon-
able. ■ They entertained hopjcs of efcaping the diftemper
in the natural way, and they had fears of dying in tlu's, and
ttius they were prevented from undergoing the diiorder.
But they fhould have confidcred what- grounds they had for
either their hopes or fears, and what was to be advanced to
balance the account, in an examination of the different dp>-
grecs of probabihty attendant on what they hoped for, and
what they were afraid of, in the negleCl or adoption of ino-
cidation. Dying is an awful thing ;. but i£ inoculation w.iis
a probable and lawful means of preferving- life in a time of
danger, it was a duty to comply with it ; and what reflec-
tion could be more peaceful than tliat of :dying in tlie way
of duty?

It was further objetted by the religious ofppofers of the
new prndtice, that fear was a dangerous paffion'in the fmall-
pox, and that inoculation increafed the caufes of fear, by
leflening our faith and truft in God..

When the fmall-pox was left to nature, fuch were its ra-
vages, that, not to fear, would have been to fink beneath
Iiumanity : its confequences were too grievous to be viewed
with indifference. Experience manifclled the advantages

and

-INOCULATION.

«nd general fafcty of receiving the difeafc by inoculation, and
,fo far the practice was a remedy to ihat juft alarm which en-
hanced the danger, when the diftemper was left to itfelf.
As to faith in God, none was delirable, except that which
was aj^reeable to the fcripture, and which could never have
the effeift of creating a difregard to calamities and danger.
Inoculation was well proved to be a means of fafety, and it
would have been as rational to conclude that our lives could
ie preferved without eating and drinking, as that we {hould
be dehvered from danger without a prudent care for our own
fafety. We are to depend on the care of providence only in
the way of duty. To boaft. of courage and truft in God,
■while we omit the means of cfcaping danger which furrounds
us, is not faith but prefuniption.

Thus, when inoculation became a probable means by
which life might be faved, the negleft of it, fo far from
being truil, was prcfumption.

We (hall now take our leave of thefe theological difputes
and fcruples, which have now been long removed by the in-
fluence of right reafon and found (enfe. When it was once
well afcertaincd and univerfally believed that inoculation was
really a means of proferving life, the idea of its being crimi-
nal to adopt the praftice could not have much duration. A
very able difcuflion of moft of the foregoing objeftions
was publiiTied in a pamphlet, entitled " Inoculation impar-
tially confidered, and proved to be confillent with Reafon
and Revelation," by the Rev. DavJd Some, edited by Dr.
Doddridge, lyjo.

Of Inoculation, ai praa'tfed ly the Sutlons, Baron DimfJale,
i^c The introduction of the Suttonian practice was re-
garded quite as a new era in the hillory of inoculation, from
the novelty of the method, and its unparalleled fuccefs,

According to Mr. Houlton's ftatcment, the number u<
peifons inoculated by Mr. Daniel Sutton in the year

1764 was 1629

1765 — 4347

1766 — 7816

Mr. Robert Sutton, the firft of this 1

celebrity as an inoculator, refided at Debenham in Suffolk,
where he praftifed furgery and pharmacy. From the year
1757 to 1767, he inoctdated 2514 perfons.

Two of his fons, Robert and Daniel, fo'lowed the medical
profcffion, and after affiHing liim during the three firft years
of his practice of inoculation, Robert eftablifhed himfelf as
an inoculator at Bury St. Edmund's, while Daniel became
afliftant to Mr. Bumllead, a fnrgeon at Oxford. Daniel,
•on his return to Debenham, in the year 1763, fuggeiled to
his father a new plan of inoculation, in which he propofed to
ihorten the time of preparation to a few days, and not to
■confine the inoculated patients to the houfe, but to oblige
them to be in the open air as much as poffible during the
•whole progrefs of the dillcmper.

Tlie father condemned this fcheme as ra(h and dangerous.

i3'792

" To the above number," fays he, " (liould be addci!
6000 that have been inoculated by Mr. Sutton's affiftanls ;
fo that he may be faid to have inoculated, within thefe thr. i-
years, 20,000 perfons."

Of this number, not one was allowed to have fairly dii d
of inoculation. The venal pen of the preceding writer ci r-
tainly exaggerated every thing, and great boaft was alfo
falfely made of the Suttons having a ipccific medicine for
preventing too many puftules. However, no doubt was
entertained that the Suttonian practice was incomparably
more fuccefsful than any other.

Medicalpraftitioners, ftruck with the advantages of the new
treatment, fetabouttheinveftigation of thecaufes. SirGeorgc
Baker publiflied the following account of the manner in which
Mr. D.Sutton praftifedinoculation. "All perfons arc obliged
to go through a ftridl preparatory regimen for a fortnight
before the operation is performed. During this courfe,
every kind of animal food, milk only excepted, and all fer-
mented liquors and fpices are forbidden. Fruit of all forts
is allowed, except only on thofe days when a purging medi-
cine is taken. In this fortnight of preparation, a dofe of a
powder is ordered to be taken at bed-time, three fever;d
times ; and on the following morning a dofe of purging fait.
To children, only three dofes of the powder are given, with-
10 acquired out any purging fait. The compofition of this powder is

iduftrioufly kept a fecrct. But, that it confills partly of a
mercurial preparation, is demonftrated by its having made
the gimis of feveral people fore, and even falivated others.
The months of May, June, July, and Auguft, are preferred
as the moft feafonable for inoculation. But healthy people
are inoculated at any feafon of the year indifferently. The
autumn is held to be the worft feafon ; and an aguifli habit the
leaft proper for this operation. No objeftion is made to any
one on account of what is vulgarly <:alled a fcorbutic habit
of body, or bad blood. The perfon who is to be inoculated,
on his arrival at the houfe ufed for this purpofe, is carried into
a public room, where, very probably, he may meet a large-
company afTembled under the feveral ftages of the fmall-pox.
The operator then opens a puftule of one of the company,
chufing one where the matter is in a crude ftate ; and then

•Its advantages, however, foon becoming manifeft to patients, juft raifes up the cuticle on the outer part of the arm, •
they evinced a defire of being folely under the management :---'' J^ ■.^\■ ai ^ nnL:. j . i_ 1 _

of Mr. D. Sutton. The confequcnce was, that tlie father
and fon feperated about the end of the year 1763, when the
latter opened an inoculating-houfe near Ingateftoue, in
Eifex. Here, by public advertilemcnts, he made known his
plan of inoculating in an improved way pccuhar to himfelf.
The encouragement whicli he met with may be eftimated
from his receiving, during the firlt year, 2000 guineas, and
above 60CO the fccond. His f;

parts of the kingdom j and the numbers that rcfortcd
iiim for inoculation, conllantly filled the village of Ingate-
' (lone, fo that acconuiiodations could hardly be procured for
tlie purpofe. Wh practice in Kent being alfo very exten-
sive, he was obliged to employ feveral medical aftiftants. In
4767, Mr. D. Sutton removed to London, in hopes of reap-
ing ftil! more cmolunient ; but his receipt fell far ihort of his
^jtpectation.

.here
It is thickeft, with his moift lancet. This done, lie only preffes
down the raifed cuticle with his finger, and applies neither
plafter nor bandage. What is extremely remarkable, he fre-
quently inoculates people with the moifture taken from the
arm before the eruption of the fmall-pox, nay, within four
days after the operation has been performed. And," fays fir
G. Baker, " I am informed, at prefent he gives the preference
to this method. He has attempted to inoculate by means of
fpread to the moH diftant the blood; but witliout fuccefs. If the operator happeneth
not to be at home when the new patient arriveth, this is
looked upon as a matter of no importance. And fo far is he
from any apprehenfion of accumulating infection, that it is
very common for perfons, juft inoculated, to lie in the fame
bed with a patient under any ftage of the difeafe, as it may
happen ; nay, fometimes in a room where four or five people
are fick. On the night following the oj>cralion, the patient
takes a pill. This medicine is repeated. every other night,

until

INOCULATION.

tintil the fever comes on. All this timr, moderate cxercife
in the air is ftrongly recommended. In twenty-four hours
after the inocnlation, the operator can often diftingnifh whe-
ther or no the patient be infefted. He evei-)' day examines
the incition ; and from hence feems to prognofticate, with
fome degree of certainty, concerning the degree of the future
difeafe. In three days after the operation (provided that
it has fuccecdcd), there appears on the incifion a fpot like
a ika-bite, not as yet above tlie flcin. This fpot, by degrees,
rifes to a red pimple ; and then becomes a bladder full of
clear lymph. This advanceth to maturation like the vario-
lous puftules, but is the laft which falleth oiT. In proportion
as the difcolouration round the place of the incifion is
greater, the Icfs quantity of eruption is expefted. And,
therefore, whenever only a fmall difcoloured circle is ob-
ferved, purging medicines, more than ordinary, and more fre-
quently repeated, are held to be neceflary.

" The preparatory diet is ftill continued. If the fever
remains fome hours without any tendency to perfpiration,
fome acid drops are adminiftered, the effidi of which is to
bring on a profufe fwcat ; but in fome cafes where the fever
is very high, a powder or pili, ftill more powerful, is given.
In general, during the burning heat of the fever, the inocu-
lator gives cold water. But the perfpiration beginning, he or-
ders warm balm-tea or thin water-gruel. As foon as the fweat
abates, the eruption having made its firll appearance, he
obliges every body to get up, to walk about the houfe, or
into the garden. From this time, to the *urn of the dif-
eafe, he gives milk gruel, nil Ubitiim.

" On the day following the firlt appearance of the opaque
fpot on the puftules, to grown people he gives an ounce of
Glauber's purging fait. To children he gives a dofe of it
proportioned to their age. Then, if the eruption be fmall,
he allows them to cat a little boiled mutton, and toad and
butter, and to drink fmall beer. But in cafe of a large
eruption, he gives them, on the third day after their having
taken the firlt dofe, another dofe of the fame fait, and con-
fines them to the diet ordered during the preparation."

Sir George, after reprefenting this as the praftice of Mr.
D. Sutton, afcribes its fuperior fuccefs to the free ufe of
cold air. Dr. Glafs, of Exeter, in a publication which ap-
peared fliortly after that of the preceding gentleman, im-
puted the advantages of the Suttonian method to the patient
being fweated ; while another author, Mr. Chandler, dif-
fered from both the former writers, and referred the chief
benefit of the plan to the infecting humour being taken in a
crude ftatc, " before it has been ultimately variolated by the
fucccedilig fever." Baron Dimfdale likewife thought, that
although the wliole procel's might have fome (hare in the
production of the fuccels, yet he believed the chief good
was owing to the method of inoculating with recent fluid
matter, and the management of the patients at the time of
the eruption.

In November, 1766, baron Dimfdale publifhed his well
known work, entitled " The prefent Method of inoculating
for the Small-pox." The inftruftions contained in this
book have dcfervedly continued ever fince, almoil without
exception, to regulate the practice of inoculation.

The baron, when the age is left to his choice, avoids in-
oculating children under two years of age. The fubjefts
confidered by him improper for the operation, are fuch as
labour under any acute or critical difeafes, or their cffeiSts ;
and alfo fuch as have evident marks of corrofive acrimonious
humours, or manifell debility.

As for the moft eligible fcafon of the year, he thought,
that perfc
any

Vol. XIX.

intcrmittcnts, and ulcerated fore throats) being moft fre-
quent in the autumn, the baron did not look upon this as in
general the moft favourable feafon. But he was of opmion,
that we might fafely inoculate at all feafotis, provided care
were taken to fcreen the patients as much as poffible from
heat in fummer, and to prevent them from keepin" thcm-
felves too warm, and too much fnut up froin the weather
in winter. He thought it prudent, however, to avoid ino-
culation while any peculiar epidemic difeafes were preva-
lent. He recommended a preparatory regimen, fo as to
reduce the patient, if in high health, to a low and more
fecure Hate ; to ilrengthen the conftitution if too low, to
correet what appears vitiated ; and to clear the ftomach
and bowels as much as may be from all crudities and their
eftl'fts. Young or middle aged pcrfons, enjoying a good
(late of health, were ftriftly confined to a milk and vegeta-

ble diet for 1

ayp previous to the operation, during which

erfons generally liad more puftules in the fpring than
ther time ; and epidemic difeafes (cfpecially luxes,

period they were ordered to take the following powder three
times at bed-time, and a dofe of Glauber's fait each fuc-
ceeding morning. The powder was compofed of eight
grains of calomel, the fame quantity of compound powder
of crabs' claws, and ith of a grain of emetic tartar. For
women or children the dofe was lefl'cned, according to their
age and ftrenglli. For thofe wlio were of a tender delicate
conftitution, or valetudinarians, he preferibed a milder me-
dicine, and rather of the alterative than tlie purgative kind ;
indulging fome with light animal food, and in cafe of low-
nefs, with a glafs or two of wine. The baron preferred the
following method of inoculating. Tiie patient to be in-
fetled being in the Tame houle, and if no objedtion is made
to it, in the fame room with one who has the difeafe, a little
variolous matter is taken from the place of infertion, if the
fubje(it is under inoculation, or a pullule, if in the natural
way, on the point of a lancet, fo that both fides of the
point are moillened. With this lancet an incifion is made
in that part of the arm where iifues are ufually placed,
deep enough to pafs through the fcarf-flcin, and juft to
touch the Ikin itfelf, and in length as ftiort as poOible, not
more than one-eighth of an inch. The little wound being-
then ftretched open between the finger and thumb of the
operator, the incifion is moiftened with the matter by gently
touching it with the flat fide of the inL-ftcd lancet. Tlie
baron generally performed the operation in both arms, and
fometinies in two places in one arm, a little diltance from
each other. Neither plafter nor bandage is to be applied to
the inoculated part. The baron preferred ufing fuch mat-
ter as was taken during the eruptive fever, it being then in
his opinion endued with moft activity. When the difeafe
was to be communicated from an inoculated perfon, lie took
the matter, not from the fecondary puftules, but from tlie
place of inoculation. The fecond day after the operation,
ff the inoculated part is viewed with a lens, he fays, there
generally appears a kind of orange-coloured ftain about the
incifion, and tlie furrounding ilvin feems to contract. At
this time the baron ufed to prefcribe the following medicine
to be taken at bed-time : calomel and compound powder of
crabs' claws, of each three grains, emetic tartar ,',;th of a
grain. On the fourth or fifth day a hardnefs is perceptible
to the finger. The part itches and appears flightly inflamed.
He remarks, that a li'.tlc clear fluid may be feen under a
kind of veficatioii, the part refenibUng a fuperficial burn.
In general, about the fixth day fome pain and ftifitiefs are
felt in the arm-pit. Tiiis was regarded as a very defirablc
fymplom, a3 foreboding the near approach of tlie eruptive
fymptoms, and the favourable progrefs of the difeafe.
Sometimes on the feventh, more often on the eighth day, the
fymptams of the eruptive fever appear ; fuch as ilight
U remitting

I N O

rfmitting pains in the licad and back, fuccccJcd by tran-
sient (hiverings and alternate heats, which continue in a
greater or leffer degree till tlie eruption is perfected.

The inflammation in the arm at this time Ipreads fall, and
upon viewing the incifion wiih a good glafs, it appears for
the moll part furronnded with an infinite number of fmall
puftules, which increafe in fize and extent as the difcafe
advances. On the tenth or eleventh day a circular or oval
efflorefcence is ufually difcovercd furrounding the incifion,
and extending fometimes nearly half round the arm, but
more frequently to about the fize of a rtiilling, and, being
under the cuticle, is fmootli and not painful. This effloref-
cence was alfo regarded as favourable ; it accompanies the
eruption, every difagreeable fymptom ceafes, and the pain
and ftifFnefs in the axilla go off.

^Vhen the eruptive fymptoms came on with more fcverity,
baron Dimfdale ufed to direft a i-epetition of the lall-men-
tioned powder, and on the following morning three or four
llools were procured by a laxative draught.

The baron notices that fonietinio? the ilate of the incifion
is fuch for feveral days, that the effects of the inoculation
can barely be perceived, the colour about the wound remain-
ing pale inftead of changing to red ; the edges of the in-
cifion fpread but httle, they remain flat, and are attended
neither with itching nor uneafinefs of any kind. Nay, fome-
times on the fifth, and even on the fixth day, the alteration
is fo little, as to make it doubtful whether the infeftion has
taken place. Dimfdale fets down fuch appearances as unfa-
vourable, and implying a late and more untoward difeafe. To
prevent this, he ufed to dircdl the pewdcr or pill to be taken
each night, and in cafe it failed to operate by ftool, or
there was the lead difpofition to coftivenefs, an ounce of
Glauber's fauce, or a laxative draught, was given in the
morning, once or twice, as the cafe might require. The ba-
ron believed that thefe meafures forwarded the inflammation,
which he always wifhed to fee, as he had conllantly ob-
ferved, that an early progrefs on the arm, and an early com-
mencement of the eruptive complaints, portended that the
diftemper would be mild and favourable ; and on the con-
trary, that wlien both were late, the fymptoms proved more
irregular and untoward. The patient, initead of being con-
fined to his bed or room, when the fymptoms of the erup-
tive fever came on, was direfted, as foon a» the purging
medicine had operated, to keep abroad in the open air, be
it ever fo cold, as much as he could bear, and to drink cold
water, if tliirfty, always taking care not to iland iUli while
abroad, but to walk about with moderation.

In certain cafes, notwithflanding baron Dimfdale found
the eruptive fymptoms extremely violent, and the patients
almoft incapable of motion, and apprehenfive of cold as the
greated evil, yet he perfuaded them to rife out of bed and
go out of door.s, often fupported by affiftants, and he allowed
them to drink as much cold water as tiiey chofe. No finiller
accident was the confequence, but, on the contrary, the
patients' fpirits were revived, and every fymptom feemed
benefited by the method.

■When any uncommon hinguor haptjened, a bafin of thin
broth, or a glafs of wine, was allowed in the day, or fome
white-wine whey at bed-time. Indeed, fuch things were
allowed at any time to tender, aged, or weakly perfons.
' After the eruption was completed, if occafion required,
tliey were indulged in a little well-boiled meat of thelighteft
kind, as chicken, veal, or mutton.

Tlie praftice of baron Dimfdale was certainly, in a great
meafure, an imitation of the method purl'ued by Mr, D.
Suttuu.

I N O

We (liall conclude this article with a fevr neceffary in-
ftrudtions and references.

1 . The a"-e of the perfon to be inoculated for the fmall-
pox fliould be as U'tle advanced as poffible ; but (if it can
be avoided) not lefs thaa four months.

2. The matter, when convenient, fliould be taken from a
young fubjed wlio has the fmall-pox in a favourable way,
and frefii matter fliould have the preference to fuch as is old.
It defervcs particular attention, however, that it is chiefly
for the fake of avoiding unprofelTional blame that we choofe
matter from patients labouring under the difeafe mildly,
Cnce experience rather proves, that the lenity or malignity
of the fmall-pox depends very little on whether the matter
is taken from one patient who has the diftemper favourably,
or from another who has it feverely. Nor can we wonder
at this fatl, fince the contagion can only be of one fort.
Therefore, were a patient much expofed to the cafual
fmall-pox, and no matter could be procured from any fub-
jeA that had the diflemper mildly, the furgeon fliould recom-
mend inocubition with fueh matter as it would be in his
power to obtain.

3. In inoculating, the operator is to make the flighteft
punfture, or fcratch, imaginable in the arm over the place
where the infcrtion of the deltoid mufcle terminates That
part of the lancet wliich is befmeared with the matter, is
to be repeatedly rubbed over the wound, and leil the matter
be wiped away, it is beft not to pull down the fliirt-flecve
till the part is quite dry. Some operators prefer introducing
the lancet, armed with the matter, obhquely beneath the
cuticle. When this mode is followed, it is proper at the
time of withdrawing the lancet to prefs the wound with
the finger, fo that the parts in contaft with the matter may-
wipe it oft tlie lancet with more certainty.

The works on the inoculation for the fmall-pox are too
numerous to be even mentioned : we would, however, par-
ticularly refer to Friend's Hiilory of Medicine. D'Entre-
colle's Lcttres Edifiantes et Curieufes. Avicennac Opera.
Memoires fur I'Inoculalion par M. de la Condamine.
Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1722. Monro on Inocula-
tion in Scotland. Holwells Account of the Manner of
inoculating in the Eall Indies. Maitland's Account of
inoculating the Small-pox. Mead de Variolis ct Morbillis.
Kirkpatrick's Analyfis of Inoculation. Some's Small-pox
impartially confidered, Sec. Murray's Hift Infitionis 'Va-
riolarum in Suecia. Dimfdale's preiVnl Method of inocu-
lating for the Small-pox. Jurin's Account of the Succefs
of inoculating the Sm<ill-pox in i;2i, &c. and his letter
to Dr. Coteiworth. Woodville's Hiitory of the Small-
pox, &c.

For an account of the inoculation f.;r the cow-pox, now
fo defervedly preferred to the preceding praftice, fee Cow-
po.\ and Vaccix.\tiok.

A particular defcription of the S.mall-pox will be found
under that word.

IxotxL-VTiON-, Hofpital for. See H0.SPITAL.

INOFFICIOUS Testament, in Law. See Testa-
ment.

INOM Barley, in Agriculture, a term applied to fuch
barley as is fown the fecond crop after the ground has been
fallowed, or cleaned from weeds.

INORDINATE Pkopoiition, is where three magni-
tudes being in one rank and three others proportional.to them
in another, you compare them in a diff'erent order.

E.gr. If there be in one rank thefe three numbers, 2, 3,
9; and in another rank, thefe other three, S, 24, 36, which
are proportional to the precedent, in a different order ; fo
that 2 be to 3 as 24 to 36, and 3 to 9 as 8 to 24 ; then call-
ing

I N Q_

ine awaj the mean terms in each rank, you conclude the
firll 2 ill the firft rank to be to the laft, 9 ; as 8, the firil
of the other rank, to the laft, 36.

INORGANIC, in Natural H'ljhry, or unorganized bo-
dies, are mineral fiibftances which are not organized or cpn-
ilrufted as anin-.als and vegetables capable of hfe are ; fuch
are alfo called native fofllls, to diftinguifli them from organic
remains or reliquia. Martin's " Outlines," p. i.

INOSARCION, a name given by the old Greek and
Roman authors to a peculiar fpeeies of emerald, called alio
I by fome the Chalcedonian emerald. The great diltinClion
i of this from all the other kinds of this gem, was its not
I being of the pure, clear, and unvarying colours of the
I others, but having thick veins in it, which gave peculiar re-
j fraftions and reflettions to the light ; and though the ftonc
I was in itfelf wholly green, yet when viewed in fide lights,
thefe veins gave all thofe changeable colours that orna-
I ment the feathers of a peacock's tail, or the neck of a
, pigeon.

INOSCULATION- See As.\stoma.sis and Artery.
INOWLOCZ, in Gejgraphy, a town of the duchy of
Waifaw ; 56 miles S.E. of Lenczicz.

INOWLOCZAW, or JuNGENLESLAw, a town of the
duchy of Wai-faw ; 26 miles W. of Wladillaw.

INOWSAL, a fmall idand near the northern coaft of
the ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 5~ 45'. E. l»iig. 117^ 27'.

IN PACE, a I..atin term, ufed among monks, to fignify
a prifon, where fuch of them are fhut up as have com.mitted
any grievous fault.

Formerly there ufcd to be a great deal of ceremony at
the putting a religious in pcce ; but now it is not much re-
garded. Such as are fliut up in perpetual imprifonment,
are alfo faid to be in pace.

Sometimes, alfo, the words requ'ufcat in pcce are ufed by
way of allulion to a cuftom in the Romifh church, or pray-
ing that the foul of the defunCl may reft in peace.

The fame words are alfo frequently feen at the bottom of
epitaphs, in Leu of thofe ufed by the ancient Romans,
S. T. T. L. ;. e. " Sit tibi terra levis. Light lie the earth ;"
or, " Sit humus cineri non onerofa tuo."
IN PALE. See Pale.

INPROMPTU, or Impromptu, a Latin word frequent-
ly ufcd among the French, and fometimes in Englifh, to
fignify a piece made off-hand, or extempore, without any
previous meditation, by the mere force and vivacity of inia-
gination.

INQUEST, or Enquest. See Enquest, Arrest,

JlRV.

IstifE-sT 5/" Office. See Office.

INQUIRENDO, an authority given a perfon or per-
fons, to inquire into fomething for the king's advantage.

Ikquikexdo Idtota. See Idiota.

INQUIRENDUM, Ad. See Ad Inquirendu.v.

In-quiuendim, Melius. See Melius, &c.

IXQUISrnO Pojt Monem. See Inq:,cjl of OrriCE.

INQUISITION, in the Civil and Canon La'u<, a
manner of proceeding for the difcovery^ of fume crime by
the fole office of the judge, in the way of fearch or exami-
nation.

IsQuisiTloN is alfo ufed, in Common Lazv, for alike
procefs in the king's behalf, for difcovery of lands, profits,
and the like. In which fenfe it is alfo confounded with
Office ; which fee.

I.VQUisiTio.N-, or the Holy Office, denotes an ecclefiaftical
jnrifdiftion eftabliihed in Spain, Portugal, Italy, &c. for
the trial and examination of fuch pcrfons as are fufpedled to

I N Q^

entertain any religious opinions contrary to thofe profefTed in
the church of Rome.

It is called inquifition, becaufe the judges by tlieir office
take cognizance of crimes on common report, without
any legal evidence, except what they themfelves are able to
explore.

Some people fancy they fee the original of the inquifition,
in a conftitution made by pope Lucius, at the council of
Verona, in 11 84, where he orders the bilhops to get informa-
tion, either by themfelves, or by their cominilTaries, of all
fuch perfons as were fafpecled of herefy ; and diftinguifliei
tlie feveral degrees of fufpefted, convided, penitent, relapfed,
&c. However this be, it is generally allowed, that pope
Innocent III. laid the firft foundation of the Holy Office ;
and that the Vaudois, and Albigenfes were the firft objefls
of it. That pontiff, in the beginning of the thirteenth cen-
tury, fent Rainier, a Cifteician monk, and Pierre de Caftel-
nau, archdeacon of Maguelonne, to the counuy of Thou-
loufe, or Narbonne Gaul, in order to blow up a fpirit of
zeal and perfecution againft the prelates and princes. Thefe
miffionaries were foon follo\ved by others, among whom was
the famous Spaniard, Dominic, founder of the order of
Preachers, who returning from Rome in the year I2c6, fell
in with tliefe delegates, embarked in their caufe, and la-
boured, both by his exhortations and conduft, in the extirpa-
tion of herefy. Thefe fpiritual champions \vere to give an
account to the pope of the number of heretics in thofe parts,
and of the behaviour of the princes and perfons in authority
to them ; and thence they acquired the name of inquifitors :
but thefe original inquifitors had not any court, or any au-
thority, they were only a kind of fpiritual fpies, who were
to make report of their difcoveries to the pope, and to ex-
cite the Catholic princes and people to extirpate heretics.

It has been generally faid, that the tribunal of the inqui-
fition was the invention of St. Dominic, and firft erefted by
him in the city of Thouloufe ; that, confequently, he was
the firft inquihtor ; and that, altliough the year of its infti-
tution is uncertain, it was undoubtedly confirmed, in a folemn
manner, by Innocent III. in the council of the Lateran, in
the year 121^. See Limborch's Hift. of the Inquifition,
by Chandler, book i. chap. 10.

This account is contefted by Moflieim, who m.aintain*,
that St. Dominic was not appointed by the Roman pontiff to
proceed judicially againft heretics, and fuch as were fufpeft-
ed of herefy, to pronounce fentence according to thek-
refpeflive cafes, and to deliver over to the fccular arm
fuch as perfifted obftinateiy in their errors, and there-
fore, in this fenfe, was no inquifitor ; though, according to
the original meaning of the term, he was inverted with the
commiffion and authority of the Roman pontiff to extirpate
herefy, and oppofe its abettors, but without any judicial
power : nay, it is farther urged, that the court of inquifi-
tion was not erefted during the life of St. Dominic. The
horrid war, which was excited by Innocent III againft the
Albigenfes in Narbonne Gaul, and which was carried on by
the crofs-bearers with the utmoft cruelty from the year 1200
to 1229, when a treaty of peace took place between Ray-
mond Vm. earl of Thouloufe, and Lewis VIII. king of
France, which gave a mortal blow to the caufe of herely,
prepared the way for the full eftablilhmcnt of the inquifi-
tion.

Inquifitors of the firft kind had, in the courfe of this time,
been placed in almoft erery city, whofe inhabitants had the
misfortune to befufpe£led of herefy, notwithftanding the re-
luftance which the people manifeftcd to this new inititution,
and the violence with which they frequently expelled and
U 2 fomctii^ies

INQUISITION.

fometimes maflacrcd thefe bloody officers of the popifh hie-
rarchy. At lonijth, the council held at Thouloure, in the
year 1229,07 Romanus, cardinal of St. Angelo, and pope's
legate, went iliU farther, and erefted in every city a council
of inquifitors, conllfting of one prieft, and three laymen.
This inilitution was, liowcver, fiipcrfeded in the year 1233,
by Gregory IX. who entru lied the Dominicans, or Preach-
ing Friars, with the important commiflion of difcovcring and
bringing to judgn-.ent the heretics that were lurking in
France ; and in a formal epiltle difcharged the biiliops of that
painful office. Immediately after this, t'ae bifhop of Tour-
nay, who was ihe pope's legate in France, began to exe-
cute this new refolution, by appointing Pierre Cellan and
Guillaume Arnaud, inquifitors of heretical pravity at Thou-
loufe ; and afterwards proceeded in every city where the Do-
minicans had a convent, to conftitute officers of the fame kind
chofen from among the monks of that order. From this pe-
riod we are to date the commencement of the dreadful tribu-
nal of the inquifition, which in this and the following ages
fubdued fuch a prodigious multitude of heretics, part of
whom were converted to the church by terror, and the reft
committed to the flames without mercy. For the Domini-
cans erefted iirll at Thouloufc, and afterwards at Carcaf-
fone, and other places, a tremendous court, before which
were fummoned not only heretics, and pcrions fufpetied of
herefy ; but likewife al! who were accufed of magic, lor-
cery, Judaifm, witchcraft, and other crimes of that kind.
This tribunal, in proccfs of time, was erefted in the other
countries of Europe, though not every where with the fame
fuccefs. The method of proceeding in this court of inquifition
was at firll iimple, and almoil in every refpecl fimilar to that
which was obferved in the ordinary courts of juftice. But
the Dominicans modelled it after that of the tribunal, called
in the Roman church the tribunal of peace ; and hence arofe
that ftrange fyftcm of inquifitorial law, which in many re-
fpefts is fo contrary to the common feehngs of humanity, and
the plained dictates of equity and juftice. And that no-
thing might be wanting to render the fpiritual court formi-
dable and tremendous, the Roman pontiffs perfuaded the
European princes, particularly the emperor Frederic II. and
Lewis IX. king of France, not only to enaft the moft bar-
barous laws againft heretics, and to commit to the flames
thofe who were pronounced fuch by the inquifitors, but alfo
to maintain the inquifitors in their office, and grant them their
protedlion in the moft open and folemn manner. The edicts
iTued to this purpofe by Frederic II. are well known ;
edidts every way proper to excite horror, and which render-
ed the moft illuflrious piety and virtue incapable of faving
from the moft cruel death fuch as had the misfortune to be
difagreeable to the inquifitors. The laws of Frederic, in
relation to the inquifitors, may be feen in Limborch's Hif-
tory of the Inquifition, book i. chap. 12.

The edift of St. Lewis, in favour of thefe ghoftly judges,
ilTued out in the year 1229, is generally known under the
title of Cupietita.

After the death of Frederic, who had long before re-
pented the power he had given the churchmen, as having
ieen fome of the fruits of it, pope Innocent IV. erefted a
perpetual tribunal of inquifitors, and deprived the bilhops
and lecular judges of the little power the emperor Frederic
had left them. And this jurifdidtion, which depended im-
mediately upon himfelf, he took care to introduce into moft
of the ftates of Europe. In i 25 1 it was eftabliflied in Italy ;
in 1255 Alexander IV. appointed inquifitors in France, at
the requell of St. Lewis. But the inquifitors were fo fiery
bol, and niade fucb horrible butchery among the reputed

heretics, that they raifcd an univerfal deteftation even in f •
Catholic countries themfelves. Hence it was that their )\
proved very fliort both in France and Germany ; thoi,
they were occailonally exerting themfelves; and their powi -
was ellabhihed in many parts of France and Germany abo.it
the time of the Reformation by Luther; but aftcrw:^.! ,: ;
gradually declined. Nor was even Spain entirely lubjcoi
them till the time of Ferdinand and Ifabella, when ti
power was increafcd, under pretence of clearing the courr
of Judaifm and Mahometanifm.

Tl-.e inquifition was firft introduced into Spain in the a
1478 ; but the firft inquifitor-general, and the fupr
council of the inquifition, were not fixed till the year : 4
This tribunal is arifen to fuch a height in Spain that :
king of Caftile before his coronation fubjefi? himfelf anc
his dominions, by a fpecial oath, to the moll holy trib
of the inqmfition. It is under the direction of an inquil.
general, appointed by the king, and confirmed by the pi.,
and this inquifition has power to name particular inqn:li.
in every place where there is any tribunal of the iiiq'.ifith

The' inquifition was eftabhflied in Portugal, at the pi
ing fohcitation of king John III. about the year 1536 : a; .
both the Spaniards and Portuguefe have eftabliihed it m
their territories in the weftern continent.

The power of the inquifition was very much limited in feme
countries, particularly at Venice, where it was introduced
about the year 1 289, and where it was received under fuch
modifications, as proved a great check on its authority ; the
office confiding of fecular and ecclefialHcal perfons, though
the latter had been long endeavouring to bring it into their
own hands, but could never prevail with the Venetian fenate
to agree to it. Indeed at Venice it feemed rather a political
than a religious contrivance ; and ferved rather for the fecurity
of the ftate, than that of the church, rhere are appeals
from the fubaltern inquifitions in Italy, to the congregation
of the holy office refiding at Rome.

The congregation wai'firft formed by Paul III. in 1542,
but finally eftab!i(hed by Sixtus V. in 1588. The members
of it, called fiipreme inquifitors, alFemble thrice in the week,
and every Thurfday in the prefence of the pope, who pre-
fides in it.

The officers or minifters of the inquifition are the inqui-
fitors, who derive their power from the pope, either by word
of mouth, or by his apoftolic letters, and can be removed
only by him, or by authority conferred by him on thofe
cardinals who are the inquifitors-general ; vicars-general,
who manage the affairs of the inquifition during the abfence
of the irquilitors ; afkiTors and counfellors, who give their
advice in points of theology and law; the promoter fifcal,
whofe office it is to examine the depofitions of the witneffes,
to give information of criminals to the inquifitors, and to
demand their apprehenfion and impril'onment, and, finally,
when apprehended and admonifhed, to accufe them; notaries
or regifters, who write down the injunftions, accufations,
and all the pleadings of the caufes ; the judge and receiver
of the confifcated effeiits ; the executor and officials, who
apprehend and keep in cullody criminals ; the attendants or
familiars ; the crols bearers ; and the vifitors, who vifit all
the provinces of the inquifitors, and repc-rt to the inquifitor-
general and council whatever was proper to be amended.
The civil magiftrate is entirely excluded from the cognizance
of herefy ; but the inquifitors require their affiftance for the
punifliment of heretics, in coiifequer.ee of the fentence whicii
they pronounce : and they are leverely threatened with the
moil grievous punifliments, if they negle£l their duty. The
puniflunents inflicted by the inquiiitiou on heretics are eccle-
8 ilaftical

1 N Q,

fiaitiv^il and civil : the ecclefiaftical or canonical are excotn-

r.. ;n;c;ition, deprivation of ecclefiallicHl burial, dignities,

1 iKos, and offices. The civil are confifcation of goods,

is inflicted on aU who are convifted of Iierefy, or con>

uiiether they repent or perfill in their iierefy, becaufe

ire declared to incur the punirnment, ip/bjure, as foon

ar. thoy fall into herefy; difinhcriting the children, infomuch

|! that though tliey are Catholics, they can never inherit the

ii eftates of "their fathers who died in herefy ; infamy, which

li excludes from all public offices, from bearing witnefs,

! making wills, &c. lofs of all dominion, natural or civil, as
. power of parents over children, matters ovir fervants, ma-
giilrates and princes over fubje<Els, &c. and the deprivation
f of all property in every thing they have ; imprifonment ;
i bann, which is a kind of fentence of excommunication, by
I which any perfon is call out of the commonwealth, fo that
tl he cannot enjoy the public proteftion, or difcharge any
\ public offices, or receive any benefit of law ; diffidation,
I which declares heretics to be enemies of their own country
I and of the empire, fo that any perfon, by his own private
f authority, miiy feize, plunder, and kill him, as an enemy
i and robber, even though he be a clergyman ; nor is it lawful
' for any one to undertake their defence when apprehended ;
and thofe advocates who favour and plead for them, arc pro-
nounced infamous, and fufpended from their office ; and
finally death, which is that of being burnt alive, in fome
cafes heightened by being gagged with an iron in'.lrument,
fo that in the midil of their torments they can utter only an
inarticulate found.

It is the conftant praftice of the inquifition to affeCt, in
all their procedures, to infpire as much terror and amaze-
ment as poffible ; every thing is done with the profoundell
filence and fecrecy, and with the greatell rigour and pre-
tended impartiality. When a perfon is Icized, all the world-
abandons him ; not tlie neareft friend dares to fpeak a word
in his defence ; that alone would be enough to i-ender them
fufpetted of herefy, and would bring them within the claws
of the inquifition ; nay, the nearell relations are bribed and
contlrained to accufe one another. The criminals are feized,
examined, tried, tortured, and, uniefs they recant, are even
condemned and executed, without ever feeing or knowing
their accufers ; whence the rever.geful have a fair occafion
of wreaking their malice on their enemies. By the forms
of the inqmfition, a perfon defamed only for herefy is
obliged to make a canonical purgation, t. e. to purge himfelf
with feven, m.ore or lefs, compurgators ; fo that il he fails
in one, two, or three, he is accounted guilty : befides, every
one, though excluded by other courts, is admitted as a wit-
nefs, a rr.ortal enemy oidy excepted. The names of the
witncffes are not (hewn to the prifoner ; nor is any circum-
ftance dift overed, by which he can obtain the knowledge of
them. If tviro unexceptionable witnefTes tellify of different
fefts ; yea, fometimes if there be only one, or a mere report,
it is thought fufficient for ordering the torture; the evidence
of two unexceptionab'e witnelTes, who agree, is fufficient
for the conviflion and condemnation of any perfon. Thofe
that are informed againll are conftrained to become their
own accufers; andvarious arts arc ufed to extort a con-
frffion from them. . The advocate allowed them is under the
direclicn of the inquifition, and employed ciiiefly in order
to betray them : moreover, whtn the crimes cannot be
proved agaicd them, they are only abfolvcd from profecu-
tion, but their crimes and names are recorded againfl: them.
The ufc of torture for difcovering fecret crimes lying con-
cealed in the mind, is a flagrant inttance of injuftice ; and
pcrfons are put to the torture upon half full proof of the
crime, i. <r. faukering, defasnation, one witnefs of his own

I N S

knowledge, or when the tokens are vehement, or violent.
Thefe tortures are ufed under a pretence of difcoveriii"
the truth, and they are varied and continued with the moit
wanton cruelty. After thefe, and many other (hocking
procedes, when the inquifition has done with the criminals,
and condemned them to death, they are turned over to the
fecular arm, with much prayer, and pious intreaty, that their
lives may not be touched.

Time is no manner of fecurity in point of herefv ; nor,
docs the grave itfjlf (heltcr the accuied from the purfiiits of
the inquifition ; even the deoeafed have their trials, and they
proceed in all their form and folemnity againfl the dead car-
cafes. The executions, are always deferred till the number
of the condemned is very great, that the multitude of fuf-
ferers may (Irike the deeper horror, and make the fccne more
terrible and (hocking. See Act of Faith.

The inquifition is very fevere in the Indies. It is true, there
mud be the oaths of feven witncffes to condemn a man ;
but the depofition of fiaves or children are taken. The per-
fon is tortured till he condemns himfelf; for his accufers
are never brought to confront him. Perfons are accuied for
the flendereft expreffion againfl the church; or even for a
difrefpedtful word of the inquifition.

The lland^rd of the inquifition in Spain is a piece of
red dam-elk, on which is painted a crofs, with an olive-
branch on one fide, and a fword on the other ; with thefe
words of the pfalm, Exurge, Domine, i^ judica caiifam
meam.

The ftandard of the inquifition in Portugal hath their
fuppofed founder Dominic's picture on one fide, and on the
other fide the crofs, between an olive-tree and a fword, with
this motto, JujV'.cla iff wifericordin.

See on the lubjecl of this article Limborch's Hid. of the
Inquisition, by Chandler, paffim. Mofheim's Eccl. Hill,
vol. iii. p. 113, &c. 8vo.

INQUISITORS, in La'w, are (heriffs, coroners f„j>er
Tifum- corporis, or the like, who have authority to enquire
into certain cafes, ex cjficio.

IN QUO, Medium in quo. See MEDIU^f.

INROLLMENT, the regidering, recording, or enter-
ing of any lawful aft, or inilrument, in the records of
chancery ; as a recognizance acknowledged, or a ftatute, or
a fine levied.

InroUments are alfo made in the rolls of the exchequer,
king's bench ; and common pleas; in the huftings at Guild-
hall, London ; and by the clerk of the peace in any county..
See Register.

Inrollmexts, Clerk of the. See Clerk.

INSAG, in Ornithology, a name given by the people of
the Phihppine iflands' to one of the feveral fpecies of par-
i-nts, common in their woods. The infag is a very beau-
tiful bird ; its body is of a' very bright green, and its head
of a fine florid red;

INSANITY. See MEnrAL Derangement, Mania, and
Melakcholv.

INSANUM PARtIA^IE>JTu.^^ See PARLIAME^-TU^r.

1N3CHI, or IsscHl ina, in the Materia Medica, a name
givcrt by fome authors to the common ginger.

INSCONCED, in the Military Art, denotes that part of
an army that have fortified themfelves with a fccnce, or fmall
fort, in order to defend fome pafs, &c. See Sconce.

INSCRIBED, in Geometry. A figure is fard to be in-
fcribed in another, when all the angles of the figure infcribcd
tcuch either the angles, fides, or planes of the other.

iNscitiBTTD Hyperbola, isfuchan one as lies entirely wHtliin
tlie angle of its afymptntes ; as the cortical hyperbola doth.
See Hyperbola and Ciicctmsckidikc;

INSCRIP.

1 N S

INSCRIPTION, a tide, or writing affixed to any
thing, to give foiue fartlier knowledge thereof ; or to tranf-
niit lonie important truth to pofterity.

Antiqv'.aries are very curious in examining ancient in-
fcriptions found on tloiies, and otlier monuments of anti-
quity. Sanchoniathon, contemporary, as it is faid, with
Gideon, drew moll of t!ie memoirs whereof his hiftory is
compofed from infcriptions which he found in temples,
and on columns, both axnong the heathens and the He-
brews.

It appears, indeed, that the ancients engraved upon pillars
the pruiciples of iciences, as well as the hillory of the world.
Thofe mentioned by Herodotus (hew, that this was the firil
way of indrufting people, and of tranfmitting hillories,
and fciences, to polierily. This is confirmed by Plato in
his Hippias, wlicrein he fays, that Pififtratus engraved, on
ftone pillars, precepts ufeful for huftandmen. Pliny af-
fures us, that the firit public monuments were made of plates
of lead ; and that the treaties of confederacy concluded
between the Romans and tlie Jews were written upon plates
©f brais ; that, fays he, the Jews might have fomething to
put them in mind of the peace and confederacy concluded
with the Romans. The Greeks and Romans were much
addidled to infcriptions, and were extremely fond of being
mentioned in them : and hence it is that we find fo many in
thofe countries of ancient learning, that large volumes have
been compofed ; as the collcftion of Gruter, &c. '

Since Gruter's collcdion, Th. Reinefius has compiled
another huge volume of infcriptions. M. Fabretty publifhcd
another volume at Rome in 1 669, wherein he has corrected
abundance of errors which had efcaped Gruter, Reinefius,
and other antiquaries, &c. and added a great number of in-
fcriptions omitted by them. Since all thefe, Graevius has
p ..blifhed a complete collection of infcriptions, in three vo-
lumes folio.

Ikscription', Academy of. See Academy.

Inscriptions, Notes, or Abbreviations, ufedin. See Cha-
racter.

INSCRUTABLE,UKSF.ARCHABLE,inr/rfO%_)',isnfually

imderftood of the fecrets of Providence, and the judgments
of God, which cannot be found out, or into which human
reafon cannot penetrate.

INSE, in Geography, a town of Pruflia ; 22 miles \V. of
Tilfit.

INSECTS. See Entomology.

Insects, Anatomy of. Many parts of this fubjecl have
been already confidered in the article Entomoloc;y, to
which we refer the reader : our prefcnt object is to fupply
what has not been inferted there.

Organs of Motion. — A itriking difference is obferved in the
pofition oi the hard parts, which conftitute the elTcntial or-
gans of motion, between this clafs and the mammalia,
birds, &c. In the latter, the bones are placed in the centre
of tlic limbs, and are furrounded by the mufcles, which are
covered externally by the Hvin ; while in the former, the re-
fifUng matters, which are analogous to bones and perform
their functions, are hollow, placed externally, fupply the
place of ikin, and contain the moving powers in their
cavities.

The llrufture and appearances of the external coverings
vary confiderably in the different orders of this clafs. In the
crab, loblter. Sec. a hard calcareous cruft covers the whole
body and limbs, ferving for Ikin and Ikeleton. In the per-
fect infects thefurface of the body n covered by horny fub-
llances of various degrees of hardncfs and refinance. The
larvf have co\-crings of a fofter kind, and approaching more
nearly, as far as external characters go, to the flcia of mam.

I N S

malia and of the neighbouring clafTes. Yet this is anal'^;
in its functions to the calcareous and horny crufls ; t
receives the infertion of the mufcles, and therefore c'>.
tutcs the chief agent of locomotion.

The fenfible cliaradters of the calcareous cruft of
crab and loblter (their Jhcll as it is commonly ca!':
rcfemble thofe of the fhells of teftaceous animals, and ;
fomc degree thofe of bone : but the chemical conftitutioii
is in fome refpefts different. The very valuable refearc' '.":
of Mr. Hatchett have m.ade us acquainted with the c'
circumftances of the compofition of thefe matter^. A
having detailed his experiments on fhells and on the c.v
ings of the echini, he proceeds : " It was now requifil. ^
afcertain if phofphate of hme is a component part of ti.i^
fiibllauce which covers the crullaceous marine or aqiia.x
animals, fuch as the crab, loblter, prawn, and era)-!!';:.
Pieces of this fubftance, taken from various parts of t'
animals, were at different times immerfed in acetous and
luted nitric acid ; thofe which had been placed in the di! :
nitric acid produced a moderate effervefcence, and in a fr '
time were found to be foft and elaftic, of a yellowifh-white
colour, and hke a cartilage, which retained the original
figure. The fame effects were produced by acetous acid, but
in a lefs degree ; in the latter cafe alfo the colouring matter
remained, and was foluble in alcohol. AU the {olutions,
both acetous and nitric, afforded carbonate and phofphate of
lime, though the former in a larger proportion. There is
reafon to conclude, therefore, that phofphate of hme, mingled
with the carbonate, is a chemical characteriftic, which dil-
tinguiflies the crullaceous from the tellaceous fubllances ;
and that the principal difference in the qualities of eacli,
when complete, is caufed by the proportion of the hardening
fubftances, relative to the gluten, by which they are ce-
mented ; or by the abundance and confiitency of the gelati-
nous, membranaceous, or cartilaginous fubltance, in and on
which the carbonate of lime, or the mixture of the car-
bonate and phofphate, has been fecreted and depofited. And
as the prefence of phofphate of lime, mingled with carbo-
nate, appears to be a chemical character of cruftaceous ma-
rine animals, there is every reafon to conclude that Linnaeus
did right not to place the echini among the teftaceous ones.
The prefence of phofphate of lime, in the fubftance which
covers the crullaceous marine animals, appears to denote an
approximation to the nature of bone, which, not only by the
experiments of Mr. Gahn, but by the united tellimony of all
chemills, has been proved principally to confift, as far as tlie
ollifying fubftance is concerned, of phofphate of lime.''
Philof Tranf. 1799. In a recapitulation of thefe re-
fearches, in the Tranfattions for 1800, he fays, " it was
proved, that the cruft which covers certain marine animals,
inch as crabs, lobfters, cray-fifh, and prawns, confifts of a
ftrong cartilage, hardened by a mixture of carbonate and
phofphate of lime ; and that thus thefe cruftaceous bodies
occupy a middle place between fhell and bone, though they
inchne principally to the nature of Ihell." Similar refults to
thefe were obtained by Merat-Guillot, who has defcribed
his inveftigation in the Annales de Chimie, t. 34. From 100
parts of lobfter cruft, he obtained 60 of carbonate of hme,
14 of phofpliato, and 26 of animal matter. In 100 parts of
cray.filh cruft there were 60 of carbonate, 12 of phofphate,
and 26 of animal matter. So far as the horny coverings of
infects have been examined, they correfpond in chemical
properties to horn, hoof, fcales of ferpents, feathers, &c.
and do not owe their firmnefs to calcareous matter, which
feems not to be an elTential part in their formation. See
Horn.

An intcrefting enquiry arifes here, concerning the mode

INSECTS.

cf formation of thefe coverings ; but our data are hardly
fufficient to refolve it fatisfadorily. " Some obfervations,"
Jays Cuvier, " fcem to prove that tliere are tellaceous
animals, which lofe tlieir (hells cntin-ly at certain periods,
and are fupplied with new ones. But this reproduftion
might be effeded by developement like that of the an-
tler : and if it be alYo a developement, which produces the
interior layers of tliofe (liells, which do not drop off, it
may be compared to that which forms the inner lamina of
the horns of cows,, theep, and other nmiinating mammalia,
and alfo to the produftion of the cpidrrmis in all animals :
that is to fay, it is a deficcation, a kind of death of a mem-
brane, which appeared to have fome fort of organization, as
long as it was protefted from the conta:t of the external air,
or had not acquired completely its charatterillic folidity.
All the hard parts which hold the place of bones in in-
vertebral animals feem to be developed in this manner. In
the crab and lobfter, for example, that wliich ferves at the
fame time for integuments and tlceleton, grows no more
when it has once attained its pcrfeft harchiefs ; yet the
foft parts flill continue the progrefs of their developement.
AVhen they are too much confined by the hard covering,
that feparates and is detached : but another is found under
it, which was in a llate of formation while the former was
detaching itfelf, or, as we may fay, dying. This new co-
vering is at firft foft, fenfible, and even vafcular ; but a
quantity of calcareous matter, previoufly coUefted in the
ftomach, is very foon conveyed to it, hardens it, obllructs
the pores and vefTels, and renders it, in ihort, perfectly fimi-
lar to that of which it has fupplied the place. Infefts do
not acquire their perfecl hardnefs until they have taken
their lall form, and have no further change of fkin to un-
dergo ; but all the fkins which they had cafl off before, al-
though fofter, were dead, and already replaced by others,
developed before they were difcharged. Thus all the hard
external organs of white-blooded animals, whatever their con-
fidence and chemical nature may be, fhould rather be com-
pared, in their mode of giowth, to the epidermis, to hoi-
low nails, and horns, than to true bones." Lecons d'Ana-
tomie comparee, t. I, p. Ii8.

Efulirmh. — Cr'ullacea and infefts, whether in their larva
or perfect ftate, have a true epidermis ; but, as this integn-
ment, when it has once become dry and hard, is no longer
fufceptible of that extenfion which is necelTary to accom-
modate the growth of the animal, it is feparated at certain
periods, which are definite in each fpecies, but influenced
confiderably by the atmofpherical temperature : the animal
quits its ikin, paiTmg out from it as from a ilieath. This
procefs is called moulting : the infect, in many cafes, is
fe>feral days preparing for it, and fometimes periihes. Moll
of tli-: larvae of the papilio and bombyx kinds change their
covering feven times before they pafs into the ftate of chry-
falis. Tl'.e bombyx caja has ten fuccefllve coverings.

Ttiis mod fmgular procefs is not analogous to the mere
reparation of the cuticle in the human fubjecl ; for the parts
■which are detached in infefts, in many cafes afford altach-
nient to the mufcles of the animal. Thus, in the crullacea
the whole (keleton is ilied, and this takes place annually.
" Thefe frequent moultings," fays Lyonet, " of the cater-
pillar of the phalina colTus are the more lingular, niafmuch
as the caterpillar does not Cmply change its fkin, but calls
its whole external covering, in which we obferve the head,
jaws, cornea:, all the fcaly parts compofing the lips, the
cirri, the fp inning hole, the antenni, and even the fcaics
CDcLfed v.it/)in the head, and affording attachment to feveral
mufcles ; alfo the lligmata, the nails, fcales, and hooks of
tlie feet, the hairs, the anus, in ihort all the vifible external

furface of the animal. In difpofing itfelf for this operation,
it paffes fome days without taking any nourifhn-cnt ; the
miilcles, and other interior organs of the head, are detached
from the old cranium, and withdrawn into the neck ; thi-y
form a new covering, fimilar to that which they have left,
but larger, and at firlt foft. When the new fldn, and all the
other parts, which contribute to the covcrinp- of the cater-
pillar, are formed, the old one is opened, and the animal
withdraws from it by an operation fo much the more difficult
in confequence of tlie weaknefs caiifed by the foft llate of
the new organs, which will not allow it to act with vigour,
nor to take any nourilhment for fome days.

"The catcrpillar,thus newly clothed, exhibits different pro-
portions from thofe which it had before moulting ; the head,
legs, and all the horny parts are fenfibly larger in comparifon
to the reft of the body ; thefe therefore do not increafe after-
wards. The body and foft parts of the animal only grow,
until they become again too large for their covering, and a
new moulting is neceffary.'' Lyonet, Traitc Anatomique
dela Chenille, p. 7.

Rete Mucoj'um. — The place of this organ is held in the
cruftacea, by the calcareous fhell, which immediately fnc-
ceeds the epidermis ; its colour is commonly a dull green,
fometimes red, blue, white, or black. Alcohol, acids, and
particularly the application of heat, often produce remark-
able changes in thefe colours, as we may obferve in the
lobllers brought to our tables. In larvae a layer of mucous
fubftance is feen between the epidermis and the mufcles ;
and the colours of this vary infinitely in the different fpecies.
It is particularly remarkable for its brilliancy in caterpillars,
and the larvx of fome hymenoptera ; it gives to their bodies
the purell and moft lively tints, of which the (hades and
fymmetr)- are admirable. Red, purple, violet, blue, green,
yellow, fcarlet, black, S:c. are dillributed in the moil regular
and Itriking manner. Probably the brilliant colours of the
perfeft infeCts are owing to the mucous body dried and
blended with the horny covering. For whillt the lepidoptera
are in their chryfalis Itate, the fmall coloured fcales which
will afterwards adorn their win^s, appear like the mucofity
which is under the (kin of the caterpillars. The colours
of the fpiders are alfo owing to this mucous matter, which
is found under their fkin, and has the appearance of fmall
glandular points marked by different Ihades of colour. But
in the culeoptera, and in feveral other orders, the colours
feem to refide in the horny tiflue, as thofe of the tellacea do
in their calcareous fhells.

Nothing can be feen in this clafs, which can be compared
to the cutis ; there is a peUicle under the fhell of the crullacea,
but it is fine, tranlparent, and has very little conlillence.
The layer which is feparated from larvae in their moultings,
is of the fame nature and thicktiefs as that which is under
it and fucceeds. The coverings of the contrafted chryfalifes,
fuch as thofe of the lepidoptera and diptera, cannot be re-
garded as a true fkin ; it is rather a horny epidermis. I.aflly,
in their perfeft llate, infedts have nothing in their coverings
which can be compared to cutis. The hairs of infedts feem
to be produftions of their epidermis ; for they are difcharged
with that in moulting, and are fupplied by new and longer
ones. The fcales ol the wings and body in the lepid.>ptera
and fome other orders, are fmall horny plates, differently co-
loured, implanted in the fkin, and placed one over the other,
like tiles in the roof of a building. The plumes of fome
infefts are prolongations or flireds of the wings, furnilhed
with long hairs on their fides.

Joinis. — The cruftacea and the proper infedts agree in the

kind of their articulations ; the particular nature of which

arifes from their hard ^arts being placed externally to the

c Bii-ftles^

INSECTS.

mufcles. The former being made like nicaths, and having
their cavities filled by the miifclcs, cannot hs arliculatcd by
fimple and plane furfaces ; their joints therefore exhibit no
fpccimens of arthrodia and enarthrofis. All their moveable
articulations may be reduced to three kinds. Where the
parts require a folid point of fiipport, the ginglymus is em-
ployed ; the horny coverings of the limbs, being tubular,
mull rell on each other in two points of their circumference
atleaft, and this arrangement neceffarily determines the gin-
glyinoid form. Wiiere a folid point of fupport is not re-
quired, the parts are merely fufpended by ligaments, or are
articulated by a kind of fetting in. In the latter con-
ftruclion one part enters and is received into the hollow of
another. Thus the thighs of infefts are fet in the thorax,
and the rings of the abdomen are fet into each other. Since
the part which receives, and that which is received, are fcg-
ments of a fpheroid, the latter may perform a twitting mo-
tion : it may be puihed more or lefs iompletclv into the ca-
vity, either equally in its whole circumference, or to a
greater degree on one or the other f.d-- ; but flexion properly
ib called cannot be performed. The parts which are con-
nected by ginglymus, and which are chiefly the different
portions of their legs, have deep notches on tliat fide where
the flexion is moft extenfive ; the interval is filled with a
pliant membrane, and there is no other ligament. The arti-
cular tubercles and excavarions are fo arranged that they
eannot be luxated without fra<fture.

Mtifcks — The iSufcular fyftem of the cruftacea is con-
fined to the motions of the legs, tail, and falfe feet ; there
are no mufcles for moving the head on the thorax, fince tlie
two parts are confolidated into one piece in this order. The
antenna, the jaws, and the palpi, have particular mufcles,
but we rtiall not confiderthem at prefent. The tail is a ve.-y
principal part of the body in moil crullacea. It confifts of
a very ftrong and moveable member, wliich they employ with
great effeft both in jumping and fwimming. It is compofed
in feveral monoculi of long threads, which in the poly-
phemus (molufcacrab) are folid and moveable at their bafes
only. In the crabs it is (hort, flattened, and curved under
the body in a depreflion placed between the legs. The can-
cer bernhardus (hermit crab) has a foft tail without fcales,
which it introduces into empty {hells or hollow fl;ones.

The tail deferves a particular defcription in the lobfter,
where it is formed of fix chief fegment.-:, and terminated by
live plates. The former are not all of exaftly the fame
figure; they are convex above, and cover one another like
tiles ; below they are nanower, and united by a locfe mem-
brane which allows them confijerable mobility. In the
latter fituation, at the angle of union between their dorfal
and lower portions, they liave a kind of firm fin?, bordered
\<nth ciliated proceffes, and formed of feveral articulations.
Thefe are called talfe or fwimming legs (pedes natatorii).
Thcfe admit of being moved from before backwards, and a
little from without inwards, by means of fmall mufcles con-
tained in their interior, but not differing fufficiendy from
thofe of the true legs to merit a particular defcription.

The five plates, which terminate the tail, confiil of two
pairs and a finglc one ; the latter is placed in the middle, and
articulated dirtdly to the lad fegment. The opening of the
anus is found under it. In fome fpecies it is divided in its
middle, fo as to admit a flight motion. Each of the lateral
pairs is fupported by a common piece articiJated to the laft
fegment of the tail. The internal plate of each pair is fim-
ple, and ciliated, like the middle one, only at its extremity ;
but the external is in a manner articulated, or rather formed
of two pieces ; the firft of thefe covers by its extremity,
which is denticulated, the fmaller wLicfa fucceeds, and of

which the edge is fet with very clofe cilia. The nmfcles
which move this tail are fo Cngular, as to merit a dillinft
defcription.

The nr.ifeles of the ia'il, in the lohjler, form two mafPes,
feparated from each other by the intellinal canal. In tl,e
dorfal mafs, which is the thinneit, and Icaft complicated,
three kinds of fibres may be obferved. The firft conftitute
a mufcle attached to the dorfal portion of the thorax towards
its pofterior fourth part. It is then direfted obliquely
backwards and outwards towards the fides of the firft feg-
ment of the tail, in which it is inferted. The portion of one
fide adling feparately, will carry the tail towards the right or
left ; when both aft together, they will extend the tail, and
maintain it in the extended ftate. The fecond and third
ferics of mufcular fibres are extended through the whole
length of the tail in two parallel and contiguous lines. They
ariie from the upper and lateral portions of that feptum of
the thorax, on which the branchis are applied, by feveral
digitations. When it has arrived at the firft ring of the tail,
a fmall interfedtion is obferved on the fiirface, and we ob-
(erve that a fmall bundle of fibres turns off to be inferted
into this firft annular fegment ; and a fimilar infertion takes
place in each of the fticceeding rings. This difpofition
gives to the internal band the appearance of a twifted cord.
The externa! portion of the dorfal mafs is formed of diftinft
longitudinal fibres. Thefe three orders of mufcles have
much analogy to the ftraight dorfil mufcles of caterpillars,
as we {hall fee in the fequel.

The veiUra! mafs of the mufcles of the tail is much thicker
and more complicated than thofe of the back. In order to
give a clear notion of its compofition, we fliall defcribe it as-
obferved in three afpefts. In the firfl place, from the back ;
the mufcles which we have defcribed, as well as the inteftinal
canal, having been removed ; fecondly, from below, the
fcales which cover the under furface of the tail, and the
nerves having been taken away ; and thirdly, on the infide,
a longitudinal feftion having been carried through the mufcle
in its middle line, in order toexpofe the internal ftrufture.

The ventral mufcle of the tail, on its dorfal afped, arifes
in the interior of the thorax, above the intricate bony texture,
containing the mufcles of the legs. It is then divided into
a right and left portion ; each of which is formed of three
broad digitations. Over the firft fegment of the abdomen,
its longitudinal fibres dip under others, which turn round
and embrace them. The reft of the mufcle, in the whole
length of the tail, is thus formed of two feries of convex
fibres curved in parallel dircdlions, placed laterally with re-
gard to each other, and feparated from right to left by a
channel in v.'hich the inteftinal canal is lodged.

On the under furface three very diftind orders of fibres
may be feen. The firft is produced from the inferior furface
of the digitations which arife from the bony frame-work of
the thorax. The fecond confifts of obhque fibres, which
are a continuation of the former, extending from the m.iddle
line, in which the nervous cord is placed, to the fides of the
rings at the angle of union between their dorfal and ventral
portions. Each of thefe angles, from the firft to the fixth,
has two ftrong bundles. The third feries is made up of
tranfverfe bundles delcnbing arcs, of which the convexity is
downwards. Thefe mufcular flattened hoops correfpond
to the interfeftions of the rings, and feem to form derivative
pullies for the oblique fibres juil mentioned.

Laftly, the ventral mufcle of the tail, divided longitudi-
nally in its middle, refemblcs a rope with the ftrands rather '
obliquely difpofed. The fibres belonging to the tranfverfe
bundles are dittindl and narrower.

From tiiis Angular complication it rcfults, that the mufcle,

when

INSECTS.

n infu'iKtetl from all its adhefions, ccmflitutes a very from the lower edge of tlie leg, and is infertcd into the
;^* twift, the threads of whiclv, inllead of afting in the lower eminence.

.,'itiidinal direftion, move obliquely in the canal which The extenfor and flexor of the pincer occupy and divide
tlkv occupy between the neighbouring fibres. the interior of the fourth piece : thrir funftions are del'.-r-

The legs of the cruilacea vary in number and fizc. Tlieir mined by their fituation. The e:;tei'.for of the moveable
figures are very different in the monoculi ; fometimes they piece or pollex is a very fmall mufcle, occupying the upper
hi'd the place of palpi, jaws, fins, branchia-, &;c. They part of the pinccr : its flexor occupies all the refc of tiiis
ditfer confiderably in form in the crabs, particularly the iirll part, is a very bulky mulcle, and lias a flattened oblong
]>xr. We fliall defcribe the legs of the crab and lobller bony tendon in its middle. From this mufcle arifes the
as an example of thefe organs. They are ufually five in great power of the animal in feizing and holding objects,
number on each fide, and each has fix articulations. The Organs of Molkn in the Larva: of InftBs. — As inftcts
iirll pair is confiderably the largeft, and forms what we call undergo confiderable changes of form at certain epochs of
thj claws. their life, they^exhibit remarkab'e difT'rend s in their organs

The hip, or hnunch, is attached to the cheft, and moves of motion. Hence it becomes necefiary to defcribe tFieni in
only from before backwards. It fupports one divifion of their various ftatcs. All the win ^cd infcfls, svhich undergo
the branchix, a;; well as the fecond piece of the member, a complete metamorpliofis, differ very confiderably in their
which correfponds to the thigh. The latter is flattened, firft Hate frijtn that which they have in the fequel ; and the
fliort, nearly fquare, ^nooth, and a little curved. The plane moft ilriking of th-fe differences regard the moving powers.
<.f iii articulation is parallel to the length of the piece ; and At this time they are called larvje or caterpillars ; and they
•he two mufcles which move it are inferted into the two preferve this form for a longer or fliorter time after quitting
t remote points, the thigh is fituated horizontally. It the egg. They are covered with a flaccid and foft Ikin,
a hi-ige-like motior on the hip, combined of the two divided into fegments or rings fufceptible of motion on
diicciions from before backwards and from within outwards, each other, by means of fmall mufcular bancs fituated in
its motion on the leg, which is very limited, takes place the interior of the body. Frequently their motions are
only from below upwards, and produces the approximation performed fimply by crawling on thefe rin.;s, after the
of the limb to the chell. The third portion correfponding manner of reptiles ; or, by retting fuccelTively each of the
to the leg is alfo ra'her flattened, particularly at its femoral fegments of the bcdy on the plane which fupports it.
extremity. It is fiightly curved in the dircclion of the Such is the cafe with the larvae of the diptera, and of moil
thigh, fo as to correfpond to the convexity of the thorax, of the hymenoptera. Sometimes the furface of thefe rings
Towards the tarfal end it becomes larger and rougher : its is fiirnifhed «Hth fpines, Iliff briftles or hooks, in order to
motion on the thigh is very limited. The fourth articula- give them a firmer hold on bodies : this may be obferved in
tion is intermediate between tl:e pincer and the leg, on forae flies, oellri, tipulae, &c.

which it moves in a very diiiindt angle. The pincer com- On the under furface of the body in fome orders, there
pofcs the fifth, and by far the larf^^it piece. It is terminated are fix feet near the head, each of which is formed of three
on the outfide by a pointed and ferrated projeftion ; and articulations : the laft is horny and terminated in a hook,
it receives on the oppofite fide a moveable pointed piece By oppofing tliefe to each other the infett can hold any
or pol'ex, capable of being cppofed to it, which, with the objeft, hook itfelf to it, and then draw the reft of the body
other, conftitutes the pincer. The motion of this on the towards this fixed point. This formation is feen in the
fourth piece is from without inwards. The two following coleoptera, and many of the neuroptera. The fix feet are
pairs of legs refemble the former on a fmaller fcale, with very (liort, and hardly fufceptible of any ufeful application
this difference, that the two pieces, compofing the pincer, in fome other coleoptera, •vix. fi.ch as live in tlie ulterior
are of equal fize. The two lafl: pairs of legs differ from of wood, as the cerambices, rhagia (Fab.), &c. The latter
the three others in not being terminated by a pincer, but move in the hollows which they excavate by means of
by a fingle nail. In every other refpecl they refemble the their jaws, by which they attach themfelves, and with the
two precedmg pairs. affuhince of plates or tubercles, with which their flcin is

. Alufda of the Legs. — Each artic,ulation has an extenfor furuifiied on the back and belly ; their mode of proceeding
and a flexor mufcle. The extenfor of the hip is fituated may be compared to that of fweepers in chinmies.
in theinterior of the thorax, on the horny piece which fup- Laftly, the lepidoptera, and fome hymenoptera have, be-
ports the branchii, rather in front of the hip, which it fides the fix horny articulated feet, a variable number of
draws forwards. The flexor arifes from the fame part falfe feet, not articulated, terminated by hooks difpofed in
farther back, and produces the contrary motion to the circles and half circles, and attached to the (kin on retra'lile
preceding. appendices or tubercles ; they move by fixing themfelves to

The extenfor of the thigh is ftronger than the flexor ; it bodies by means of thefe organs,
is attached to the inner and front part of the hip, and to The lana- of fuch infers as undergo an incomplete mc-
the fuperior eminence of the thigh. It dcpreffes rather than tamorphofis, as the hcmiptcra, and of fuch as pafs through
bends. The flexor, or rather the elevator of the thigh, is none at all, as the aptera, except the flea, do not differ from
fljorter than the former ; it occupies the pof'erior internal the perfect infect in the feet.

Turface of the thigh, and is inferted into the inferior emi- After this general ftatement of the external organs of
aence. motions in the larva;, we fliall particularly defcribe the

The extenfor of the leg is placed in the hollow of the mufcles of fome. We fliall firft mention thofe of the pro-
thigh, of which it occupies the whole breadth ; it is inferted per caterpillars ; then thofe of a fcaraba^us, which lives under
'into the external border of the leg. The flexor is lefs ground ; of a hydrophilus, which inhabits the water ; and of
powerful, lies under the extenfor, and is fixed to the inner a cerambyx, which is found in the hollows of wood,
edge. I. Mufilej ofCcittrJiil/arJ.—'l'lK docpeft ftratum of muftiea '

The extenfor of the firft piece of the tarfus is attached in the caUrpillar is formed of four principal rows ; two cor-

t/3 the whole upper edge of the leg, and is inferted into refponding to the back, and twoto theb^-lly : their dircdion

the highell eminence of the fourth piece. Its flexor arifes is longiUidinul. Thofe of the back arc feparated from cacK

Vol. XIX. X o'Avx

INSECTS.

otfier hj the longitudinal veflel, and from thofe of the
belly by the trachea:. They begin at the union of the firft
and fecond rings, by two fafticuli (lightly feparated from
each other, wliich are infevted into a kind of tendinous line
produced by the union of the fecond with the third ring.
The far.ie itrufture exillE in tlic fiibfequent rings. On the
third, the fibres of the two fafcicuh, although ftill diftinft, are
much more confiderable : on tlie fourth the internal fafci-
culus alone has its fibres feparate. The mufcle is continued,
without any apparent interfeftion, over all the other rings.
It diminiHies in thicknefs towards the oppofite end of the
body, and forms again feveral fafciculi ; at firll three,
then four, and, lalUy, five or fix. The body is {hortened
when thefe mufcles aft in conjuniilion with thofe of the belly :
it is curved upwards when they aft alone.

The longitudinal mufcles of the belly are feparated from
each other by the medullary cord, and from thofe of the
back by the trachex. Their direftion is precifely the
fame with that of the dorfal mufcle. They commence at
the Union of the two firft. rings by feveral fafciculi, which
are united into one mafs over the third ring. Their fibres
are feparated again behind, higher or lower according to
the fpecies, and form four or five mufeuhr cords, which ter-
minate towards the lad pair of faife feet. Thefe affill the
dorfal mufcles in fliortening the body when both fets con-
traft together ; but they antagonife them, when they aft
feparately, for they then incurvate the body downwards.

Between the long mufcles of the back and the .Icin
ftiorter ones are found, having an oblique direftion. Some
are extended from without inwards, towards the dorfal line,
between the annular interfeftions. Others occupy the fame
interval, but have an oppofite direftion, pafling from within
outwards, fo as to defcribe with the former the figure of the
letter V. Thefe two orders of oblique mufcles have not
every where the fame quantity of fibres. In the firft rings
they are narrow and long : thofe of the fourth, fifth, and
fixth are much fhorter : further back they become much
longer and more numerous in fome fpecies, while in others
they ftill continue broad and ihort. Thefe mufcles aft
fopardtely on each ring, which they (horten by their fimul-
tancous contraftions ; but, as they do not extend over the
whole length of the ring, the parts correfpondiag to the
folds, over which the oblique mufcles do not pafs, are elon-
gated, when, by the aftion of the latter, the diameter of
tile ring is diminifiied : thus progrefllon is facilitated.

Under the long mufcles of the belly is found another
ftratiim, of which the fibres are oblique. Tliefe very much
refemble the oblique mufcles of the back ; and may be dif-
tinguiihed, according to their direftions, into two orders.
Thofe of one fet are found nearer to the middle ventral
line, iu which the knotted nervous cord is found ; and
afcend from within outwards, in the intervals of die rings.
Tiic others are not fo oblique, with the exception of the
three fiiperior pairs. Thefe mufcles, therefore, form, with
the preceding, an angle, fimilar to this kind of ^.
'The oblique mufcles which run from within outwardly,
or the moll internal, have many fibres. They ufually con-
fill of three or four diHinft fafcicuM. Thofe which extend
from without inwardly, or the moft external, have fewer
fibres, and never more than two fafciculi.

The aftion of thefe mufcles appears to be fimilar to that
of the oblique mufcles of the back ; but it is probable that
({ley alio extend immediately the (kin of the feet on which
they are fituatcd.

Befides the longitudinal and oblique mufcles of the back
aiid tlic beliy, caterpillars have fome which are lateral ;
that is to fay, mufcles fituated btlow and above the ftigmata

or apertures, which ought to be defcribed feparately. Thefe
mulcles are of three kinds, the Jlraigbt, the tranfverfe, and
the oblique.

The ftraight lateral mufcles are fituated between the annu-
lar fcgments, above the ftigmata. They are all placed longi-
tudinally one over the other. Their points of attachment
are covered by the tranfverfe mufcles. They feem in-
tended to bend the body towards the fides when they aft
feparately ; but when they contraft, in concert with the
long mufcles of the back and abdomen, they fhorten the
body, and thereby affift its progreffion.

The tranfverfe lateral mufcles are of two kinds : fome,
which are longer than the others, arife from the intervals un-
occupied by the attachments of the ftraight lateral mufcles,
and are inferted at the termination of the oblique external
mufcles of the abdomen. Their fibres are difpofed fome-
what in the form of a fan. The others have the fafciculi
formed of parallel fibres ; they are ftiorter, and are extended
in each of the rings between the ftraight, lateral, and oblique
mufcles of the abdomen. Thefe mufcles diminifii the dia-
meter of each ring, and confequently lengthen it in each of
its folds. This mode of aftion is iieceifary for progref-
fion.

The oblique lateral mufcles are fitirated on each fide of
the ftraight. They proceed in an oblique direftion from
below upward, under the infertion of the ftraight lateral
mufcles, which they aflift when they aft together.

Such are the mufcles of the body in general ; but the
true and falfe feet, and the head, have particular mufck3>
which naift be defcribed feparately.

The mufcles of the true or fcaly feet are fituated within
the three articulations of which thefe feet are formed. They
may be diliingniihcd into thofe which move the articulations,,
and thofe which aft on the srigiiis, or claw, that terminates
them.

The mufcles of the firft joint con fid of five or fix fafci-
culi, which arife from the fuperior margin of this articula-
tion, and are inferted into the fuperior margin of the next..
The mufcles of the fecond joint are nearly equal in number,
and are inferted into the fuperior margin of the third.

Tlie mufcles of the unguis terminate by two tendons :
but they are formed of feveral fafciculi, fome of which aiife
from the fecond and third joints in two very diftinft layers ;
others from a hne which correfponds with the convexity of
the unguis ; and laftly, others from the hne which anfwers
to its concavity. Thefe tendons are inferted into two tuber-
cles at the fuperior extremity of the unguis, on the concave
fide, towards its point. They ferve to bend the unguis,
which probably recovers its pofition by the elafticity of it&
articulation.

There are two mufcles to each of the membranous or
falfe feet. Their direftion, with refpeft to the body, ii
almoft tranfverfe. They extend from the centre of the feet,
into which they are inferted towards the back, and beyond
the ftigmata, whence they arife by lateral bands more or lefs
oblique. Their ufe is to draw the centre of the foot in-
wardly, and to retraft the hooks with which the limb is
armed. It is probable that the contraftions of the obhque
mufcles of the abdomen produce the oppofite cffeft.

With refpeft to the mufcles of the head, we ihall at pre-
fent defcribe only thofe which produce its entire motion.
We (hall notice the others in treating of the different func-
tions to which they are fubfervient. The mufcles which
aft on the head, bend it upward, downward, and towards the
fides. Thofe which bend it upward are very numerous.
They arife from the fecond and firft ring, and are inferted
into different points of the o>: iput ; fome near the middle
7 line,.

NSECTS.

line, others more laterally. They form, in general, two faf-
ciciili. The moft internal is tlie lead bulky. The lateral
fi;xors are very oblique. They arife from the inferior or
.ibdominal part of the body, and extend to the Literal parts
of the occiput. The inferior flexors, which bend it down-
ward, appear to be the continuation of the llraiglit mufcles
of the belly. They confilt of eight or nine fafciculi.

2. Mufcks ofthi Larva of a Scarabceus. — Thi larva: of the
rc.irabxus have the body arched, and convex fuperiorly, and

:cave on the fide next the feet. The back and the belly
loparated by a membranous border, which has folds, and

iiluated under the ftigmata. Thefe larvas have only fix
niticiilated feet, none of which are membranous. On open-
ing thefe larvae longitudinally, eitlier on the back or the
belly, we obferve three layers of decp-feated mufcles — the
lateral, the dorfal, and the ventral.

The dorfal layer is formed of two tolerably diftinft feries

of fibres. One feries is external, and occupies the intervals

J of the ten firft rings ; that is to fay, thofe which are furnifhed

I with the ftigmata. The mufcles which compofe this feries
are narrow, and preferve a longitudinal dire£lion. The
\ fecond feries is produced by fibres, which are fomewhat
oblique, and extended in the fame fpace, but more towards
the middle line. Thefe mufcles are broader and ftronger
towards the head, and more narrow and lefs fibrous towards
the tail. They terminate between the tenth and eleventh ring
by a very narrow flefhy band. Thefe mufcles feem intended
to (horten the dorfal portion of each of the rings : this aftion
diminifhes the convexity of that part, and thereby ferves to
aflift progreffion.

Near the middle line, between the ninth and tenth ring,
there are two fmall mufcles a little oblique ; but between
the twelfth and the laft ring we obferve only one feries of
fmall fhort mufcles, which occupy all the convexity defcribed
by the curvature. The action of thefe mufcles is obvioufly
the fame as that of the preceding, to which they are accef-
fories.

When the firft layer of dorfal mufcles is removed, we find
fibres precifely fimilar underneath, but running in the oppo-
fjte direction. Finally we obferve, in the dorfal layer, lines
of very (hort mufcular fibres above the infenor plane of the
ninth and tenth ring. The ufe of thefe Uttle mufcles is pro-
bably the fame as that of all the preceding, though their
aftion is lefs apparent.

The ventral layer very much refembles that of the back.
Thefe mufcles, like the dorfal, form planes of oppofite
direftions ; the moft deep-feated proceeding from tlie inter-
nal fide, while thofe which are neareft the ikin afcend from
the external fide. This produces a fmall but very regular
rhomboidal figure ui the middle of each ring on the line
bifefting the belly. The aftion of thefe mufcles is the op-
pofite of that of die dorfal layer.

On the laft fegment, and towards the part that anfwers to
the anus, we obierve a bundle of tranfverfe fibres, which,
by their contraft:ion, doubtlefs ferve the purpofe of a
fphinfter.

The lateral layer of mufcles is compofed of three kinds of
fibres, which are verj' diftinft with rcfpeft to their courfe.
They reprefent a lace pafted through the mefties of a net.
All thefe mufcles are fituated behind the ftigmata, and in-
ferted into the folds which feparate the belly from the back
on both fides.

Thofe of the firft order are completely tranfverfe. They
extend over the union of each ring with the fuccceding in the
fpace included between the ventral and dorfal mufcles. It
is obvious that they miiftdiminifli, by their conti-aftions, the

diameter of the body, and coiifequently extend it longitudi-
nally. Thefe mufcles are in general very narrow.

The fecond fet is formed by oblique fibres which afcend
from without inwardly towards the middle ventral line, from
the union of one inferior ring to the union of the preceding.
Thefe mufcles are broad and very ftrong, they ferve to form
the folds of feparation between the back and the belly.

The mufcles of the third order are lefs oblique than the
preceding, to which they appear to be acccftbries. Each
of the mufcles which com])ofe this divifion arifes from the
middle of a ring, and is inlerted under the head, where the
preceding mufcles are infertcd, that is to fay, on the ventral
fide.

It (liould be remarked, that the two laft rings have na
lateral mufcles.

The mufcles of the head are very llrong, the flexors are
attached to the ventral mufcks above the union of the fe-
cond ring with the third. They are formed of three prin-
cipal fafcicuh, which approach each other, and are inferted
into the pofterior and inferior part of the head, at the bafe
of that fcaly piece called, by Latreille,^a«(wZr. The exten-
fors or levators of the head confift alio of three fafciculi,
but they are longer and iiroiigcr tlian the former. They
have their origin in the fide, and penetrate under the tranf-
verfe and obhque mufcles ; one is attached to the fixth
ring ; another to the fifth, and another to the fourth.
They are inferted into the pofterior lateral parts of the
head.

3. Mufcles of the Larva of a HydrophUus. — The larvae'of
the hydrophili are elongated. Their body is fomewhat flat,
and all its rings .nre diftinft. They not only walk very
quick, but they even fwim with great velocity, in coiife-
quence of different inchnations fuddeiily and fucceflively
given to the body.

Thefe larvs, when opened longitudinally, likewife
exhibit four different kinds or divifions of mufcles:
thofe of the belly, thofe of the back, and thofe of both
fides.

The ventral mufcles very much refemble thofe of cater-
pillars : they are formed of two dillinft layers. The dcepeft, or
that which firft appears on the belly^when examined through
an opening on the back, is compofed of longitudinal fibres
with interfeftions which correfpond to each ring ; the fecond
layer, or that which is next the fl^in, is entirely covered by
the preceding ; it is compofed of oblique fibres, which crofs
each other in the form of an X, and which are extended
longitudinally in each ring.

The dorfal mufcles are long, extending from the head
to the tail, and forming on each fide two rows of fibres,
which appear twilled over each other like ropes. They are
broadeft' towards the head. T'hcir fibres are inferted partly
into the inferior border of an anterior ring, and partly, into
the fuperior border of the next ring.

Thefe long mufcles cover fome which are obhque, and
crofs each other in the form of an X. They extend from
the middle part of one ring to the anterior edge of that
which fucceeds it.

The deep-leated lateral mufcles, which are numerous,
have a tranfv.-rfe direftion. Each ring has three or four,
and their courfe is fuch, that they refemble the letters N or
M lying on one fide, thus g 2; .

Beneath tiie tranverfe lateral there are fome longitudinal
mufcles that have a fmall degree of obliquity : they form a
pretty large furface, which is uninterrupted throughout its
whole length, and confounded with the oblique mufcles of
the bflh . Their fibres determine the chief motions of the
. X 2 body.

INSECTS.

body, in tlie fame manner as the long mufclcs of the back
and belly.

The mufcles of the feet are the fame as in the porfei^
hifea. ^

The head has no particjlar mufcles. The long mufcles of
the back, being inferted into the occiput, become exten-
fors. The firll tranfverfe lateral pair are inferted beneath
the head, and produce the lateral flexion. The long oblique
mufcles, which tcrininate at the inferior part of the head,
become real flexors.

4. Mufcles of the Larva of a Ceramlyx. — In the larva? of
the cerambiccs we find the fame mufcles as in thofe of the
fcarab-.ci ; bu;. as the fliape of the body differs confiderably
in thefe two kinds of larvx, there rcfults fome variation in
the form and extent of the mufcular organs.

A great part of the head of the larva of the cerambices
ran be drawn within the fliin whenever the animal pleafes.
Very (Irong mufcles, fimilar to thofe we have defcribed in
the fcarabsEus, are appropriated to this function. As the
head, which is very large, enters into the body, the extre-
mity which reeeiv-es it is fomewhat thicker than the fame part
of the fcarabii, and the mufcles which move the rings are
more extcnfive than iheirs.

The flat flefhy tubercles which we find continued along
the back and belly, are a kind of feet, which this larva ufes
in progreffion. They move by the alternate contradions
of the coritfpondent mufcles : this larva, therefore, moves
with equal facility on the back and on the bcUv.

Of the Organs of Motion In Perfra Itftfis—TlK great
variety of motions which infers are capable of performing,
entitles them to hold the firll rank among the animals that
have no vertebne. We difcover, in thefe minute beings, all
the requifites necefTary to produce thofe voluntary actions,
the execution of which allonilhes us in vertebral animals of
far greater magnitude. They even unite feveral functions
which are very feldoin found combined in the other claifes ;
for infe£ts walk, run, leap, fwim, and fly with as much fa-
cility as the mammalia, birds, and fiflies exercife one or more
cf thefe faculties.

Infedts are probably indebted for this advantage to the
numerous articulations of which their bodies are formed.
We mull therefore pay attention to their different articula-
tions, before we proceed to examine the actions they permit
or produce.

I. Of the Head. —Tor a (lefcription of the manner in
which the head is articulated to the thorax, fee Entomo-
lOGV, under the divifion Caput, or Head.

The mufcles which move the head are fituatcd within the
thorax. We Hiall defcribe here only thofe moll generally
met with. The levators or extenfors of the licad are com-
monly fituatfcd in the fuperior part of the corfelet, and the
deprcffors inferiorly.

Immediately beneath the middle dorfal part of the corfelet,
we find a pair of mufclcj which arife from the anterior portion
of the fcutellum, when that part cxills ; or from the fupe-
rior part of the peilus. Thefe mufcles are inferted into the
pottcrior and fuperior part of the head, on the edge of the
occipital hole : they draw the head back, and lift it up when
ii is dtfpreffed.

On the lateral parts of this firll pair we find another which
is more flender : the infertion of this pair likewife takes
place at the occipital hole, but more outwardly. They
arife obliquely from the lateral parts of the corfelet. Thofe
mufcles turn the head to one fide when they a£l feparately ;
th.'y raife it, and bring the mouth into the middle line when
fhcjr contrad togeti. r. It will be ealily conceived that
4

infefts which hate tlie head articulated like a knee, thef--
rotatory mufcles are much ftronger and more confpi.
cuous.

The flexors of the head are alfo four in number, two on
each fide. The firft pair arifes in the internal inferior part
of the pectus, from a fmall horny procefs, which, in the
colcoptera is of a fquare form, and haj the four angles ter-
minated by folid branches. Thefe mufcles extend diredly
to the inferior part of tlic occipital hole. From their po-
fition they doubtlefs move the head diredtly backward. The
fccond pair, which are much fliorter, arife from the inferior
lateral part of the corfelet, and proceed to the fide of the
preceding, with which they concur in their effeft when they
act together ; but when one of the tv.'o contracts feparately
it bends the head to the fide.

2. For the defcription of the t/iorax or corfelet, cf the
piStij or breall, and of the abdomen or belly, fee ExTO-
iiOLOC.y, under the refpeftive divifions.

:;. Of the Members. — For an account of the number and
flrufture of the feet, fee Estomolocy imder the divificm
Members.

The motion of each joint'is performed in a fingle place. It
is provided with two mufcles only, which are enveloped in the
preceding joint. They are an extenfor and a flexor.

In the colcoptera the coxse move by a kind of rotation oh
their longitudinal axis, which is fituated tranfverfely, and
forms, with the middle line of the body, an angle more cr lef»
approaching 90". As the femur is attached to the internal
extremity of the coxa, the diftance between the thighs is
greateft; in thofe infefts in which the femur is moil b'.nt with
re fp eft to the coxa, to which it is articulated. It is obvi-
ous, therefore, that the pofition of the plane in which this
flexion is made, depends upon the fituation of the coxa ;
when it is turned forward, the plane is vertical ; when turned
backward the plane is always more oblique ; and in tlie in-
fcCts that fwim, it is even horizontal. It appears, then, that
the almoil imperceptible motion of the coxa determiiies the
moll remarkable movements of the feet.

The mufcles of each pair of cox<e and femora are fituated
in the fuperior of the corfelet or of the pefius. To obtain
a proper view of them, it is necefTary to cut the body of the
infed in a vertical dircftion. Over the lall pair in the
pe£tus there is a fcaly fubilance, in the form of a Y. The
fl;alk of this part affords an origin to a mufcle which turns
the coxa backward, and is inferted in'o its pollerior
edge. The mufcle which turns it forward arifes from the
back, and is inferted by a thin tendon, into its anterior
edge.

The mufcle which extends one femur, while it is approxi-
mated towards the other, is very confiderable. It ariles from
the whole branch of the piece in the form of a Y, and is
inferted into the internal edge of the head of the femur. Its
antas^onill is fituated within the body of the coxa.

The mufcles which extend the two pairs of anterior femo-
ra, arife from the correfponding dorfal parts, and not from
particular internal fubftances : the flexors, however, are al-
ways fituated within the body of the coxs.

The mufcles which turn the coxse arife alfo from the pa-
rietes of the corfelet ; viz. the mufcle which moves it back-
ward, from the dorfal part, and that which moves it for-
ward, from the lateral part. In the w.iter beetles, which,
as we have obferved, have the pollerior coxa confolidated and
immoveable, thefe mufcles feem to extend to the femur,
which is therefore furniflied with four, two extenfors and
two flexors.

The

INSECTS.

The other orders of infers have nearly the lame conforma-
tion as the coleoptera.

The mufclcs of the tibia are fituated within the femur.
The extenfor, which is lliort and (lender, is attached to its
external edge (the femur being fuppofed extended in the
longitudinal direction of the body) : the flexor is much
flronger and longer. It is fituated on tlie inner fide, and in
the whole of the fnperior part.

There are likewife two innfcles to each pint of the tarfus :
one, which is fmall, and placed on the fnperior or dorfal fur-
face, ads as anextenfor. The otl-.er, which is more confpi-
cuous, and fituated on the inferior fide, afts as a dcxor.

For the dcfcription of the wings, fee Entomoi.ogv.

Tlie muftlcs that move the wings are not yet well afcer-
tained. They appear to be two kinds. Some, which are
fmall and ihoit, are fitted to extend or fold the wings, at
the fame time that they move them to or from the body :
"the others; which are fomewhat longer, are calculated to
produce the motions of elevation and depreflion which the
wings perform.

The elytra of the coleoptera, orthoptera, and liemip-
tera, do not appear to afliil in the adion of flying, at Icall
they are not moved in the fame manner by the mufcles of the
peftus.

Organs of Saifalion. — On comparing together all the ner-
vous fyftem,5, wo find only one common part, wliich is a An-
gle tubercle, fituated at the anterior extremity of the fyllem,
and always producing two lateral tranfverfe fafciculi or crura,
which unite it to the rc.l of the fyfteni. This part appears
always to correfpond to that named cerebellum in man. The
cerebellum of animals that have red blood and vertebra-, is
always preceded by fevcral pairs of tubercles, fornjing
tifually a larger mafs than ihe cerebellum itfelf. and united
to t!ie reft of the fyftem by two longitudmal fafciculi or
crura, which are interwoven in croffing with thofe of the ce-
rebellum. Tliib union takes place in fuch a manner that both
are confounded in the common mafs which forms the root of
the medulla oblongata, atid medulla fpinalis, and leaves ra
fpace between tliem. Thefe tubercles make what we call the
cerebrum.

In the white-blooded animals, or thofe that have no verte-
brae, there are aUb tubercles correfponding to the cerebellum,
but they are much fnialler, removed from each ot'.ier, and
connecled with the ceiebellum only by frparate nervous fila-
tnents. The crura of the cerebellum leave a large interval
between them, which receives the osfophagus as in a
collar.

The two fafciculi, forming. the medulla fpinahs, are inti-
mately united in vertebral animals, and no trace of their re-
paration remains, except a longitudinal furrow before and
behind. But, in the animals which have no vertebra, when
this produclion exifts, it is formed below the cefupliagus by
the union of the two crura of the cerebellum. Thefe two
fafcicuU commonly remain diilinft throughout tlie greater
part of their length, and are only united at different fpaces
by knots from which the nerves proceed. This production,
however, frequently does not exill. In fome animals with
•white blood, which have no elongation of the medullary
fuliftance, as in the mollufca, the nervous trunks, which are
derived from the crura of the cerebellum, enlarge and form
ganglia, or two or three nerves unite with each other to
produce a common ganglion ; and in general it is only from
their ganglia that the nerves which are diftributed througl-
cut the body take their origin.

In thofe white-blooded animals that have a knotted and
double medullary production, that is to fay, in the infeCls,
cruilacea, and certain worms, the iiervci- all arife from the

knots or ganglia of the medulla, or from fome of the ante-
rior ganglia of the cerebellum.

Ill tlic red-blooded animals the nerves of the fpine arife
from the medulla fpinahs in two bundles of medullary fila-
ments, which unite after the pollerior bundle has formed a
ganglion. They afterwards feparate into two trunks, the
anterior of which communicates with the great fympathetic
nerve by one or two filaments, and a ganglion is always
formed at the place where they unite.

The great fympathetic nerve, which is conftantly found
in all red-blooded animals, exiils in none of thofe with white
blood ; unlefs we fljould regard as that nerve, the two
nervous cord? which unite all the ganglia, and jvhich are
commonly called medulla fpinalis in the craltacea, inlefts
and worms. Were this opinion adopted, a medulla fpinalis
would be no longer attributed to thofe animals, and the ab-
fence of that production would then be the common charac-
ter of all the white-blooded clafies.

Inft ead of having the parts, which rcprefent the brain an J
medulla fpinahs enclofcd in bony cavities, the lower orders of
animals have them inclofed in the common cavities, with the
other vifccra.

Brain and Nerves of the CruffacM.— The cruftacca, which,
in their organs of motion, very much refemble the other
infefts, though thofe of circulation and refpira'i a are ex-
ceedingly different, have alio a fimilar nervous fyilem, at
leitl in the eflential parts.-

In fuch of the genus cancer as- have long tails, tlie middle
part of the fyllem is a knotted cord, which extends from
one citrcmity of the body to the other. The fliort-tailed
kind, commonly called cnil>s, have a medullary circle in the
middle of the abdomen, whence the nerves of the body
proceed like radii.

In thefe animals the brain is placed at the anterior extre-'
mity of the fnout, and confequently at a confiderable dif-
tance from the mouth, which opens under the corfelet. O.T
this account the cords which n.ake the collar of the oelbpha-
gus are more elongated than in other animals.

A. Brain of the common Cray-Fyh, {yljlacus F'wvlalility
Fab.) — The brain of this animal forms a mafs which is
broader than long, and ditlintlly divided on the fuperior
fiirface into four round lobes. Each ot the middle lobes
produces an optic nerve from its fore part. This nerve pro-
ceeds directly into the moveable tubercle which fultains the
eye, and is there dilated and divided into a multitude of fila-
ments, which form a pencil, and unke to all the fmall tu-
bercles of the eye.

Four other nerves arife from the inferior fiirfacc of the
brain ; thefe proceed to the fiur anteiu!;e, and detach fome
filaments to the neighbouring parts. The cords which form .
the collar, arife from the pollerior part of the brain. About
the middle of its length, each detaches a large nerve, which ■
extends to the mandibles and their mufcles,. Tiefe cords
unite under the ftomach in an oblong ganglion, which fur-
niflies nerves to the different pairs of jaws. On leaving this
part, the two cords remain near e.ach other througliout the
whole length of the corfelel, whire they form five fucceffive
ganglia, placed between, the articulations of the five pairs of
feet : each foot receives a nerve from its correfponding gan-
glion, which penetrates to the extremity of the foot : the
nerve of tlie forceps is the largelt. The medullary cords ■
extend into the tail, where they are fo intimately united that
it is not poflible to dulinguifh them. 1' hey form fix gan-
glia, the five firft of which produce each two pairs of
nerves ; the lall produces four, which are diftributed as
radii to the fcaly fins that terminate the tail.

The hermit crab, {Paguriu, Fjibr. Bernhardus, Linn.)

the

INSECTS.

the tail of which is not covered by articulated fcales, ap-
pears to have much fewer ganglia than the cray-iiih. We
have obferved only five.

In the JquiUa, Fabr. there are ten ganglia, without rec-
koning the brain : that at the union of the two cords whicli
form the collar, tranfmits nerves to the two forceps, and to
the three pair of feet which immediately fucceed them, and
which in thefe animals are ranged almoft on the fame tranf-
verfe line ; this ganglion is therefore the longeil of all.
Each of the three following pairs has a particular gnnghon.
There are afterwards fi.x ganglia in the length of the tail,
which diftribute their ft'amentsto the thick mufcles of that
part. The brain produces immediately four trunks on each
fide, w'z. the optic, thofc of the two antennx, and the cord
which forms the collar. As the antenna: are placed more iaTeral'fiia'me

1, their nerves are directed back-

polleriorly than the b
ward.

B. In the Common Crab {Cancer Mums, Linn.) — The
brain of the crab refembles that of the cray-fifli in its form
and fituation : it alfo furnilTies analogous nerves, but they
are direfted more towards the fides, in confequence of the
pofition of the eyes and the antennae. The medullary cords
which form the collar, detach each a nerve to the mandibles,
but the cords are prolonged much farther backward than in
the cray-fi(h before they unite. They join only in the middle
of the thorax, at which place there is produced a medullary

mafs of an oval rmg-like figure, which is eicrht times the fize . „ .. „

of the brain. The nerves which proceed" to the different "'^'^Y ''"^ beyond the third ring of the body, a great num-
parts arife from the circumference of this ring. It fui-niflies ^^"^ of diverging nervous filaments are produced. Thofe
fix nerves on each fide to the jaws and the five feet, and there which are ncarelt the head afcend a little ; thofe which fue-
ls a fingle nerve which arifes from the pofterior part, and ^eed them proceed almoll
proceeds to the tail. This medullary ring may be faid to

oefophagus, proceeds inferiorly to form the nervous cord
fliall prefently defcribe.

Another pair departs from the inferior furface of
brain, or that part which refts upon the oefophagus : t'
are firll direfted forward ; they afterwards turn inward,
proceed above the middle and fupcrior part of the cefo; :,
gus, in order to approach each other. When they come id
contaft, they unite and form a fmall ganglion, which pro-
duces a fingle nerve ; this nerve, continuing to proceed pel'-
teriorly, pafles below the brain, and accompanies the oclu-
phagus to the ilomach. It there enlarges again into a
ganghon, which furnifhes fome fmall nerves that are fent ti.
the ilomach, and one more confiderable, which is continued
along ihe inteftinal canal, and fends off, at regular diftanc.s,
nts, which arc loft in the coats of this tuLu-,
This nerve is analogous to that which Lyonet has dc
fcribed under the name of recurrent, in the caterpillar of the
cojus.

The medulla fpinalis, which, as we have fhewn, is formed
by the pofterior pair of nerves of the brain, is very thick at
its origin : it forms a large fufiform srargUon about 0,005
metre long, and half a millimeter broad. Four or five con-
tradtions appear on its anterior part, but they are fo (light
that they feem only tranlverfe furrows. The pofterior part
ot this ganglion is fm.ooth.

From the lateral parts of this large ganglion, which extend.;

fverfely ; and the laft
diredled more and more pofteriorly : the length of each li
in proportion to its diftance from the anterior part of the
ganglion. The two moft pofterior filaments are therefore the
longett.

2. Larva of the Stag Beetle {Lucanus Cerz<us).^Ths
nerves of this larva differ greatly from thofe of the pre-
ceding, although the perfeft infcfts are fo neai-ly allied in
genera.

The brain confifls of two contiguous and almoft fpherical
D. In MonocvU- — We know not the nervous fyftem of lobes ; thefe produce four nerves anteriorly for the antenns
the molucca crab {llmuhis gigas, Fab. Monociths polyphcmus, and the parietes of the mouth : two inferiorly, which fu-ft
Linn.) In the monoculus apus of Linnseus, however, the proceed forward, then turn back, pafs again under the
indiftinft nature of that fyftem, joined to fome other pecu- brain, and form a ner\-e known under the name of recurrent.
liarities of organization, would almoft induce us to clafs the Laftly, two pofteriorly, which form a collar round the
animal with the inarticulated worms. The brain is a fmall oefophagus, and join underneath, to compofe the nervous
globule, nearly tranfparent, fituated under the interval of cord of the body. Tliis cord is formed of eight ganglia

reprefent the ufual knotted cord, but if it has any gangU;
they are not vifible.

C. In the Onifcus AJclhs The two cords which compofe

the middle part of the nervous fyftem in this animal, do not
perfefily join. We can diftinguilh them throughout the
whole of their length. There are nine ganglia, exclufive
of the brain ; but the two firft and the two laft are fo clofe
together, that the number may be reduced to feven

the eyes. The medullary cord is double, and has an enla

■ge-

which extend to the ninth ring of the body. The diftances

ment at each of the numerous articulations of the body ; between thefe ganglia are very unequal ; they are joined by

very flender and clofely approximated nervous filaments.
The firft ganglion, from the head, is very lai-ge, and almoft
fpherical ; it is followed almoft immediately by die fecond,
which is one-half lefs, and which is diftiiiguifiied from it
only by a kind of contraftion ; the firft produces four pairs

but the whole is fo thin and tranfparent, that the real nature
of the cord can fcarcely be afccrtained.

Brum and Nerves of the Larva of Infers.

A. Colcoptera.

1 . Larva of the Scarahnus Najicornis.—We ftiall give a
particular defcription of the nerves of this larva, becaufe
their diftribution is eiTentially different from that which takes
place in the other coleoptera.

The brain is fituated under the great fcale which covers
the head immediately above the origin of the oefophagus : it

of nerves on each fide ; one afcends to the head, the other
three diverge and are loll in the mufcles of the abdomen,
and in thofe that move the head. Tlie fecond ganglion,
befides the two nerves tiiat unite it to the third, produces
two other nerves, v/hich are alfo directed backward, and loft
in the mufcles of the fourth ring. The third ganglion, and
_ _ thofe that follow as far as the eighth, are fimilar to the

confifts of two approximated lobes, which are very diftuid at fecond ; with this difference, tliat they are much more diftant
the front and back part. Four nerves arife from the ante- from each other, and that they produce longer filaments,
nor part, two on each fide, which are loft in the cirri and in proportion as they are fituated more inferiorly. Laftly,
parietes of the mouth. the eighth and ninth ganglia are fo clofe togetlier, that

From the lateral and fomewhat pofterior parts of the they feem to form but one, with a flight contraftion in the
brain, there arifes a pair of nerves, which, embracing the middle. This double ganglion produces three pair; of

nr-.rves,

INSECTS.

nerves, which are mucli elongated, and extend to the parts
near the amis.

3. Z.iiri\t of the Cerainbyx, Hydropbilus, Carabus, and
Staphyllnvs. — ^l''he nerves of thefe larvae being very fimilar,
it will be fufficient to dcfcribe tliem in one genus only. We
ihall take for our example the larva of the great diver
(HydrophUus pkeus).

The brain in this animal is fituatcd in the head, above the
origin of the oefophagus; it is formed of two lobes which
lie ver)' clofe together. Vrom its anterior part it detachts
fome filaments to the palpi, the antenna:, and the parietes of
the raeuth. Its lateral parts produce two cords which fur-
round the ctfophagus, and which are the origin of the ner-
vous cord fituated infenorly. It is probable that recurrent
nerves alfo arife from this inferior part, but we have not yet
been able to difcover tiiem. The chief nervous cord is
compofed of ten ganglia, each of which produce three pairs
of nerves that are loll in the mufcles of the abdomen, and
without any dillinft appearance of their being diftributed
to the intePiines. This induces us to believe that there is
a recurrent nerve. The firft ganghon is very large ; it is
prolonged pofteriorly into two nervous filaments, confider-
ably removed from each other ; the fecond is almoft fimilar,
but the third is very near the fourth, which produces only
a fingle filament pofleriorly. All the others, as far as the
tenth, prefent no peculiarity. The hit is divided by a
feniible contradion ; from the firft portion a fingle filament
arifes on each fide, and from the fecond, three pairs of nerves
are detached: thus four pairs of nerves arife from this
ganglion. The fourth pair is direfted to the rudiments of
the parts of generation, which are very dillinft in thefe larvae
in the lafl period of their growth.

4. Larva of the Water Beetle {Dyttfcus Margina/u)

The brain of this larva is fpherical, and confills of a fingle
lobe, fituated in the head above the origin of the oefophagus ;
its anterior part produces fome filaments for the mouth ; and
its lateral parts the two optic nerves ; the latter are com-
pofed of two parts which are very dilliiift as to form. The
firll portion, or that which is next the brain, is of an oval
figure, pointed at the extremity which joins the brain ; the
other extremity is rounded, and produces a flender nerve,
which goes directly to the eye. It is nearly of the fame
thicknefs throughout the whole of its extent ; but it is
enlarged at its tree extremity into a bulb, from which the
nervous filaments of the eye arife.

The two cords which embrace the oefophagus are (hort
and thick •, they arife from the inferior furface of the brain,
and immediately unite below the oefophagus, in a large
fquare-fliaped ganglion, which produces anteriorly the nerves
of the mandibles, and polteriorly two cords, which pafs
from the head into the corfelet. There is a greater distance
between this firft ganglion of the nervous medulla and the
fecond, than between any of the others. It is more than dou-
ble that v/hich exills between the two next ganglia. The
fecond ganghon is round ; it produces two pair of nerves la-
terally ; the anterior for the mufcles which ?.&. upon the
head, the poftericr for thofe which move tt;e anterior feet.
There are two cords pofteriorly, which are directed into
the breaft. The third ganglion is fimil.ir ip every refpecl to
the fecond ; it furnifties nerves to the intermediate pair of feet.
The fourth ganglion is alfo produced by the two cords which
come from the preceding; it is fituated on the union of the
abdomen with the breaft ; it is more broad than long.
I..aterally it produces two pair of nerves, which run tranf-
▼rrfely parallel, and are loft in the mufcles. The other
eight ganglia are placed clofe behind each other, and the
fpace between them U fo fmall, that we caii fctircely perceive

the two nervous filaments which unite them ; they alfo de-
creafe in thicknefs, without diminilhing in breadth, as they
extend pofteriorly. They all furnifti laterally a pair of very
long nerves, which float in the abdomen, and for the moft
part terminate in the mufcles that move the wings. One
pair, however, proceeds to the rudiments of the parts of
generation.

B. Orthoptera and Hemtptera. — The nerves of the larva:
of orthoptera and hemiptera prefent no fenfible difference
from thoie we obferve in the perfed infers. It will be fuf-
fii.i nt, therefore, to defcribe the nerves of the latter.

C. Hymetioplera. ~lr\ the larva of tlie faw-fly {Tenthredo,
Linn.), which hasa large head furnilhed with eyes, the brain
is very broad and fhort ; it feems to form four bulbs of
equal magnitude, and nearly fpherical j the two external
ferve as the bafe of the optic nerves, which are flender, and
which enlarge a little at their other extremity. The firft
ganglion is produced by two very fmall nerves, which arife
from the inferior furface of the brain, and which, after
having embraced the oefophagus, unite under the firil
ring of the body ; it furnifhes filaments to the mufcles of
tlie feet, and terminates pofteriorly in two other nerves,
which, at the dillance of one line, produce a fecond
ganglion, and fo on in fucceflion ; the nervous cord is in
tills manner formed of eleven ganglia, without reckoning
the brain ; the farther the ganglia are removed from the
head, the more they diminifh in thicknefs ; they are all nearly
of a round form.

D. Neuroptiva. — In the larva of the lion-ant (ATyrmehcr.
formicarius), the nervous fyftem has fome relation to that of

tlie larva of the dipterous infefts which we fhall afterwards
defcribe.

There is a brain fituated in the head ; it produces nerves
analogous to thofe we have already pointed out in the other
larvae. The nervous medulla confifts, in the firft place, of
two ganglia, which are compofed of two lobes, fituated
clofe together ; thefe two firft ganglia are feparate
from the others, and contained in the part correspond-
ing to the feet, or in the thorax. The remainder of
the nervous medulla is enclofed in the abdomen ; it
confifts of eight ganglia, placed in an exceedingly clofe
feries, and each formed of two lobes ; the firft is nearly
double the fize of the other feven. This fuccefTion of
ganglia appears to the eye like the extremity of the
tail of a rattle-fnaJce ; the laft is round ; the others are
more broad than long. All thefe gangha furnifh nerves to
the mufcles. It is probable that this difpofition and approxi-
mation of the ganglia have a relation to the changes which
take place in the infeft at the moment of its metamorphofis,
as its abiii^men then occupies fix times the fpace it does in
the larva ilatc.

In thoie larvs of neuroptera, which are nearly as long as
the perfect infedl, we find that the ganglia are feparated in
the ufual manner.

The larva of the ephemera has eleven ganglia, without "
including the brain, which furnifhes two large optic nerves.
There are three ganglia in the thorax, and feven in the ab-
domen : the firft fix, reckoning all the ganglia, furnifh more
nerves than the five laft.

The larvx of the dragon-flies have a fmall two-lobed
brain, which produces optic nerves, larger or fmallcr ac-
cording to the fpecies. The genus aefhna has them the
largeft. The reft of the nervous fyftem forms a feries of ■
ganglia of different fizes. In the acflma, the corfelet con-
tains Cix, the two laft of which are the largeft of all.
There are feven fmall and equal ganglia in the abdomen.

E. Lipidoptcra. — The nervous fyftem of caterpillars con-
fills

INSECTS.

-fids of a ftries of thirteen principal ganglia, which furnifh
filaments to all other parts of the body. The firft of thefe
tliirteen ganglia is fituated in thecavity of the head ; it lies
abeve the ccfophacjus, and fupplics th.- place of the brain :
it appears formed fuperiorly by the union of two round tuber-
cles, inferiorly it is concave, and correfponds to the con-
vexity of the ocfophagus. This ganglion communicates
with the rell of the nervous cord by two thick filaments,
which embrace the afophagus, and which are united below
it to the anterior and lateral part of the next ganglion ; it
befides produces eight pairs of nerves.

The firll partly unites with other filaments ; produce*
fomc for the cefophagus, and forms feveral remarkable gan-
glia below the upper lip. The liirgelt and moft poflerior,
which Lyonet has named the JiiJ! frontal ganglion, is pro-
longed pofteriorly into a thick recurrent nerve, which is
continued tlie whole length of the body, near the back ;
this recurrent nerve furnilhes filaments to the cefophagus
and its mnfcles ; it penetrates into the dorfal veflel, and it
afterwards re-appears, and glides along the cefophagus as
far as the ftomach. This nerve produces, at certain dif-
tances, very folid filaments, which keep the cefophagus at-
tached to the Ikin of the back.

Befides the recurrent nerve we have juft noticed, feveral
-filaments are furniihed by the pofterior frontal ganglion to
the mufcles of the oefophagus, and two to the /rMr/ frontal
gangUon ; the latter aifo detaches feveral filaments to the
cefophagus, and, in particular, a very remarkable one,
which, by a fudden ejiglargement, conllitutes the t/jlrd frontal
ganglion. This ganglion likewife affords feveral filaments to
the oe'ophagus.

The fecond pair of the brain appears chiefly intended for
the aiitennx, though it furnilhes feveral filaments to the
neighbouring parts. The third pair terminates particularly
in the antennae, and the mufcles which move them. The
fourth pair is proper to the eye of each fide ; it accompa-
nies the air-tube which goes to that pai-t, and is divided
into fix branches, that penetrate into tlie fix eyes, which, by
their union, form that of the caterpillar. The fifth is di-
rected a little backwa;-d, where it divides into two branches ;
one pollerior for the adduftor mufcles of the jaw ; the other
anterior, which is loft in the membranes that cover the fron-
tal fcales. The fixth and feventh pair unite to form a gan-
glion from which feveral filaments are detached, to the
n-fophagus and its mufcles. Finally, the lail pair of the
brain is entirely loll on an air-tube.

But befides thefe nerves produced by the firft nervous gan-
glion, feveral others are detached from it, which we Ihall
briefly notice. In the firft place, we obferve, that it fur-
niihes feveral filaments to the dorfal canal : it afterwards gives
origin to a pretty long filament, which terminates on the air-
veiiels, between the fecond and third ganglion. Laftly, it
produces a uervous ring, which embraces the cefophagus in-
teriorly like a girth, and fupplies it with feveral filaments.
The fecond ganglion is intimately united with the third, and
is diftinguiflied from it only by a contraftion. The nerves
which proceed from the anterior part appear to be produced
by the fecond ganglion, and thofe which arife from the pof-
terior part, feem to belong to the third.

Befides the two filaments which form the collar round the
cefophagus, and which unite the firft to the fecond ganglion,
the latter has four pair of very diftinft nerves. The moft
anterior pair is lent forward to the mouth, but in its courfe it
<3ividcs into two branches ; one terminates in tlie tongue and
the adjacent parts ; the other branch proceeds to the late-
ral parts, where it fub-divides, to fupply the mandible,
the jaw, and upper lip, communicating, at the fame

time, with the firft ganglion, and with the fecond frontal.
The fecond pair proceeds to the jaw, but detaches a number
of filaments to the mufcles of the neighboivring parts. The
tltird pair is deftined for the fpinning apparatus ; in its co-irfe
it gives filaments to the filk veftels and mufcles of the head.
The fourlli pair arifes near the conti aflion, which indicates
tlie union of the t'vo ganglia, between the head and the firft:
i-!ng ; it is loft in the fat, in the fkin of the neck, and in the
mufcles infcrted into the head.

The third ganglion, which, as we have obferved, is united
to the fecond, produces only three pairs of nerves : the pof-
terior is merely the continuation of the nervous trunk of the
other two pairs ; the anterior is entirely loft in the mufcles
and tlie fliiii ; the intermediate pair fupplies that part alfo ;
but it is diftnbuted chiefly to the mufcles, which move tlie
articulations of the leg

We have .ilready ftated, that each ganglion communicates
with that which precedes, and that which follows it by two
filaments l!iat are diftinft from their origin, and are the bifur-
cation of a lingle crunk. The middle of this bifurcation,
from the third to the eleventh ganglion, produces a fmall
nerve, which Lyouet has named t he fphial frtcnum : this
fingle nerve is fituated in the middle line ; it prefently di-
vides in'o two branches, which follow the divifions of tlje
air-tubes, und penetrate with fome of them into the longitu-
dinal velTel.

The fourth and fifth ganglia produoe the fame number of
ncrvis, tlie diftrihution of which i.= alfo nearly fimilar ; their
anterior pair proceeds to the muHles, and to the fliin of the
rings to which it correfponds ; the intermediate pair fur-
nilhes, more particularly, filaments to the mufcles of the
leg.

The fixth ganglion, which correfponds to the fourth ring
of the body, alfo furniflics two pair of nerves, which are loft
in the mufcles and the llcin.

The nerves of the five following ganglia are diftributed
nearly in the fame manner.

The twelfth ganglion, and the thirteenth, which is the
termination of the nervous cord, are very clofetoeach other,
though dillindf. The diftrihution of the nerves, produced
by the firft, prcfents nothing remarkable. Thofe furniflied
by tlie fecond are very long, being feiit to the laft rings, in
the flcin and mufcles of which the firft pair is partly loft.
The fecond pair is only fubdivided when it has reached the
firft ring ; it there produces a plexus, from which a number
of filaments are detached to the great hiteftine. The trunk
appears to end on the parietes of the reftum towards the

F. D'lptera. — The nerves of the larva of the ftratyomis
have fome refemblance to thofe of the larva of the fcarabaeuV
naficornis.

The brain is formed of two lobes, placed clofe together,
and almoft fpherical ; it is fituated above the cefophagus,
on a level with the fecond ring of the body. A number
of fmall nervous filaments arife from its jvnleriorpart, and
are diftributed to the parietes of the mouth, to the mandibles,
and to all the adjacent parts. Thefe nerves are very diftinft,
particularly thofe which are removed from the middle line.
The pofterior part of thefe two lobes fends off two thick
branches which fmbrace the cefophagus, and form the origin
of the nervous medulla. This nervous cord is very fliorf,
audjts diameter is one-half lefs than that of the brain ; it
confifts of eleven ganglia placed very near each other, each
of which produces one pair of nerves.

Thefe nerves proceed directly backward. Swammerdam
has erroneoufly reprefented this cord as twifted, hke the
tail of a fcorpion, and producing nerves on the left fide

•nly.

INSECTS.

• nU'. It Is tru*, that thofe which arife from the right fide fevcral nervous fil.iments arc detached to the fnufcles that

are parallel to the cord, while thofe of tiie left fide remove move the mandibles, and thofe that ad on the head. This

farther from it. The ganglia, thus approximated, are eleven ganglion terminates poftcriorly in two parallel nerves, which

in number, and in a ftraight direftion ; they produce long proceed to the middle of the thorax, above the origin of the

n;rica, which are lo!l in the mufcles. two pair of feet, and there form a fecond ganglion of an

The nerves of the cheefe-worm (Mufcapntns,'L.\nn.) are hexagonal figure ; this ganglion furnifhcs filaments to the

. ibutcd in a very curious manner. The brain is fituatcd mufcles of the feet, and likewife terminates poftcriorly in

diately above the origin of the ocfophagus, behind the "two nen-es, which extend above the union of the corfelct,

1 ; it is very large in proportion to the rell of the body ; with the peftns ; they there unite and form a th.ird gan-

it IS rounded poftcriorly, and notched anteriorly, as if it were glion, which is crefcent-flKiped, with the convexity pollerior :

formed of two lobes. two other nerves proceed from this convexity, which almoft

\ pair of nerves arife from the anterior part of the brain, immediately produce another ganglion of the fame form,

proceed forward, and are dillribtited to the mouth, and even hut fmaller. This ganglion gives origin to five nerves .-

to the parietes of that cavity. It fliould be remarked, that two lateral, deftined to the mufcles of the intermediate feet,

thele nerves experience a very coufpicuous enlargement pre- '"to the coxa: of which we oblerve thera enter : poftcriorly

vioiifly to their diftribution. two, which are {lender, and diilributed to the mufcles of the

Poftcriorly the brain prtfcnts an aperture, which affords a hind feet and the wings. The fifth is fituated in the mid-

pafTage for the oefophagus : the nervous part, fituated on its die line ; it is alfo thicker, it fwells almoft immediately into

fides, may be regarded as the cords which produce the ••n Oval-lhaped ganglion, which is divided pofteriorly into

.medulla, and all below the oefophagus as the medulla it- two exceedingly flender filaments. Thefe filaments, which

felf. pafs into the abdomen, form a kind of bridge in the breaft,

Two pairs of nerves arife from the origin of the nervous in which they occupy the middle line, and leave between

medulla ; thefe arc directed forward, and principally diftri- them the mufcles of the feet and wings of cither fide.

buted to the vilcera, and to fome of the mufcles of the 2. In theScarabxus Naficomis. — With refpeft to the nerves,

anterior rings. The third pair of nerves which this me- this infett differs in the perfeift ftate from the defcription

dulla produces is the moll remarkable ; it comes from the we have given of its larva. The optic nerves, which are

part which nearly correfponds to the third ganglion ; we very diftincl and large, proceed to the eye, into which we

fay nearly, becaufe in this infecl the ganglia are fo clofe obferve them enter by a multitude of filaments when we

make a horizontal feClion of that organ.

The nervous cord prefents a very confpicuous difference.
In the larva there is only a fingle ganglion ; but the perfecl
infed has feveral, which arc very dillind. The firft is

arife, and are diilributed to the mufcles. Its poft -rior
angle detaches two parallel nerves, which proceed into the
breaft, where they form a third and a fourth ganglion,
fituated very near each other, and apparently divided into
two lobes by a longitudinal furrow. All the other nerves
of the body depart from thofe two ganglia by an irra-

•to one another, that the medulla feems to form only
piece on the furface of which we merely perceive twelve
tranfrerfe wrinkles, which indicate the number of gangha.
This third pair extends almoft tranfvcrfely. At a certain

diftance from its feparation it fwells into a ganghon, and fituated above the condyle ; it proceeds from the two pof-

then divides into feveral filaments ; thefe are the ganglia terior filaments of the brain, and is diftributed to the mufcles

which Swammerdam fuppofes are intended for the mufcles vvhich move the head on th- corfelet. Its pofterior part

of the wings, when they fliall exift in the perfect infed. produces two filaments, which pafs into the breaft, where

Another pair of nerves, which go to the mufcles of the ''^^7 ^"''^ towards the middle part, and form a triangular

body, arife from each of the other contradions ; but they ganghon ; from the fides of which three pairs of nerves
require no particular remark.

Brain and Nerves of PerfeS InfeSs.
A. Cokoptera.

I. In the Stas-lectle {Lncamts C^rv!js).—We find in this

infed, ao in its larva, a brain compofed of two approximated diation, prccifely in the fame manner as In the lar._.

fpherical lobes, fituated above the cefophagus ; its anterior 5. /« f/je Water Beetles (Dytifcus) arJ the Ground Beethf

part produces two pair of nerves, which terminate in the {Carabus). — The nervous fyftem is entirely fimilar in thefe

palpi and other parts of the mouth. There is probably a infeds. The brain is formed of two large hemifpheres,

recurrent nerve, but our refearches have not yet difcovercd feparatcd from each other by a longitudinal furrow. The

it- anterior part produces the nerves of the mouth, and the

There are two ganglia on the lateral parts of the brain, lateral part.<; thofe of the eyes and antcnns. The nerves of

which are almoft as large as each of the lobes. In their the eyes are (hurt, and differ greatly from thofe of the

form they refemble a pear, and reft upon the brain by their flag beetles ; they are of a pyramidal form : their bafe

bafe ; they are prolonged tranfvcrfely into a large nerve correfponds to the eye, and their apex to the brain. We

on each, chiefly intended for the eye. Before the nerve have not obfervcd any recurrent nerves,

arrives at that part, we obferve it detach a flender filament. The two filaments which produce the nervous cord de-

which enters into the great mandible ; then, more exter- part from the brain, not pofteriorly, buf inferioriy, on the

Jially, another filament which enters into the cavity of the fide of the optic nerves : they are very fhort, as they paf»

antennas ; laftly, the nerve itfelf, having reached the eye, immediately under the ocfophagus. They furnifli fome

fwells agaiii into a bulb, and produces a number of nerves, filaments to the mufcles and tlie ocfophagus. The firft

which we fliall defcribe when we treat of the organ of ganglion they form lies under a kind of bridge, formed of

^'"'on. homy fubftance, which is fituated in the middle of the

Pofteriorly the brain produces two very long and flender head, and v.hich affords a point of attachment to the mufcles

nerves which accompany the cefophagus to the point where of the jaws ; it is of an elongated and quadrangular figure,

the head unites to the thorax, immediately above the articular and occupies almoft tlu- whole fpace that corrclponds to

condyle. The two nerves fituated above the cefophagus, the condyle above which it is placed. It is terminated

then, produce a ganglion of a long oval form, from which pofteriorly by two filaments which proceed in a panillcr

Vol. ilX. Y direction,

INSECTS.

- direftion, and form a fccond ganglion in the middle part
of the corfelet. This ganglion furnilhes nerves to the
mufcles of the anterior feet. We obferve them enter
into the cavity of the coxs. The third ganglion appears
bilobed, or formed of two oval bulbs, the union of which
is nKuked by a longitudinal furrow. This ganglion is
filuated longitudinally above the anterior inferior edge of
the breail. It fends filaments to the mufcles of the inter-
mediate feet. The fourth ganglion is very near the pre-
ceding ; it is of a roundifli form, and is dillributcd to the
mufcles of the pollerior feet and the wings. The fpace
between the fifth and fixth ganglion is very fmall : their
form is round ; and tliey furnidi filaments to the mufcles

that move the abdomen on the breail. The remainder of rated by

the brealt, a fevMth appears. Thefe two ganglia pr"'-
duce only one pair of nerves, which are diftributed to tho
mufcles.

There are only two ganglia in the abdomen ; one cor-
refponds to the middle part of the fccond ring ; the other,
which is the laft and ninth, is fituatcd above the union of
the fecond fegment with the third. The laft ganglitu
but one h in every refpedl fimilar to the two precediiij; ;
but the ninth is one-half-larger, and produces pollerioily
four pair of nerves, which are diftributed on both fides to
the parts of generation.

B. Orlhoptera. — In the Cockroach (Blatta Americana.) —
The brain of this infedl is compofed of two lobes, fepa-

the medullary cord is formed by a feries of five ganglia,
fitnated fo clofe to one another, that they appear to the
naked eye to form only one ; but with a glafs they may
be oblerved very diftinctly. We even perceive the two
filaments produced by each to form the fucceeding ganglion.
The fifth prefents a tranfverfe furrow, which feems to in-
dicate the Union of two ganglia. The end of the medulla
appears to float in the abdominal cavity, but above the in-
teftincs.

4. In the Great Di-ver (HyJrophilus Piceus, Linn.) — Tlie
brain of this infeft, which is fituated in the head, and above
the origin of the oefophagus, confifts of two fpherical bulbs
clofely uflited. The lateral parts give origin to the optic
nerves which proceed towards the eyes without changing
their diameter, but which terminate there by a triangular
bulb that produces a vaft number of filaments externally.

The anterior part of the brain detaches fome filaments
intended for the parietes of the mouth. We alfo remark,
at the fame place, a fmall fpherical ganglion, which ap-
pears to belong to the recurrent nerve that accompanies
the oefophagus.

Two filaments, which (honld produce the medullary cord,
arile inferiorly: they embrace the oefophagus at tlieir fe-
paration, unite immediately belew it, and again, in the ca-
vity of the head, to form a fmall ganglion, which furnilhes
nerves for the mufcles of the mandibles and the palpi. Two
nervous cords are detached from the pofterior part of this
.firll ganghon. Almoft immediately after their origin, they
pafs under a horny arch, which is produced by the internal
furface of the ganache. We obferve that they re-appear
pofteriorly, and proceed into the corfelet. They form a
fecond ganglion exaftly in the middle of the corfelet ; its
figure is quadrangular. The anterior and pofterior angles
produce the nerves of the medulla, and the lateral thofe
intended for the mufcles of the anterior feet. The inter-
val included between the fecond and third ganglion of the
medulla is very great. The third ganglion correfponds
to the infertion of the intermediate feet : it is large, and
of a round form ; it furnifties nerves to the wings, and to
the intermediate pair of feet. Pofteriorly it produces two
cords, which, at the diftance of about half a fine, fwell and
form a fuurtli ganglion, almoft a.s large as the preceding.
■J-Jiis ganglion detaches, from its inferior part, a number
of filaments for the mufcles of the pofterior feet, which
are fpccially appropriated to fwimming. Two other very
thort cords produced by the pofterior part of this ganglion
fwell into a fifth, which i.-, one-half lefs than the former,
and which furnifties a fin^^ie cord pofteriorly. This cord
patTes into a kind of longitudinal groove, formed above the
horny appendix, that furnilhes at'tachments to the mufcles
of the COXE. A fixth ganglion is fituated at the pofterior
and wide part of this appendix : at a certain diftancc,
and exattly above tl»e union of the abdomen with

very

diftinft notch

ly. The optic nerves

arile on the fides, and its anterior part detaches fome ill
ments to the parietes of the mouth, and to the inftrumenls
of manducation.

The nervous cords which form the medulla arife from
its inferior furface. They proceed direftly downward, and
clofely embrace the oefophagus. They afterwards proceed
in a parallel direction, but very diftinCi from each otiior,
towards the corfelet. When they reach its middle, thev
form a very large ganglion, which produces three pairs of
nerves laterally, and one pofteriorly. The tirft lateral nerves
afcend obliquely towards the head, and furnifti filaments to
the mufcles that move it on the thorax, and which acl on
the antennse and the parts of the mouth. The others are
diftributed to the mufcles of the firft pair of feet.

The pofterior nerves proceed in a parallel direction back-
ward. At the middle of the pectus they produce a ftill
more conliderable ganglion than the fecond, which furnifties
laterally nerves to the intermediate and pofterior feet, as
well as to themufcles of the wings. It alfo fends off two
cords pofteriorly, which, by then- union at the junftion of
the abdomen and the breaft, form a fourth ganglion, fituated
on a projcifting horny fubftance to which the mufcles of the
coxae are attached.

After this fourth ganglion there is only a fingle nerve,
which has, at certain fpaces, fmall enlargements. Five of
thefe fvvcllings may be counted. Each produces a pair of
nerves for the mufcles of the rings of the abdomen : the
firft is the largeft, and furnifties befides two nerves which
ramify in the parts near the anus.

In the Great Green Grafshopper ( GryUus Virhnftmui, Linn.)
— The brain is fituated in the head above the oefophagus :
it confifts of two hibes, which have the form of pears, united
at their bafe, and prolonged at the other extremity into an
optic nerve for the eye of each fide. The anterior part alfo
produces two nerves of a pyramidal form, the bafe of which
refts upon the brain. Some filaments arife from the apex of
the pyramid, wliicli are loft in tl>e mandible, the jaw and its
galea, as welt as in the upper lip.

Between thefe two anterior nerves we obferve a fmall gaJ5«
glion, which is produced by the union of the two filaments
of the inferior furface of the brain. This is the recurrent
nerve which follows the inteftinal canal. Pofteriorly, and a
hi tie inferiorly, we obferve the origin of the two cords which
form the nervous medulla. They embrace the oefophagus,
below whicli they are immediately directed, and form a
ganglion. This firft ganglion if protected and covered by
a kind of horny bridge of a reddifli colour. It furnifties
nerves to the mufcles of the mouth, and to thofe of the
head within wliich it is inclofed. Pofteriorly it produces
two long nervous cords, which penetrate into the corfelet.
Thefe two cords unite about the middle of the thorax before
the appendix, which gives attachment to the mufcles of the
coxw and the anterior pair of feet. At this union they form

a large

INSECTS.

ilarcrc bilobed ganglion, of an irregular quadrangular figure,
the fides of which produce feveral filaments for the mufclcs
of the anterior feet.

Tlie jjofterior part of this fecond ganglion furniflies two
filaments, which ptiietrate into the bread. The folid ap-
pendices of the coxx, which alTbrd iiifertions for the mnfcles,
pafs between thefe two filaments. They form a third gan-
glion, which correfponds to the middle fpace included be-
tween tlie two intermediate feet. This ganglion fends
nerves to the mufcles of the wings and the feet.

The fourth ganglion is alfo contained in the bread. It is
fituatcd before and between the pofterior pair of feet. It is
produced by two nervous cords from the preceding gan-
glion ; and furnifhes two pofteriorly, which are fo clofe to
each other, that they appear to the naked eye to make only
one cord. This nerve is received and contained in a kind of
groove formed above the triangular pifce, which affords an
attachment for the mufcles of the feet.

The other ganglia, which are all fituated in the abdomen,
are fix in number. They arc, the laft excepted, of the fame
fizi and form, placed at equal diftaiices, and produced by
two fimilar and clofely approximated cords. Each fur-
nilhes two pair of nerves for the mufcles of the abdominal
rings.

The laft ganglion of the medulla is one-half larger than
the fire preceding. It is fituated below the parts of ge-
neration, to which it is diltributed by four pair of fila-
ments.

In th: Moh-crtcht {Achtta Gryllo lalpa.) — The brain of
this infedl is alfo compofed of two rounded lobes, which are
particularly diftinft at the pofterior part. We can clearly
perceive the origin of the nerves of the palpi, of the anten-
nx, of the fmooth eyes, and of the eyes properly fo called.
In general the nerves of the principal medulla are fimilar to
thole we have defcribcd in the cock-roach. The two firll
ganglia are produced by two nerves. The firft, which is in
the corfclet, fupplies the mufcles of the head, bread, and
anterior feet. The fecond, which is larger, and in the
bread, gives filaments to the mufcles of the wings, and of the
intermediate and pofterior feet. It alfo fends two nerves
pofteriorly, which produce the abdominal ganglion. The
cord then becomes fingle and flat, like a ribband, and con-
tains only four ganglia, occurring at differeat diilajices.
Each produces two pairs of nerves, which are directed pof-
teriorly, and didributed to the mufcles. The firft corre-
fponds to the middle part of the firft abdominal ring ; tlie fe-
cond to the third, the third to the fifth, acd the laft to the
ninth.

This laft ganglion is the mod remarkable of all. It is of
an oval fhape, and produces, from the whole of its circum-
ference, nerves which are Jiftributed to the neighbouring
parts. Two, which are longer tlian the others, diverge as
they proceed backward, and thus reprefent a bifurcation of
the medullary cord. Ttiefe branches furnifii filaments to the
parts of generation.

C. Ihm'tpttra — In tin a-ugl Water Scorpion {Nepa Cimma,
Linn.) — ^The nervous fyftem of this infect confifts of three
ganglia. The firft, wiiich fupplies the place of the brain, is
fituated in the head. It is for:red of two approximated lobes.
Thefe lobes are pyriform, and touch each other at their bafe.
Their fummits are diretted obliquely forward towards the
eyes, in which they terminate, and thus anfwcr to the optic
nerves by their anterior extremities. The middle and ante-
rior part of thefe lobes alfo produce fome filaments for the
parts of the mouth. Pofteriorly, the brain detaches two
cords, which embrace the cr.fojjhagus as they pafs below it.
They unite at the origin of the breall in a tetragonal gan-

glion : each of the angles of which produces or receives
feveral nerves. The anterior rcceiies the two cords which
come from the brain ; the pofterior, t!ie two which are the
continuation of tlie medullary cord. Each lateral angle pro-
duces a fafcic.ilus, compofed of four nerves, which are di-
refted to. the ir.ufclcs of the breall and anterior feet. We
obferve one of them enter into the cavity of the coxa.

The two iierves produced by the pollerior angle of the
fecond ganglion proceed in a parallel dirtftion backward.
Having arrived in the brcaft above the horny appendix, to
which the mufcles of the coxx of the intermediate and pof-
terior feet are attached, they fwcll into a large round gan-'
glion, confiderably more voluminous tlian the brain. A vaft
number of nerves arfl detached from the edges of tliis gan-
glion, like folar rays. Tlie two mod remarkable filaments
are exceedingly long and flender. They extend from the.
bread nearly as far as the anus : we have obferved them to
terminate by three minute branches i^ the parts of generation
of the male, furnilhing, at the fame time, fonic filaments
to the adjacent parts. All the other filaments, which pro-
ceed from this third and laft ganglion, are dtdincd to'the'
mufcles. We can very plainly didinguidi thofe that belong
to the middle and interinediale feet, as they are fomewhat
larger than the others.

D. Lep'ukptera — /;; the Zigzag Moth {Phnbr.a Difpar,
Linn.) — Thei brain in this fpecies is almod fpheiical. Wa,
however, perceive a longitudinal furrow »n the middle line.
Its anterior part produces fome exceedingly ller.d^r nerves.
There are two large optic nerves on the fides, which pro-
ceed into the concavity of the eye. where they terminate by
a bulb, winch produces a great number of filaments.

The oefophagus pafies immediately behind the braki,
through a fmall triangular interval, the pofterior fides of
which are formed by the two cords of the medulla. Thefe'
cords afterwards unite, and proceed in the form of a fingle
trunk, on the middle part of which we perceive only a Ion-
gitudinal furrow. Arrived in the corfclet, it form.; a gari-
glion, the furface of which is reddith. This ganglion pro-
duces two nerves pofteriorly, which leave between them an
intc-rval that affords a palfage for the horny appendices to
w hicli the mufclcs of the coxa; are attached. The two corde
again unite behind thefe appendices in the fame cavity of tlie
bread, and produce a much larger ganglion, the lateral parts
of which furnidi nerves to the mufcles of the wings and
feet. It is prolonged pr>fteriorly into a fingle cord, wliich
again enlarges when it arrives al,ove the articulation of the
breaft with the abdomen into a third ganglion.

It Ihould be remarked, that this large ganglion, which has
the forra of a heart, is the only one, befides the brain, of a
completely white colour. All tiie others exhibit darker
ftiades, and we obferve in them, when viewed by a glafs,
reddifli points more or Icfs elongated and finuous, thatrefem-
ble the blood-velfels of iiijeftcd glands.

The third ganglion is prolonged iiito a fingle cord, whicli
produces a fourth ganglion above the firft ring of the abdo-
men. The latter, as well as thofe that fucceed it, detach on
each fide a long flender nerve which paff'S under the mufcu-
lar fibres, i)recifely in the fame manner aa the threads of the
woof pafs through the warp in cloth. Their direftiun is
completely tranfverfe. The fifth ganglion does not differ
from the preceding. It is prolonged into a fiiglc cord, upcm
which we can ftill very dillinAly perceive the longitudinal
furrow. It is fituatcd in the middle part of the third ring
of the abdomen. The lixth ganglion is, in every refpcct,
fimilar to the preceding ; it is placed in the middle of the
fourth ring. Fitially, the feventh and laft ganglion is much
larger liian tholt that precede it in die abdomen. It is of an
■Y Z oval

INSECTS.

oval form, and fituated upon the lunula that terminates the
fifth abdominal ring potleriorly. Befides the nerves intend-
ed for tiie mufcles of the fifth ring, which are detached
from this ganglion in two diflimfl parts, it produces four
other pairs polleriorly. Thefe nerves appear to be diftri-
biUed to the parts of generation, and to the niulcles of tiie
laft abdominal rings, which, in the female, are elongated
like a tail to aflill in laying eggs.

E. Neuropttra. — The infeSs with naked wings, that is to
fay, the hymenopteraj neuroptera, and diptera, which have
freq\icnt>y very large eyes, have alfo the optic nerves of a
proportional fize. This is particula^rly obfervable in the
dragon flics. Their brain is formed of two very fmall lobes ;
but their optic nerves are dilated into the form of two large
plates, which have the figure of a kidney, and which is fpread
upon all the inner fiufac£ of tlic eye next the head. The
remainder of their meduUai-y cord is exceedingly flender,
and furnithed with twelve or thirteen fmall ganglia, the lall
of which is, as ulual, connedled with tlie parts of genera-
tion.

F. Hymawpkra. — The brain of the bee is fmall, and
divided into four lobes. It produces immediately the nerves
which are diftributed to the different parts of the mouth, and
the two large optic nerves which are dilated and applied
behind each eye as in the dragon flies. There are afterwards
feven ganglia, three of which are in the corfelet, and four
in the abdomen. The nerves of the laft chiefly fupply the
parts of generation.

G. Diptera. — Tlie apiform fly (il/;/^a tofl.v, Linn.) has
a fmall brain, formed of two lobes, which are lituated very
clofe together, but diftinguifhed by a longitudinal furrow ;
the anterior part produces a large nerve, which is afterwards
diftributed to the antenna and the probofcis.

The optic nerves are very thick, cylindrical, and equal in
diameter to the length of the brain, on the lateral parts of
which they reft ; they terminate at their extremities in very
large bulbs, which correfpond to the breadth of the eyes.

The firft ganglion of the medulla is produced by two
cords, which come from the pofterior part of the brain, and
embrace the oeiophagus as a collar ; it is very flender, and
fituated in the breaft ; it furniflies a pair of filaments to the
mufcles of the anterior feet.

The fecond and the following ganglia, in all three in num-
ber, are united to each other merely by a fingle cord. The
laft ganglion is one-half larger than that which precedes it.
Polleriorly it produces eight or nine filaments, which are
intended for the parts near the anus ; the firft of the three
is fituated in the breaft, where it furnifties nerves for the
mufcles of the wings and the feet ; the other two ganglia
are in the abdomen ; the laft but one is placed above the
union of the third ring with the fourth ; and the laft on the
interior and inferior edge of the fifth ring.

In the hornet-fly {Afdus crabroniformis) we alfo obferve a
fingle cord uniting the abdominal ganglia, which are fix in
number.

The brain is fimilar to that of the fyrphus ; but the bulbs,
formed by the optic nerves, are ftill broader, in proportion
to the extent of the eyes they have tc inveft.

H. Gnathaptcra. — In the great fcolopendra ( Scolopendra
morfttans). the brain has a very Angular form : it is, as ufual,
conipofed of two lobes, which are almoft fpherical ; it pro-
duces laterally the optic nerves, which are very fliort, and
may be obferved to divide long before they roach the eye.
The filaments are four in numb>'r; but two nerves arife an-
teriorly, which are fo very thick, that they appear a part
of the brain, to which they are equal in diameter. Thefe
serves are particularly intended for the antennae, into wliich
I

we obferve them enter, and in which they may be followed
on account of their magnitude.

The two cords which embrace the oefophagus proceed
direftly downward, and form a large ganglion at the union
of the firft ring with the head. The firft ganglion produces
two nerves pofteriorly, and feveral towards the fides. A
ganglion, precifely of the fame fliape, is placed above each
of the articulations : thus there are, in all, twenty -four very
diftinft ganglia ; the laft of all is fmalleft, neareft the pre-
ceding, aud fcems to float in the abdomen ; each detaches
three pairs of nerves ; one which afcends towards the head^
a fecond which runs tranfverfely ; both tliefe are diftributed
to the mufcles of the abdomen : the third defcend.=, and then
proceeds backwards and upwards ; it furniflies filaments to
the lateral mufcles, and to thofe of the back.

Organs of Sfnfe. — We have very little to obferve on this
fiibjeft, in addition to what will be found in the article
Entomology, under the divifions. Organs ofTcJSt, Palp't,
OlfaSlory Organs, Eyes, Skmtr.ata, Organs of Hearing.
■ Few fubjeft s in comparative anatomy and phyfiology have
given rife to more various aad contiadiftory opinions, than
the organs of fenfe in fome clafles of animals. Much mif-
underftanJing on this point has clearly arifen from the in-
confiderate application to animals, of inferences drawn from
the human fubjeft. Thus, it has been fuppofed that thofe
which pofiefs a tongue, muft have it for the purpofe of
tafting ; and that the fenfe of fmeil muft be wanting, where
we are unable to afcertain the exiftence of a nofe. Obferva-
tion and refleflion will foon convince us, that the tongue, in
many cafes (in the ant-eaters among mammaha, and almoft
univerfa)ly in birds) cannot, from its fubftance andmechanifm,
be confidered as an organ of tafte ; but muft be fubfervient
merely to the ingeftion and deglutition of the food. Again,
in feveral animals, particularly among infeds, an acute fenfe
of fmell fecms to exift, although no part can be pointed out
in the head, which analogy would jullify us in defcribing as
a nofe.

However univerfally animals may poflefs that feeling,
which makes them fenfible to the impreffions of warmth and
cold, very few poffefs, like the hum.an fubjeft, organs ex-
clufively appropriated to the fenfe of touch, and exprelsly
conftrufted for the purpofe of feeling, examining, and ex-
ploring the qualities of external objefts. This fenfe appears,
according to the prefent ftate of our knowledge, to exift
only in three claffes of the animal kingdom ; -ciz. in moft
of the mammalia, in a few birds, and probably in infeils.
All the obfervations and inveftigations of the ftrufture of
the anteHnx, thofe peculiar organs which exift univerfally
in the more perfeCl infefts; and of the ufe vi'hich thefe
animals generally apply them to ; lead us inevitably to the
conclufion, that they reafy are, what their German name
implies (Fiihlhorner ; the hteral tranflation of which is feel-
ing horns) proper organs of touch; by which the animal
examines and explores furrounding objefts. Such organs
are particularly necelfary to infefts, on account of the in-
fenfibihty of their external coat, wnich is generally of a
horny confiltence ; and alfo from their eyes being deftitute
in moll inftances of the piiwer of motion.

We are not wai-ranitd in confidering the tongue as an
organ of tafte in all animals, bccaufe it is fubfervient to that
fundion IH the human fubjett, and in fome other inftances.
We have already obferved, that this organ, in many cafes,
ferves merely for taking in the food ; and it is at leaft very-
doubtful whether it pofiefles the fenfe of tafte in many others.
Yet, on the contrary, we fliouid not be warranted m deny-
ing the exiftence of the fenfe in thefe animals, nor even in fuch
as arc entirely dellitutt of a tongue ; for this function may

INSECTS.

Be exercifed by other parts. The organ which is commonly
confidereJ as the tongue of infefts, merely ferves for taking
in the food. But the accurate obfervations of profelTor
Knoch, (in his Contributions to the Knowledge of Infefts,
in German,) renders it very probable, that the pollerior
pair of palpi, or feelers, pofTefies the power of tafte in feveral
of this clafs.

Numerous fafts have long ago proved, that fcvcral infecls
can dillinguifii the odorous pi-operties of bodies, even atcon-
fidcrable dillances. But the organ in which this fenfe
refuk-s, has not hitherto been clearly pointed out. Since
all red-blooded terrellrial animals fmell only through the
medium of the air wliich they take in in infpiration, feveral
naturaliils have fuppofed, that the iligmata of infefts are to
be confidered as organs of fmelling. Others afcribe this
office, and with fome probabi.ity, to the anterior pair of
palpi.

There is no doubt that feveral infefts pofTefs the fenfe of
hearing, but the organ of this fenfe is very doubtful. In
fome of the larger animals ot the genus cancer, a part can
be dirtinguilhed which feems to be analogous to the vefti-
bulum of the former clalfes. A fmall bony tube is found
on each fide at the root of the palpi ; its external opening
is clofed by a finer membrane ; and it contams a membranous
lining, on which a nerve, anfing from a common branch
with that of the antenm, is expanded. The latter circum-
ftance might favour an opinion, that the antennae themfelves
are organs of hearing: but this is refuted by confidering the
exquifite fenfe of hearing, which fome infefts pofTefs, who
have no true antennje, as the fpiders ; and by experiments
on others, which (hew that the fenfe of hearing is not
weakened by removing the antennx.

The compound eyes and the Itemmata have been defcribcd
in the article Extomology. The former are found in dif-
ferent numbers in moft of the aptera, as alio in the larvx
of many wmged infefts. When thefe undergo the laft or
complete metamorpholis, and receive their wings, they gain
at the fame time the large compound eyes. Several genera
of winged infedls, and aptera (as the larger fpecies of mo-
noculi) have ftemmata befides their compound eyes. Far-
ther inveftigation is neceffary to fhew how thefe eyes enable
the infeft to fee ; and to determine the dillincilions between
two fuch very different organs. Blumenbach confiders that
the ftemmata are defigned for feeing near objects, and ihe
polyedrous eyes for dillant ones ; becaufe butterflies have
the latter only in their winged or perfetl ftate, while in the
caterpillar ilate they have only ftemmata. He acknowledges,
however, that this opinion is very doubtful, becaufe fome
infects, which live completely underground, as the mole-
cricket (gryllus gryllotalpa, Linn.) have both kinds of
organs.

On the organs of the fenfes in this clafs, the reader may
confult Lehmann, de fenlibus externis animalium cxfan-
guium: conunentatio premio regis ornata, Ooctting. 1798,
4to. F. J. Schelver verfuch einer naturgefchichte der finnes
werkzeuge bey den Infecten und Wiirmern ; EfTay towards
the Natural Hiilory of the Organs of Senfe in Infcfts and
Vermes ; Goctling. 1798, 8vo L' hmann de antennis in-
feftorum, 1799, 8vo. Knoch's neue beytrage zu der
Iniectenkunde ; Contributions to the Knowledge of Infedls.

Organs of the dlgejlive Funllions. — For a general account
of the pans about the mouth and their nomenclature, fee
Entomology.

Jaws of the Crujlacea. — Moft of the genus cancer have at
their nwutii live or fix pairs of organs, which mult be re-
garded as ja vs, fince they move lateraHy in a horizontal
plane ; they are placed fucceffively one over the other, and

the moft exterior has becii called by fome anat»mi(ls the
hp, but wrongly ; fince it is not fingle, and the two parts
which compofe it have lateral motion like the others. All
thefe jaws are articulated under the thorax, anteriorly with
refpeA to the feet, of which tlicy feem to continue the f'.'ries
in froi;t ; and each of them has, on the inner fide of its root,-
a membranous plate, which, flipping under the lateral bcrder
of the thorax, between the anterior branchix, ferves to fepa-
rate their lobes, and to comprefs tiicm in the aft of refpiratiori.
The feet have fimilar laminx for the pofterior branchix, but
they' are deficient in thofe fpccies which have the brancluje
under the tail, as the fquilla. (Fab.)

Thefe jaws, with the exception perhaps of the one or two
moft interior parts, are formed of two divifions ; of one, which
may properly be celled the jaw, and anotiicr, which is its dor-
fal palpus or feeler. The hitter is more elongated, and ter-
minates in an articulated and pointed thread : the other has
at its end, but in the two firit pairs only, a feeler which does
not end in a pointed brillle like the other. This arrange-
ment is common to the crab, lohfter, cray-fifli, hermiteral,
and, in general, to all the cru'.lacea decapoda of Latreille.
In the firft the outer jaw is flattened, and joined fo well to
the correfponding piece and to its feeler, that the four pieces
together form a kind of fliieM, which covers all the other
jaws. But in the lobfter and cray-filh the outer jaw is prif-
matic and ftrong ; and the divifions of the fce'er being nearly
as large as the body of the jaw, the whole together refem-
bles a foot, and has often been defcribed as fuch by the
ancient naturalifts.

In the cruftacea decapoda, the fecond jaw, reckoning from
the outer one, refembles the firft, whatever may be its form,
except that it is fmaller, and that its inner edge is extenuated
and ciliated, inftead of being denticulated. The body of
the third is divided into two lobes, the fourth into four, and
the fifth into two ; all thefe three are thin and ciliated.
The palpi of the two latter have generally a fimple point in-
ftead of a thread. The fixth is merely a fmall, oval, mem-
branous plate, %vithout cilia or palpus. Some varieties are ob-
ferved in the number and figure of the jaws in the cruftacea.
Tiius, among the decapoda, the fcyllarus (Fab ) has no
thread-like procefs on the dorfal piece of the two firft jawS-;
the third is undivided, and the fourth only divided into two
without a dorfal piece in either. Tlie fifth and laft is the
ufoal fmall oval plate. Among the branchiopoda there are
ft ill more remarkable differences : in the fquilla (Fab.) the
two firft jaws are extremely flender and elongated, have the
form of feet, and are terminated by a dilated rounded arti-
culation, and a moveable hook. They really perform the
office of feet, and not of jaws, and have no dorfal palpi.
The third is a long plate, with three notches on its inner
edge. The fourth is bifid ; its inner lobe is ciliated ; the!
external is pointed, and has on its dorfal furface a fmall oval
palpus of a fingle articulation. The fifth and laft is a
fimple plate.

Notwithftanding all thefe varieties, it is ftlll true that all
the cruftacea have many pairs of jaws, very different from
each other in their funftions ; and that thefe organs muft
aft on the food, and prepare it for the proper maftication in
a peculiar manner. In faft, over all thefe organs are found
the true mandibles, which are very ftrong in all the genera.
The trituratin,; part varies in form. In the lobficr and cray-
fifli there is on tlie infide a blunt and truly molar furface,
and on the outfide a cutting edge divided into three rounded
denticulations. In the hermit crab the denticulations arc
pointed and feparate. In the crab there is a continuous
cutting edge. The fcyllarus (Fab.) has two feparate den-
tjculations ; a pointed one in front, and a blunt one behind.

The

INSECTS.

The {IvuAurc of tlic mandibk- is the moll fingular in the The other murde is inferted in a particular eminence no .>•
fciiiilla. It is dindcd into two parts; an anterior one con- the middle of the oppofite or fixed edge. Its fibres :
cealed under the lip, directed accordinff to the axis of the (liort and mnneroiis. They pafs downwards and backwai'J ,
body, pointed, and having two rows of fmall denticulations ; and are fixed towards the middle hne of the bony cafe <f
;i poilerior trant'vcrfe one, with the cutting edge direfted the cheil. Their contraction will produce a contrary cfi'crt
froni.below upwards, and pofTefling a row of llronger denti- to that of the preceding mufcle ; that is to fay, it will draw
cnlatiors. AH thefe mandibles have feelfrs : they are com- the edge of the mandible away from that of the oppofite
pofed of three articulations, and dilated at the end in the fide.

lobiters, crabs, &c. ; of throe articulations, and pointed in There appear to be two Other mufcles in the crab, having
the fquilla ; of a fingle piece in the fcyllarus, See. the fame funftions ; but they are fituatcd at the articulated

The'entomolh-acea vary ftill more than the ordinary cruf- extremity of the mandible. Each articulation of the feeler
tacea. The moliicca crab (monocuhis polyphemus, Linn), contains two mufcles, a llexor and an extenfor ; of which
has five pairs of maxillie. Ihort, comprelTcd, 'and covered with the former is the largeft. The flexor is placed in the
fmall fpincs ; each pofTcirng a very large palpus like a foot, broadell part of the concavity of the mandible ; it is in-
with four articulations, terminated by a pineer like that of ferted in a fmall bony tendon fituated at the anterior edge of
the fore-feet of the crab and lobiler. The pincers of the the articulation. The extenfor is more (lender, and attached
foft pair are very large in the male. Thofe of the lall are to the fixed edge of the mandible ; it is attached by a long,
fmall, and accompanied by fome fcaly laminx. In front of and (lender tendon to the pofterior edge of the articulation
thefe maxillx is the upper lip, of a prifmatic figure, having of the firfb piece. The mufcles of the two other pieces of
two palpi compofed of two pieces, and terminated by pin- tiie feeler are arranged nearly in the fame manner,
cers. The lower lip is behind the laft pair of maxillse, and
is formed of two denticulated plates. The monoculu? apus
has two ftrong and toothed mandibles, then two pairs of
fmall maxilix without palpi, and laiHy twenty-fix other
pairs of broad plates refembling maxillx by their bafes, and
branchise in the rell of their extent, and of which the firft
has four palpi refembling articulated briiUes : three of thefe
are very long, and have been taken by fome for antennx.
Thefe twenty-fix pairs of plates occupy nearly the whole
iMider furface of the body.

The maxillx are moved from within outwards, and reci-
procally, by mufcles analogous to thofe whicli we have juft
defcribed as belonging to tiie mandibles ; and the pieces
which compofe them, when they confift of feveral articula-
tions, contain in their interior two mufcles, an extenfor and
a flexor, very fimilar to thofe of the legs.

Moreover, each of the maxillae, and particularly of the
lower ones, has, on the piece conefponding to the hip in the
legs, one, two, and fometimes three laimnx direfted inte-
riorly to the cavity of the branchis ; thefe will be confidered
The fmaller entomoflracea have been very little examined in the account of refpiration.
in refpeft to the organs of the mouth. The family of the Jaws of Iiifcfls. — ift. In the Gnathaptera (Cuvier.)
onifci refembles the cruftacea in the multiplicity of their — This order obferves no common law, like all thofe which
jaws, as by their four ant'^iinx ; perliaps it ought even to be are founded on negative charadlers only ; it muft be divided
entirely aflbci :ted to tlieni. The firit pair, which has alfo into families, in order to obtain fome general rules. The
been called the lower lip, although it is clearly divided into firft, that of the millepedes, affords none ; for the iuli have
two halves, is plane, and covers all the others : it has a very only fmall mandibles, under which is a conical piece com-
fmall feeler on its external angle. Next to this come two pofed apparently of the lower lip and the maxillx conloh-
or three thin oblong pairs, of which the fccond is denticulated dated together, without any feeler. The fcolopendrx have
at its end: thefe have no palpi. The mandible is ftrong, denti- fmall mandibles, larger maxillx without pa'pi, a pair of
culated, and has a fmall conical feeler. Thefe organs are ex- palpi under them, and a large lower lip, of which the arti-
ceedingly diminiflicd in the parafitic fpecies, as in the cymo- culated and pointed palpi form together a ftrong pineer.
thox (Fab.), which have only two pairs of maxDlx, hke The fecond family, or the arachnidx, has ftrong mandibles
fmall fcales, fmall, conica', obtufe mandibles without teeth, which cannot cut, but are armed at their extremity with a
and in the middle of the whole a fmall conical tongue. The moveable hook, often forming a pineer, with a prominence
pycnogonum ceti (Fab.) has no vifible Jaws, although we of the body perforated for fucking. The maxillx are
can ftiU difcern two articulated palpi. The proper place fcareely vifible, and only ferve to fiipport palpi, which are
of thefe, as well as of the other pycnogona, cannot at prcfent always very long, and in the form of feet, and fojnetimes
be affigucd. But fi)me parafitic infefts, which have been ar- enormous, as in the fcorpions, where they referable the claws
ranged among the entomoftracea, do not belong to that clafs, of crabs. In the phryues, where they furnifli the animal
.and liave a fucker, like fleas. Such are the numerous calygi with a formidable weapon, there is neither lower lip nor
(Cuvier) found on the gills of filhes, &c. labial palpi. AVe might contcil the propriety of calling

Mufcles of ihe Jaws. — The mandible is moved on thecheft thefe organs mandibles, finre they ferve for fucking and not
by two mufcles. One ftrong and long approximates its loofe for mafticating ; but their pofition, and the analogy of other
edge to that of the oppofite fide, and at the fame time elevates infefts, forbid us to refufe them this name. Fabricius has
it.^ It is fixed by two diftinft flefhy portions to the membrane founded the charafler of his clafs of unogata on the fmall
which covers the thorax interiorly above and on the fides of moveable hook which terminates them.

the ilomach. One of thefe pieces is anterior and fmaller : The third family, that of the riciiii, w fleas of birds, has
it is compofed of fliort radiated fibres, terminating in a only mandibles, betweeil which is a fmall roftrum, and ap-
flender bony tendon, articulated to the tendon of the firft pears to have neither maxillx nor lips. Thoie of the Iqjifma
portion, of which it appears to be an angular produdion. and podura have not been fufiiciently examinetl.

The largeft portion is lefs oblique ; it is fituated between the 2dly. la the Neuropterti This order is not much more

'liver and ftomach : its fibres, more numerous and alfo ra- conftant than the preceding in the forms of the mouths of
diated, terminate at the extremity and front edge of the the infedis belonging to it. W'e meet firft with the beau-
common bony tendon, which is itfelf fixed to the middle of tiful family of the aguatha, infeiils deftined to live fcareely
the loofe edge of the mandible, which it tends to elevate by a few inftants in the perfeft ftate, and po(fcfling merely what
.drawing it towards that of the oppofite fide, is necelTary for copulation and laying. Tiify have no occa^

lioa

INSECTS.

fion for eating, and polTefs only an imperfeft moutli, without
any manJible, and with membranous maxillae attached to the
vliolc length of the lower lip.

The family of the odonata, or libcUulae, wiiich are the
moll (Irongly armed, and the moft cruel of infeCls, is of a
nature quite oppofite to thefe. Their mandibles have an
anterior, hooked, and. as it were, cutting portion, and a pof-
terior truly molar furface, with four pointed tubercles. It
is curious to obferve in thefe infeclivorous infefts the fan*e
characters as in the quadrupeds which are nouriflicd by
fimilar food. The masillas are divided into long pointed
dcnticulations like needles, and have palpi witliout articula-
tions. An enormous lower lip covers all tiiis apparatus ; it
is divided into three or four lobes, of which the lateral ones
are themfelves fometimes terminated in the form of pincers.

The other nemoptera are lefs diftinctly characterized.
They have, in general, llronger or weaker mandibles ;
maxillx with artictilated palpi, which are two in number for
each maxilla in the myrineleon and the afca'aphus, and foli-
tary in the others ; a lower lip, terminated by a tongue,
which is fimple in molt kinds, divided into four in the termes
and pfociis, having two very large and club-lhaped articu-
lated palpi in the myrmeleon ; and no particular characters in
the other genera.

The moil curious mouth, in this order of infeft?, is th.it
cf the panorpa. Its mandibles are fmall, and placed at tiie
end of a long fnout •, of which the under part is lilled by a
lip, and very elongated maxiilx confolidated together. Here
the fubdivilion of the lip commences, into the horny piece
(g.uiache of Latreiile) at the bafis, which fupports the la-
bial palpi, and the tongue, or membranous organ, placed at
the extremity between the labial palpi.

3dly. In the Hyminoptera. — This natural family, the mull
intereiling of the infetl tribe, by the numerous and varied
inilinfta with which the different fpccies are endowed, has,
in the ftruclure of its mouth, a ciiaraCter of which the firft
appearance has jull been indicated in the panorpa. Part of
the bafis of the maxilla, and the horny portion of the lower
lip (the ganache), are there united by a membrane, and are
always moved together. The portion of tlie jaw beyond the
feeler covers the tongue more or lefs, and ferves it for a
ftieath, which is fometimes very complete.

The hymenoptera, which fuck the neClar of flowers, may
be recognized by the prolongation of their maxills and
loiver lip, which are often much .longer than the head, but
admit of being folded up fo as to be withdrawn under
the production of the mandibles. This kind of organ is
fometimes placed on a pedicle, which admits of being moved
backwards and forwards. This may be feen in the bee and
the neiiilibouring genera. In thefe elongated trunks the
tongue forms the cfi'ential part, the true fucking tube : but
it is always only rolled fo as to form a half tube, and opens
longitudinally below. '

In the bee, one of the articulations of the labial palpi
i.'i prolonged, and forms the firll fheath of the tongue ; the
outer portion of the jaw is prolonged in a fimilar way to
form a fecond (heath ; Fabricius calls this ilrntture lingua
quinquefida. In the Eucera (Fabr. ) two fcales of the
bafis of the tongue, which are clearly feen in the bee,
where they are very fmall, are prolonged as much as
the tongue, and the organ is therefore a lingua feptemllda.
In other genera the labial palpi do not ferve for Iheaths,
and the trunk is therefore trilid, as in the fphex arenaria,
&c. Even where the tongue is not prolonged into a trunk,
it is always opened below ; and this is a character peculiar
to the hymenoptera, whence it refults that their mandibles
6

afilfl; them but little in procuring their food, but ferve
them merely as armour, and as inilruments for working.
Wluit they might chew would arrive with difficulty at the
under furface of the tongue to be fwallowed ; but the lat-
ter organ imbibes nutritious matter in the liquid fofm, or in
a ilate of minute divifion, as the pollen of plants, &c.
Thefe genera with (hort tongues prefent verv interefting
differences in the form of the organ. It is fometimes fimple
and conical, as in the evania, or formed like an oval fpoon,
as in the firex, the mutilla, and the hornet, or dilated and
grooved, as in the leucopfis, or divided into three pieces, as
in the tenthredo, or into three conical and villous bridles,
as in the feolia, or more or lefs equally and deeply divided
into three or four lobes, as in the vefpre, and moit of the
genera feparated from that of fphex, ^^c. Thefe different
configurations determine the kind of food which the animal
employs, and the fituations in which it procures it. The
differences of the maxil'a are lefs important : it forms in
front merely a fcaly piece, covering the tongue above, and
havitig its length proportioned to that of the tongue.

The palpi vary more in their abfolute and relative length,
in the form and number of their articulations. The bee
has exceedingly fmall maxillary palpi. The fame may be
faid of the firex, but the labial palpi are here large and
club-fhaped. Moft others have them filiform or fetaceous,
and with feveral joints. The upper lips fometimes affumes
a peculiar form for a particular office. In the leaf-cutting
bees, for example, it forms a fcaly fliield, protecting the
trunk, upon which it is folded back, that it may not be in-
jured by the edge of the leaf which tlie mandibles cut.

4thly. /n /A.- Co/ra/^r^. — Thefe, although they arc ex-
cefiively numerous, form a natural order. Their lower lip
is not placed between the maxills, as in the preceding or-
der, but really below, fo as to conceal a part of them,
when the mouth is obferved from below ; confequently they
are articulated between the lip and the mandibles, and not
fufpended with the lip in a common membrane, as is the
cafe in the hymenoptera. The opening of the pharynx is
alio formed upon the tongue, and not below it, as in the
hymenoptera, fo that the produce of malHcation takes that
direction naturally. Such are the true characters of tlie
mouth in this order ; but that of having the maxilla free
froiat adhelion to the hp is not exclufive, as Fabricius feems
to have fuppofed, when he founded on this idea the name
of eleutherata, which he has given to thefe infects.

There feems to be only one family in this order, of which
the character is determined in a linking manner by the
organization of its mouth ; it is that of the carnivora. All
of thefe have prominent mandibles and maxilla, which are
alfo hooked and cutting, four maxillary and two labial-
palpi ; confequently they are terrible enemies to other in.
lefts. The chief circumftance, by which they are diilin-
guilhed from each other, is the figure of the horny and
membranous part of the tongue, which are more or lefs lo-
bated : they may alfo differ is fome unimportant acceffory,
as the fpines of the maxillx, &c.

Another family, as natural as the preceding in all the cir-
cumftanees of its external and internal organization, that of
the lainellicornia, poffeiTes fcarcely any common charafters
in the parts of the mouth. Some have enormous projeftiug
mandibles, more or lefs refembling the horns of the (lag
(incanus) ; others have only (hort but ftrong mandibles
(the dung-beetles, geotrupcs of I.atreille) ; in others they
are membranous and fcarcely vifible (the cetonix, Fabr.the
fcanlbxi, the copris.J

Some haye ttrong maxillx well fnrniflicd with teeth (the
melolontbx,

INSECTS.

meloIonthE, Tabr.) ; others have them fimply ciliated (the
ectoniae), or in the form of a pencil (thelucani.)

The fame variations take place in the lips and palpi, and
are not merely obferved between the different genera. For,
although great pains have been taken to fubdivide this fa-
mily into numerous genera, none of thefe arrangements are
founded on a perfectly fimilar conformation of the mouth.

fmall Infefts which come within reach. "Wlien the libelluU

has its wings, it no longer needs fuch an artifice : its lip is
fliortened, and confined to the ordinary funftiohs.

The larvas of the hymenoptera have very fimple organs
of maftication, confiding principally of Imall, ihort, and
ftrong mandibles. The mouth of the larvae of the coleop-
tera has the fame parts as that of the infefts ; but they

Nothing can prove more clearly the imprafticability of the are differently fiiaped. Thus the lucani, which in the per-

fedt ftate have fuch enormous mandibles, and fuch peculiar
pencil-fliaped maxillx, have, while larvae, a nearly orbicular
upper lip, immediately articulated with the front ; ftiort,
ftrong, thick, pointed mandibles, {lightly arched externally
and on the inner fide ; towards their loofe extremities they
have three denticulations on one plane, and towards their
bafes a ftriated and plr.ne molar furface : it is plain that
thefe are in their mouth inftruments for cutting and chew-
ing wood. The maxillffi are terminated by two fmall hooks.
The different configurations of the palpi, of the homy of wliich one is moveable, a very fingular ftruAure, and

and membranous portions of the tongue, of the maxil- fupport a feeler of four articulations. The lower lip is

1-<E, &c. have been carefully defcribed by naturalifts : but broad, and in a manner truncated, and has two palpi ; each

their labours have not hitherto furnifhed any general remarks compofed of two pieces.

which fuit our prefent purpofc. The fcarabaei differ remarkably from the lucani in their

project, fo refolutely perfifted in for thirty years by M.
Fabricius, of eftablifhing a method of infe6ology on the
conformation of the mouth only.

A third natural family of the coleoptera, that of the
roflricornia, is charafterizcd by having its mouth at the end of
a long fnout. Such of the others as are well deterniined,
for example, the herbivora, th.e lignivora, S:c. have no link-
ing charafter common to all the genera, although there is a
certain refemblance.

Jthly. In the Orihoptera. — This order is very uniform in
the ftruciure of the mouth ; it poffeffes always ftrong
mandibles and maxills, under which is the lower lip. A
moveable upper lip covers the mandibles more or lefs com-
pletely. The maxillse are flrongly denticulated, and have
always an articulated feeler, and another not articulated,
which fometimes grows fo broad as to cover and proteft
the maxillse, whence it has been called galea : but often it

mouth ; but the two genera agree almoil entirely
mouths of the larvae ; the fame obfervation may be made of
the melolonthx and cetoniaj, which are alfo very different
from each other.

This fmall moveable hook may be confidcred as a fecond
maxillary feeler ; thefe larvae would then have fix, while
their perfeft iufefts have only four. We mull obferve
ilfo, tliat the larvse, both of the lucani and of the fcarabsi.

IS as flender as a thread. The lower lip has alivays tivo have two ftrong teeth on the upper furface of the lower hp

articulated palpi, between which is a more or Icfs divided near the pharynx.

tongue. The pharynx opens upon the tongue, as in the The prioni (Fabr.) which have elongated mandibles hke

coleoptera, not under, as in the hymenoptera ; fo that thefe the lucani, have nothing of this kind in the larva ftate.

infeSs are true mafticators : the principal differences of There is a very large upper hp, lobated, rounded, villous,

the genera are founded on the ilivifion of the part called fupported by a membranous lamina, then two ftrong, curved,

the tongue, and on the equality or inequality of the por- cutting mandibles, furniftied at their bafes with two coni-

tions. Thus, in the mantis there are four, pointed and cal palpi, of which the rings enter one into tiie other,

equal: in the phafma the two middle ones are much tiie like the tubes of a telefcope, and which are probably the

Ihorteft. The achetas, locuftae, and acridia of Fabricius, rudiments of antennas. A foft mafs, confifting of three

have the two outer ones broad and rounded ; and the in- lobes placed behind the mandibles, reprefents, by its middle

termediate one fhort and pointed. The biatts and the lobe, tie lower lip with two very fhort rudiments of labial

forficulvB have two oblong ones; the truxalides (Fabr.) palpi, and, by each of the lateral lobes, the maxillae pro-

the gryllj, and the pneumora;, have only two rounded ones, &c. perly fo called with its proper palpi, compofed of four

6liily In the Lar-oss of InfeSs. — Thefe organs are not dif-
tributed in the larvse, as in the perfeft infefts : many larvas
with jaws produce perfeft infefts, which have none, fuch
are all tiiofe of the papihos, and feveral of the diptera.
Different larvse have often fimilar jaws when the infefts pro-
duced from them have very different ones ; as in the whole
family of the lamellicornia.

conical articulations, of which the lalt is the fmalleft.

On the contrary, the dytifci, which have very flightly
prominent mandibles, have them very long in the larva rtate.
They reprefcnt two ftiarp hooks, perforated at the extremi-
ties, which ferve for fucking. There are no vifible maxilla;,
but merely two long filiform palpi of five pieces ; while the
perfect infeft has four maxillary palpi. This is exactly the

- The larva: of infrfts which go through an incomplete reverfe of what we have juft feen in the lamellicornia. In-
metamorpbofts, have the fame kind of mouth as the perfeft ftead of the lower lip there are two tubercles, each of v.hich

infefts, with the exception of fome modifications in thi
proportions of partes ; thus the mouth of all the orthop-
tera is the fame in the three ttates. The change of pro-
portions jui.1 mentioned produces the moft fenfible effefts in
the neuroptera odonata or the libellula;. Tlicir mandibles
and maxiilas are the fame in the larva as in the perfeft ftate.

fupports a feeler of two pieces. The larva of the hydro-
philus alfo wants the maxilla, but has four palpi ; the man-
dibles are Ihort, cutting, and not perforated.

Of all larvae, thofe of the lepidoptera differ the moft
widely from the perfeft infefts in relpett to the mouth ;
and, what is ver)' fingular, their mouth is conftruftcd

Their lower lip prefents alfo the fame divifions, but it is the plan of that in infefts with jaws, although it poffeffes

plaecd on a very long pedicle, with an angular turn or no trace of thefe parts in the butterflies. Under a femi-or-

elbow in its middle, fo that it remains commonly in its na- bicular upper lip, and under two ftrong, cutting, denticu-

turai poiition under the maxilla, but the animal can, by iated maxilUe, are three tubercles reprefcnting the lower lip

iiraightpqiijg the curved pedicle, carry it fuddenlyconfiderably and the maxilhx ; the latter feem compofed of pieces, which

forwards ; and, as the notches which terminate it will ferve enter more or lefs one into the other, and terminate by

tliL- purpoli; of pincers, they are employed for fcizing the two fmall tubercles, of which the internal, armed with two

Itut

INSECTS.

Aift bridles or teeth, is tlie maxilla properly fo called ;
the other is the feeler. The lower lip has two very finall
palpi, and a hollow point in the middle : this is the fpin-
ning hole, through which the filk comes out, employed by
the caterpillar for forming its coccoon.

The Mufcks. — When the upper lip is moveable, it is
drawn backwards by two bundles of flefliy fibres fituated
j within the cranium, and which are themt'elves divided into
! two planes. The motions of the mandibles are analogous to
j thofe of the hips in infefts. At the bafis, on the fide cor-
J refponding to their convexity, there is a kind of condyle,
' or convex rounded eminence, received into a fmall cotyloid
; cavity, excavated in the temporal fcale m front of, or below
' the eye. On the fide correfponding to the cutting edge
of the mandible, there is commonly obferved, at leaft in
large infects, fuch as the fcaraba^us monoceros, the prionus,
* the capricorne (cerambyx), the lucanus cerviis, the locufta,
a kind of iolid tendinous plate, which is apparently pro-
longed into the interior of the folid parietes, and aflords
attachment to mufcular fibres implanted in it laterally, as
the barbs of a feather are on the common fhaft. Thefe
mufcles approximate the jaws to each other, or fhut the
nu. :th. i'hofe which feparate the mandibles and open the
'1 are much fhorter, and not one-tenth of the fize of
■ceding. They are inferted in a fmall apophyfis, cor-
:,Jing to the convex external line of the mandible, on
the oiitfide of the condyle. Lyonet has defcribed and figured
tliefe mufcles in the larva of the phalasna cofTus. He calls
them adduftors and abduftors ; but he has regarded as fo
many diftinft organs, the fafciculi of fibres inferted into the
common tendon ; fo that he has diftinguillied nearly eleven
mufcles or bundles deftined to clofe the mouth, and three
principal planes for the purpofe of opening it. Thefe
fibrous planes are found in all other infefts ; but very great
varieties are obferved in their number and relative difpofition.
Thefe differences depend evidently in the firft place on the
very different infertions of the tendinous plates, which are
to be confidered as prolongations of the mufcles : they
feem alfo to be modified by the length and fize of thefe
plates. The latter always have a relation to the form and
extent which the internal parietes of the mandible and of the
cranium afford for their infertion.

Salivary Organs. — No exprefs organ, for the purpofe of
fupplying a falivary fecretion, has been hitherto difcovered
in the crullacea ; but the place of falivary fluids is fupplied
in the following manner. The branchiae, placed at the fides
of the body, under the edges of the corfelet, are comprelTed
and agitated by the cartilaginous plates connefted to the
jawj and feet ; at this time, the water in contatl with the
branchiz flows along thefe plates, and comes out at the two
fides of the mouth ; hence, when a crab or lobfter is taken
out of the water, much froth is obferved to ilfue from that
part. This water, although foreign to the body, may ferve
to moiften the food, when the animal eats out of water.
At other times no faliva can be needed, as in the cetacea and
filhes.

Many infefts furnilh, during maftication, more or lefs fluid,
which is often acrid, and of a penetrating odour, and fup-
plies the place of faliva. In the carabi it is black and
foetid, very corrofive in fome grylli ; and capable, in the
larva of the coffus, of foftening and dilfolving the wood of
the willow, on which the animal feeds.

The fources of thefe fluids arc not yet known in all fpecies;
probably, however, they are produced by organs analogous
to each other, and thofe of one fpecies may ferve as an
example of the reft. The larva of the coffus has two long
fpongy veflels, like all the fecretory organs of infefts, very
Vox.. XIX.

much convoluted, and opening into a large refervoir, wIiicFi
communicates with the mouth by a fmall canal. This or-
gan feems to produce a liquor, nccefliary to the animal for
the purpofe of afting on the wood by which it is nourilhed.
It is deficient, or very fmall in moft oth^r caterpillars.

Organs of Deglutition. — I ft. In infefts with jtws. The
membranous extremity of the lower lip, in the coleoptera,
and the orthoptcra, which has been called a tongue, fcarc-ely
deferves that name. But in the fecond of thefe faTiiilies
there is a real flefliy tongue, loofc only at its point, and
analogous in ficmre to that of quadrupeds. The odonata,
among the neuroptera, have a ilrufture fomewhat fimilar ;
but the tongue of the hymenoptera is only a membranous
tube, often open be'ow, and forming the extremity of the
lower lip. In the wafps, and in all the h)Tnenoptera, which
have no trunk, it has an arched form, being open and con-
cave below, and more or lefs divided into pieces. The
bees, and all the hymenoptera which have a long trunk,
poflefs a complete tube with annular fibres : fuftion is per-
formed by the fucceffive contraction of thefe fibres.

2diy. In infefts without jaws. Since deglutition is the
firfl aft of nutrition in thefe infefts, the form of the organ
employed in fuftion determines the fpecies of juice which the
animal can imbibe, and confequently influences very confi-
derably its way of life. The relations of the natural families
of thefe animals to their organs of fuftion, are much more
conftant than they are to the inft^ruments of iTiafl;ication in
the other half of the clafs. There are four orders of infefts
without jaws, -viz. hemiptera, lepidoptera, diptera, ap-
tera ; and there are three kinds of fuclion particularly be-
longing to the three firfl; of thefe. The hemiptera have a
ilitf probofcis enveloped in a flieath ; the lepidoptera a mem-
branous trunk fpirally convoluted ; the diptera a trunk
terminated by two flelhy lips. Hence the names of rhyn-
gota, gloflata, and antliata applied by Fabricius to thefe
three orders ; which he has preferred the fame as in the
Linnsan arrangement, and which many others had adopted
before.

The greatefl; varieties are obferved in the diptera. In
this order the organ confifts eflentially of a flefliy trunk,
divided below into two lips more or lefs proloni;cd, and
capable of being applied to the object which is to be fucked :
two tentacula are detached to the root of this trunk. Be-
tween the latter is a pointed fcale, fometimes employed to
cut the veflt^ls from which the fluid is to be fucked, but
often ferving only to cover other pieces, which are much
fliarper and more appropriate to this funftion. In the
ftratyomys, and the common flies, there is merely a fingle
fliort point under the fcale. The fyrphi and rhingias have
in addition a ftiff' brilUe under each palpus. In the rhagio
there are three briflles under the fcale, and the middle of
them is the llrongeft. The tabani have four, all pointed
and fliarp like the blades of lancets ; hence thefe infefts
have the power of inflifting the ieverell wounds on the
flcin. All the parts are much elongated in the genera empis
and bombylius ; the trunk is more particularly extended
than the brillles in the latter, which indeed have only one
bridle under the fcale. In the empis all the parts are equally
prolonged, and there are four brillles.

In the myopa (conops, Linn.) the trunk is elongated into
a flender tube with an angle at its middle ; there is a fliort
fcale without any bridle. In the afilus and domoxvs (co-
nops, Linn.) the trunk is hardened, and afl'umes a horny
texture, fo that it is capable of cutting. There is a fingle
bridle within it in the ftomoxys, and three in the afilus. The
trunk is reduced almod to nothing in the hippobofca ; and
the fingle bridle is long and flexible.

Z All

INSECTS.

All thefe genera liave palpi of a fingle piece. The tipulx
and culices have them articulated, and often very long ; the
trunk of the tipulse is (liort, with large lips, and no bridle;
that of the culices is long, flender, and contains a fine
bridle.

In the oellri, all the external oi'gans of the mouth are •with-
drawn within the head, fo as to expofe externally only three
rather prominent points.

The hemiptera (rhyngota, Fabr.) are more uniform in the
ilaifture of thefe parts than the diptera ; in general they have
a tube compofed of fome articulated pieces, and open above
in its whole length. This tube contains three fine bridles
nearly as long as itfelf; it exhibits fcarcely any other va-
rieties except in its pofition and inflexions.

The lepidoptera (gloffata, Fabr.) are equally uniform in
the ftruclure of thefe parts : their tongue is formed of two
membranous plates, curved tranfverfely in their whole length,
fo as to form a tube, and, when the infeft does not employ
it, convoluted fpirally, and lodged between two flat villous
palpi, compofed commonly of three pieces. The differences
depend on the variable length of this organ, which is fome-
times very inconliderable, and on the figure of the palpi :
they are not of importance in connedliou with our prefent
fubjea.

Among the aptera, the loufe has only a fimple and (liort
fucker, inclofed in a fmall prominence : the flea has one with
two bridles, inclofed in a (heath of three pieces, opened
longitudinaUy above.

Intejiinal CaAal. — It is ftraight in the cruftacea, and uniform
in its fize, with the exception of the ftomach. The latter
is very different in the crudacea decapoda, and in the branchi-
opoda , it pofieffes, in the former, a Angularity of drufture,
which is remarkable as the only example of the kind in the
whole animal kingdom ; that is, it is fupported by a bony
apparatus, a fpecies of flceleton, and confequently does not
collapfe when empty. The deftination of this apparatus is
rot lefs extraordinary than its exiftence ; it ferves to fupport
five hard and moveable teeth, which perform in the cavity
of the domach a true raallication. They are placed before
the pylorus, and allow no fubftances to pafs through that
opening until they are perfeftly triturated.

The ftomach is found in the thorax above the mouth, and
the oeiophagus communicates with it by a large aperture.
The anterior portion is more capacious than the polterior,
and the teeth are placed where the cavity begins to grow
narrower. On the fuperior furtace, or that which is op-
pofed to the mouth, there is a thin tranfverfe plate occupy-
ing the middle of the domach. This fupports the firft tooth
or bony oblong plate, confolidatcd to the fuperior furface of
the ftomach, direfted towards the pylorus, and terminating
behind in a tubercle.

On this pofterior extremity is articulated a fecond plate,
direfted backwards, bifurcated like the letter Y ; and on
each of its lateral divifions another is articulated, which turns
forwards and outwards, and reaches the lateral extremity of
the firft tranfverfe plate. The two largeft teeth are fixed
on thefe two lateral pieces. They are oblong, have flat
crowns, which are grooved tranfverfely, and the grooves
and inequalities vary in the different fpecies. In the
cancer pagurus of Linnseus, the crown is finely ftriated, has
large denticuli at its lower edge, and a prominent part
in iront which is not ftriated. In the lobfter there are nine
tranfverfe ribs, of which the three front are much the
largeft.

From the poiat of union of the tranfverfe portion with
the lateral of each fide, another lateral piece is continued,
proceeding lower than the firft, and having at its extremity

a lateral tooth fmaller than the preceding, placed rnfher bfi
fore and below its anterior extremity, and having three aixi
fometimes even five fmall, (harp, and bent p'oints. The two
fm-.ill teeth with curved points fei/.e the nouriftiment which
comes from the mouth ; they convey it between the two
teeth with flat crowns, which bruife it between each other
and again ft the firft fingle plate.

When it has undergone this operation, the aliment paffes
through the narrow part of the ftomach, where its courfe
is ftill interrupted, firft by a fleftiy oval prominence cor-
refponding to the interval of the two large lateral teeth,
and afterwards by a (liarp crida, which divides the pylorus
into two half canals.

There are mufcular fibres in this ftomach, which approxi-
mate the bony pieces, and the teeth which they fuppcrt :
there are exterior mufcles which feparate the teeth from
each other, and are attached to the neighbouring, and par-
ticularly the lower parts of the thorax. Thefe mufcles
muft be fubjeft to the will, which is another remarkable fin-
gularity belonging to thefe ftomachs.

Thefe teeth are difcharged from the ftomach when the
old ftiell is died ; and are fupplied by new ones.

After this large ftomach, which is always dilated, comes
a very flender inteftine, which takes a ftraight courfe to its
termination at the end of the tail. Towards its middle a
thick ling is obferved, on the infide of which there is a
ttrong valve, and the commencement of a very long ca:cum.

Thefe circumifances have been afcertained in thofe cancers
which have long tails, as the cray-fifli and the lobfter, alfo
in the paraiitical fpecies (the hermit crab), and in the crabs,
as the cancer pagurus, puber, and maenas : the ftrufture may
therefore be confidered as common to all the cruftacea deca-
poda. The branchiopoda poffefs a fmall membranous fto-
mach, fliaped Uke a triangular prifm, furnidied on each fide of
its pofterior extremity with a row of fmall pointed teeth,
and followed by a very tliin inteftinal canal, continued firom
one end of the body to the oilier, and nearly uniform in
fize throughout.

In the onifci the front of the canal is a httle fwollen com-
pared to the continuation.

In the reft of the clafs of infefts w-e find as many varieties
in the ftrudlure of the alimentary canal, as in all the clafles
of vertebral animals together. There are not only dif-
ferences between the families and fpecies, but often very
confiderable ones between the larva and perfect dates of the
fame infeft : and all thefe varieties bear a very accurate rela-
tion, which in many cafes can be very clearly appreciated fo
theanim.al's kind of life, whether of fliorter or longer dura-
tion. Thus the voracious larva» of the fearabxi and buUer-
flies have inteftines ten times as large as the winged and fober
infefts, if we may be allowed to ufe that term, to which
they give birth.

There are the fame general refemblances in the natural
families of infefis, as in the reft of the animal kingdom ;
thus all the coleoptera lamelhcornia, all the carnivora have
fimilar inteftines in each of their ftates, &c. Here, as in
the other claffes, the length and complication of the intef-
tinal canal indicate a vegetable nourilliment ; fiiortnefs and
thinnefs, on the contrary, ftiew that the animal is carnivo-
rous, &c.

I. In the Coleoptera. — We fhall felefl for defcription fome
very natural families, which are remarkable for any pecu-
liarities of dnidlure, and ftiall notice togetlier the intef-
tinal canal of the larva and of the perfctl infeift, in order to
exhibit in the cleared view^ the very ftrikiiig difference I c-
tween thefe two ftates.

I. In the coleoptera lamcllicornia. The laft mcnt;

3 1 -

INSECTS.

Joint is very clearly exemplified this family. Tlie larvse
of all the genera', whi h compofe it, have a large and fliort
alimentary canal, divided into the following parts, i. A
^lort and we?.k. ocfophagiis. 2. A llraight cylindrical fto-
ir.ach, tokrably thick and mufcular, furrounded by three
circles of fmall cxca, placed, one at the commencement, one
at tlie middle, and the third at the end of the cylinder. Thefe
ca;c:l arc numerous, weak, and fliort : thofc of the third cir-
cle are ramified in the larvK of the fcarabrei properly fo
called (les geotrupes of Latrcille). In the mclolonths the
ceca of the firll circle have fmall lateral denticulations,
which may be regarded as fo many fmaller cica. The upper
a:!d lower circle in the lucani are compofed of a fmall number
of large crcca, while the middle is made up of very numerous
fmall ones. Probably they all fecrete and pour into the ito-
mach fome diffolving fluid. 3. A fliort intefl:ine of much
thiimer fides, and rather fliortcr in length than the ftomach.
Its origin, which is rather expanded, receives above the he-
patic vefiels ; it terminates at the pollerior extremity of the
body of the larva. 4. An enormous colon, or large inteftine,
three times as large as the ftomach, and filling all the pof-
terior third of the body. It pofiefles two fmooth bands,
between which are tranfverfe folds, producing a cellular ap-
pearance like that of the human colon. Its courfe is in a direc-
tion contrary to that of the fmall inteftine ; that is, it returns
from behind forwards, and lies upon that inteftine. J. A
rcftum turning from before backwards upon the colon, in
order to terminate at the anus. It is flender and ftraight,
without any inequality.

We fliould have expeftcd that the perfeft infeft would
retain fome trace of fuch fl:rongly marked peculiari; ies ; yet
there is really no veftige of them difcernible. All thefe in-
fecis, lucani, fcarabxi, melolonthi, cetonix, have a long
flender canal, four or five times longer than the body, very
much convoluted, and pofiefling hardly any dilatation. Some-
times the anterior portion is merely a little larger and folded
tranfverfely.

2. In the cpleoptera carnivora. As the habits of thefe
animals are very different from thofe of the preceding, tlieir
alimentary canal is different in both ftates. In the perfedl
ftate it confifts, of, ift, a long and very dilatable ocfopha-
gus. 2. A firil ftomach, nearly fpherical in its fiiape, with
mufcular parietes and tranfverfe wrinkles. 3. A fecond fto-
mach, membranous, elongated, and villous; not on the infide,
as thofe of certain vertebral animals are, but on the outfide.
The villi are veffels which draw, from the furrounding
nutrient fluid, the gaftric juice which they pour into the
ftomach, according to the laws of fecretion in infefts ; con-
fidered as animals which have no circulating organs. 4. An
inteftine of moderate length, between once and twice the
length of the body, fn-.all and uniform in its diameter
throughout. 5. A conical and rather long cxcum inferted
near the anus. Near the margin of the anus are found two
veficl^s, which fecrcle the acrid fluid almoft conttantly voided
by thefe animals when they are feized.

Such is the ftruAure of the genera feparated from the
carabi, the cicindelx, and the dytifci : their larvae have no
dilatation like a ftomach ; their canal is fmall, all of one
lize from the mouth to the anus, and about one-half longer
than the body. A cscum, however, may be obfervcd near
the anus in the larvx of the dytifci.

3. In the coleoptera clavicornia. The hydrophilus
piceus, in its perfetl ftate, has very long cylindrical intef-
tines (four or five times longer than the body), uniform in
fi/e throughout, and forming large convolutions in the ab-
donicn. 'J'iie larva, which is much more carnivorous, has
•ftort inteftines (half as long again as the body), of which

nearly two-thirds form an elongated ftomach, villous exter-
nally ; the reft is fmootii, and divided by a contraction into
two parts. The filphx, on the contrary, have in their perfedl
ftate fucli a ftomach, followed by a fmall inteftine twice as
long as the body.

4. In the coleoptera lignivora. The larvx of the prioni and
cerambyces have very large inteftines, with their fides nearly
uniform throughout, and forming four folds, each of which
is as long as the body. The commencement, which alone
can be compared to a ftomach, is rather corrugated tranf-
verfely like a colon. The perfefl infedl has firft a membra-
nous and round ftomach, then an oval one, which is infenfibly
contracted into a cyhndrical canal, fndden'y growing
fmaller at the infertion of the hepatic veffels, and continuing
fa to tl-.o anus. Tlie whole canal is at raoft twice as long as
the body.

The larva of the lamia. Fab. has firft a very diftinft fto-
mach, then a knotted fmali inteftine, which is fuddenly
changed into a large inteftine longer than itfelf.

5. In the coleoptera filicornia, of the family of the vefi-
cantix, the meloe poffeffes an enormous oval ftomach, filling
nearly the whole abdomen. The front is covered with
ftrong circular fibres ; and a cylindrical valve, analogous
to the valvula coli of man, is obferved at the cordia.

In the tamily of the lacifuga, the tenebrio has a cylindri-
cal elongated ftomach, a firft inteftine, which is rather flen-
der, and another fomewhat larger. The whole canal is
about three times the length of the body. The blaps has a
mufcular cylindrical ftomach, another equalV large but
membranous, feparated from the former by a flight conftric-
tion, and a fmall inteftine which is a httle enlarged towards
the anus. The proportionate length of the whole is about
the fame as in the lall inftance.

6. The brachelytra, or ftaphylini, refemble the carnivora
in the villofity of the tlomach, as they do in their habits.

II. In the Orthoptera. — Thefe, in the clafs of infects,
feem analogous to tiie ruminants among the quadrupeds, at
Icaft in refpeft to the complication of tlie ftomach, and fome
fuppofe that their aliment may be feen brought back into the
mouth for the purpofe of a fecond maftication. As they
undergo an imperfect; nietamorphofis, their ahmentary
canal is the fame in the larva as in the perfeft ftate. It
confifts in general of the following parts, i. An oefophj;*
gus of the ufual kind. 2. A firft membranous ftomach.
In moft genera this is a firaple dilatation of the ocfophagus,
of which the internal membrane is fmooth and folded longi-
tudinally. In the locufta it is rather, and in the blatta con-
fiderably larger than in the other genera. In the acheta it is
an oval bag, having quite a lateral pofition, connefted to the
fide of the ocfophagus like a cxcum, with one opening for
the reception and diicharge oi its contents. 3. A fecond
ftomach or gizzard, fmall, nearly round, poffeiiing a very
thick mufcular coat, and armed internally with fcales or teeth.
In the locufta and acheta thefe are longitudinal rows of fine
and numerous fcales, placed one over the other like the tiles
of a roof, and direded backwards. In the blattx there is a
fingle row of fix or eight large curved teeth, denticulated
like the bills of birds of prey, and direfted backwards,
4. The cxca or third ftomachs are immediately round the
pofterior orifice of the gizzard, and vary in number. The
locufta and acheta have two large ones, and this has given rife
to the remark that the grylli have four ftomachs like the ru-
minating mammaha The internal membrane is much folded,
and its extremity receives many fmall fecretory veffels, which
pour out gaftric juice. There are five of thefe cxca in the
gryllus, and eight or ten in the blattx. 5. The inteftinal
canal varying in length and diameter.

Z2 The

INSECTS.

The earwig is faid to be very different from the other
orthoptera in having only a fimple elongated ilomach, a very
ihort inteiliiie, and a dilatation with longitudinal folds near
the anus.

III. In the Hymenoptera. — The bees have a firft ftomach,
■which is membranous and tranfparent, pointed in front, large
and divided into two portions behind. In this organ the
neftar of the flowers is converted into honey : it is the refer-
voir of this matter, which they depofit in their hives by the
aft of vomiting. The fecond iioniach proceeds from the
interval of the two divifions ; it is elongated and fwoUen
laterally towards the middle. The hepatic veflels are inferted
immediately after the pylorus. The firft inteiline is fmall,
and fcarcely equal in length to the fecond ftomach : the
rectum is large but ftiU Ihorter.

The firft ftomach of the wafp is fmailer ; the fecond
longer, and particularly much more mufcular. The larvae
of both genera have an immenfe cylindrical mufcular ftomach,
filling nearly the whole abdomen, and followed by a very
iliort inteftine.

In the fphex the ftrufture refembles that of the bee ; the
parts are only larger in proportion to their length.

IV. In the Neuroptera. — The family of the odonatse,
which is truly carnivorous, has very fhort inteftines in its
three ftates : they do not exceed the length of the body.
In the hbellula grandis, Linn, a lliort cefophagus is fucceeded
by a fmall ova' mufcular ftomach, ftriated longitudinally ;
then comes a ftraight large inteftine or fecond ftomach, with
a conftriftion placed far back at the entrance of the hepatic
veflels. The interval between this part and the anus is
very ftiort, and folded longitudinally. In its larva, the
eefophagus has a circular dilatation : the conftriftion of
the cordia produces a kind of valve. From this point the
canal has a bright yellow colour, as far as the infertion of the
hepatic veflels ; its lall portion is white and much thicker ;
and contains the fingular refpiratory apparatus, which we
fliall defcribe afterwards.

In the family of the agnatha, the ephemera, during its
larva ftate, has merely a ftraight uniform canal, without any
convolution, which becomes extremely thin in the perfeft
infeft.

V. In the Hemiptera. — Thefe poflefs in general a fimple,
oval, and mufcular ftomach, of coiifiderable fize, followed
by a fmall inteftine of moderate length, near the end of
wliich is a fuia'l cscum. Such at leaft is the cafe in the
nepa, notoiicfta, &c.

VI. In the Lepidoptera. — The caterpillars have a large,
fhort, ftraight, inteftinal canal, without any confiderable
inequalities. The cefophagus is the flendereft portion, the
ftomach is elongated and contrafted at the pylorus. After
the pylorus the inteftine is larger than in the reft of its
length ; it is contrafted towards the anus. At the latter
part it has the ftrongeft circular fibres ; on its parietes other
fibres are found, varioully decuffated and ending in two
white lines, winch extend over its whole length, one above,
and the other below. The diameter varies in different fitua-
tions, according as the contents are accumulated. Sumc-
times the dii'inftion between the ftomach and inteftine can
fcarcely be obferved.

This canai is obvioufly calculated for folid and abundant
food. The butterfly, whicli fubfifts entirely on the juices of
vegetables, has a very different digeftive apparatus. Among
the diurnal infefts of this order, the atalanta has a flender
oefoph igus, with a membranous dilatation on its fide, hke a
crop, more or lefs rounded in its figure, and often full of
air. Then comes a fecond elliptical membranous ftomach,
the fides of which prefent many hemifpherical cellular pro-

minences ; and afterwards a third, cylindrical, and ratiit.
mufcular, followed by a fmall inteftine of moderate length, \
terminated by a rather larger reftum. I

VII. In the Diptera In general their inteftinal canal is

tolerably long in both ftates. It is five times the length of
the body in the larva of the ftratyomys, and confifts of a
fhort cefophagus as flender as a thread, a very fmall oval
ftomach, and an inteftine, of which the firft half is wrinkled
tranfverfely, which becomes afterwards larger and fmoother
to the infertion of the hepatic canals, below which it is fud-
denly conftrifted and remains nan-ow. The differences
between this and the larva of the fyrphus are very flight ;
and the diftinftions between both and their perfeft infefts are
not more obvious. However, Swammerdam reprefents four
fmall caeca, after the ftomach, in the larva of a fly which
inhabits cheefe ; Cuvier has not found them in the diptera
diffefted by himfelf.

VIII. In the Gnalhaptem. — The fcolopendrx have a long
canal contrafted behind ; the iuli have an equally, long and
cylindrical one. We have already mentioned that of the
onifcus.

IX. /n the /Iptera luilhotit Jaics. — The loufe has two fmall
fwellings at the origin of the ftomach, which is elongated ;
the inteftine is not longer than the ftomach ; it is fmall, and
terminated in front of the anus by a mufcular enlargement.

Hepatic Vejfeh. — Although the cruftacea have a heart and
blood-veffels, moft of them have not a liver, properly fo
called. The organ which produces bile in them confifts of a
confiderable number of fmall tubes ending in cul-de-facs.
The ftrufture is analogous to that of the pancreas of fifhes,
which confifts, as we fuppofe, of the multitude of caeca
opening at the origin of the inteftine.

The appearance of the hepatic caeca in the cruftacea dif-
clofes their nature and office ; they are yellow, have fpongy
fides ; produce a brown and bitter liquor, which gives its
peculiar tafte to the foft fubftance in the body of the lobfter ;
for the hepatic csca, with the ftomach, fdl nearly the whole
thorax of thefe animals ; and, in the hermit crab, they fill
alfo a great part of the tail.

The fquilla. Fab. is an exception to this rule ; thefe ani-
mals have a liver of a firm texture, very much refembhng a
conglomerate gland, confifting of lobes arranged on each fide
of the alimentary canal in its whole length.

In the infefts, properly fo called, there is ftill lefs appear-
ance of liver than in the common cruftacea. Since they can
have no glands on account of the abfence of blood-veffels, the
bile, hke all the other fecretions, is produced in them by
fine veffels with fpongy fides, floating in the fluid, which
bathes all the parts, and deriving from it, by the organiza-
tion of their tiffue, the elements proper for the formation of
this liquor.

Thefe veffels exill equally in the larva and in the perfeft
infeft: the fluid, which they form and contain, tinges them
with its own colour. They are ufually ye;lo\v, fometinies,
as in the fcrabxi and cerambyces, of an opaque wliite ; and
in other inftances, as in the dytilci, of a deep brown. Their
bitter tafte arifes from this fluid, which would probably be
found to poffefsmanyof thequaUties of bile, if it could be
procured in fufficient quantity for analyfis.

The number of theie veffels is variable ; when it is large,
they arc fhort, fo that the extent of furface is nearly the
fame. Sometimes they all end in a common excretory tube,
which terminates in the inte.line. This is the cafe with the
gryllo-talpa. They are common'y inferted after the ftomr.ch,
bat fometimes not till near the middle of the inteftinal > ',
as in the grylli ; or even towards its end, as in the lib.
The onifci alone have them inferted near the ccfophagi

INSECTS.

u- infe(£ts they are only four in number, large, undulated, called abforbents, in the four firft clafles of the animal king-

ig as the body, and of an oranjre colour. dom ; thefe convey it into the blood-vcffels, in which ft

Among the neuroptera, the libeiliilx have a confiderable pafFes to all tlie organs of the body. The application of

i.ber of ihort ones, fnrrounding the inteftine at a I'mall the new matter furnifhcd by digelHon to the parts of the

.. nee from the anus, where it becomes large. The fame fyllcm is performed in fome other way in infeds, as they

idure exilts in the common grylli. In the gryllo-talpa feem to have neither abforbing nor blood-veflels (excepting

;.._ie isa large packet of thefe velfels, terminating bya com- the cruftaceous infefts).

nion canal in the middle of the large inteftine. Tlie larvx Cuvier is of opinion that the nutritive procefs is performed

and the perfect infefts have the fame llriiclure in thefe genera, in this clafs by imbibition. We arrive, fays he, at this con-

Tliisrefemblance feems moreover to exilt, with refpect to the clufion by proofs of different kinds ; fome arc direft, but

hepatic organs, even in orders where the metamorphofis is the negative; other.-; fupply only indnftions ; their union will

molt complete in all other parts; the number at Icail is not probably fufEce to grodnce conviftion. In the firft place,

t'lj.ngcd. It is confiderable in the hymenoptera, but ge- he continues, no veffels are found in diffefting infects ; I

. ly amounts only to two in the coleoptcra. In the latter have fought for them with the greateit attention, and by

are generally found parallel to the uiieftinal canal, and the afliitance of the microfcope, in thofe organs, which in

i^^e numerous windings. Their infertion is immediately other claflTcs contain them in the greatert abundance, as the

;L*tcr the ftomach in the larvK of the fcarabsei, the dytifci, choroid coat of the eye, and the membranes of the intelHnal

the carabi, &c. canal ; I have never found any thing like them, although

The caterpillars and the peifeft infefts produced from the trachea: and the nerves are very eafily difcovered, and

tliem have two, each of which is fub-di\aded into three, the innumerable ramifications of the former may be traced

placed in the former, at the fides of the polleriorhalf of the with the naked e^e. Lyonet, who has defcribed and repre-

caiial, and forming their principal folds completely in the fented in the larva of the coflus parts a thoufand times fmaller

back of the body. Among the hemiptera, the nepae feem than the principal blood-vetTels would be, could never dif-

to have only two. The larva; of the ftratyomys and fyrphus, cover anything of that kind.

of the order diptera, have four, which end in the inteitine by There is indeed in infefts an organ, to which many ana-

a common trunk. tomifts have given the name of heart ; it is a membranous

Coverings and Supports of the Alimentary Canal. — We have tube, continued through the whole length of the back,

mentioned already that the ftomach of the cruitacea is fup- both in the larva and in the perfeft Hate, exhibiting alternate

ported in its fituation by its mufcles ; the remainder of the contraftions and dilatations, which feem to pafs fucccfllvcly

canal is maintained only by vefiels, and by the compreffion from one extremity to the other ; but, notwithftanding this

of the furrounding parts. circumltance, which feems to indicate an organ of circulation,

In the proper infefts, the inteftinal canal is retained in its this tube produces no branches, and we can neitlier attribute

place by the trachex only ; there is neither mefentery veflel to it the funftions of a heart, nor difcover any other purpofe

nor cellular fubftance ; confequently when an infeft is opened to which it is fubfervient. La.lly, thofe naturalilts who

and placed in water, all the folds of its canal rife, and are de- have obferved with the microfcope the tranfparent pai cs of

veloped from the fpecific tightnefs derived from the air in the infefts, have difcerned only a fluid at reft, bathing them on

trachejE. all fides.

The fine membrane lining the abdomen, and enveloped by Such are the negative arguments on this fubjcft ; thofe

the rings of the Ikin and their mufcles, may be called peri- drawn from induftion refer principally to two points ; -viz.

toneum. the mode of refpiration in infefts, and the form of the fecre-

But the moft remarkable circumftance belonging to infefts tory organs,

in their larva ftate, and exifting in them exclufively, among In animals which have a circulation, it is continually

all invertebr?.! animals, is the portions of cellular texture collected in a central refervoir, whence it is forcibly expelled

filled with fat, which may be compared to omenta, and may to all parts ; it always arrives at the organs from the heart.

Lave the fame funftions. They feem particularly defigned and it is always fent to the heart before it comes back again.

to fupply the materials of liutrition to the animal, during all It may then have been modified from its fource by the action

that time, in wliich, as a chryfalis, it eats nothing, as the of the air ; and, in faft, before it is brought by the aorta

fat of .the omenta fupports life in thofe quadrupeds, which and its ramifications to the parts which are to be nourifticd

pafs the winter in a lethargic fleep. When the animal by it, it circulates through the lung or gills. If this ar-

changes its coverings and its form, and becomes a perfeft in- rangement is not found in infefts, tlie reafon probably is

feft, thefe fatty organs probably furnifli the prodigious that their nutritive fluid is not contained in veifel;, that it

quantity of materials, which the fuddcn developement of fo does not come from a common fource, and confequently that

many parts muft require ; confequently they arc not found it could not undergo any modification in a feparate organ

in the latter ftate. before arriving at the parts. It continually and quietly

The forms, colour, and confiftence of theL- mafles vary, bathes all the parts, which are to draw from it fubftances

In the caterpillars they are oblong, fwoilen, full cf a white fuiied to their wants ; the aftion of tlie air (liould therefore

fat like cream. In the larvse of the fca; abcei they are large reach it every where, and this point is very completely fecured

femi-tranfparent membranes, with many opaque and white by the difpnfition of thetrachese, as there is no point of the

grains ; in thcjie of the flies and ftratyomys they have a body to which the fine ramifications of thefe vefllls do not

Ilalhed appearance, lik-? narrow ribbands irregularly joined, penetrate, and where the air does not immediately excrcife

They are incoufiderable, or do not exill at all, in llie larvas its chemical aftion ; in a word, as the blood cannot go in

of infefts, which undergo an incomplete metamorphofis, foarch of the air, the air is every where brought in coiitact

which eat during their whole exiftence, and never pafs into with the blood.

the chryfahs ftate. In all the orders they receive nunierous The fecretions oL«nfefts are never performed by conc;lo-

air-veffeis. merate glands ; their organs confift, in all cafes, as we have

Abfirption in Injects. — The nutritive fluid prepared in the juil feen in the example of the liver, of long and (lender

alimentary canal is taken up by a particular .order of veffels, tubes, floating in the cavity of die body, without being con-

nefted

INSECTS.

ncfted together, or fixed in any way except'by the trachea.
This appears clearly to be a neceffiiry confequence, and
therefore a very probable indication of the ablence of blood-
veffels. When the powerful afrents of circulation exift, they
convey with facihty the nutritive fluid to the moft remote
points of the glands ; the intertexture of the blood-veflels
forms a thick and clofe tifiue, in which the peculiar veflels of
the gland are pliced. When, on the contrary, there is nei-
ther heart ni-r blood-veflcls, nor any force to impel the fluid
towards the decretory organs, the latter require a more
powerful attradive force ; and as this can be exerted only
by means of the tiflue compoiing their fides, it becomes ne-
cen"ary that they fliould be unattached,loofe,long, and flender,
in order to augment their furface.

Organs of Clrculalion in tin Crujlacea The heart of the

crultacea decapoda is very diflferently formed from that of
the branchiopoda. In the former it is oval, circumfcribed,
and placed nearly in the middle of the thorax ; in the others
it is elongated, and extends from one end of the body to the
other, fo as to form apparently a connecting link between the
heart of the decapoda and the dorfal veffel of the other in-
fects. In this pouit of view it has led fome naturalifl:s into
error: we fliall, however, find a ilniaure which is more
analogous to it in the red-blooded worms.

The decapoda (the crabs, lobfter, cray-fifli, hermit crab,
&c.) have an aortic heart, like that of the mollufca. It re-
ceives the blood from the branchiae by a large veCel, which
lieslongitudinally in the chell to receive this 'blood by lateral
veflels. Cuvier itates that this is the cafe in the hermit crab ;
but he thinks that in the lob Her the branchial veins form two
trunks, which go diredly to the two fides of the heart.
When one of the veins of the brarchis is injected, the fluid
arrives at the heart by the route jufl; indicated. From the
fame poilerior part of the heart arifes an arterial veflel, which
gjoes directly backwards, and fupplies the organs of genera-
tion and the mufcles of the tail. The anterior portion
produces other arteries, varying in number according to the
fpecies.

Each pedicle of the branchia: contains two principal vef-
fels ; an artery and a vein. The venous trunks all go to the
heart ; ard, as we have already fl:ated, by a fingle trunk in
the decapoda : but. in the branchiopoda, where the heart is
elongated, they all terminate in it diredly, fo that a pair of
veins enters at each ring of the body. The branchial arte-
ries do not come from the heart. When the latter organ
is injected, the fluid does not enter the branchitc, although
it will pafs ealily from the latter to the heart. In the fquil-
la fafciata, Fabr., Cuvier obferved a large longitudinal vena
cava, extending from one end of the body to the other, un-
der the inteftine, and confcquently on the oppofite furface to
that occupied by the heart. Its tifl"ue is much thinner than
that of the heart, and tranfparent, and it produces as many
pairs of branchial veflels as the heart receives from thofe or-
gans. This anatomift lias very little doubt that the fame
veikl will be found in the decapoda, but he had not examined
them for this purpofe fince he firfl. faw it in the other di-
vifion.

The circulation of the criiftacea is then the fame with that
of the g ifteropodous mollufca ; vi%. a double circulation,
of which the aortic fyllem only poffelfes a ventricle : and
even this ventricle does not dcferve the name in the branchio-
poda, it fo much i-efemblcs in them a veffel by its elongated
form. Under this point of view the circulating fyllem of
thefe animals refembks that of red-blooded worms.

The heart of the cruilacea, even in the decapoda, has no
auricle ; and valves have not hitherto been obferved in it

It IS hardly neceflary to ftate, that the blood thrown by

the heart into the arteries, pafTes through the veins into i:;:;
vena cava.

The motions of the heart may be feen in thefmall mono=
cull of this country, but their extreme fmallnefs prevents us
from following the diflribution of the veflels. The anatomy
of t;ie molucca crab is not yet known.

ChculaUon of hifccls. — All infects have in their back a lon-
gitudinal veflel, filled with a tranfparent fluid, and for a hir.g
time regarded as the heart, after the Itatement of Malpighi,
who defcribed it in the filk-worm, and reprefents it as a
knotted canal, that is divided at intervals by conilriilions.
He conceived that each dilatation was a particular heart, and
that thefe diffVrent organs tranfmitted the blood to each
other : but he remarked at the fame time that the fucceffion
of the pulfations was not regular, and tliat the fluid fon e-
times took a retrograde courle. I.yonet has given a better
account of this dorfal veflel. It is an uniform canal, pro-
ceeding from the head to the oppofite extremity, and enlarg-
ing a little in its courfc, but clofed at the two ends. It pof-
felles on each fide a certain number of tranfverfe mufcular
fafciculi, fomewhat in the form of wings, which are fixed
by their oppofite ends to the general covering. Its dilata-
tions and contraftions are produced by thefe, which are ex-
terior mufcles, and not by its own tifliie.

Lyonet afi'ures us, that he has not been able to difcover
any veflel produced from this and proceeding into the body,
although he has defcribed trachex and nerves a thoufand
times fmaller than thefe veflels mull be if they exi'l. Cuvier
has tried all known methods of injedion, without any
greater fuccefs. Swammcrdam indeed mentions that he in-
jcded fmall veflels from it in the grylli ; but we cannot help
entertaining doubts on this fubjett, until the experiment fliall
have been repeated with fuccefs.

The dorfal veflel of infefts cannot then in any manner per-
form the funftions, nor dcferve the name of a heart. Perhaps,
like all other parts of this kind in infedls, it is a fecretory
veflel : but we are at prefent quite unable to determine what
liquor it fecretes, and for what ufe. Its contents are tranf-
parent, light yellow, vifcous, mifcible with water, ealily
dried, and then becoming hard and cracking hke gum.

Befides the analogy of its contractions, its fituation might
favour the idea of its being a heart. The latter organ is
placed near the back in almoil all the mollufca, and in all the
cruftacea ; and this is the pofition of an organ, which can
hardly be regarded in any other light than as a heart, in the
araclinidous infeCTis (aranex, phalangia, and fcorpions). It
may be obferved very eafily in the fpiders : and may be
feen beating through the integuments of the abdomen in the
fpecies which have fmooth bodies. On removing the inte-
guments v>'e expofe a hollow oblong organ, pointed at its
two ends, and advancing as far as the thorax by its front end :
two or three pairs of veflels very manifeilly pafs off from its
fides. If we add to this account, the faCl, that the fpiders
have no trachcx, but that their refpiralion is circumfcribed
within a fmall number of veficles, and that they appear to
have glands, we fliall be induced to believe that their circu-
lation is more complete, and more analogous to our's than
that of other inleds.

Rifflratory Organs. — The clafs of infefts exhibits two
very different arrangements of the organs belonging to this
function : the cruftacea have gills, refembling thofe of fiflies
and of many mollufca ; other mlVds have air-veflfels dilhi-
buted to all parts of their bodies. The brantluK of the
former extract air from the water in which they live, in the
fame way as the gills of fiflies aC\. The rcfpiration of infeds
produces in the air the fame efleds as that of the warm-
blooded animals. Experiments fliew us that oxygen is con-
fumed

INSECTS.

fumed in tliis cafe, and that the refidue of the air is ren-
dered impure, by the admixture of carbonic acid gas.

An important refult of refpiration feems to be the main-
taining the initabiliiy of the moving powers : hence the de-
finitive refult of this proccfs, with refpeil to the fibre, is
power in executing the motions which it has to perform.
Thus the energy of the motive force will be in proportion
to the quantity of relpiration. The organization of infefts
correfponds to this theory : they are the only clafs among
the lower ranks of animated exilience, which pofTeffes the fa-
culty of flying, and we confequently find the tracheae car-
I rying air over the whole body, fo that refpiration is carried
j on at all points. In thofe infetls which do not fly, the force
! of the nuifcles may be cllimated by the rapidity of their
i other motions. The running of the millepede and the jump-
I ing of the flea, ftiew that they belong to a very irritable
i clals of animals ; the cafe is analogous to that of the oftrich
I and caflbwary, which run with great celerity, although they
I are birds without wings.

Rej'p\raUon of the Griijlacea. — Their branchix are larger in
' proportion than thofe of moll of the moUufca. In the de-
' capoda they are attached to the bafe of the feet, under tlie
; lateral and defcending edge of the thorax, which confines
them within a narrow fpace. The branchiopoda have no
[ gills in this fituation, but under the tail, between the fins,
i and floating loofely in the water.

I In the crabs the llruclure is in fome refpefts peculiar.
\ Each gill reprefents a triangular elongated pyramid, attacli-
\ ed by its bafis only, and having the point directed upwards.
The middle of the pyramid is divided by a plane, proceed-
ing from the apex to the bafis, and compofed of a double
membrane ; and the body of the pyramid is formed by a
large number of plates placed one over the other, perpendi-
cular to the vertical plane jull mentioned, and confiUing
merely of doublings of the double membrane. A large
veflel runs along each of the two longitudinal edges of this
plane, and penetrates at its bafis into the thorax of the ani-
mal ; one of thefe is arterial, and the other venous. If we
inflate them, immediately all the fmall laminx which com-
pofe the pyramid are dilteiided with air. In the fame way
the blood is expanded over all the furfaces, and is thus fa-
vourably difpofed for tlie action of the water.

There are feven of thefc pyramids on each fide. As the
edge of the thorax, which embraces and confines them, is
inflexible, a particular mechanifm became necefiary for re-
newing the water which walhes the furface of the organs.
Thisetfecft isfecured by two plates of a fubilance refembling
parchment, articulated on the cheil near the maxillae, very
elongated, and paffing obliquely, the one within, between the
branchiie and the body, the other without, between them and
the edge of the cheil. By comprefling the branchiae, thefe
plates Iqueeze the water from the intervals of the lamina:, and
when the prefTure is remitted, they allow the introdudlion of
a new portion of fluid.

The branchial pyramids, although placed in a finiilar
fituation, are more numerous and complicated in the deca-
poda with long tails, as the lobiler, cray-filh, and pahnurus,
Fabr. They have rows of cyhndrical filaments, inilcad ot
laminae, piled on each other on the two fides of the vertical
plane ; fo that their furfaces refemble the ftiag of velvet.
There are feveral thoufands of thefe filaments in a pyramid ;
each of them is formed of an artery and a vein united ;
each pyramid has two, its large artery and large vein ending
in the body.

Thefe villous pyramids ef the long-tailed decapoda are ar-
ranged in groups, between vertical laminae, of which one
afceuds behind each group. Thefe laminae are attached to

the firfl: articulations of the feet, which cannot' move with-
out moving them, and without cither comprefling or fctting
free the branchire. The lobiler and cray-fifli have five groups
of lour pyramids each, and a fiihtary one before and behind,
of which the anterior is very fmall. This wiil make twenty-
two gills on each fide. The firft group is attached to the
moil exterior pair of maxillae : and the folitary pyramid in
front to the pair concealed by the former. The fecond
group is connedled to the claws, and the others to the fol-
lowing feet, except the laft, which has only a folitary pyra-
mid. In each group the exterior pyramid is attached to the
pedicle of the parchment-like plate, and moves with it : the
three others adhere to the body of the animal, and have no
feparate motion. The fird fohtary pyramid is alfo attached
to its plate ; but the lad is fixed to the body, and has only
a rudiment of a plate behind it. Moreover, two other
plates are attached to two maxiilae, anterior to thofe of
which we have already fpoken, and fupport no gills : yet
they are placed obliquely again It thefe organs, and contri.
bute to their compreffion and relaxation. The aflion of all.
thefe plates occafions the expulfion at the two fides of the
mouth of all the water in contaft with the branchis.

The tail of the branchiopoda, particularly of the fquill.Tr
bears on its under furface five pairs of fins, forming broad
membranous and ciliated oars, divided into two large lobes,
an exterior, which is rather anterior ; and an interior, which
is a little poRerior. The gill is attached to the root of the
firll at its inner edge. It confifts at firil of a conical pedicle
compofed of the two large veflels : from this proceeds a row
of cylindrical tubes, gradually diminifhed in fi/e from the
baiis towards the apex : each of thefe is curved, and forms
a long conical and flexible tail, which alfo fupports a very-
numerous row of long and ioofe filaments. Each gill con-
tains a very confiderable number of thefe, and refembles, on:
the firft view, a large brufli : it is only by feparating the
filaments that the regularity of their infcrtion and fucccffioit
can be perceived. It is almoft unnecelfary to add that eaclv
filament contains two ^-effels ; and that each tail and eaclv
tube has the fame vafcular arrangement, juft as in the general
pedicle. The branchis float in the water, are moved like-
the fins, and are even agitated between the two lobes of the^
latter : confequently no mechanifm is required for renewing
the water in contaft with them.

Trachea and Refpiration of hfeHs. — Some remarks on this
fubject will be found in the article Entomologv, under the-
divifion Stigmata. We ftiall enter here more minutely into
the anatomical details.

We have already ftated that the furrounding element, the
air, dift.ributed by means of an infinite number of tubes,,
exerts its adlion on all points of the interior of the body..
Thefe canals have been called trachere, on account of their
analogy to the trachea or large veflel which conveys air into-
the lungs of fuch animals as pofl'efs thofe organs.. Their
ftrufture is remarkalile : they are compofed of three mem-
branes, an internal and an external one of the common ilruc-
ture ; and a middle one compofed of an elaftic thread, pof-
fefling a fine metallic lullrc, rolled fpirally, or in a double
fpiral courfe round the canal, from one extremity of the
tube to the other, and admitting of being unrolled with a
little addi-efs. By this the fides of the tube are conflantly
maintained circular, fo that the palFage of the air is always
free. Yet all the tracliese are not provided with this part in
their whole length ; fome, which Cuvier calls veficular, are
dilated at certain intervals, fo as to form merely membranous
pouches r:i. t provided with this elailic fupport.

The tracheae communicate externally by fmall lateral holes
pierced, on eath iide of the body, and called ftigmata ; or

fome-

INSECTS.

fomctimes by one or two tubes opening into the anus. The
latter ftruclure belongs to the true aquatic infefts ; fome of
which, as the larvx and chryfahdes of the hbelhiliE, have in
the rcftum a particular apparatus for this purpofe, which
we (liall defcribe.

The trachejE of the larvx do not refetnble thofe of the
perfe£l infefts any more than the other organs : indeed the
differences in this refpcft are often ftill more furprifing.

We (hall defcribe the organs fucceffively in the mod re-
markable families.

Thofe of the caterpillars are the beft known, through the
admirable defcription given by Lyonet of that infeft. A
nearly cylindrical tube, receiving air by ten ftigmata, ex-
tends on each fide of the body. Its branches go off in a
radiating manner, from points exactly correlponding to the
fligmata ; thofe at the beginning, wliich go to the head, are
larger than the fucceeding ones. We obferve here, once for
all, that no" part is unprovided with thefe air-vefiels, and
that the very membranes of their trunks even receive
fmall branches. In the caterpillar they are ftrong, opaque,
and of a fine filvery colour, which, however, depends in part
on the contained air ; for the brilliancy is loft, both here
and in other families, when they are macerated and filled with
water or fpirits of wine. The air-veffe'.s of the butterflies,
produced from thefe caterpillars, have a very different ap-
pearance ; they are thinner, lefs numerous, and pofiefs al-
moft throughout fmall yellow or white elliptical bodies of a
fatty nature : fuch at leaft is their appearance in the atalanta
and the phalsna pavonia.

A much more confiderable change is obferved in the cole-
optera lamellicornia : the larva has fafciculi of cylindrical,
filvery, and v^ry fine tracheae, diltributcd from each ftigma
over the furrounding parts. In the perfect mfeft they are
of a dead white, fwelled every where into imall oval or irre-
gularly-figured veficles, with very thin fides : they refemble
trees much loaded with leaves. Examples of this arrange-
ment may be ken in the mclolonthiE, the fcarabasi, the co-
prides, the lucani, &c. : and it occurs in ne other families.

The hymenoptera and the diptera have two large veficles
at the bnfis of the abdomen, and fome Imall ones : but the
number is always inconfiderable.

The hydrophilus piceus has four large ones at the bafis
of the abdom. n ; and, as this is a lliriftly aquatic infeft, they
may aflill the animal, as the fwimming-bladder of filhes does,
in railing or dej'refling itlelf in the water.

The principal air opening in the aquatic larvx is generally
near the anus, that they may the more readilv reach the air :
in this cafe the two lateral trunks of the tracheae are of great
fize, apparently for the purpofe of holding a larger fupply
of the fluid ; and the branches go off in the form of flender
cylindrical threads. This arrangement is found in the larva:
of two very different families, the hydrophilus and fl:raty-
omys. The latter, as all the aquatic larvae of the diptera,
can elongate its tail confiderably in fearch of air without
elevating the body ; the anus is furrounded by fmall trachex
in the form of radii. Thefe infedts fufpend themfelves at
the furface of the water by means of their tails.

The larvx of the libellulx exhibit the moft fingular dif-
poiition of the refpiratory apparatus. The orifices, which
abforb the air, arc found in the reftnm, under the form of
very fmall tubes, ranged in little groups in ten rows, which
reprefent fo many long pinnated leaves. A number of
fmall trachex, equal to that of the tubes within, pafles from
the rcftum into the body; and thefe terminate in four
trunks extended through the whole length of the body.
Two of thefe are of vaft fize, and appear to ferve as refer-
vojrs ; for they fend the air which they contain by tranfverfe

branches into the other two fmaller trunks, which proc
as ufual along the fides of the body, and fupply all y
with air-yeflels. Each of them produces a recurrent bra i,
which, after having crofled the correfponding one, proct t > -
along the intefl:inal canal, and gives it an infinite number d
fmall ramifications. Cuvier thinks that the air contained i:;
thefe different trunks follows a determinate courfe, relativr
to the occafions of the parts to which it is diftributed. '1 hi-
four trunks and the two recurrent branches are found in the
perfeil libellula ; bnt they no longer derive their air fr.,n
the anus. As the animal hves in the atmofphere, its trachei
are fupplied from ftigmata, near each of which is a veficlc,
ferving probably as a refervoir. There is alfo a fingle row
of larger veficles along the back.

The trachex appear to be deficient in fome infefts, that
is, in the arachnida, where we have ftated that fomcthing hke
a heart is perceptible. There is however a fingle ftigma at
the bafis if the abdomen in the fpider : but it leads only
into a veficle, from which no air-veffels have been traced.
Can this be the lung i and are there blood-veffels diftributed
on its fides ?

Organs of the Voice. — By the voice we underftand the
found produced by animals in expelhng air from their lungs,
through the glottis: in tliis fenfe it can be pollcfTed by thofe
animals only which have lungs, as the mammalia, birds, and
reptiles. Several infers produce founds, and often very
confiderable ones, by the motions of various parts of their
body : but there are no exprefs organs for this purpofe. By
thefe founds they invite each other, and exprefs their wants
or their paftions.

Organs of Generation. — Many very ftriking peculiarities are
obferved in the propagation of infedls. Tiie two fexes of
one and the fame fpeeies are often fo extremely unlike each
other, that they would rather be taken for completely dif-
ferent fpccies, than for animals that could pair together.
Among the bees and other neighbouring fpecies, the greateft
number of individuals have no fex ; they arc conceived and
bcrn without being deftined, as in the ordinary courfe, to
conceive or produce impregnation. Their copulation is per-
formed in a very extraordinary manner in many inftances.
The adl is performed on the wing, and iome arc winged only
during the fitort feafian of copulation. Several copulate
only once, and the aft is very foon followed by death : the
life of the animal may be prolonged by deferring the copu-
lation.

In feveral, as the cochineal infeft (coccus cafti), and the
chigger (pulex penetrans), the pregnant female increafes to
an enormous fize. The abdomen of the white ant (termes
fatalis), when ready for laying, is calculated to be two thou-
I'and times larger than it was before impregnation.

Organs of Generation in the Crujlacea. — Thefe among the
invertebral are what ferpents and lizards are among the ver-
tebral animals; their exterior organs are double; but, which
is peculiar to themfelves, their internal organs, both tefticles
and ovaries, are fometimes united into one.

The decapoda in general have two penifes and two vulvx:
the openings of the latter are found at the bafis of the third
pair of feet. The two penifes are quite at the back of the
thorax, behind the fifth pair of feet : in this fituation there
is, on each fide, a horny, pointed, tubular piece, opened
longitudinally, which may be introduced into the vulva, and
condufts the penis which palFcs through this tube. We fee
in the male, on the infide, two very tortuous vafa deferentia,
each of which is continued to the root of the penis of its
own fide. In the lobfter and cray-fifli the two canals proceed
from a tefticle divided into fix lobes, lituated under the heart,
behind the ftomach, and between the two maflTes of hepatic
1 1 veflTels-

N S E C T S.

venils. fhe tedis is ulii'.ifh, and has a glandular appear-
•Bucc, In the ci'abs the two canals are very larg^ near the
penifes, become afterwards (lender, and are lb convoluted as
to form the appearance of a gland on each fide. Thefe
rglands are not united.

In the common lobfter tlie two ovaria are joined, fo as to
.form a fingle one to all. appearance. The two ovidudls are
Jhort, ftraight, and go direitly to the vulvae : the latter are
iimple holes pierced in the fiibllance of the corfelet, near the
third pair of fact in tlie crab, and in tl.e very bafis of tliis
tliird pair in the lobiier and hermit crab.

The female cruilacea attach their eggs, after laying them,
to the filaments of the fins under the tail, and carry them in
tliat fituation until they are liatched.

Organs af GenercUon in the proper Iiifcds.— Ths external
parts are fimple, and placed at the pofterior e.Ktremity of the
body in moil infcds. To this rule there are feme excep-
tions, both in number and pofition. In tlie fpidcrs they are
double ; and the male organs are placed on the maxillary
palpi ; the phalangia have a fimple male organ, coming out
from the root of the abdomen.

The libellula: have the male organ at the bafi?, and not at
the point of the abdomen ; and hence ariies their very fin-
gular attitude in copulation. The male faizec the neck of
the female with the hooks at the extremity of his abdomen,
until the female bends herfclf back, and brings the extremity
of her own abdomen to the bafis of that of the male.

The generative organs of the luli are about the middle of
the body.

I. Male Organs. — Tiiefe confifl in general of a penis with
its coverings, of a common fpermatic canal, and of two pairs
of organs, which may be regarded as tefticles and veficula;
feminales. Each of thefe pairs may be more or lefs fubdi-
vidcd ; they vary in figure and in lize.

I. In the Cohoptera.

a. In the LameUkcrn'ia. — The genera feparated from the
fearabsi nt Linnseus, as the melolonthje, cetoniae, trichis,
fcarabxi, &c. have numerous globular te!lic!es and veficulse
in the form of tubes, as flender as threads, and exceffively
long. In the fcarabxus naficornis, for example, the two vefi-
cula feminales are more than twenty times the length of the
body, and are convoluted into a packet or mafs, wiiich it is
not very difRcult to unravel. Their tube is a little enlarged
before it joins the common canal. On each fide there are fix
tefticles of a fmall fize, and producing each an excretory
tube mere (lender than a hair: thefe fix fmall tubes are
united into one canal, whicli is joined to that of the op-
pofite fide precifely at the point where the vefieulx feminales
are united. The common canal, refulting from thefe four
tubes, becomes large and mufcular, and then goes into a
horny fheath, terminated by a -kind of pincers, between the
laminjs of which the penis is placed. The latter is merely a
fmall cylindrical tube. It appears tisat llie two branches of
the pincer are introduced into the vulva, and then feparated
fo as to facilitate the entrance of the penis Swammerdam
has given a very accurate figure of thefe parts.

The melolontha refembles the S. naficonus.

The organs are more complicated in the cetonia : there
are twelve tefticles on each fide, and, belides the filiform
veficulsp, which are probably tliirty times as long as the
body, there are two other (hort and thick pairs ; the fliorteft
of the latter has its extremity forked. The canals of the
three pair.< of veficulx, as well as the canals of the two
groups of te.fticles, join together at the fame point to con-
ftitute the common fpermati;; tube, wliich goes to tlie
pcni..

Vw.= XLX.

The trichise refemblc the cetoni:e.

The coprides, or dung beetles, and tlio lucani, or ftag
beetles, do not follow the fame type : they have only one
tefticle on each fide, and this is a globular and compact mafs
made up of the convolutions of a fingle tube. Their vefi-
culse feminales arc alfo filiform, but not fo long in proportion
as thofe of the fcarabaei.

b. In the Carnivora. — The organs are' very fimple in the
dytifcus ; there are two large veficul.e of moderate length,
very little convoluted ; two globular tefticles covered by a
yellowi(h matter, which may be removed ; they are tlien
eafily unravelled into a fingle, filiform, flender and longvefrd.
Tlie vas deferens is merely the contifiuation of this : it en-
ters the veficula a little before that joins the o])pofite tube
to form the common fpermatic canal.

c. In thi C/aficoriiia—The lUv.tWre of the hyt'rophi'us
is more complicated than that of the dytifcu.s : it has two
oval tefticleSj each of which is formed by the convolutions of a
fingle veffel. The vas deferens, which is as fiiie as a hair, fwells
into a fmall oval veficle where it ends in the common canal.
The principal veficulae feminales are large, with ftrong fides,
fpiialiy convoluted, and terminating fuddenly in a fmall
veflcl folded in zig-zag, and forming the appearance of an-
other fmaller tcllide. There are, moreov-r, two acceflbr-y
veficulx, with thin fides, each divided into three branche.'.,
and into fome fmall blind appendices. The common fpjiK-
matic canal has a mufcular enlargement towards its middle,
and becomes again fuddenly fmall to enter the penis. Tliele
parts are figured by Swammerdam, but rather rudely. ■

The filpha atrata has two large oval tefticles, formed of
an infinite nuiv.ber of fmall fiiort veffels, ivfembling thofe
brufiics of which the hairs project in every dirtClion. The
vas deferens is fmdl and (hort. There are tv.-o pairs o*'
veficula-, both cylindrical and tolerably large ; one of them
is folded in a ferpentine manner round the intelliue, and
may be four or five times the length <f,i the body : the
other is much ftiorter. The common fpermatic canal i«
cyhndrical and (hort. The penis is alfo cyhndrical, covered
with horny pieces, but has no pincer. An oval bladder,
of which the ufe is unknown, but which refembles in its
pofition and figure the urinary bladder of the m.ammalia*
is found at its internal bafis.

J. In the Filkornia. — The common fpermatic canal i«
eight or ten times the length of the body in the blapS
mortifaga ; four organs refembling veficulse are connected
to it at its origin. Two of thefe firft make fome verj' re-
gular fpiral turns, growing at the fame time fmaller; and
then enlarge again and are irregularly folded. The tw»
others have a zig-zag courfe, and are mucli ihorter.

2. In the Orthopf(rj.—'li\i'^ g''}l'' have two,confiderablo
oval tefticles attached to the back : they are covered by a
yellow mucofity, in which the tracheie may be feen beauti-
fully diftributed. . They are compofcd of (mall (hort veilels,
which make up a kind of bru(h. The vas deferens is- folded
in the form of an epididymis : a little before joining lht»
oppofitc one, to form the common canal, it is enlarged, bu.* .
caufe it receives two groups of veficulse. One of thefe con-
tains more than fixty, and the other above two hundivd inech
fmaller than the former. The four bundles fill nearly half
the abdomen. Two fmall oval velicles arc found at the verys
point of union of the two vafa defcientia.

3. In the Ilampier.i. — The water fcorpion (nepa fcor- .
ploides) has two Iniall, (hort, and cyhndrical veficulx, two
large vafa defereiuia convoluted like the epididymis, and' ,
divided at their origin, each into four Imall tefticles, each
of which is again prolonged into a very long lihtorm vef- '
fel. Thefe eight veiTels aie convoluted into a mafs.

A a " 4./»

INSECTS.

4. In the Lepidoptera. — There are two diffL-rcnt forms in
this order : the bombyx pavonia will ferve as nii ex?.mple
of one, and die fame has been iniperfeflly exhibited by
Swammerdam and Malpighi in the filku'orm moth ( bombyx
niori). The common fpermatic canal is dinded into two
veficulae feminales, at firft a little enlaro;ed, and then pro-
longed in the form of tubes. They continue united to
each other in half their length. The vafa deferentia enter
in a very flender form into the fwellings of the veficulse.
They gradually enlarge, and terminate on each fide in a
mafs, wliich may be regarded as a tefticle. Malpighi has
reprefented the veficlcs broken a little above the infertion of
the vafa deferentia ; and Swammerdam a !it:Ie beyond this
point. The tefticles are fmallcr in the pavonia than in the
bombyx mori.

The fecond form may be exemplified in the fphinx eu-
phorbia, and it is juft the fame as Swammerdam reprefents
in the papilio urtica;. The common canal, much longer,
is divided into two long and flender veficulne, each of which
is joined by a vas deferens : but the two lait, inftead of
Laving feparate teilicles, are united into a fingle rounded
mafs

The preceding are the fpecies of infefts, in which Cuvier
has hitherto obferved the male organs : there are three
others in Swammerdam, which agree with tlicfe in the prin-
cipal points.

The bee, among the hymenoptera, has two large oval ve-
ficulx, two rounded teiUcles, with long filiform vafa de-
ferentia. There are two ihort and fmall acccfTcry veficuix :
the common canal is enlarged before it enters the penis.

In the order diptera the ilratyomys has two oval tefticle-^,
formed, like thofe of the filpha and gryllus, of fmal] vcfTels ;
two vafa deferentia, and two fimple filiform reficulic. The
common canal is of a middling fize. In the fly, which lays
in cheefe, on the contrary, there is a very long common
canal, very fhort vafa deferentia, and large oval veficulx di-
vided into two lobes.

II. Female Organs. — Thefe are much more uniform than
the male in the whole clafs. They confiil, in general, of a
common oviduft, opening at the vulva, and divided at its
origin into two branches, each of which is again divided
into a certain number of conical tubes of various length.
The ova are fo arranged in the interior of thefe tubes, that
the largeft are the reared to the ovidud, and that the others
gradually decreafe in fize to the point of the tube, where
they are imperceptible. When the ova have been difchargcd,
the tubes remain empty. They may be already difcerned
in the chryfalis, a little before the metamorpholls. Secretory
veffels of various forms end in the oviduct, and depofit in
it fiuids for covering the eggs or for forming a (hell.

The fcarabaeus naficornis has fix oviferous tubes on each
fide, each containing five or fix eggs : an oval veficle and
a fmall but rather long vclTel end in the oviduft.

The carabi have ten or twelve tubes, snd the dytifci
twe!ve or fifteen ; the oviducl has a fimple and fmall bladder,
which-is prolonged further in the carabus.

In the filplia atrata there are feven or eight tubes, and
each contains four eggs. The latter do not become large
until they arrive in the branches of the oviduct, which are
cf confiderabie fize.

The tubes are very numerous in the hydrophilus, and
form two large branches ; round the bafis of each of thefe
artf five long and large fecretory veffels containing a green
liquor. ;

The butterflies have on each fide four very long tubes,
filled with a larjje numlier of eggs, and forming, particularly
Ki the fruitful fpecies, rows like firings of beads, four cr

five times longer than the body. The common ovidu.!! is
fo fhort as to be fcarccly perceptible j it receives one or tw*
veficles, and two long vcflels.

Tlie grylli have on each fide about thirty tubes, each
of which does not contain more than three or four vifible
eggs : they are united by the trachcve, and by a mucous
fubllance, into two oval maiTes. The common oviduct re-
ceives a veficle and a long veffel.

The bees have the two laft. mentioned parts : their rows
of eggs are numerous on each fide. Cuvier thinks that
he can perceive very fmall ones in the neuter bees, wliich
would confirm the notion of their being imperfectly deve-
loped females.

In the filpha there are five, and in thenotoneda fix row*
on each fide.

'! he libelhila have two very long branches ; their tubes
are fiiort, fmall, and ahnoll iiinuir.erable.

The various boring inllruments which certain genera,
as the gryllus, ichijcumon, tenthredo, and cynip?, employ
for depofiting their ova in fuitable fituations, may be ar-
ranged v.'ith llic organs of the female fex. But, as thefe
parts are completely external, and have been well dtrlcribed
by naturalifts, we ihall not fay any thing more on the fuL-
jecl.

Spinnhg FnilrumeiU of the Caterpillars. — Almoft all tlie
caterpillars ipin themielves a covering, or at lead an attach-
ment of fijine kind, before their metamorphofis. The ca-
terpillar'of the bombyx mori is the mod celebrated in this
refpect, fiiice the thread compofing its covering being abun-
dant, flexible, brilliant, and eafily wound ofi", forms the ma-
terial from which our mod fplendid filks are formed. Other
caterpillars, as that of the bombyx pavonia, f.jrin as large
a qfiantity of filk, but it is hard, liable to break, and can-
not be wound off.

The fecretory organs producing the filk are the fame in
all caterpillar.";, excepting varieties in fize, which is pro-
portionate to the quantity of filk produced. Thefe, lilte
all the other fecreting organs of infedts, are two long tubes,
commencing in a very flender and convoluted form ; then
growing larger to form a kind of refervoir, and terminating
in an excretory canal fo fmall that it can hardly be feen.
The two canals terminate under the hiwer lip : and the
animal draws out and elongates the duiTtile matter by moving
its head from fide to fide.

Organs for producing Light — Several animals cf this cLifs
have the pov.'er of producing light ; and the fubftance in
which this property refid-s is fometimes difTufed through
the animal's body, fonletimes collected into a particular
organ. The luminous matter mud be regarded as an animal
fecrction produced like any other animal iubllance. A very
full and intercding account of this fubjedt is contained in
a paper by Mr. Macartney, in the Philofophical Tranf-
a£tions for 1810, from which the following paflfages are ex-
tiafted.

" The power of emitting light has been obferved in two
animals of the cru'.laceous order, and feemed to refide in
the whole body. One of thefe, obferved by fir .Jofeph
Banks, in tlie pafliige from Madeira to Rio Janeiro, re-
fembled the common fiirimp, but was lefs : it is namt d
by Mr. Macartney cancer fulgeiis. The other was found
in the Red fea by captain Horlburg, appeared to l>e a
monoculus, and to belo:;g to the genus limiihis of Miiiler.
Mr. Macartney calls it limulus noftilucus. A third crulla-
CC0U3 animal of the genus lynceus of Miiiler, poflefling
luminous properties, has heen feen off the coaft of Malabar.
Of other infects fome fpecies yield light in tlie five following
genera ; vis;, elatcr, lampyris, fulgora, paufus, fcolopen-

dru.

INSECTS.

^ra. The only animals wlilch appear to potTefs a diftinft
mganizatioii for the production of light are the foar ilrll
of tlic hift mentioned genera.

" The light of the lampyrides (glow-worm) is known
to proeeed from fomc of the lail rings of the abdomen, which,
when not illuminated, are of a pale yellow colour. Upon
the internal furface of thcfe rings there, is fpread a layer
of a peculiar foft yellow fiibftance, which has been com-
pared to pafte, but by examination with a lens I found it
dfganizcd like the common interftitial A:bft:mce of the in-
fe^'s body, except that it is of a clofcr texture, and a
paler yellow colour. This fubftance does not entirely cover
the inner furface of the rings, being more or Icfs dciicient
along their edges, where it prefents an irregular waving
outline. I have obfcrved in the glow-worm, that it is ab-
forbed, and its phice fupplied by common interftitial fnb-
ttance, after the feafon for giving light is pafl'ed. The
fegments of the abdomen, behind which this fabilance is
fituated, are thin and tranfparent, in order to expofe the
iuternal illumination. The number of luminous rings varies
in different fpecies of lampyris, and as it wo'jid leem at
different periods in the fame individual. Bolides the lu-
minous fubilance above defcribed, I have difcoyered in the
common glow-worm, on the inner fide of the laft abdominal
riiig, two bodies, which to the naked eye appear more
minute than the head of the fmal'dl pin. They are lodged
in two flight depreffions, formed in the fliell of tUe ring,
which is at thefe* points particularly tranfparent. On ex-
amining tliefe bodies under the microfcope, I found that
they were facs containing a foft yellow fubftance, of a
more clofe and homogeneous texture than that which lines
the inner furface of the rings. The membrane forming the
facs appeared to be of two layers, each of which is compofed
of a tranfparent filvery fibre, in the fame manner as the in-
ternal membrane of the refpiratory tubes of inferlls, except
that in this cafe the fibre pafies in a fpiral inllead of a
circular direction. This membrane, althougli fo delicately
conilru£led, is fo elaftic as to prcferve its form, after the
fac is ruptured, and the contents difchargcd.

The light tliat proceeds from thefe facs is lefs under the
controul of the infeft, than that of the luminous fubft.ance
fpread upon the rings: it is rarely ever extinguiPned in the
feafon that the glow-worm gives light, even during the day ;
and when all the other rings are dark, thefe facs often fiiine
brightly.

The organs for the produiflion of light in the genns
«latcr are fituated in tlie corfelet ; thefe likewife confill
of a peculiar yellow fubltance, placed behind tranfparent
parts of the (hell, which fuffer the natural colour of this
fubftance to be feen through them in the day, and when
illuminated give paifage to the hght. On difTcCting the or-
gans of light in the elater nodilucus, I found that there is
a Joft yellow fubftance of an oval firi'jre lodged in the con-
; cavity of the yellow fpots of the corfelet, which parts are
particularly thin and tranfparent in tlus fpecies. This fub-
' ilance is fo' remarkably clofe in its texture, that, at firft view,
it appears like an inorganic mafs, but with a lens it is rea-
dily perceived to be compofed of a great number of very
minute jiarts or lobules clofely preffed together. Around
thefe oval malles the interftitial fubftance of the corfelet is
arranged in a radiated manner, and the portion of the Ihell,
that irniiudiately covers the irradiated fubftance, is, in a cer-
tain degree, tranfparent, hut lefs fo than that which lies
over the oval maOes : it is therefore probable that the inter-
ftitial fubftance in this fitiialion may be endowed with the
property of Ihining. In the ekter iguitusthe mafles of In-
i nucous fubftance ire extreitu-ly irregular in their figure ;

they are fituated nearly at tlie pollorior angles of the corfe-
let, and are more loofe in their texture than the oval niaftls
of the noftilucus, refembhng rather in compofition the in-
terftitial fubftance which furrounds thefe malfes in that
fpecies. The ftieil of the corfelet is foinewhat thinner, and
more tranfparent along both fides of the margin, than at
other places, but it is not, as in the nodilucus, elevated,
and peculiarly clear and thin immediately over the feat of
the luminous organ ; confequently the light emitted by the
elater ignitus cannot be very brilliant.''

In the fulgora candelaria and lanternaria, Mr. Macart-
ney has found the hollow organ, from which the light pro-
ceed;:, to commt;r.icate freely with the external air, by means
of a chink or narrow aperture, placed on each fide of the
root of the probofcis. This organ is lined by a membrane,
between which and the horny part or ftiell there appears to
be interpofed a pale rtddifh foft fubftance, arranged in lines
or ftripes in the candelaria. It could not be determinoJ,
whether this furnifhes the light, or is the pigment, upon
which the colour of the probofcis depends.

The globes of the antenna: conftitute the organs of ligK
in the paufus fpherocerus.

" It is worthy of remark," fays Mr. Macartney, " that
in all the difTeftions I have made of luminous infefts, I did
not find that the organs of light were better or differcnlly
fupplied with either nerves or air-tubes, than the other parts
of the body. The power of emitting light likewife exifts
in m:\ny creatures, which want nerves, a circumftance flrongly
marking the difference between animal light and animal elec-
tricity." Swammerdan's Book of Nature, or Hiftory of In-
fects : Lyonet Traitc Anatomique de la Chenille, qui rouge
le bois de faule : Cuvier Legons d'Anatomie comparee.

In.sects infejlmg ike human body. The parafilic animals,
which are moll commonly found inhabiting, and deriving
their nutriment from, the internal cavities of the human
body, are the three fpecies of worms, which are denomi-
mated, by naturalifts, nfcaris, lumbrkus, and tsnia ; that is,
the maw-worm, or thiead-worm, round-worm, and taoe-
worm ; ts which may be added the tr'ichur'ss, wliich is
occafionally feen. (See thefe words. ) The external parts
of the body, again, afford a nidus and fuftenancc to one
or two of the infect tribes, cfpecially the pedicuU of the
head and of the piihcs ; the former of which are fonietimes
bred in great numbers, and infcft other parts of the furface,
producing a loathfonie and very obftinate difcafe, the mor-
bus p:Jicufaris, or luufy difeaie. (See Phtuhuasis and
Pitt'RiGO.) It is not our objeft, however, to treat of thefe
under the prefent article ; but merely to notice briefly the
occafional exiftence of various fpecies of the -zvinged in-
fccis, in the different cavities of the human body, efpecially
in I heir firft: ft;ate, that of larva, caterpillar, or grub ; and
to point out the manner in which they are probably intro-
duced.

The medical writers of the fixteenth and early part of the
feventeenth century have recorded inftances of,v.irious reptiles
and otheif animals, which were difiodged front their abode
in different parts of the body, fiich as frogs, lizards, fer«
pents, &c. ; which may be found on confulting the collec*
tions of Bonlli, Marcellus Donatus, Schenck, and others.
But their credulity was at leaft equal to their learning and
induftry, and fublequent obfervation has not confirmed their
ftatenients, which probably originated from g^rofs ignorance
of the economy of thefe ci-eatuics, or from wilful decep-
tion on the part of thofe from whom they were faid to have
been dilcharged. On the other hand, the microfcopic
philofopher.s not only peopled every organ of the body \A>ith
woniii and nniiiialculcj ; but bei.cved that all contagion
A a 2 confilkd

INSECTS.

confided of the fame beini^p, \vhk:h, MCording to their na,-
turc, comnuiiiicatcd fciiLits, and fypliilis, finall-pox, dyfen-
tery, the plague, and every other iiifedious JifoixUM-. (See
ihe.leai-neddiirertation of Dan. Le Clcre, entitled •' Hiilo-
ria Lator. Lumbricorum," p. 274, c//.';.) But nv.ire ac-
curate invelligation lias hkewife caufcd "thefe notio;is to be
exploded ; and the catalogue of parafitic creatures, which
iiifell the human frame, in addition to the worms, S:c. above-
mentioned, is reduced to a few v.irl, iks of the infed tribes.
It is well known, that the iiit^rn.l c. vitics and paffagcs
of fome animals, efpecially the no hi'.s and adjoining fuuifes,
the ilomach, and rulum or Ihaiglit gut, m horfes, Ihecp,
and cows, are the fit nations in which alone certain infefts
are . Apparently intended by nature to breed, and to be
nurtured in tli'cir firft ftage of exiftence. This is the cafe
efpecially with the fevcral fpecies of irjlrus, the grub or
larva-of which is called a lolt. (See an ample hillory of
this-jnfecl, under the article Botts.) The o-va, or eggs
of thefe infcfts are introduced mto thofe pallages by the
parent infeft, or,aro cnsivoycd tlnther by licking with the
tongiK,- inhaling od irons mattas, 5cc. Now, although
thei-e does not appear to be any fpecies of inleit dellmed
particularly to be nurtured in the human body ; yet it ap-
pears beyond all qtiellion, that the larvx of fome of the
■winged infeds are occalionally hatched and nurtured in the
Doftrils and fuiufes, as well as in the ilomach and intellines
of man.

The want of accurate inveftigation, fnice the fubje<a of en-
tomology has been well undcrllood, leaves us in a ftate or
uncertainty as to the number of infedls which are thus nur-
tured within the lumian body. It fccms probable, how-
ever, as we miglit, perhaps, hiv^- ;\i^tN ii'iiid, that the mofl
frequent inllances which occt: I', ;r ■ ;ii>:!. nl our moll com-
mon domeftic infeft, the varnii. h i.t //: />. The hirvx
of fev.eral of the fpecies of the fly {wi/jl-.i, L-.v.r,.) are aquatic,
or at leafl inhabit moill and wet places, and therefore feem
to be ad,ipted to exift in the fluids of the human Ilomach :
and the author of this article is in poiTellion of fome
larva; of tlic eonunon h'lnfc-fi^, the niuj'La doinejika. minor of
Denver (Hiiloire dcs In'lcdes, toin. v, tab. 2. iig. 4.),
which V. -re reji-Ch-d alive from the ll<niiaeh of a man by vo-
miting (fee Edin Med. and Surg. Journal, for Jan. 181 1,
p. 41.) ; and df others of the fame fiy, which werfe palTcd
by ilool by another pcrfon. The la' va of another fpecies
of /y is al'fo figured in the Jon:: ', ;:•. ' rred to, by Dr.
Cheyne, now if Dublin: ar'i'. ■ ,! ; !os of the larvas

■oijicst difcliarged from the l!u::r:': 1,;^ :\. ,. s are on record.
Dr. ^v^ahlbom, of Upfal, has related the cafe of a girl,
who, after , fuffering coufiderable pain in the ftomach and
left fid;, difcharged by ftool a number of larvse on feveral
fucceiTive days, after which {he was relieved from the com-
plaint.' " One of thefe larvic, whi'e it was kept in a phial,
was converted into a /!y, which proved to be the mi/fca
ttigraQi Linnajus. ■ (faun. .SueC. rio^.)'' Dr. Wahlhom
alfo ftates, " that a few years ago thert was a girl in Upfal,
from whom a large quantity of worms were brouglit away,
and thefe were ^y ■■worms. N. Faun. Succ. 1064 ;'' for an
account of which he refers to Dr. Du Cois' Tteatife de
Taenia. (See Med. Chirurg. and Anatom. Cafes and Ex-
periments, communicated to the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Stockholm, tranfiatcd from the Swedifii, 1757, cafe 24.)
Ruyfch has defcribed and delineated both the larvx, and the
flies which originated from them, after they were difcharged
(it is affirmed) by urine, by a nobleman, in coufiderable
quantities ; and Tulpius has mentioned a fimilar cafe, and
has alfo figured tlie larva:, which clofcly refemble thofe in the
writer's poffeflion.

It muft be acknowledged, however, that the bladder 5=5
the lead probable nidui for the larvj- of tnfeas, and we -
cannot readily conceive how they fhould find their way
into that cavity : while, on the other hand, millakes may
be made upoii fuch a fubjeft with the greatell facility, as'
Vallifneri long ago remarked. Thefe larvae might have
crept or fallen into the utenhls, or the ova might have
been depofited there, and the larvre afterwards obfervcd in '
the urine. An inllance of this kind of miftake was related
to the writer by an eminent furgeou. A lady was in great
alarm, from tl'.c belief that (he frequently paifed from the
bowels feveral little red worms, extremely lively in their
motions, which were found in the excretion?. But it was
llrongly fuggeftcd, that thefe worms mult be inhabitants of
the water-clofet ; and upon accurate examination, the fug-
gellion was confirmed ; they proved to be the larvx of the
covimoTi gnat, which are well known to be aquatic in their
mode of life. In all cafes, therefore, it is neceffary to be
c.uitious in examining all the circunilhuices, before it be
concluded, tliHt inll-i'ts, foand in tlu- lx renicntitious dif-
chai-gcs, aduallv paHld froui the liumaii body.

There i, .::)- i f .105 of infed, whu-h, in its ftate of
larva, or ^ : ,, , .oi-'-ars to be not unfreqtiently an in-
habitant!. '..'. ■. ■- tf the human body, though not fo

commonly as I'lio uiilLrent fpecies of fly ; we mean the com-
mon black beetle, the tenebrio moUtor of Linnxus. The grub
of this infcd is a fort of caterpillar, about an inch and a
quarter in length, and equal to a large cro\?-quiIl in circum-
ference, with fix feet near the head, but dellitute of feet at
the other extremity : its body is divided into thirteen fec-
tions. The introduftion of this larva into the human body,
or of the r,i;a from whit 11 it is hatched, will be readily un-
derftood, v>'hen ue n:Lntii)n tl):'.t it lives principally in flour
or meal ; whence from the lime of our oldeil writer on in-
fcfts, Moufix't, it has been known by the appellation of
the meal-iuorm. This writer has given a rude figure of the
grub. (See his Infeftorum Theatrum, Lond. 1634, lib. ii.
cap. 20. p. 254.) Two cafes, in v.hich this meal-worm
was difcharged from the iuunan body, have come to the
knowledge of the writer of this article. (See Edin. Med.
and Surg. .Journal, above quoted.) Another is mentioned
and figured by Dr. Kellie, of Leitli, in the fame .Journal.
And Tulpius has given a figure of the farne larva, two of
which, he fays, were pafi'ed from the bladder of a woman
of fifty years of age, and a fimilar one from the nofe of
another woman, who had previoufly fuffered fevere head-
ache. (See his Obfcrv. Med. lib. ii. cap. 51. tab. 7. fig. 3 ;
and lib. iv. cap. 2:.) The difcl-arge of two from the
bladder was probably inferred, by millake, from the grubs
being found in the utenlil which received the urine : but the
efcape of the ene from the nofe is probably corrcdly ftatcd;
for in this way the larva* paflcd in one of the cafes, to which
we have jull alluded, and the nofe, or the adjoining cavi-
ties, are common receptacles for tlie ova or larvx of other
fpecies of inlefts, as we (hall pni'uuly fliew. Forellus
has recorded fome cafes, in v.hich the grubs were mod pro-
bably of the fame nature. He mentions the circumRance,
whicii he witneiTed, of a girl who rejedted from the ftomach
two beetles, one at the interval of two days after the other,
and likewifc a living worm or grub, which was, in all pro-
bability, tlie grub of the beetle. He alfo mentions tfee
ejeftion of a fpecies of caterpillar, " vermem erucx fimi-
lem," by vomiting, aftor which a fevere pain of the ilo-
macli of coufiderable durition was removed. Forefti Opera,
lib. xxi. obf. 25.

Several of the infefts above-mentioned were difcharged

from the nofe, in which cavity, in brute animals, the ex-

5 iftciice

INSECTS.

licence of hrrx is very common, and tlic ova appear to be

.i-inlly depofitfd tliere by the parent infeft. Mr. Bracy

' -k qiu'ftions the exillcnce of human iotts (xjlrus hominh) ;

that infoiSs of tliis fpecics fometimcs find « nidus in the

1 pafT.ig.^s of thl- human fiibjcft, is proved by a cafe,

(1 by "Dr. Hcyfham, of Carlifle, in which three botts

.V r:? difcharged from the antrum of Highmore, or Jinus of

:' • cheek of a woman, after that cavity had been perforated

! .• a trocar. An intolerable hemicrania was occafioned by

; ir prefcnce, and ultimately proved fatal. (See Medical

1, I --niunications, vol i. art. xxx. and plate i. figs. 2 and 3.)

.; I .^xample of a ceniipt-d lodging in the frontal^fHuj is re-

' d in the Edin. Medical EHays, vol. v. p. 991. In

; cal climates, as we learn from Dr. Lempnere, the

_:ots or larvx of the large blue fly, which are condantly

( u/./.ing about the fick, are generated in t1ie nofe, mouth,

and gums, in the lad Itages of fever, when the patients deep

or doy.e with their mouths open, the nurfes finding great

difficulty in preventing the depofition of the ova in thofe

parts. This author mentions one inllance, in the lady of an

olTicer, who had efcaped from the attack of fever, but in

whom " tliefe maggots were produced, which burrowed and

f.jimd their way by the nofc through the os crilnfonnc, into

the cavity of the cranium, and afterwards into the brain

itfclf, to which (he owed her death." Lempriere, Obf.

on the Dif. of the Army in Jamaica, vol. ii. p. 182.

It is probable that thofe cafes on record, in which worms
were faid to be coughed up from llie lungs, were in" reality
inltances of the larvcc of I'nfecls, bred in the pofterior ca-
vities of the nofe, and removed by the agitation of cough-
ing into the throat, and thence expelled. See a cafe of this
fort, related by the late Dr. Percival, in his Med. Effays,
vol. iii. p. 272, in which two mafTes of grumous blood were
brought up by coughing, as large as a nutmeg, one of
which, when opened, " was found to contain a comiderablc
number of worms, like maggots, in a very lively ilate."

Befides the larvae oi fhs, of the black beetle, and of the
^Jlrus, above-mentioned, fcarcely any other infects are de-
Icribed upon good authority, as being nurtured in the human
body, if we except the millepedes, which are mentioned by
fome authors. It is inipofiible to fay much on the fubjeci
of dedroying thefe larv.e by medicine ; fince their exiftence
cannot be afcertained before they are aftually difchargetl
and feen. The fymptoms produced by the irritation which
they excite, confiil only of fevere pains in the parts where
they happen to be, which of courfe cannot be diilinguifhed
from pain occafioned by othir caiifes. If the cxillence of
the worms was known, or could be furmifed, perhaps the
internal exhibition of the oil of turpentine might be reforted
to with fuccefs ; for it appe:u's that this liquor is poifonous
to all the infeft tribe, as well as to worms. Experience
has now decidedly proved its eflicacy in the deflruction of
the tape-worm. (See Edin. Med. and Surg. .Tournal, for
April and July, i8io.) It has been ufed with fuccefs in
the way of glyller in the cafe of afcarides ; and Dr. Lem-
priere found it ferviceab'e when injeftcd into the palfages
infefted by maggot".

Is.sECTS, ylnalomical Ufe of. The infeft-world affords us
numerous ufes, and thofe many of them fnch as no one
would at firft thought imagine, and which no other ope-
rations or operators could fo well effeft. In the minutias
of anatomy, where knives cannot be introduced, the mag-
got or the ant may be employed with great fuccefs. Ske-
letons of foctufes have been prepared by burying them in an
ant-hill, and that in fo accurate and perfect a manner, that
all who have feen them, have admired by wliat means they
could be fo nicely fijiifhed ; and the fccret of the great

Ruyfch, by which he cleared away tiic parenchymatous
fubftance from his vafcular preparations, was of this kind.
After irijeding the vefTels of any part with wax, all that
remained to the completing of thefe preparations, was the tak-
ing off the parenchymatous or flelTiy matter from between'
and among them. Other anatomills of his tiine did this by
the knife, or by maceration in water and other liquors ; but
it appeared a fort of magic to them, that his were always
not only much iooncr executed, but to a greater nicety and
perfec'^ion than their's ever poffibly could be. His method
was only to put a number of the common flefh-eating mag-
gots ta the fubdance ; and thefe regularly cat away all the"
flefh. tlieir heads getting into crevices which no inllrument
could reach, and the whole fubilance of the injection re-
mained unhurt, as their foft bodies could glide betwen its
nicell parts without injuring them ; and the wax being no
food for them, was in no danger of being eroded, even in
its fmalleil pieces. The fcveral fizesof the worms or mag-
gots bred from the eggs of different Hies were of great ul^
in the perfefting of the preparations ; for while the larger fort
eat the more flefhy parts, where the vefTels are large ar.d
but few in number, the middle-fized maggots got into the
interftices of the more vafcular parts, and the moil minute
of all, which are ufually alfo the moH: numerous, kept about
the furface, and eat away between and among the capillary
vefTels.

The maggots produced from flies are not the only animals
fit for this kind of bufinefs. There are feveral fpecies of
beetles of the fmailer kinds, whofe eggs hatch iuto a fix-
legged worm, which eats as much and as nicely as the fly-
maggots. All thefe may be employed very fuccefsfully in
the preparations of the parts uf animals.

Thefe nice anatomifls are not confined to animal fub-
flanccs ; they often exert their power alfo on vegetables.
Many of them feed on the leaves and fruits of plants ;
and fome fpecies of thefe work io nicely, that they eat away
all the outer membrane and internal parenchymatous fub-
ftance of the leaves, fo as only to leave the net-like plexus
of vefTels (landing. Yet thefe being unhurt fliew the true
figure of the leaf, and are a fort of vegetable (keletons, but
very poorly imitated by art in the common way, by long
macerations in water ; this method ufually deftroying and
wafl.ing away many of the fmaller vefTels, which the tender
mouths of thefe creatures fparc. If they exert their (Itill
often upon leaves in this manner, ihey do it alfo fometimes
with equal, if not greater, fuccefs upon fruits. As in
the leaves, thofe which have the tenderell pnrenciiyma and
the (irmeft ribi fuccecd be(l ; it ;ilfo it is in fruits. The
leaves of the rufcus or butcher's broom are often found thus'
beautifully anatomifcd ; and of all fruits, none fucceeds fo
well as that of tjie ftramonium, or thorn-apple. Wherever
this plant grows in any plenty, the fruit towai-ds autumn,
while it is yet full of juice, is attacked by a fmall worm,
which eats away all the parenchyma, and leaves every veflTel
(landing in its place ; and this not only in the outer coat of
the fruit, but in the very inner cells of the feeds. Thefe
veffels remain exactly in the (hape of the fruit, and, grow-
ing white with the air, exhibit the mod elegant and beauti-
ful (Iceletons imaginable, while yet (landing on the plant.
The animal which efTefts this, is a hexapode worm pro-
duced from the egg of a fmall beetle : and differs very
little from fome of thofe which fo elegantly eat away the
flefliy parts from the injected anatomical preparations.
Thefe are gregarious animals Lkc fome fpecies of the fmaller
caterpillars, and numbers of them arc always at work to-
getlier on the fame leaf or fruit, fo that the (kelcton is foon
made. They begin by piercing a number of litUc holes

INSECTS.

into the fiibftnnoe of the leaf, and thence burrow under tumour. Thcfe infe3:s are capable of being dellroyed in thf

the inlegument till they meet one another ; and this being fame manner as the cocci tribe.

done all over the leaf, they leave it, and go to work upon Tiie fifth, or cicada, belongs to the fame order as above,

another. and the larvi of many of this tribe void large quantities of

Insects, Vegetable D'lfeafes of. All fuch vegetable frothy matter upon the leaves and branches of the plant*

afFedions or difeafes as are produced by different forts of and trees, in the midil of which they are aluays concealed,,

animals of the infeft kind, are very numerous accord- probably for protection, and to be (haded from the fame-

Jng to their nature and thofe of the plants : but the chief influence. Thcfe infecls (hould be deftroyed, as the froth

lulcds that affedt plants of the fruit-tree kinds, are thofe
of the aphis, acarus, ant, chermes, cicada, coccus, earwig,
papilio, phalxna, and thrips tribes.

And of the firft fort there are a vafl number of fpecios, each
tree being faid to be infelled by a different diftinA fpecies.
Hence the author of the " Syllema Vegetabilium" has de-

is unpleafant, and the leaves of the trees are often devoured,
by rubbing off the l.irvx with the hand, and afterwai-ds wa-
tering the trees well with foft water, fuch as that of ponds-
or ether expofcd fituations.

The fixth, or coccus, alfo belongs to the far:;e order, and
the males have wings, but the females none. It may be

nommated them from the trees on which they are found ; as noticed, that the forts mod commonly met with when full
the cherry aphis, the currant aphis, the plum aphis, &c. grown, h.ave fomewhat tlie form of a' boat with the keel
"n'he males are few in comparifon with the females, and have uppermolt:, being apparently without feet, eyes, &c. while-
wings, while the latter are numerous and without ti;jm. See in this ilate refembling fome forts of galls or excrefcenccs of
PucEROx, and Vine-frettkk. the bark of trees or other plants

The fecond is a highly dellruftive infeft in houfes where It has been obfervcd by Mr. Forfyth, that a " thin film, of

forcing is praftifed. It is not furni(hed with wings, but a white cotton-like fubftance, is interpofed between the flat

the female is o\-iparous. The fpecies, as in the former cafe, part of the body and the tree. This is common, in a arcatev

are very numei-ous. It often commits great mifchief on or lelTer quantity, to all the fpecies, and appears at ilrfl all

vines, peaches, neftarines, cherries, forced kidney-beans, me- round the edge as a kind of cement, to join it to the tree.

Ions, &c. See Red Spider. The males are very few in proportion to the females, ar:d

And the third, or ant, is highly injurious to fruits, efpe- not nearly one-fom-th of th.eir lize ; they are beautiful'little

pecially thofe of the peach kind, as they become in a ftate flies, wliich, after a fliort but aftive life, terminate their

of maturity. Tliey run all over the trees, and the beft fruit exillence without having tailed food, being provided with

is occafionally filled with them. It has been fuppofed by no fort of organs for that purpofe."

fome that they are of ufe by devouring the alphides on the It is likewife remarked, " that the peach, nectarine, and

trees; but Mr. Forfyth is of a different opinion, and we pear-tree, are very much infeiled with thefe infefts : they

have feen fruit much fpoiled by them in various inltances. frequently cut through the bark, and the trees then appear

cording to the
3und alouff the

as if they had been fcratched by cats." He has " feenforae
with this appearance all over them."'

It is advifed, that, " when thefe infefts firft appear on the
bark, they fliould be fcraped off with a wooden knife, and
the flem and branches of the tree well waflied with foap-fuda

d urine, applied with a ftifl' painter's brafh. This (hoidd

The beft method of deftroying them,
above author, is, by making holes in the j^
fide of the wall where the fruit-trees are, by an iron crow,
fo tkat the infide furface may be quite fmooth. Thcfe in-
fefts, from being difturbed, foon come to the holes, and fall
into them ; when, bci:ig prevented from getting up by the

fmoothnefs of the fides, they may be readily deilroyed by be done in February before the buds begin to come ou'.

pouring water upon tliem. But more effectual methods are. But if the outer bark is perforated, it muft be cut or fcraped

either by mixing quick-lime with foot, and placing it on off with a long knife; and if you find a!iy brown fpots in 'the

their tracks, or putting it in their nells, ar.d then pouring inner bark, they mull be carefully cut out. This difeafe is

water, or urine and foap-fuds, upon it, fo as to flack it, con- it is fuppofed, one great caufe of the canker, and of the

fining the heat by a turf or fome earth. The heat thus death of the tree.''

produced foon deftroys them. The powder of ftavefacre. And it is added, that "when this difeafe has made its

laid round the ftems of the trees, is faid to prevent their way through both barks, as is often the cafe, the branches

running upon them and tliereby becoming injurious. on each fide of the tree may be cut clofe to the Item, if it

The fourth, or chermes, belongs to the order hemiptera ; has an upright one ; but if the tree be trained fan-faftiion

and there are feveral fpecies. Their fpecific names are the beft way is to head it near to the place where it was

taken from the different plants on which they are gene- grafted.'' He ftatcs, that he has " headed old pear-trees

lally met with: as the chermes graminis, or grafs bug; which were fo dead, except a fmall ftrip of live bark on one

chermes ficus, or tig-tree bug, &c. The lail is one of the fide, that you might rub the bark off them as eaiily as off a

largeft of the genus, being brown above and greenifii be- bundle of faggot-flicks that had been cut upwards of a year •

neath, and has four long wings, placed in the form of an yet thefe trees have ihot out frefh branches to the length of

acute roof. The larva is of an oblong fjrm, and has fix Seventeen feet in two years, and produced fine fruit the

feet, but its motion is (low. When attempted to be caught, fecond year." It is advifed to apply the compofition im-

the chermes makes its efcape rather by leaping than flying, mediately after heading or cutting, or paring off the difcafed

by means of its hinder legs, which play like Iprings. Se- bark. See Composijios.

veral of the fpecies are provided at the extremity of their It is further remarked, that « a very deftruftive fijecies
bodies with fmall (harp-pointed implements, but whicli lie of the coccus tribe has done incredible damage to the apple-
concealed ; and thefe they draw out in order to depofit their trees in the nurfcries and gardens in the neri'libourhood of
«gg,s> by making punftures in the plants that fuit them. London. Some nurferymen have loft feveral tlioufand apple-
It is in this way that the lir-tree chermes produces that trees in one year. Thefe infecls attach themfelves to their
enormous fcaly protuberance which is fometimes found at bark by their fuckers, and by feeding on the juices of the
the fummit of the branches, and which is formed by the tree, rob it of its nourifliment. Such trees as are infefted
<extravafation of the juices occafioned by the punfturcs. with them have a fickly appearance. Thcfe infecls .Generally
Tie young larvs fhclter themfelves in cells contained in the make their nefts where branches have been cut off, or in

hollow

I N S

Iiollow place*, where the canker has eaten holes in the trees.
Their firft appearance is like a white down ; oh touching or
rubbing them they tinge the fir.gcrsof a crimfon colour, hke
cochinenl. If fuffercd to remain long on the trees, tiiey
take wing, like aphides.''

It is ftateu, by the fame author, that the method that has
l)een followed for thefc ten years to Jeilroy them, is to " nib
the places where their netls are with nn old bruih, fuch as
painters ufe, till they are all cleaned olf ; and if the part be
canker-eaten, to cut it clean out with a knife or chiflel; he
then takes of foap-fuds and urine equal parts, and with this
he waflies the wound and the bark all round it ; and with a
brudi applies the conipofition, mixed with wood-a{hes and the
powder (if burnt bones, covering the wound all over with it.
Afterwards he (liakes fome of the powder of wood-a(hes and
burnt bones, mixed with an eighth part of unflacked lime
finely powdered and fifted over the hollows, or where knobs
have been cut off."

And it is advifed, that " at the fame time that the trees are
cL-ared of the cocci, the caterpillars .^liould be picked off."

The writer remarks, that " the firft time that heobferved
the new coccus which has done fo much mifchief to the
apple-trees about London, was in a garden of his own at
Chclfea, about the year 1782 or 3 ; and as far as he can
lean:, they were imported among fome apple-trees, by the
late Mr. Swinton of Sloane-ftreet. Mr. Swinton afterwards
removed his nurfery to the King's Road near Chelfea col-
lege, v.hich now goes by the name of the Foreign Nurfery."

By foir.e, train oil has been tried, laid on with a painter's
brafii, but without effeft.

The feventh fort, or earwig, is often very dellruSive to
fruit, particidarly that of the peach kind. The method
recommended by Mr. Forfyth for dcllroying them, and
which he has long pi'.rfued with fucccfs, is to " take old
bean-ftalks, and cut them about nine inches long, tying
them up in fmall bundles with fome pack-thread, or with
fniall yellow wi.lows, and hanging them on nails again (I the
wall, at different pans of the trees. The firft thing in the
morning, being provided with a board r.buit eighteen inches
fquare, and a fmall wooden trowel, take do.vn the bundles
of bean-ftalks one by one, ftrike them againft the board,
and with your trowel kill the earwigs as they fall out of the
llalks. If you follow this np every morning, (or every
other morning,) you will be able to keep them under," with-
out much dilficulty.

It is fuggefted, that this method anfwers for any fort of
trees iiifelled with earwigs. In fome years; the writer has
" feen a great part of the fruits, efpecially the fmooth-
Hcinned forts, dellroyed by thefe infefts, and a fmall green
caterpillar ; and in a fcarce year of f; nit, the leaves of
peaches arc frequently deftroyed by them." It is advifjd,
that " the (hreds taken from trees that have been unnailedin
autumn, (hould be foaked in boiUng hot foap-fuds for three
or four days previous to their being ufed again ; as tliis will
kill the eggs of earwigs and other infefts that may be Je-
polited on them."

The eighth, the papilio or butterfly fort, belongs to tht
order lepidoptera.

There are a great many fpecies of this genus, moftly
dillinguifhed by the colour of their wings. The more com-
mon forts, with their caterpillars, are well known ; and Mr.
Forfyth advife?, that the caterpillars and chryfalides (hould
be carefully picked off, and the trees wvU watered with
clear lime-water and tobacco- water mixed well together.
The ninth, the phalarna or moth kind, are extremely nu-
merou'!, their caterpillars differiii.; nuieh in fizc, ihapc, and
colour. After carting their flough fevrral time';, r.ll of thf-m

I N S

fpin their cod, in which they are transformed to chryralide».
Ill this Hate they are often found rolled up in the leaves of
fruit trees, efpecially thofe of the pear, plum, and cherry
kinds. Sec Pxi.\i..i x.\.

And of the fphinx, or hawk moth kind, there are a vail
number of fpecies. Their caterpillars apply the hinder
parts of their bodies to the branches of the trees, holding
the reft erect ; hence the name. But in general they fpin
their cod unJer ground. They appear early in the morning,
or after fun fet, dying heavily, and making a fort of noifc.
Several of the caterpillars are green, and fome brown, yel-
low, fpotted, or befted.

The phalsna nuftria, or lackey moth, depofits its eggs in
rings or circles round the branches of fruit trees, having the
appearance of a necklace. See Phal.t,xa.

The tenth fort, or thrips, belongs to the order hemiptern,
and there are feveral fpecies. It is extremely fmall, fo as
fcarcely to he difcovered. This infed; produces great mif-
chief on fruit trees, devouring the fruit as well as the leaves.
It is capable of being deftroyed in a fimilar manner to that
of the cocci.

But the nature of the various cffefts of thefe difFerenf
infects, and the means of removing them, will be more fully
confidered and explained, in defcribing the feveral vegetable
difsafcs that are produced by the attacks of different forts
of animals of this kind. See Vegf.t.^BLE Difcafe;.

IxsiXTs, Pdrified, in Natiinil Hi/lory. The works of the
earlier writers- on extraneous foliils, contain accounts of
various infects faid to be found in the earth. Mr. William
Martin, a late and correct writer on this fubjecl, ieems, how-
ever, to doubt, whether the remains of any of the winged
tribe of infects have been found enveloped in the ftrata j
although fuch infefts in a perfeft and natur.il ftate of pre-
fervation are very common in pieces of amber. The lime-
ftone of Oening is faid by M.Werner to produce fpecimcns
of the larvx of the libeilula or dragon-fly, and of the nepa
or water-fcorpion. Infefts without wings, of the cancer,
monoculus, and onifcus genera, arc not uncommon in fome
ftrata. In his " Petriiicata Derbienfia," Mr. Martin de-
feribes and figures (tab. 45.) an ir.ieft found in the ftiale
hmeftone of Afhford ajid Bakewel! Moor, which hecahsthe
Derbyshire onifcite, and expreffes an opinion, which feems
pretty well founded, that it differs effentially from the onif-
cite of t.he Dudley and Coalbrook-dale hme quarries. He
alfo figures nnd defcribes a Innated monoculite, faid to be
found in iron-Hone, near Mansfield, in Nottinghamfhire, but
this probably is a miftake, particularly if others of the fame
kind were found near Cheftcrfield in Derbylhire. The late
ingenious Dr. Woodward had pcrfuaded himlelf, tliat all the
many flies and infefts preferved in amber, were of the vernal
tribes, and concurred with other foifil fubjefts in proving,
that the Mofaic deluge happened in the fpring feafon of the
year : hiter and more correct obfervations feem, however, to
prove, that r.il the organic remains of the ftrata, and even
ii'.oft of thofe of the alluvia^ cannot have relation to that
event, fince they differ effentially from the recent infefts,
animals, &c. to which they have a refemblance, and all fuch
feem rather to have been created and lived, during the fiic-
ceflive creation and depofi'ion of the mineral fublhinces,
compo.fing the ftrata in which tliey are imbedded, and king
prior to tiie creation of the prefent race of animals and vege-
tables, of whole origin Mofe;! has given us fo fuccinct and
fiVtisi^aftory an account, as according with the prefent ap-
pearances of nature.

INSERTED CoLUMM. See Colvm:j.

INSE itTlON, a term frequently ufed, \n Jmtamy, to
Cgiufv the iinpiieation of one part Antlun another.

8 ITi'"

I N S

The infeition of the bones, mufcles, and nei-ves in the
members of an animal, is exceeding artful : the vena cava
has its infertion in the right ventricle of the heart.

Inseution is alfo ufed, in Agriculture, for the inclofing a
graft wfthin the cleft of a tree. See Grafting.

INSESSUS, or Insessio, in Medicine, a kind of half-
bath or fcmicupium, ufually prepared with a decoAion of
feveral herbs proper for the lower parts, .wherein the patient
fits down to the navel.

It has feveral ufes ; as the eafing of pain, foftening the
parts, difpelling a flatulent matter, and frequently promot-
ing the menfes.

INSHILLA, in Geography, a town of Africa, near the
E. coall of Tunis; io8 miles S, of Tunis.

INSIDE Guard, in Fencing, a guard with the broad-
fword, to fecure the face and front of the body from a cut
made at the infide of the pofition, above the wrift. See
Gl'ard.

INSINUATION denotes a cunning, and covert way of
creeping into any perfon's favour.

Insinuation nf a ivill, among Civilians, is the iirft pro-
dudlion of it, or the leaving it with the regiiter, in order to
its probate. See Will.

INSIPID, Tasteless, that which has nothing in it
pungent enough to affeil the palate, tongue, &c. and to oc-
cafion that fenfation we call la/liii^.

INSITION, IssiTiO, mUulcny, denotes the fame with
engrafting ; vi^. the aCl of inlerting and uniting a cion,bud,
.or thehke, in the fubftance of the Hock.

INSOKO, in Geography, 3. town of Africa, on the Gold
Coad ; I 20 miles from the" fca.

INSOLATION, in Medicine, from in and fol, vhcfun,
a term ufed by fome writers to exprefs the difeafe, occafioned
by the direft aftion of the fun's rays upon the human body,
which has been called, in the Latin and French languages,
idus foils, and coup de folcil. See an account of this diforder
under the head Heat, in Medicine.

Insolation, in Pharmacy, a method of preparing certain
fruits, drugs, &c. by expoling them to the heat of the fun's
rays ; either to dry, to maturate, or to fliarpen them, as is
done in vinegar, figs, &c.

The word comes from the Latin verb infolare, which
is ufed by Phny and Columella ; and fignifics to expofe to the

INSOLVENCY, Jcl of, in Larw, an occafional ad, fro-
quently palfed by the legiflature ; whereby all perfons what-
foever, who are cither in too low a way of dealing to become
bankrupts, or not being in a mercantile ftate of life are not
included within the laws of bankruptcy, are difcharged from
all fuits and imprifonment, upon delivering up all their ef-
tate and effects to their creditors upon oa'.h, at the fefiions or
afiizes ; in which cafe their perjury or fraud is ufually, as in
cafe of bankrupts, puiiiflied with death.

INSOLVENT, a term applied to fuch perfons as have
not wherewithal to pay their jull debts.

A perfon dying, and not leaving tftate fiifRcient to dif-
charge thefe, is faid to die iiifolvent.

INSPECTING Ficld-rffuer of a Dflrifl, in Military
I^anguage, denotes an officer, feledted from the line, and no-
minated by the "War-office, to fuperintend and to vouch for
the faithful diftribution of monies which are iflued to officers
afting on detachment, or on recruiting parties, within the
Lmits of his flation.

All diRria pay-maftcrs are ftriaiy enjoined by the lafl
general regulations to get their muller-roils and pay-lifts duly
auti enticated, not only before a juftice of the pe.ce, but to
have tliem .vitricfl'ed by the infpcaing field officer. iVU the

INS

recruiting officers, S:c. within the limits of die diPirift arc ac-'
countable and fubordinate to the infpefting field officer. It
is the duty of the latter to be particularly minute in his exa-
mination of every thing which appertains to the recruiting fer-
vice. They have the command of all recruiting parties of regi-
ments of cavalry and infantry in their diftrifts ; they are au-
thorized to give an intermediate approval of the recruits whom
they judge fit for fervice, except in cafes where regiments are fo
quartered, as to render it, in point of diftance, equally conveni-
ent for tlie recruits to be feiit to their own head quarters.
Tiie fcnior officer in each quarter is ordered to report to the
field officer of the diilrift. No officer is to leave his ilation
even for one day, without reporting to the field officer who has
the command of the recruiting parties in the dillrift, cr to
be abfeiit from it for more than one day, v.ithout the pre-
vious permiffion of the field off.cer. The field officers in
their diflricls, are to be refponf ble for the drefs, regula-
rity, and good conduCl of the officers, non-commiffionrd
officers and pivate men of the feveral recruiting parties under
their command. They are conllantly to wear their uniforms,
whilll in their diflricls'. and they are to fee, that his majefty's
orders refpefting the dueobfervance of dilcipliiie, regularity,
and uniformity of appearance among the officers, non-com-
miffioned officers and privates, be llridtly and unequivocally
adhered to.

Field officers of diftri£ls may order detachment courts
martial, to be compofed of the recruiting officers in their
dillrids, in the ufual number and ranks, and they are ta
approve of every fuch court martiiil, and to direft the puuiffi-
itient awarded thereby to be executed, mitigated or remitted,
as they ffiall think expedient. They are to receive orders
from the infpeftor-gcnera! of the recruiting fervice, refpeiiling
the nature of their returns ; and all returns and reports
are to come to the infpe£lor-gencral through them. Each
diftrict field officer has an alowance of ten fliillhigs a
day, in addition to the full pay of his refpedtive regi-
mental rank, and he is to be reimburfcd for the adlual
expence he incurs for ftationary and poftage of letters j
which charge muft be accompanied by a certificate upon
honour.

Each diflrift field officer is alldwed to appoint a fubaltern
officer (not employed upon the recruiting fervice) to aft as ad-
jutant in the diftrift. The pay or allowance of fuch fubaltern
is three (liillings a day in addition to his full regimental pay ;
he is alfo authorized to nominate two ferjeants, with the ad-
ditional pay of fixpence each, one to act as ferjeant major,
and the other as clerk to the dillrift.

Each field officer may moreover give dircftions to the
hofpital mate, who is placed under his orders, to examine
the recruits when brought for infpeftion, and to give fuch
medical affillance as may be in his power, to the feveral re-
cruiting parties in the dillrict he belongs to.

When colonels of regiments take upon themfelves the
whole direftion of the recruiting fervice for their own corps,
they muft conform to the regulations which require returns
to be made to the infpeclor-general of the recruiting fervice ;
and tliey muft inftrnct their officers to fend weekly returns
to the regulating field officer, in whofe diftrift they arc fta-
tioned, of all the cafualties that have occurred. See pages
lOJ, ic6. 107, and i 8 of the General Regulations.

INSPECTION denotes examination, furvey, and fu-
perintendance of general, regimental, and company duties. A
general infpeftion is made annually by the reviewing generals
of diftriots. Every regiment, on this occafion, is minutely
looked into, and a faithful account muft be delivered by each
commanding officer of the aftual ftate of his regiment, to-
gether with all the cafualties that have occurred during the

current'

I N S

-fcurreirt year. The inferior economy of the corps is, not
only invelUgatcd to the bottom, but the difciphne of the
men is likewife examined. For a more particular explana-
tion of the latter, A-e Review.

Inspection, Reglmtntal, is made once a month by the
commanding officer. The clothing, tlie nccelTaries, arms,
and accoutrements belonging to the different companies are
examined by the lieutenant-colonel or major of the corps.
Specific returns are made by tlie officers commanding: troops
or companies, by whom the debts and credits of the men,
which have been made up and accoimted for on the 24th day
in each month, in infantry regiments, and on the 24th day
in each fecond n\onth in cavalry corps, are exhibited for ex-
amination at head quarters. This forms the ground-work
or bafis of the general infpeftion, at which the troop or com-
pany book (hould always be produced.

Inspectiox, Private, of Companies, is the firft ftep towards
the other two, and ought to be made every Monday morn-
ing, by each officer commanding a troop or company, or by
his lubaltern.

Inspection" of Nece^iries is an examination of the different
articles which every foldier is dirctted to have in good repair.
The regular or ellabhHied proportion of neceflaries that
eich foldier of cavalry and infantry is to be in pofleffion of
on the 24th day of each month, to entitle him to receive the
balance that m.ay be then due to him, confifts of the fol-
lowing articles.

Cavalry. — 3 fhirts, 2 pair of flioes, 3 pair of ftockings,
I pair of gaiters, t forage cap, 1 faddle-bag, i pair of can-
vas, or woollen over-hofe, I canvas, or woollen frock or
jacket, I ftock, I black-ball, 2 bruihes, i curry-comb and
brufh, 1 mane comb and fpunge, and 1 horfe-picker.

Infantry. — T, ffiirts, 2 pair of (hoes, 2 pair of ftockings,
or 2 pair of focks, i pair of long gaiters, i ibrage cap, I
pack, I ftock, I black-ball, and 2 brullics.

Inspection, or Examination, Trial by. See Examina-
tion.

INSPECT0R-Gra«-i7/ of Cavalry, a general officer,
whofe particular duty is to infpect all cavalry regiments, to
report the ftate of the horfes, and to receive fpecitic accounts
from the diffi;rent corps of their actual Hate ; he communi-
cates with tlie commander-in-chief, and whenever a cavalry
re/iment is ordered to be diihanded, it muft be looked at by
the infpetlor-general before it is finally broken.

INSPECTOU-Gffa'rfl/ of the Recruiting Service, an officer of
rank, through whom the field officers of dirtricts, and colonels
of regiments (when they perfonally manage the recruiting
fervice of their own corps) tranfmit their feveral returns to
the adjutant-general's olnce. All recruiting parties which
are feet to the great manufafturing towns in England and
Wales, as alfo to Scotland and Ireland, muft be previoully
authorized fo to do by the infpector-gcneral.

Two field officers have been lately appointed as permanent
infpeftors of clothing. Thefe iiifpedtors, or the infpeclors for
the time being, are direfted to view and compare with the
fealed patterns, the clothing of the feveral regiments of cavalry
and infantry, as foon as the fame fhall have been prepared by
the refpeclive clothiers ; and if the faid clothing appear to be
conformable to tlie fealed patterns, they are authoiizedto grant
two certificates of their view and approval thereof; one of
which certificates is to be delivered to the clothier, to be
lent with the clothing to the head quarters of the corps, and
the other to be lodged with the general clothing board, as the
neceffary voucher for.paffing the alfignment of the allowance
for the faid clothing.

All clothing mull be riewed, and certificates be figncdby
Vox., XIX.

I N S

holh infpeAors, except in cafes where the abfence of one of
them (hall be unavoidable ; in all which cafes the caufe of fuch
abfence is to be ftated by the other infpettor, in his certifi.
cate of the view of the clothing.

Infpedors of clothing are to follow allinftruftions which
may be tranfmitted to them from the commander-in-chief,
the ffcretary at war, or the clothing board.

In'spectok of Hofpitah, the next on the ftaff to the furgcon
gen,:al.

Inspector, a perfon to whom the care and conduft
of any work is committed.

Inspectors, in the Roman La'w, were fuch pcrfons as
examined the quality and value of lands and effedfs, in order
to the adjufting or proportioning taxes and impofitions to
every man's eilate.

The Jews alfo have an officer, in their fynagogue, whoai
they call ir.fpeaor, |f pi, hha%en. His bufineff conlifts prin-
cipally in infpedting, or overlooking the prayers and Icffons,
in preparing and fhewir.g them to the reader, and in ftand-
ing by him to fee he reads right ; and, if he makes miflakes,
he is to correft him.

INSPICIENDO Ventre. See Ventre.

INSPIRATION, in Phyfjihgy, the aft of drawing the
atmofpheric air into the lungs. See LuNG,

Inspiration, among Divines, &c. implies the convey-
ing of certain extraordinary and fupernatuial notices, or
motions, into the foul : or, it denotes any fupernatural
influence of God upon the mind of a rational creature,
whereby he is formed to any degree of intellctftual improve-
ments, to which he coald not, or would not, in fa<£t, have
attained in his prefent circumftances, in a natural way.

If a man were inftantaneoufly enabled to fpeak a language
which he had never learned, how poffible foever it might
have been for liim to have obtained an equal readinefs in it
by degrees, few would fcruple to fay, tliat he owed his ac
quaintance with it to dr\ine infpiration. Or, if he gave a
true and exact account of what was doing at a diftance, if
he publiflied a particular relation of what he neither faw
nor heard, a^ fome of the prophets did, all the world would
own (if the affair were too complex, and the account too
circumftantial to be the refult of a lucky guefs), that he
mud be infpired with the knowledge of it ; though another
account, equally exaft, given by a perfon on the fpot,
would be afcribed to no infpiration at all.

Thus the prophets are faid to have fpoken by divine in-
fpiration.

Some authors reduce the infpiration of the facred writers
to a particular care of Providence, which prevented any
thing they had faid from failing, or coming to nought ;
maintaining, that they never were really iufpired, either with
knowledge, or exprcffion.

According to M. Simon, infpiration is no more than a
direftion of the Ho'y Spirit, which never permitted the
facred writers to be miftaken.

It is a common opinion, that the infpiration of tlie Holy
Spirit regards only the matter, not the ftyle, or words ; and
this feems to fall in with M. Simon's doftrine of direction.

Theological writers have enumerated feveral kinds of in-
fpiration : fnch as an infpiration o{ fvperintenJency, in wliicli
God does fo influence and dircft the mind of any p'crfon, as to
keep him more fecure from error in fome various and complex
difcourfe, than lie would have been merely b)- the ufc of liis
natural faculties ; plenai-y fupennientlent infpiration, which ex-
cludes any mixture of error at all from the performance fo
fuperintended ; infpiration of elevation, wliere the facul-
ties aft in a regular, and, as it feema, in a common manner,
B b vot

INSPIRATION.

yet are raifed to an extraordinary degree, fo that the com-
pofer dial!, upon the whole, have more of the true fublime,
or pathetic, than natural genius could have given ; and in-
fpiration of fiiggejlinn when the ufe of the faculties is
fuperfeded, and God does, as it were, fpcak direclly to the
mind, making fuch difcovorieo to it as it could not othervvife
liave obtained, and diftating the very words in which fuch
difcoveries are to be communicated, if they are defigned as a
meflage to others. It is generally allowed that the New
Teftament was written by a fuperintendent infpiration ;
for without this the difcourfes and doclrines of Chrill
could not have been faithfully recorded by the evan-
gelills and apoftles ; nor could they have affumed the
authoi-ity of fpeaking the words of Clmlt, and evinced
this authority by the aclual exercife of miraculous
powers : and befides, the facred writings bear many obvious
internal marks of their divine original, in the excellence of
their doctrines, the fpirituality and elevation of their defign,
the majelly and fimplicity of their llyle, the agreement of
their various parts, and their ef&cacy on mankind ; to which
inay be added, that there has been in the Chriltian church,
from its earliell ages, a conilant tradition, that the facred
books were written by the extraordinai-y- afiiftance of the
fpirit, which mull at lead amount to fuperintendent infpira-
tion. But it has been controverted whether this infpira-
tion extended to every minute circumftance in their writings,
fo as to be in the moll abfoliite fenfe plenary. Jerom,
Grotius, Erafmus, Epifcopius, and many others, maintain
that it was not ; whilll others contend, that the emphatical
manner in which our Lord fpeaks of the agency of the
fpirit upon them, and in which they themfelves fpeak of
their own wTitings, will juftify our believing that their in-
fpiration was plenary, unlefs there be very convincing evi-
dence brought on the other fide to prove that it was not :
and if wc allow, it is faid, that there were fome errors in the
New Teftament, as it came from the hands of the apoftles,
there may be great danger of fubverting the main purpofe
and defign of it ; iince there wiU be endlefs room to debate
the importance both of fatls and dodlrines.

What has been above denominated fupu-intenjent infpira-
tion in the language of Dr. Doddridge, Mr. \Vhitby ex-
preftcs by infpiration of tHreilion : and he thus diftinguifhes
it from the infpiration hy fuggc/lwn. i. Where there is no
antecedent idea or knowledge of the things written for tlie
good of others, to be obtained from reafon or a former reve-
f;ition, an infpiration of fuggeftion muft be vouclifafed to the
apoftles, in order to enable them to make fuch things known
to the world. But where there is fuch an antecedent know-
ledge of the things to he mdited, it can only be neceftary
that God fliould immediately, or by lomc fpecial occafions,
excite them to indite thole things, and fhould fo carefully
prefide over and direct their minds, whilftT\riting, as to fug-
geft or to bring into tlieir memories fuch things as his wifdom
thought fit to be written, and Ihould not fuffer them to err
in the delivery of what was thus written in his name, or as
apoftles of God the Father and our Lord Jefus Chrift.

2. In all their revelations of myfteries, or things which could
not otTierwile bo made known to them, either by natural reafon
or antecedent revelation, they mull be acknowledged to have
had them by an immediate fiiggetlion of the holy fpirit.

3. As for thofe things Avhich they did know already, either
bv natural reafon, education, or antecedent revelation, they
needed only fuch an affiftance or direction in them, as would
fecure them from error in their reafoiings, or in tiie con-
firmation of their doQrines by pafiagcs contained in the
Cld Teftament ; and therefore a continual fuggcilion raull

be neceffary in this cafe. 4. In writing the hiftoricar pp
of the Old Teilament, or matters of fa& relating to tl,. ■
felves and others, it is only neceffary, that what is there
delivered as matter of fatt fhould be truly performed, as it
is laid to have been done ; but it is not neceffary that they
fhould be related in that order of time in which they were
performed, unlefs alfo that be affirmed of them : for this
muft be fufhcient to afliire us of the truth of what they thus
delivered. Moreover, in writing the difcourfes contained in
tliefe books, it i" not neceffary that tlie verv words fhould
be fuggelledo!- recorded, in which they we're firft fpokeii,
but only that the true intent and meaning of them fhould be
related, though in diverlity of words ; though the promife
made to the apoftles by our Lord, that the holy fpirit fhould
bring to their remembrance att things whicli he had faid
unto them, doth fairly plead for this exaclnefs in what they
have delivered of our Saviour's fermons ; it being fcarcely
imaginable their memory, mthout divine alTiftance, fhoaU
exaclly give us all that was fpoken in fuch long difcourfes.
Lartly, it appears, fays Dr. Wliitby, that I contend only
for fuch an infpiration, or divine afhftance, of the facred
writers of the New Teftament, as will affure us of the truth
of what they write, either by infpiration of fuggejliun or
diri-Bion only, hut not for fuch an infpiration as implies, that
even their words were diftated, or their phrafes fnggelled
to them by the Holy Ghoft. Dr. Whitby cannot allow,

1. For any (lips of memory in the compilers of the facred
books of the New Teftament ; for though thefe are allowed
by fome in matters of fmall confequence, as they are plcafed
to ftyle them, yet it is of great confequence that we do not
own them : for, if you grant they have flipped at all, by what
rules can we affirm that they have not Hipped above an ico
times, or even in moft of their hiftorical relations ? 2. He
cannot grant, that the apoftles determined any matters of
praftice merely from rules of human prudence,' without the
guidance and direction of the holy fpirit. ^5. Dr. Wliitbv
does not allow that St. Paul dot'h nut always ufe the belt
arguments, but fuch as are beft fuited to the' capacities and
notions of tlinfe to whom he «Tites : if fo, by what rules
fhall we be able to diftinguifh betwixt his arguments, on
which we may fafely rely, as being abfolutely true, and thofe
which are only accommodated to the notions of thofe with
whom he had to do ?

Dr. Whitby next proceeds to lav down the aro-uments
which prove, that the apoftles were aflifted and preferved
from error by the fpirit of God, and were enabled to deliver
to us an unerrnig rule of faith. Thefe arguments are the
following: I. Their affertions concerning their own writ-
ings, and what they fay refpeaing the declarations made,
the dodrines delivered, and the direclions given in them.

2. The things whfch God fpake to his fervants the prol
phets are ftylcd the things which I command bv my fpirit.
(Zech. I. 6.) But the apoftles were thus afhfled. Peter
fays they preached tlie gofpel by the Holv Ghoft fent down
from heaven ; they fpake as they were moved bv the Holy
Ghoft ; they ftyle themfelves prophets and apoftles : they
challenge a like illumination with the ancient prophets :
they pretend to teach others in words tauglit them by the
Holy Ghoft. In all thefe fayings they mnit iiavc been guilty
of a falfe tefhmony concerning God, and muft impofe upon
the church of Chrift, if no fuch afTiftance of the holy fpirit
was imparted to them. 3. The infallible afiiftance granted
to the apoftles is uiferred from our Saviour's promife to
them, repeated on different occafions. 4. The faded re-
cords were to be a ftanding rule of faith through all ages ;
and therefore in all things propounded in them to our faith.

INSPIRATION.

tJiey mud contain a divine toftimony, or a revelation of the
will of God. 5. That tlie apoftles and writers of the New
Teftament were affiiled both in their preaching and writing
by the fpirit of God, is attellcd by Chriftians of all ages
from the beginning.

Dr. Benfon, in his " DifTertation on Infpiration," pub-
lifhed in his " Commentary on the Epillles," and included in
tiftiDp \Valfon"s " Colleftion of Tratts," obferves, that
many of the difficulties and objedlions that have been raifed
conceniing infpiration have been very much owing to the
millaken accounts given by fome of the friends to revelation.
What he takes to be the genuine account, appears, at firit
view, eafy and natural, and alfo, upon examination, the moft
unexceptionable. It is this : as Mofes retained in his mind
the perfect and entire idea of the pattern (hewn him in the
•mount, according to wliich model he was to make aU
things ; fo the apoftles, and they alone, had in their minds
the full and complete fcheme of whatever they were to preach
or write concerning the Chrillian doctrine. And according
to that modil they were to found and erecl the Chrillian
church. Not that they had the whole fcheme of the Chrif-
tian revelation in its utmoft extent fuUy communicated to
them at once, tlie contrary of this is evident ; for on the day
oi pcntecoft, the twelve apollles of the circumcilion do not
appear to liave received any more than the revelation of that
gofpel, which they were to preach to Jews only. It was
tome years after that they had the particular revela-
tion concerning their going to the devout Gentiles, and
concerning the gofpel which they were to preach to them :
and it was a long time before the particular revelation was
commnnicated to the apoftles of the uncircumcifion, con-
cerning their going among the idolatrous Gentiles, or
what gofpel they were to preach to them. And finally',
different apoftles of buth clafles had, befides the general
fcheme, different revelations commiuiicated to them. What
is meant is this, that they had by innnediate revelation
the whole fcheme of what they were to preach to the
Jews, before they addreffed themfelves to tlie Jews ; and the
whole Icheme of what they were to preach to the devout or
idolatrous Gentiles, before they addrcifed themfelves to de-
vout or idolatrous Gentiles ; and that they retained in their
minds conftantly the complete idea of the whole fcheme,
after it was communicated to them. From this conftant
fund of knowledge, they were enabled clearly to determine
(as far as any cafe required) what was, or was not, the
Chriftian doctrine. This revelation of the whole fcheme
of the religion of Jefus is, as Dr. Benfon apprehends, what
St. Paul underftood by the word of wifdom, which ftands
f.rft in the order of fpiritu:d gifts ; I Cor. xii. 18. Though
tlie evangelills and prophets iiad fame of the inferior gifts
of the fpirit, yet it was what they had received from the
apoftles, that they were to teach and to commit to faithful
men, who were to teach others. The Old Teftament pro-
phets were not under a conftant divine infpiration, unlefs we
except Mofes during the time in which he was erecting all
things, according to the pattern ftiewn him in the mount :
but the apoftles had this fund of illumination conftantly
redding within them, from the time of its being communi-
cated to the end of tlieir lives. Chriftian propliets, being
of an order inferior to the apoftles, were neither under con-
ftant infpiration, nor had they at any time any more than
particular revelations, rehiting to particular cafes. Dr.
Benfon fuppofes, that the books of the New Teftament
derive their infanibility from their being written, taught,
reviewed, or approved of by fome of the apoftles, who alone
had this fund of knowledge conftantly refiding in them.
Whenever, therefore, they fpoke or wrote concerning Chrif-
tianity, this fund of revelation kept them right. &ut they were

reafonable creatures as well as infpired apoftles, and th're-
fore could fpeak or write about common affairs, as men
that have the ufe of their reafon, without any infpiration,
can ealily do ; inftanccs of which frequently occur. Upon
this fyftem, fueh things only are afcribed to infpiration, a«
(all circumftances conlidered) required infpiration ; and
fuch things to human reafon, as human reafon alone was
capable of.

It appears by. citations from the writings of the primitive
fathers, Clemens Romanus, Polycarp, .Fuftin Martyr, Cle-
mens Ak-xandrinos, Origen, TertuUian, &c., that moft of
them maintained tlie plenary fup-rintendent infpirati .n of
the facred writers, and particularly of the apoftle.^. Tliis
kind of infpiration fome have conceived neceflar)' to vin-
dicate the credibility of the dodtrincs and the authority of
the precepts which they dchvered ujider a divine commillion.
Others, however, have objeiited to this plenary infpiration ;
and allege miitakes and contradictions which occur in the
hiftory of their conduct and in tlieir wriiings, ft-e .Matt. x.
19, 20 ; Mark, xiii. 11 ; compared with Ac"ls, xxiii. 1 — 6.
It has been faid that the apoflles did not feem to apprehend
each other to be infpired, as appears by their debating with
each other in tlie council at Jcrufaleni (Acts, xv.), and
by Pairl's blaming Peter (Gal. ii. 24.); and it is farther urged,
that the Chriftians in thofe early days did not apprehend them
to be infallible, fince their conduit was in fome inilances
queftioned and arraigned. (Acls, xi. 2, 3. xxi. 20 — 24)
It has been alfo faid, that Paul, who afterts himfelf to have
been inferior to none of the reft of the apoftles (2 Cur.
xi. 5. xii. II.) fpeaks of himielf in fuch a manner, as plainly
to {hew that he did not apprehend himfelf under fuch a ph-nary
infpiration (1 Cor. vii. 10. I2. 2^. 40 2 Cor. xi. 17.); nor do
we find that any of the .-ipoftles introduce their difcourfes with
fuch claufes as the prophets ufed, to declare that they fpoke
as the oracles of God. To this objection, however, it
has been replied, that their diitinguiftiing in the cafes here
referred to feems ftrongly to imply, that their decili«ns in
ot/.vr points of doctrine and duty were by " immediate reve-
lation from Chrift." It has been alfo pleaded, againft the
plenary infpiration above ftated, that it is inconliftent with
that divcrftty of diction or ftyle which occurs among the
facred penmen. Is not the ftyle, it is faid, of all infpired
writers the fame, as being the ftyle of the fam€ fpirit by
which they were alike directed ? It is argued on the other
hand, that in fome fenfe the ftyle of all thofe writers is the
ftyle of the holy fpirit, who fpoke by theni, and was the
fame in them all ; but that the holy fpirit fliould always cm-
ploy the fame ftyle in conveying celeftial truths to men, is nn
more neceffary than that he fliould always ufe the fame
language. We have no reafon to doubt that the facred
writers were permitted to employ the ftyle and idiom moil
famihar to them, in delivering the truths with which they
were infpired. So far only were they over-ruled in point ut'
expreftlon, by the divine fpirit, that nothing could be intio-
duced tending in any way to obftruct the intention of the
whole. And fometimes, efpccially in the prediction of
future events, fuch terms would be fnggefted as would, even
beyond the prophet's apprehenfion, conduce to further that
end. But this dodtrine, it may be faid, is liable to an objedioii
from the gift of tongues conferred on the apoftles and others
for the promulgation of the gofpel. In the languages with
which thofe primitive minifters were miraculoufty furniftied,
it may be objected they could have no ftyle of their own, as 3
ftyle is purely the effect of habit, and of infenfibb imitation.
This objection, however, is eafily obviated; i ft, as they re-,
ceived by infpiration thofe tongues only of which they had
previoufty no knowledge, it is not probable, at leatl it is not
certain, that this gift had any place in the writings of the New-
B b z Teftament j

INSPIRATION.

Teftament ; that iii moft of tliem it had not is manifeft. But,
2dly, if in fome it had, the moft natural fuppofition is, firft,
tljelt the knowledge of the tongue with which the Holy GhoU
infpired the facrcd writers, inuft have been in them precii'ely
fuch a knowledge, and fuch a readinefs in finding words and
expreffions, as is in others the cffedl of daily practice. This
is even a neceflary confequence of fuppoling that the language
itfelf, and not the words of particular fpeeches (accordingto
the notion of Dr. Middletqn, in his " EITay.on the Gift of
Tongues") was the gift of the fpirit : And, jdly, that their
acquaintance witli the tongues, fupernaturally communicated,
mull have been fuch as would render their teaching in it bell
adapted to the apprehenfions of the people with whom they
would be moft couverfant, or fuch as they would moft readi-
ly have acquired in the natural way. Now on this hy-
pothefis, wliich on many accounts appears the moil rational,
the inilucnce of habit, of native idiom, and of particular
genius and turn of thinking, would be the fame on the wri-
ter's ftyle as though he had acquired the langiiage in the or-
dinary way. Becaufe Cicero and the Greek philofophers
were of opinion, that if Jupiter fpoke Greek, Dr. Middle-
ton cannot conceive, that a ftyle to unlike Plato's as that of
the evangelifts, can be the language of infpiration, or be
accounted worthy of God. But it was not, we know, pe-
culiar to the Greeks or to the apoftoiic age to fet too high
a value on the words which man's wildom teachcth. See
more on this fubjecl in Campbell's Prehfninary Differtations,
Diir. I.

It has been obferved, in reference to the fubjeft of infpi-
ration, that our Lord's evangelifts report our Lord's dif-
courfes with very great variations in their particular expref-
ijons ; and hence fome authors have been led to give up the
cfpinion of the infpiration of the evangelifts, as writers.
Thus they fay, they are able to place thegofpel hillory on
the fame unexceptionable footing with other credible hiftories,
refting on independent teilimonies, in confequence of their
agreeing in all matters of importance, and appearing to be
independent of each other, by their difagreement in matters
of no importance. By this means they alfo difencumber the
evidence of the gofpel hiftory of many objections infigni-
ficant indeed in themfelves, but rendered of the grcateft
magnitude, and even abfolutely infuperable by thole who
profefs to maintain the plenary infpiration of the fcriptures.
~ Dr. Prieftley is one of thole writers who has adopted this
hypothefis. He fays, however, he is far from denying all
infpiration 5 but only the univerfal and infallible infpiration
of the fcripture hiftorians as " writers.'' Wlien the pro-
phets or apoftles worked miracles, or delivered prophecies,
and other melTages from God, they muft have been infpired.
Paul alfo feems to fay, that he received his knowledge of the
gofpel by a perfon;d communication from Clirift after his re-
furreclion. (Prieftley s Preface to his Harmony.) After
all, it ftiould be remembered that our Lord made an exprefs
promife to his apoftles, that" the fpirit of truth fhould'lead
them into all truih, and bring all things to their remem-
brance whatever he faiduntotliem,'' John, xiv. 26 ; and this
promife feems to warrant that notion of infpir;:tion which
we have Itated towards the beginning of this ariicle.
' Michaelis, (Introduction to tlie' New Teftament) afler
Weighing, with all that care and attention which fo important
a fubjedt requires, the arguments which may be advanced on
botli fides, thinks it advifable to divide the queftion. To
tlie epiftles, infpiration is of real confequence ; but with re-
fpcft to the hiftorica! books, viz. the Gofpcls andtlie Afts
of the Apoftles, we (hould really be no lofers if we aban-
doned the fyftemof infpiration, and in fome refpefts have a
real advantage. We fhould be no lofers if we confidcrcd
the apoftks, in liiilorical fads, as merely human witneffes,
.3

as Chrift himfelf has done in faying, " Ye alfo {hall bear
witnefs, becaufe ye have been with me from the beginning."
(John, XV. 27.) And no one that attempts to convince an
unbeliever of the truth of Chriftianity, would begin his dc-
monftration by pre-fuppofing a doclrine which hisadverfary
denies, but would ground his arguments on the credibility of
the evangelifts as human hiftorians for the truth of the mira-
cles, the death and the refurreftion of Chrift. Even thofe
who examine the grounds of their faith for their own convic-
tion, mull treat the evangeli'ls as human evidence, fince it
■would be arguing in a circle to conclude that the facts re-
corded in the gofpels are true, becaufe they are infpired,
when we conclude the fcriptures to be infpired in confequence
of their, contents. In thefe cafes, then, we are obliged to
confider the evai:gehfts as human evidence, and it would be
no detriment to the Chriftian caufe to confider them at all
times as fuch in matters of hiftorical facl. We find it no
where exprefsly recorded that the pubhc tranfadtions which,
the apoftles knew by their own experience, and of which St.
Luke informed himfelf by diligent inquiry, fiiould be parti-
cular objedts of divine infpiration. We Ihould even be
confideralile gainers, in adjufting the harmony of the gofpels,
if we were permitted to fuppofe that fome one of the evan-
gelifts had committed an immaterial error, and that St. John
has redlified fome trifling miilakes in the preceding gofpels.
The moft dangerous objedions that can be made to the truth
of our religion, and fuch as are moll difficult to anfwer, are
thofe drawn from the different relations of the four evange-
lifts. Mr. Kiddle, in the beginning of the fecond feci ion of
his " Eflay on Infpiration," entertains fentiments fimilar to
thofe of Michaelis ; now, if we advert to the fentiments of
Grotius, already recited, and which gave rife to the famous
theological difputes between the Dominicans and the Jefuits,
will the diftinclion between the infpiration of the hiftorical
books, and that of the epiftles, appear to be new ? As to
the writings of thofe that were apoftles, Michaehs maintains
that their infpiration depends on their autlienticity. If they
are written by the apoftles, towhom they are afcribed,we con-
fider them as divinely infpired : if not written by apoftles, they
can make no pretenfion to infpiration. But it may be aflted, on
what argument the pofition is grounded, that the writings of
the apoftles, if genuine, are infpired ? It is anfvvered, on the
teftimony of Chrift and his apoftles, which is credible and fa-
cred, becaufe they have confirmed their doftrines by number'
lefs miracles. But, where is this evidence recorded ? It is
certain, in the firft place, that the apoftles muft be regarded
not only as prophets, but as greater than prophets. (Mark,
xi. 9 — II.) Again, if we confider Chrift's more immediate
promifes of infpiration to the apoftles, we fiiall find that he
has given them, in the moft proper fenfe of the word, at three
feveral periods : I ft, when he fent the apoftles to preach the
gofpel (Matt. x. 19, 20) ; 2dly, in holding a public difcourfe
■relating to the gofpel, at which uas prei'ent a confiderable
muhitude (Luke, xii. 11, 12.) ; 3dly, in his prophecy of the
deftrudion of Jerufalem. (Mark, xiii. 2. Luke,' xxi. 14,
ij.) It is true, that when we argue from their infpiration
on thefe occafions to the infpiration of their writings, we
draw a conclufion " a minore ad majus,' but it is a con-
clufion to which no rational objeftion can be made ; for
if they were to expect infpiration for thofe fpeechcs
and anfwers, which were only temporary, and in which
they appeared rather as advocates than teachers, how
much more reafon had they to cxpeft infpiration in thofe
writings which were to ferve as a ftandard of faith to
pofterity ? Michaelis conceives, that Chrift alluded to the
future writings of the apoftles, when he faid to Peter,
" Thou art Peter" (;. e. a rock), &c. Another promife,
iirtt given to Peter, and after wiuds exteiided to all the

apoftles,

I N S

Jes, occurs in Matth. xvi. 19. xviii. iS. If ttic au-
ity here referred to was given to the apoftles without
•• ,r\e, it is maniieft, that, as often as they appeared as
; hers of the gofpel, they were attended by a conllant
1 ' iration, and of courfe when they committed the precepts
I., iiriftianity to writing ; or elfe, we miiil have recoiirfe
' -' hypothefis, that the Deity permitted errors to intrude
elves into the morahty of the gofpels : this is highly
- -obable; but w'nichfoever hypothecs we adopt, we (hall
cunie to this conclufion, that the moral precepts, which are
contained in the writings of the apoftles, are for us com-
mands of the Deity. Moreover, the promifes which were
given by Chrift in the night preceding his death, of the
continual airillance of the Holy Gholl, deferve particular
attention ; more efpecially as they are recorded in the
gofpel of St. John (ch. xiv. 16, 17. xv. 26, 27. xvi. 7 — u.),
who wrote wiiH a particular view to fupport the authority
of the apoftles againft the Gnoftics. Bcfides, the apoftles
alTert their ov%'n infpiration. Thus St. Paul does, Gal. i.
11,12. iCor. xi. 23. iCor. ii. ij. xiv. 37, 38 ; and i Pet.
i. 1 2. As to thofe books of the New Teftament, which were
written by the aCiftants of the apoftles, viz. the gofpels of
St. Mark and of St. Luke, and the Ads of the Apoftles,
Michaelis hefitates in admitting their infpiration. See Makk
and Like.

Among the heathens, the priefts and prieftefTes were faid
to be divinely infpired, when they gare oracles.

The poets alfo laid claim to it ; and to this end they al-
ways invoked Apollo and the mufes at the beginning of
any great work.

INSPISSATING, in Pharmacy, an operation whereby
a liquor is brought to a thicker conliftence, by evaporating
the thinner parts.

Thus, juices, as that of liquorice, are infpiffated.

INSPRUCK, in Geography, a town of Germany, and
capital of the Tyrolefe, fituated on the Inn. The fuburbs
without the walls are large, and occupied by palaces,
churches, and coavents. This town is the refidence of the
fupreme reprefentative and aulic chamber, ivf the revifion-
judicatory of the counties of the Lower and Upper Auftria,
and alfo of the regency or lords-juftices. In the middle
of the Francifcan church is a mngnificent monument, on the
top of v.hich is a metal ftatue of Maximilian I. in a kneeling
pollure, furrounded by four others reprefenting the Virtues ;
and in white marble are exhibited the exploits of that em-
peror. There are fome other coftly curiofities in this place.
The gymnafium of the Jefuits was converted by the em-
peror Leopold into an univerfity in 1672, calling it "■ C:e-
iareo-Leopoldina ;" and in 174, Maria Th.erefa prefented
to it the collection of books, formerly kept at the citadel
of Ambras, together with other books out of the imperial
Kbrary at Vienna. This town was taken by the French in
1805: 28 miles N. of Brixen. N. lat. 47 16'. E. long.
11-30'.

INST.A.LLMENT, a fettling or inflating a perfon in
a dignity, as that of a chancellor in one of our univerfilies,
&c.

The word is derived from the Latin hi, and Jlallum, a
term ufed for a feat in the church, in the choir, or a feat or
bench in a court of juftice, &c. though Voffius is of opinion
the word is of German origin.

Inftailmcnt is chiefly ufed for the induction of a dean,
prebendary, or other ecclefiaftical dignitary, into the pof-
feffion of his ftall, o proper feat, in the cathedral church to
which he belongs.

This is fometimes alfo called vijlalhit'ion.

Inftailmcnt is likewifc ulcd lor the ceremony, whereby

I N S

the knights of the Garter are pkccd in their rank, in the
chapel of St. George, at Windfor ; and on many other like
occafions.

INSTANT, fuch a part of duration, wherein we per-
ceive no fuccellion ; or it is that which takes up the tinie of
only one idea in our minds.

I'lie fchoolmcn diftinguifli three kinds of inftants ; a
temporary, a natural, and a rational inftant.

In.st.wt, Temporary, is a part of time immediately pre-
ceding another ; thus, the laft inftant of a dav precedes
immediately and really the firil inftant of the following
day.

In'.stant, Natural, is what we otlierwife call a priority of
iiaturc, which obtains in things that are fubordinattd in aft-
ing : as, firft and fecond caufcs ; or caufes and their tffi dls t
for the nature of things requires, that if there be a fecond
caufe, there muft be a lirft; and that there muft be a caufe^
if there be an effcft.

Ix.srAxr, Raliotial, is not any real inftant, but a point
which the underilanding conceives to have been before fome
other inftant, founded on the nature of the things which-
occafions it to be conceived. For inftance, as Gcd has
made feveral things voluntarily, which he could otherwife
have let alone ; there is a reafonable foundation to con-
ceive God, fuch as he is in himfelf, before he had made any-
of thofe voluntary determinations : but as there was no real
inftant when God had not formed any detei-minafion, this
iiiftant is called a rational inftant, by way of oppofition tu-
an inftant of time.
INSTANTANEOUS Actiox.. See Action-.
INSTANTER, Trial, in Lam. See Rki'kikvk.
_ INSTAURATION, the re-eftabliriiment, or reftaura-
tion, of a rehgion, a church, or the like, to its former
ftate.

The word is by fome derived from the old Latin in-
Jtaurum, which fignitied the ftock of things neceflary for
the tilling and managing of grounds ; as cattle, tools,, har-
nefs, &c. The word inftauruin is only of the middle age ;■
but inftauratio is of much greater antiquity, and by fome is
derived from injlar, Hhe ; as importing a thing's being
brought to its former likenefs or appearance..

INSTEP, in the Manege, is that part of the hinder Icir
of a horfe that correfponds to the fliank in the fore-le"-, ex-
tending from the ham to the paftern joint.
^ INSTERBURG, in Geography, a town of Pru.Tian Li-
thuania, containing two churches, aboiit 35.0 houles, ani
3000 inhabitants. The principal articles of its- trade are
corn and beer ; 44 miles E. of Konigftjcrg. N- lat. J4- 35'.
E. long. 22^ 21'.

INSTINCT, a natural difpofition, or fagacity, where-
with animals are endued ; and by virtue whereof they are
enabled to provide for themfelves, and know what is o-ood
for them, and are determined to preferve and propagate theii
fpecics.

The term injiind, however, has been varioufly explained
and diiined. Inftind, according to Dr. Reid, is a natural
blind impulfe to certain aftions, without having any end in.
view, without dehberation, and very often without any
conception of what we do ; and he confiders iiiilinft as one
fpecics of the mechanical principles of aclion, the other being
habits. An ingi nious writer, of whofe obfervations \se
avail ourfelves in the compilation of this article, defines in-
ftinct to be a tendency implanted in the minds of animals,
when under the influence of certain feelings or fenfitions,
to perform fpontancoufly, unerringly, independently of all
teaching and experience, and without any determinate view

to

to confequences, certain aftions necelTary for the preferva-
tion of the individual and the continuation of the kind.

"Tnftincl in brutes bears fome analogy to reufon in men.
There have been many fyllems adopted to explain the prin-
ciples which produce and direcl the fpontaneous aftions-of
brute animals.

Many of the ancient philofophers afcribcd to brutes an
underllanding differing only in degree from that of man,
and attributed their inferiority to the want of proper and
fufficient bodily organs. This fyfteni has been very llre-
nuoudy fupported by M. Hc-lvetius, de I'Efprit, torn. i.
p. 2. &c. Among the moderns the learned Cudwortli en-
deavoured to explain the inftindt of animals, by means of a
certain plallic nature. Des Cartes thought that all the
atlions of brute animals might be explained by the fimple
laws of mechanifm, and con'.iders them as machines totally
devoid of life and fcntiment, but fo curioufly conilrucltd
by the Creator, that the mere imprefrions of light, found,
and other external agents, on their orgai.s, produced a fcries
of motions in them, and caufed them to execute thofe

INSTINCT.

fent to the

mind by the powers of imagination, or of n •-
mory, in a lax fenfe of the word. Thefe are common t,i
men and other animals, excepting that brutes poflefs oiily
the faculty of imagination in common with us, and not that
of memory, in the llrifl; and proper fenfe of the word. In-
deed this author endeavours to prove, tliat the knowledge
of brutes docs not merely differ in degree from that of n.: :,
but that it is of a kind entirely different from it ; and t! ..'
they are incapable both of memoi-y and reafoi.ing : the .'.
culty of imagination f^-rving to give thein a confufed lu
of events that are part, by the view, or other impreflioiv. i
objocfs that are prefent." The third and principal claf-
inliinfls is that which comprehends all thofe which ivl. Reir
calls [prMtaneous. This fpecies of inftind is not atter.
with any power of refleftion, determining the animal to ^.
cide freely between two different modes of aiTtion prelent
to his imagination ; nor is it merely corporeal or mechanical.
It is put into atlion by the natural and primitive principle
of felf-love, implanted in ail animated beings ; or by a love
of pleafure and averlion to pain, producing a voluntary

operations, which had before been afcribed to an in- clination to perform certain actions v.hich tend to their

ternal principle of life and fpontaneity. But the actions
and manners of animals, which are totally incompatible witli
the mere principles and laws of mechanifm, evince the ab-
furdity of this opinion. The dogma of Des Cartes is faid
to have been firll introduced by Pherecydes, the mailer of
Pythagoras ; and though Des Cartes had the merit of
developing and applying this hypothelis, the doftrine
was before publiilied by the Spaniard Pereira. M. Buffon
adopts the opinion of Des Cartes in part.but grants brule ani
mals life, and the faculty of dillinguiihing between pleafure
and^pain, together with a ilrong inclination to the former and
averlion from the latter. By thefe inclinations and aver-
iions he undertakes to account for all, even the moll ftriking
operations of animals ; affirming, that, in confequence of
impreflions made on the brain, by means of the fenfitive
organs, and by the re-aclion of the brain and nerves on the
mufcles, thefe machines acquire a motion conformable to the
nature of the animal, and of the impreflions of the different
objects which a<St upon their organs, and excite defu-e or
averfion. See Bi;l"tes.

The pre-eftabhflicd harmony of Leibnitz Las alfo been
applied to explain the actions of brute animals. Others
have confidered the aiflions of animals as produced by the
conftant snd immediate influence of the divine energy, di-
recting all their inclinations and motions : fuch appears to
liave been the opinion of Mr. Addifon, in the fecond vohmie
of the Soeftator. The late i.ngenious HermaEn ^Samuel
■Reimar, profeffor of philofophy at Hamburgh, lias enu-
merated and expofed thefe and other opinions, with regard
to the inllincl of animals, in his Obfervations Phyfiques,
&c. publiihed in two vol?. i2mo. at Amllerdam and Paris,

ill-being and prefervation. To the performance of thefe
atlions they are particularly prompted by their prefent
fenfations, by imagination fupplying- the place of memory,
and by other caufes. The wonderful effefls produced by
thefe inllinclive appetites, are farther to be attributed to
the exquilite mechanifm in their bodily conformation, par-
ticularly in the ilrudlure of the various organs with which
they execute their operations, and to the fuperior perfec-
tion and acutenefs of their external fenfes, by which they
are quickly and dillinflly informed of thofe qualities of
objedls which mofl materially concern them. In order to
account for the more curious and furpriling operations of
brute animals, M. Reimar adds two other principles, v'lz.
ill, an internal diftinft perception of the precife power and
proper ufe of their various bodily organ?, together with
an innate knowledge of the qualities of thofe objecls around
them in which they are interefted ; and, 2dly, certain in-
nate and determinate powers and inclinations, impreffed by
the Author of nature, a priori, on the foul itfelf; by
which they are arbitrarily, and without their own know-
ledge or confcioufnefs, direiiled and irrefillibly impelled to
the performance of thefe various operations which they
execute with fuch unremitting indiiilry and art. Thele
determinate forces, whicli conlliiute the principal part of
M. Reimar's fylleni, are no where fo vifible and diftinguifli-
able as in that numerous fet of inilinds which he claffes
under the title of the IrJuJlrious jnllintls of animals. For
a farther account of this fyi'lem we mull refer to the work
itfelf, or to an abilradl of it, with feveral of the author's
ilhillrations, in the Monthly Review, vol. xlv. p. 533, S:c.
The majority of philofophers, even in Des Cartes s time.

J 770: and, defining inllincl, in the moll comprehenfive fenfe maintained, that the aftions of the brutes were mollly m-

-of the word, to be every natuml inclination, accompanied Jl'mBlvc, and not mechanical. This prevailing fcntiment was

with a power, in animals, to perform certain adions, di- altered a little by a wrung application of the principles of

vides initinfts into three heads. The firll, which he calk J.ocke. But the balance was foon afterwards reltored to its

jnechattkal inJl'wSs, belong to the body confidered as an or- former preponderance in behalf of injllnarce principles, by

ganizcd fubllance, and arc exercil'ed blindly and inde- the writings of lord Shaftefcury and Dr. Hutchefon ; and

pendently of the will of the animaL Such are thofe which llill more particularly by thofe of Dr. Reid. Some authors, •

produce the motion of the heart and lungs, the contraflion who, with Locke, rejeCl innate notions and innate principles,

and dilatation of the pupil, digedion, &c. This clals of both fpecnhitive and praftical, allow that the mind acls fome-

iiillin.is it. pofieffed ij) common both by men and brutes, umei injlinclively ; others, v.ho reje£l Locke's ideal theory

and in fome meafure even by vegetable?. The fecond clafs altogoiher, detail a great number of inllinclive principles of

comprehends thofe which he terms reprefentative inllinfts, mind ; wlulll a third clafs of writers will have the actions,

whicli confift partly in the power of perceiving external that have been generally denominated iiijlincl'ivi;, to be either

objects by their prefent impreliion on the fenfes, and partly hal)itual, allociated, or mechanical. Nor does the matter reft

iu the faculty of rendering the ideas of thefe objecls pre- here : for fome authors of a very modern date go fo far even

INSTINCT.

BS to mamtajn that tl>e word inftinft is unpliilofophical ;
fince all that has been referred to this principle, whether in
nan or in the brutes, may be the refult of experience, or of
imitation.

Some writers confound the actions that have been gene-
rally deemed /H//;Hi'//i>c with thofe that fpring from reafon ;
fonie with tlio(e tliat fpring from mechan'ifm ; and others with
fiich as fpring from hah'it and ajfociatlon. But it is eafy, we
think, to diltinguilh them from each and all of thefe, by
pointing out actions wliich differ from fuch as are called ra-
tior.iil, habhuid, or m.xhanlcal. An action is called lallonal
when it is performed under the influence of a molh'^; that
h, zi-ilh a -vh-'M to confcqtKnccs : Tluis, to worfhip the Deity
for having created us, for his goodnefs towards us, and that
he may reward us hereafter, is a rational afflon. Some are of
opinion that the ntolivs, or the end we have in view in our
rational aUions, is the cjufe of thefe aflions ; but for our
part, as we think that the human mind can aft not only in
oppofition to the ftrongeft external motive, but againft all ex-
ternal motives whatever, properly fo called, we caimot help
thinking it mere corre-Tt to ciU them fimply inducements, and
to confider the mind itfelf fulely and properly as the caufc.
Mechanical &tWo\\i alfo have a caufe as well as thofe that are
rational; namely, mechanifm or organization. But this caufe
is not an end propofed, or a motive ; neither is it an inward
feeling, difpofition, or fonfation : Thus a clock goes through
its courfe of hours, minutes, and fecouds, without a view to
confequences, without fpoataneity, and even without being
able to check its own action. To tliis clafs belong tlie ac-
tions of the heart and arteries, the vermicular action of the
inteftines, and thofe of fecretion and refpiration in animals.
IrJIindive actions may be traced to a caufe as well as both the
preceding j but this cannot be referred to the clafs of mo-
tives., as they are not performed with a view to confequences ;
neither can the caufe be faid to he mechanifm, as they are accom-
panied with Jponlarieiiy . The proper caufe, however, is the
internal feeling, fenfation, or difpofition, that leads to the per-
formance of them, w-ithout delign or intelligence, on the
part of the animal. Thus an infant, in a few minutes after
birth, feeks the bread without any knowledge whatever of
its neceflity for his prefervation ; and a pair of young birds,
without teaching or experience, build th-jir firfl neft with as
much ilvill and esactnefs as the oldeft of their tribe could
do ; and that, too, of the cuftomary materials of their fpe-
ciesi and in the fituations bsft calculated for depofiting and
hatching their eggs. Injlinci and mechanifm have been oftener
confounded with each other, particularly of late, than any
other of thofe principles of aftion which we are confider-
ing; and yet we cannot help thinking that the difthiclion
between habit and inJlinawvX not appear as palpable as tliofe
we have already made, particularly as fome habits are formed
at fo early an age that it is very difficult to afcertain whether
the actions that fpring from them are from habit or from na-
ture. But fuppofmg fuch a principle as inllindt, fuch as we
have defcribed it, the actions that fpring from it muft differ
from fuch as are habitual in this, " that the former mull be
from nature, and the latter acquired." Habit has been de-
fined to be a facihty of doing, and not only a facility, but
alfo a pronenefs to do certiiin things from having done
tliem frequently before. This definition, however, is
manifellly not applicable to habits of art, but only to
fuch as can be properly called principles of a^ion. (Sec
Hadit.) Inftinctive aclions agree v.ith habitual ones of the
latter kind in this, that they are both performed without in-
telligence will, or delign ; and this has accordingly induced
Dr. Reid to confound them, and to clafs tljcm, very im-
properly we think, under the head of mechanical aftions.

Their agreeing in a few particulars cotild not warrant him in
reducing them to the fame clafs, particularly when he tells
us himfelf, that " the origin of one is natural, of the other
acquired." 5ut, befides this, the habitual aftions of man
feemto want altogether t]at fpoiilaneity which we obferve in
the inftinftivc actions of the other animals ; fuch as neft-
building, for intlance, and the operations of bees, dercribcd
in a fubfeqvient part of this article, or the migrations of
birds of palfage " through the pathlefs air without cliart or
compafs." One inllance of an action confeffedly habitual
will illuftrate this more fully. Let us take that motion of
the eye-lids which occurs almoft every inftant. This aftion
cannot be the neceffary refult of mechanifm, as we fee that
children do not, for fome days after birth, clofe their eye-Hds
on the approach of external objects. But as foon as fomC
object (fuppofe too much light)' has made them feel inconve-
nience or pain, and thus produced a voluntary or mechanical
motion of the eye-lids, this effect becomes gradually fo in-
timately affociatcd with its caufe, that even the appearance
of the candle will produce the effedl. And, finally, habit
gives us fo great a pronenefs to this aftion, that we perform
it conllantly, amidll all our occupations, without confciouf-
ncis, will, or fpontaneity ; and even without perceiving that,
in every waking minute of our lives, we are feveral moments
totally in the dark. And fo far is this motion from being a
voluntary act, that it requires a ftrong exertion of will and
attention to check it, even for a {hort time ; but do what we
will, we can never check it altogether. To avoid being mif-
underftood, it will be neceffary to illuftrate more fully tlie
dillindtion between habits o^' art, in which we acquire a faci-
lity only from frequent practice, fuch as playing expertly on
the violin or harpfieliurd, and thofe habits, which, belides a
facility, induce alfo s. pronenefs to act; for inftance, in that
motion of the eye-lids juft defcribed, and many other awk-
ward motions and habits learned from bad example and bad
company. This is the more neceffary, as it has not been
illuitrated fufficiently by any author with whom we are ac-
quainted ; and forcibly calls to our recollection the words of
a French writer, who remarks: " Tout fe tient dans un cer-
tain ordre de fpcculations : Voulez vous developer une ve-
ritc ? II faut en cclaircir vingt autres, qui I'avoifinent, et
dont Inlumiere vient, pour ainfi dire, I'cclairerpar reflexion. '
Habits of the latter kind may be properly called principles
ofaftion; habits of art ca.nnot. Thefe require thought, at-
tention, and will in the performance of their operations ;
« hilit the others require no fmall exertion of thought, atten-
tion, and will to check them. Nor can they, even thus, be
completely overcome, until, by repeated exertions, a counter
habit is cilabhfhed, which is the beft way to obviate their
effects. It was this that made Dr. Reid lay, " I conceive it
to be a part of our conllitution, that what we have betn ac-
cullomed to do we acquire not only a facility, but a pronenefs
to do on hke occafions ; fo that it requires a particular will
or effort to forbear it, but to do it require.^;, very often, no
will at all. We are carried by habit, as by a flrea'm in fwim-
ming, if we make no relidance." Dr. Reid diftiugi. idles,
thefe two fpccies of habits as we do; but in fome paffages
he fcems to confound them, for he claffes them and inllinct
under the head of mechanical principles. Thus, he fays,
" Habit differs from inllindt, not in its nature but in its
origin ; the latter being natural, the former acquired. Botk
operate without will or intention, without thought, and
therefore may be ca'led mechanical principles.'' (See-
H.\BIT.) From both thefe paff.iges it would feem that le
meant habit in general ; for the ali'ertions are not qualified in
any fliape. If fuch was his opinion, his doclriiie agrees
exadly with that of Dr, HnrtW, wht>ftt lan)^iage ailord*

INSTINCT.

tio opportunity for being in doubt about his meaning. But,
for our part, we cannot help thinking it more pliilofophical
to admit any pofiibly conceivable rapidity in our intelleftual
operations, tlian to fuppofe, that any aftion performed with
fo much corrcftnefs, and with fiich rapidity, as violin and
harpfichord playing in fome inftances, can be merely habitual,
or automatic ; that is, in every one of its minute fub-divifions
altogether unconnctted with the exertions of the will. In
habits of art, then, we deem it more corredl to admit the
interference of the will ; but in the other clafs, which only,
becaufe they give not merely a facility, but alfo a pronenefs
to aft, ought to be called principles of aftion, we fee no
reafon for admitting its interference in any refpeft. A dif-
ferent opinion feems to be maintained in a late elegant trea-
tife, for whofe author we have a high refpeft. Upon this
we fhall offer a few remarks ; but we have not as yet done
with Dr. Rcid. After having attentively examined what
he has written on this fubjeft, we do not think that he in-
tended to include habits of art in tlie paflages cited above.
Surely fo correil an obfcrver of nature could not think, that
in habits of arl, fuch as pin-making and violin playing, we
acquire, from frequent doing, " not merely v^ facility, but
alfo ?Lproner.cfs to do the fame thing on like occafions." In
all habits of art we acquire more or lefs of facihty, but
furely no pronenefs, as Dr. Reid aflVrts uf the habits he had
in view in one of the paflages cited above : for who can aflert
with any truth, that a violin-player feels a particular pronenefs,
or inward impulfe, to play upon that favourite inftrunient, as
often as it is prefented to him ? And yet he has acquired a
facility in playing, from having often played before. The
truth feems to be, that Dr. Reid, after tiating the diftinftion
of habits already mentioned, threw the habits of art into the
back groimd altogether. This, indeed, is llrongly con-
firmed by the circumltance, that in the effay and chapters to
which we allude, he treats only of what can be called ^jv'h-
cipks of aaioa, which he defines to be " every thing that in-
cites us to aft ;" and particularly when he tells us that habits
of arl, fince they give only a facility, cannot with propriety
be called principles of aftion. " Habit," he fays, "is com-
monly defined a facility of doing a thing, acquired by having
done it frequently. This definition is fufficient for habits of
art ; but the habits which may, with propriety, be called
principles of aftion, mull give more than a facility, tliey
muft give an inchnation, or impulfe, to do the aftion ; and
that, in many cafes, habits have this force, cannot be
doubted." It deferves to be remarked, that in this paffage
, j^^ he does not fay, that habits give :s.prouencfs (in his own words,

^ ' an inclination or impulfe) to aft in fiwy cafe, which he

fhould have done, if he meant to bring habits of art under
the olifervation. He only lays, " that habits give an incli-
nation or impulfe in many cafes ;" which feems to prove, that
he meant only " thoCe habits, which may, with propriety,
be called principles of aftion." This opinion is ftill further
ftrengthened by the following e.\traft : " Ariftotle makes
vvifdom, prudence, good fcnle, fcicnce and art, as well as
the moral virtues and vices, to be habits. If he meant no
more, by giving this name to all thofe intelleftual and moral
qualities, than that they are all ftrengthened and confirmed
by repeated afts, this is undoubtedly true. I take the word
■ in a lefs extenfivc fenfe, when I confider A«toj- <w/>Wnf/^/f^ o/"
aRion. I conceive it, &c." (as quoted above.) In this ex-
traft he tells us, that he takes the word habit in a confined
fenfe, meaning only fuch habits as he calls principles of allion.
And lie has already told us, that habits of art do not come
under that denomination. If the latter part only of the
par.igraph be attended to, it feems to fhew that Dr. Reid
held the fame opinion on this point with Hartley ; but if the

whole be taken together, and interpreted with fairnefs, an4
confidered in conneftion with our remarks on the fubjeft, we
think it will appear more probable, that Dr. Reid meant
only a particular fpecies of habits, thofe wiiich he calls ^c//;-
ciphs of adion, and that he did not intend to charaderize fuch
habitual aftions as violin and harpfichord-playing, as involmi-
tary and mechanical. It muft not be concealed, that pro-
feftbr Stewart of Edinburgh feems to think otherwife of
Dr. Reid's meaning ; and that he has proved, partly in con-
fequence of that opinion, that fome ot our habitual aftions
are under the guidance of the will. From the preceding
remarks it will appear, that our opinion differs not from the
learned profeftbr's, if he means only habits of art : but if he
means to bring the other clafs of luibits under the influence
of the will, (as it is probable he does, for he talks of habitual
aftions in general, and does not even hint at a diftinftion,)
we cannot help thinking, as even analogy itfelf affords no
fupport to this opinion, that lie «as fvvayed too much by an
over-ardent zeal for premature generalization. It deferves
to be remarked, as an additional proof of the fairnefs with
which we have interpreted Dr. Reid's opinion, that he fays
nothing of habits of art in his chapter on habit, except men-
tioning one folitary inftance, merely to fhew " the power of
habits and their utility ;" whereas he exprefsly mentjons, as
bcL*nj'ing to that fpecies which he calls principles of auion,
many " awkward habits in addrefs, motion, looks, geflure,
and pronunciation, acquired by frequenting bad company ;
to forbear which, when fully formed, a general refohition
(he fays) is not fufficient." He even affirms, that particular
attention is necelTary, on every occafion, to refiit their im-
pulfe, until they be undone by the habit of oppofing them :
for thcfe habits operate without intention." It is remarked
by profefTor Stewart, on the fubjeft of habitual aftions, " that
the circumftance of our inability to rccolleft our volitions
does not authorize us to difpute their poifibility." To this
obfervation we have no objeftion ; but when he further con-
tends " that it does not add any force to the objeftion, to
urge, that there are inftancesin which we find it difficult, or
perhaps impolfible, to check our habitual aftions by a con-
trary volition ;" we muft remark, that this very circum-
ftance, fince it has not been obviated, renders the objeftion
infuperable, and the doftrine againft which it m.ilitates, fo
far as that relates to the fpecies of habits which we have
called principles of action, altogether inconclufive. I.et any
one try, by the moll firm and perfevering efforts, to check
for a fliort time the moll common of all habits, that of clofing
the eyelids, and he will find, though he may fucceed for a
few moments, that he cannot do fo altogether. Nor is it an
anfwer to this faft to fay " that the contrary volition does
not remain with us fteadily, during the whole operation ;
but is merely a general intention, or refohition, which is
banifhed from the mind as foon as the occafion prefcnts it-
felf, with which the habitual train of our thoughts and voli-
tions is affociatcd." For the time requifite for trying this
experiment, and being defeated in it, is fo very fliort, that
the contrary volition may be eafily kept in view, all the
while, without its dwindhng away into " a gener^.l intention
or rcfolution ;" and befides, if the perfon who tries the ex-
periment, thinks that he is unable to keep up the counter-
volition fteadily himfelf, he can eafily have an afTiftant or
two, to fit near him, and remind him to keep his thoughts
and attention fixed upon the objeft in view. Some may per-
haps urge that this motion of the eyelids is iii/lindive ; but
by the learned profefTor himfelf it is allowed to be haliilual.
\Ve may befides remark, that there is a wide difference
between our being unable to recolleft the volitions, which
in this theory arc fuppofed to precede all our habitual aftion?,

and

INSTINCT.

and that Hate of mind in which we are not onlv not con-
fcious of any fuch volitions, but fully aware tliat the habitual
adions occur, even when we are confcious of having exerted
the ftrongcit efforts of volition to prevent them. But to
conclude this preliminary, but necetfary, difcuflion, we
may, by way of recapitulation, otforve, if theexpofition we
have been giving be correal, that the difference between the
four fpecies of actions under one confideration confilh nearly
in tlie following circnmftances. That rational actions are
done with inlill'igsnce, tuill, and dfjign on the part of the agent ;
InfliiiSive ^A\ons fpantancoujly, but with no proper intelligence
or deligii in the doer ; mechanical actions without will, fpon-
tan.-ity, delign or intelligence ; and /'.i/v.'rW actions, like me-
chanical ones, (we mean the habits that may be properly
called principles of attion,) without fpontaneity, defign, or
i;itelligence ; but differing in this, that they are accidental in
their origin, and in many in^ances capable of being checked
and even removed by contrary habits ; whereas miclunictil
aftions, properly fo c.iilcd, are in a manner necefTary in
their origin (for inftance circulation, fecretion and refpira-
tion in anim:ils), and can never be removed or fupprell'ed al-
together, witliout the dellrudlion of the animal, by any vo-
luntary effort of ours.

As we are of opinion, that the origin at leaft of fomc of
the adions of man cannot be explained, unlefs we admit the
exiftence of fuch a principle as inltinft, it becomes neccf-
fary to confider fome of thofe aftioiis of the lower animals,
which are generally allowed to be inltinftive. This ftep
feems tiie more neceffary, as the exigence of inftinit, even
in the lower animals, feems of late to have been wholly de-
nied, iince it has been afl'erted, in a " Nev.' Syllem of the
Natural Hiftory of Animals," publilhed in Edinburgh, in
J vols. Svo. by Peter Hill, in i 79 1 ; " that the laws of ana-
logical reafoning do not juftify the opinion, that the brutes
aft, on any occaiion, abfolitely without defign." Whiiil,
on the other hand, it has been maintained by Mr. Smellie,
in his " Philofophy of Natural Hiilory," " that between
reafon and inftinft there is no difference, and that the rea-
Coning faculty is itfelf the necefTary refiilt of inllinCt."
Nothing can be more direC;tly oppofite than both thefe opi-
nions ; and like moll extremes, nothing can be more eafily
fhewn to be falfe. To prove that fome of the natural ope-
rations of the lower animals are not performed with delign,
or with a view to confequences, in oppofition to the former,
many examples will not be necefhiry ; and tirll, let us attend
to the operations of the winged tribe. The youngefl pair
of birds, it is known, without inllruftion or experience,
build their firlt nefl of the materials commonly ufed by their
fpecies ; in fituations, whofe privacy, S:c. render them fit
to afford them fecurity, and ccnivenient for incubation and
the rearing of their young. It is alfo certain, that they
Ihew equal fl<ill with the o'deft and moft pradifcd of their
tribe, in the neatnefs, accuracy, and fymmetrvof their work.
It is furtl'.cr known, whenever the chmatc or fituation, or
any change of circumllances renders a change in the ftrnc-
ture of nells necefTary, that this change is made by all the
individuals (young and old) of the fame fpecies equally, and
that only when fuch a change is necefTary. Thus, " in
countries infeHed with monkies, many birds, which, in other
Climates, build in bufhes and clefts of trees, fufpend their
nefts upon P.ender twigs, and, by this ingenious device, elude
the rapacity of their enemies." It is moreover certain, that
no improvement has been made, within the memory of man,
in the art of nefl-building, by any tribe, or by any of its
individuals. Now the nature of all tin; arts with which we
are acquainted is .fuch, and their hiilory fhcws us, that they
were firll invented by fome porfon, and then improved in

Vol.. XIX.'

the courfe of time, either by the inventor or by others, and
finally brought to fome degree of gerfeflion. Hiltory and
experience alfo Ihew, that human arts are befl known and
practifed with motl .fkill and dexterity in general, by thofe
only to whom they have been taught ; and that in different
ages and countries they all undergo confiderabk' variations.
But in the arts of animals we ohferve no fjch variations ;
nor can any individual be pointed out as, the inventor, the
improver, or the pcrfcAor of any of them ; for inllance,
of nefl-building. Each of them is perfectly fliilled in the
wqrkmanfliip of its tribe ; we do not fay that they know
the nature and the rules of the different arts which they prac-
tife ; but that they are acquainted with the mode of work-
ing in them to perfeftioa. How many very fimple arts do
we daily fee pradifed by our fpecies, without being able to
praftife them, or learn them ourfelves. What a long ap,
prcnticefliip is generally necefTary before we can praclif^
even fome of the most common and necefTary. A peafant
fpends months and years under his fimple roof, and yet is not
able often to build fuch a hut as that he inhabits. Birdi
require no fuch teaching or experience : they fervcd no
apprenticefliips ; and yet a pair of yoimg birds kept folitary
and fequeftered from their infancy, build exaftly fuch another
nefl as that in which they themfelves had been brought into
life. But what is the inference to be drawn from thefe faiSs ?
If the natural actions of the lower animals, for inllariC(»
this of nefl-building, be all under the influence of motives,
in other words, rctioml, we muft conc'ude, iince they are
fo invariable, either that their workmanfliip is perfeft be-
yond the reach of improvement, or fo imperfeft as not to be
capable of degenerating. The former of thefe conclulions
cannot be fupported, unlefs it be contended at the fame tine,
that the lower animals have made more early and greater dif-
coveries and advances in the arts and fcienccs than vi-e have.
Nor will the latter be m.aintained by any man, who confider«
the ftrufture of a honey-comb, or who rcflefts, that all the
flciU of man has never yet excelled the workmanfliip even of
a wren in the ftrufture of fuch a neft as he builds. How.
ever, if the fuppofition be admitted, the former feems the
better inference. But, if this doftrine be true, we mull fay,
that birds are good judges ef climnte and circumllaiices ;
that they know th^ dangers and advantages relulting from
them, and the beft methods for obviating the former and
fecuring the latter. We muft fay, thnt reafoning fhews
them the ncceflity of equahty in the ftructure of their nells ;
or when, after having been abfent for fome time, they turn
their eggs fo as to heat them prop'»rly, and at all times
equally, we mull think, that they know heat, and even an
equal diftribiition of it, to be necefTary for incubation.
Bit as none of thefe can, we think, be afSmied with tiie
fmallell appearance of truth, and iince thofe aftions of
birds are, without teaching, habit, or cxperitnce as per-
feftly performed by the young as by the old, and always lo
invariable, we mull conclude, that in thefe inilances we
(iifcover not the reafoning of animals, pointing to confe-
quences and deviling means, but the unerring reafon and
wifdom of Him who made them, and implanted fuch prin-
ciples in their conllitutions as guide them unceafingly in the
performance of tiicir various natural o;:crations, the complete
purpofes and utility of which He only knows. Our reafoning
is confirmed by that of Addifon — " What," fays he, " caa
we oall the principle wliich direfts every different kind of
bird to obferve a particular plan in the ilrufture of its neit,
and direfts all of the fame fpecies to work after the lame
model .' It cannot l)e imitation; for though you hatch a ^
crow under a hen. and never let it fee. any of the v/orks of
its own kind, the nell it makes Ihall be the /ame, to the- .
Cc lavuij

INSTINCT.

laying of a ftick, with all the other nefts of the fame fpe-
eies. It cannot be reafnn ; for were animals endued with
it to as great a degree as man, their bviiidings w«uld be as
different as cur's, according to the different conveniences
that they would propofe to thtmfelves." Seme birds dif-
play a wonderful fliare of fagacity in the protels of incu-
bation and in rearing their yoimg. Without attentive and
cautious obfervation, one woidd be a!moft pofitive, that in
.every ftep they are guided by reafon. But it is eafy to
fliew that this is not the cafe. Let us take a very familiar
inltance : a hen feeks a lllcnt and an unfrequented place for
her neit ; when fhe has laid her eggs and began to cover
them, ftie takes care to turn tiiem frequently, that the vital
warmth may be communicated to all parts of them. When
fhe is obhge.i to leave them, in order to procure food, fhe
is fureto return before they have time to cool, which would
j*ender tliem incapable of producing chickens. In fumnier
ihe will often flay away for two hours ; but in winter, when
the cold would deflroy the principle of life, fhe flays away
a much fliorter tim-.-. When the birth approaches, with
how much nicety and attention does fhe help the little ones
to break their prifon. When brought forth, how cauti-
oufly does {he cover them from tlie injuries of the weather,
provide them proper nourifhment, and teach them to help
themfelves. It deferves alfo to be remarked, that fhe forfakes
the neft if, after the ufual time of reckoning, the young do
not begin to make their appearance. Can any thing have a
greater appearance of reafon and fagacity than all this.
'» But, at the fame time, the hen that has all this fecniing
ingenuity (which is indeed abfohitely neceffary for the pro-
pagation of the fpecies), conlidered in other refpefts has
not the leafl glimmering of thought or common fenfe.
She miltakes a piece of chalk for an egg ; and fits upon it
in the fame manner ; fhe is infenllble of any increafe or di-
minution in the number of thofe fhe lays ; fhe does not
diftinguifh between her own and thofe of another fpecies ;
and when the birth appears of ever fo different a bird will
cherifh it for her own. In all thefe circuniilar.ces, which do
not carry an immediate regard to the fubliftence of herlelf
pr her fpecies, fhe is a very idiol." None of thefe inllances
juftifies the doftrine, '• that animals, in all their natural ope-
rations, acl with a view to confequences." To confirm our
reafoning and opinion flill farther, out of the numberlefs
examples afforded us by Natural Hidory, we fliall content
ourfelves with one, which, if we miftake not very mucli, is
decifive of thisquflion. This we take from the operations
of the bee, as it feems to aft with a view to confequences, and
to be, as was faid of the ant, " baud ignara et non incauta
futuri.' Let us attend a little to the iliructure of a honey-
comb. The cells of the bees are equal and fimilar ; and of
the three pofTible ways in which this can be etfetled, they have
chofon the befl for holding their honey and rearing their
youpg. The cells are built on both fides : they may then
be placed exadly oppoliie one another, fo that two wou'd
lefl upon the fame bottom ; or tliey may be fo placed, that
the bottom of one will relt upon the point where the par-
titions meet on the oppolite fide. Tiiis latter mode gives
them more llrength^ and they nre accordingly built thus.
Further, the bottoms of tiie cells are not planes perpendi-
cular to the fides, but conlilV of three planes meeting in a
folid agk-in the centre, exaftly where the partitions on the
oppofite fide crofs one another. And it has been demon-
j;rated, that this makes tlie ceils fimilar without Infs of room,
and confiderably fpares both labour and materials. Thus,
then. It IS fhewn, that bees build their cells fo as as lofe no
room ; to liave no ufelefs partitions ; in the flrongell polfi-
Vle Bianuvr ; aod willi the Kail polFible expe .ce of labour

and materials. All this, as far as geometry and mathemav
tics can fhew it, has been rigoroufly demonflrated by Mt.
Maclaurin, and proves them, on the fuppofition that they act
with a view to confequences in this inltance, more (killed in
both thefe inftances than the moft philofophical and learned
men ; and that too from the earliefl ages. But as this is a
doftrine too improbable to be infilled upon, we muft rather
conclude, that the bees, although they act geometrically,
underfland neither the rules nor the principles of the
arts which they pradife with fuch accuracy ; but that the
geometry in this inflance is in the Maker of the bee,
" that Great Geometer, who made all things in number,
weight, and meafure." ( Reid's Aftive Powers of Mas,
and the London Philofopiiical Tranfadions.) Were a man
to conltrucl fo nice a piece of workmanfhip as a honey-
comb, we should immediately conclude, that he worked
according to rule, and underftood the principles upon which
he proceeded. Is it neceffary to remark, that we have no
reafon whatever for thinking, that bees underfland one or the
other I In the moft complicated works of human con-
trivance, a man of equal knowledge and ll<ill will compre-
hend tfie principles and general deiign of the artill : but
to uncferftand the rules and principles, which are fo rigo-
rouflv adhered to in the conllrutling of a honeycomb, is,,
and will always be, beyond the comprehenfion of the far
greatell part of mankind. The few inllances of animal
in/IinSive operations, which we have now briefly detailed,
will, we hope, be fufficient for the prefent : they corre-
fpond fully with our notion and explanation of inftinft, and
fcrve our purpofe, as well as a million of inftances crowded
together. But it is objefted, that this inftindl, which we
call a limple, original principle, accommodates itfelf to cir-
cumftances ; that it is improved by experience and imita-
tion ; that no fuch accommodation to circumftances can
take place without reafoning, or a comparifon of ideas ;
and, therefore, that tliis principle of the conftitution of the
lower animals is not injlinff, but rettfon. The inftances to
prove that inftincf accommodates itfelf to circumftances are
numerous. Birds ftay away from their eggs longer in warm
than cold weather. Theollrich in Senegal, where the heat is
great, negledts her eggs during the day, but fits on them
during the night : but at the Cape of Good Hope, where
the heat is lefs, flie fits on them both night and day. In
countries infefted with monkies, birds, which in other cH»
males build iii buflies and clefts of trees, fufpend their nefls
upon flender twigs, and thus elude their enemies. The
fame fpecies of birds build their nefts differently, when cli-
mate and circumftances require it. We have numberlefs
inllances of this accommodation to circumftances in the
pairing inlliiKls of animals. None, it has been obferved,
ever pair, except thofe whofe young require the nurfing
care of both the parents. The extent and continuance of
the parental care are in the proportion of the wants and help.
lefliiefs of the young. When the wants of the young
ceafe, the mother withdraws her fondnefs, and leaves them
to provide for themfelves ; but the love of the parent may
be lengthened out beyond iis ufual time, as we fee in birds,
which continue to feed their young, if they are tied to the
neil, or confined within a ca,;e, or by any other means ap-
pear to be out of a condition of fuppKing their own ne-
celfities. This Ml inftance, whilft it very iinely exemplifies
an accommodating inftinft, affords the happiell proof of
the guiu-dian care of a kind and parental Providence. In
aiifuer to the objedlion which thefe fatts contain, it may be
firll obferved, that taking inllinft, as it is generally de-
fined, to be a principle in the conftitution of animals, given
them by their Maker, for the purpofe of preferving the

individuals

INSTINCT.

Individuals and continuing the kind, in other words, a pre-
djfpofition to pc-rform certain adions neceirary for thefe
ends, when incited by certain feehngs or fenfafions, that
its accommodating itfelf to ciicutnilances and iituations ii
no argument agaitift its exiilcnce, nor a good proof, that
it is tlip rcfult of rcafoning ; liiice He, who made it a
jjart of tiie conllitution of his creatures, knows, that the
lame ends mull be often fought by dift'erent means, par-
ticularly when times, places, and circumilances are altered ;
and only manifefts his wifdom and goodncfs the more, by
conllituting this principle of fuch a nature, as to vary when
requifite, and to change only when fuch a change is necef-
fary. Let us add to this, that did He not impart this ac-
commodating property to inltinft, it would not produce the
effefts for which it feems intended ; as we know it to be
impoffible, that limilar means fhould produce fimilar effeiSts,
when circuullanecs, climates, and fituations, are different.
Indeed this accommodating peculiarity, fo far from being a
good argument againll it, is a ncceffary conftquence of m-
Itiiidl. The abettors of this principle do not maintain, that
the accommodating variations will take place on every occa-
fion. They will occur only where the difadvantages exift,
againft which the inltinft is intended to provide. Inilinftive
aftions take place when certain fenfations exill, and when
thefe do not exift, we cannot wanrier that the actions do
not occur. In tiic following remarks we folbvv the learned
author of "Ancient Metaphyfics," a work, in «hich we
find a juft view of the fubjeft of in(lin6t. Before we po-
sitively conclude, that no accommodation to circumlhmces
can take place without rcafoning, or a comparilon of ideas,
it may not be irrelevant to confider fo;ne of the appear-
ances which the vegetable and inanimate worlds exhibit.
If, becaufe the operations of fome animals are fo artificial,
and becaufe they fometimes accommodate their aftions to
circumilances, we muft fay, that they reafon and compare
ideas, we muft contend, that vegetables and inanimate bo-
dies do fo likewife : we know, that a vegetable reared in a
dark cellar, if fome light be admitted, will bend itfelf to-
wards the light : or, if made to gro.v in a flower-pot with
its head downwards, that it will turn its head upwards, ac-
cording to the natural pofition of a plant. Can it be main-
tained, that the plant in either cafe dues what it does from
any judgment or opinion, that it is belt, and not from a
iiecelTary determination of its nature ? The facis taken from
the inanimate world are equally in point. How fhall we
account for the phenomena of eleftive attractions ? when
one body unites with another, and then, if a third is pre-
fented to it, quits the firft and unites itfelf with the other,
fhall we fay that this is the effed of reafoning and of a com-
parifon of ideas, and fuppofe, that this preference of the
one to the other proceeds from any predileClion or opinion,
that it is better to cleave to one than to the other ? What
fiiall we fay of the cryftallizations and configurations of
falls exhibited to us bv the microfcope, fo various and yet
fo conllant and regular ? Mull we fay, that their minute
particles reaion and compare ideas, becaufe their operations
are fo various, and, at the fame time, fo regular and con-
ilant ? Or, if nobody affirms this, why ftiould we think,
that the aclions of animals, not more various and furprizing,
not more conllant or regular, than thefe motions of the falts,
fliould be the rcfult of rcafoning and of a dedudion of in-
ferences ? Should we not rather affirm, as thofe inanimate
fubllances arrange thcmfelves fo retrularly, and yet fo va-
rioufly, upon different occafions, in confequence of an origi-
nal law of nature, that the benevolent Author of all fuch
laws, intending to difplay his providence and wifdom Hill
more confpicuouily in his animal kingdom,' beftowed upon

his creatures this accommodating inftinft, without wnich;
(fuppofing that they aft inllindively on anyoccafion) the
great purpofes of their propagation and prcfervalion could
never be attained ? This objcdion, upon which we have been
commenting, is contained in the " Syftcm of Natural Hif-
tory" already mentioned in this article. The compilers of
that work have been carried much too far in their zeal to
do away Mr. Smellie's very unphilofophical notions con-
cerning inftintt : and, although we have read over their opi-
nions with much attention, we are ftill at a lols in fome
parts to comprehend their me?.ning. Their differtation on
the fubjed is but fliort, and yet, we think, they often con-
tradict'themfelvcs. One time you would fuppofe, that they
admit fuch a principle as inftinft in the lower animals ; at
another they feeni to rejeft it altogether. This latter, in-
deed, f-em.s to be th? fairefc account of their opinions.
What theory they had in view, when they called inftind a
rr.echar.lcal principle, we know r.ot. It could not be the
exploded dodrine of Des Cartes, nor the equally unphilo-
fophical theory of Buffon, which has been fo fully and fo
ably refuted by Condiil.ic. Periiaps they referred to Dr.
Reid's, who, as we have already obferved, calls inftind a
mechanical principle. We are equally at a lofs for their
allufions, when they call brutes irfenjlble injlrummts under
the influence of inftind, which they denominate a " myile-
rious influence." None of the advocates for inftind, fo
far as we know, have ever held this abfurd opirion. On the
contrary, they all allow them not only fmfbiUty, but even
fpontanctty, in their inftinftive operations. And, when they
are allowed to poffefs thefe, we cannot deny them conjciouf-
ntfs, by which they muft know that they are ading. I'he
fupporters of inftind afTert no more than this, fince fome of
the natural operations of animals are fo complicated, and
yet fo perfcd and invariable, that it is irrational, with fuch
evidence as we poffefs, to fuppofe them acquainted with the
rules of the arts which they pradife, or the ends fcr which
they operate. Thefe, however, are known to Him, and
perhaps to Him only, who im] lai;ted fuch principles 1:1
their conftitutions, as d.red them unerringly in all their ways.
Befides thofe now mentioned, there are ion-.e other n.iiiake*
and errors in this work on the fubjeCt under difcufEon.
Thefe, however, with one exception, we fhall pafs unnoticed.
The error we mean, and which, indeed, is not peculiar to
thefe writers, is their fuppofing, that the advocates of in-
ftind deny reafon altogether to the brutes. But this opi-
nion is wholly groundlefs. That fome animals difplay won-
derful fagacity and docility, that they even reafon on fevc.-ai
occafions, is, we think, clear from the moft fatisfadory cvi-
dence. We fhall mention a few lads in fugport of this
opinion. On the northern coaft of Ireland a fneiid of Dr.
Darwin's faw above a hundred crows at once preying upon
mufcles : each crow took a mufcle up into the air twenty
or forty yards high, and let it fall upon the ftonef, and thu.s,
by breaking the lliell. got poffelEon of the animal. A few
years ago there was (hewn at Exeter Change, London, an
old monkey, who having loft his teeth, ufed, when nuta
were prefcnted to him, to take a flone in his hsnd, .-"Ld
crack them with it one by one ; thus, ufmg mears, like
the crows in the preceding inftance, to accomplifc his pur-
pofes as well as we do. We are told by Linnsrs,
that the martin dwells on the outlide of houfes in Eu-
rope under the eaves; R-d that, when it has built lU
iicft, the fparrow frequently tr.kfs poffefuon of it. The
martin, unable to diiiodge his ir.tri'dirg enemy, convokes
his companions, fome of v.hom guard the captive, whiiii
others bring clay, completely cTofe up the entrance of
the neft, and then fly away, leaving the fparrow to be fuffo-
' C c 7. catedj

INSTINCT,

■fated, as the •pimlthment due to his injuftice and temerity,
ytils Faft is mentioned in the " Amufcment Piii'ofophique,
'f?c.." of Fatl)ei- Bougeant. I'liei'e is alio an inltance ol" it
ill the " Gc;nt!ciVian's .Magazine ;" iu which we find alio
fomp intereiUng pai-ticul?r3 concerning a raven kept, fomc
years ago, at the Red I^ion at Hiingerlqi-d. Tlic account
is, however, too long to be tranfcribed, although vary much
to our pivfer.t p'lirpofe. We rccolka feeingi a few) ears
ago, a very fenfible cat, vvhicli, when out at night, woii'd
tap regularly at the windows, if the doors and Ihutters v.ere
clofed ; knowing by experience, that fiie was often let in at
the windows by day. And wIm: i.-. Ilu' a ti:".i,i- ; net oi l.tr
■ reafouing and fagacity, (lie w '
windows, when dilappoinl' ■'
night was far advanced. /\ ■ : -

qtiainted, had a tame bird, wiiich llh- v.;!;:n tlic i::)!)'! '.>t
letting out of its cage about her room every day. One
morning as it was picking up fomc crumbs of brcvul off tlie
carpet, her cat, wlio always before fhcwcd givat kindnefs
for the bird, fei/.ed it on a ludden, and jumped, wi'Ji it in
her mouth, upon a table. The lad;', alarmed fjr the iate of
her favourite, on turning about, ob'ervLd that ihe door had
been left open, and that a (Irange cat had ju!l come into the
room. After turning it out, her own cat came down from
-her place of fafety, and dropped the bird, vvithout injuring,
if we may fo cxprefs it, a hair of its licad. Cowper's beau-
tiful little poem on the dog and the water lily, gives an
amiable inltance of the reafoning of the lower animals,
which has been fo fweetly, and yet with fuch elegant fim-
plicity, told in verfe, that we cannot think of melting it
down into the languid coldnefi of profe. When we fee
brutes thus ufiiig means to obtain their ends, as well as our-
felves, mull we not conclude ihat they reafon ? When the
cat watclies fur hours in filent expectation of her prey ;
when the hound traverfes a wide extent of country in the
chace ; wlien the meaneft infeCl that we tread on, drags its
wounded frame to-a fafe retreat ; thiy fliew as much perfe-
vering voluntarlty as man can boaft. No animal manducates
its food, or laps its drink, from the mere plealure of the mo-
tions. It ufes them as means for an end ; and if hunger and
thirll were not felt, they would be confidered as labours,
and would not be performed. "Animals (fays profefTor
Stewart, -nearly in tiie words of Mr. Hume,) arc left to
make fome fmail acqinfitions, by experience, as fufficiently
appears in certain trii.'cs, from the fagacity of the old, when
contrafted with the ignorance of tlie young ; aild from the
effects wliicli may be produced on many of them, by difci-
pliiie and education." — " It feems as evident to me," fays
Mr." Locke, "that fome animrds do, in certain inllances,
reafon, as that they have fenfe ; but it is only in particular
ideas; juil as they receive them from the fenfes. I'liey are
the belt of tliem tied up within thofe narrow boiHids, and
have not, as I think, the faculty to enlarge therii, by any
kind of abtlraction." The obfervations which Mr. Locke
makes in this part of his work on tlie faculties of tbe brutes,
•as compare'd with ojr's, are in general wery jnll and worthy
of pcriifal. But there are feveral facts, which oiir limits do
not allow 'us to Hate, froin which it is evident that brutes on
feme occafions exhibit proofs of the power of abitraftion.
That an animal can be.capable of gratitude and aifeftion for
its mafter, without reafoning, can, vni think, hardly be
maintained. Frojn the njaller's prpte<ftion and kindnefs, it
infers that it is under- obligations to him, which it owes not
•to another. Before concluding our remarks oh the reafoning
of animals, we may quote one imlance of the affedtion of a
dog, which we think has never bxn furp-iffed. And we
do it the iuof6 readily> as the circumibnce has been very

poetically defcribed by an author, who; witii .all his' grtaS
meriis, fcldom writes better than upon this occafion. The
inftance to which We allude i.s very i(iterelling, from the in-
cident to which it relates, the death of an unfortunate young
gentleman of promifmg talents, who perilhed, b^ji loiing his
wr.y, in the fpring cf 1805, on the mountain Hellvellyn.
His remains vs ere found three months afterwards, guarded
iiiU by a terrier bitch, that had long been ttie companion of
his fuiitary rambles. This lad circumftance in particular, ia
very finely alluded to by Mr. Scott, in his little piece on the
fubject, to which he has given the name of Hellvellyn. A»
tlie few inltances novv lUtcd are fufficicnt, and fpeak fully
i' r tli.-i;,l. I,-;, we fl-iall not add to the number, nor Hop to
: aki- .i:i'; runmients upon them. But it has been aflced, if
\:v allin, n.il'in to the lower animals, in what does the dif-
ference bel-.\ecn them and man conlill ? Do their tacultie*
and our's differ in degree, or in kind ? To this queftion we
have not the vanity of thhiking that we are abie to give a
fatisfadlory anfwer ; we may, hov.-ever, offer a few remarks.
We fee tliat animals learn much from experieixe and obferva-
tion as well as ourfelves. It is thui they learn the nature, or
the properties, of the objefts that furround them, fuch as
heights, deptlis, diftances, &c. " A horfe that has been ac-
cullomed to the field, becomes acquainted with tiie proper
height which he can leap, and wiU never attempt what ex-
ceeds his force and abihty. An old greyhound will trull the
more fatiguing part of the chace to the younger, and will
place himfcflf fo as to meet the hai'e in her doubles ; nor are
the conjedlures which he forms on this occalion, founded in
any thing but his obfervation and experience." By training
and education we can teach our domellic animals much more
than they would ever learn, if left to themfelves and their
ovi'n obfervation. If we put them in new iituations, we fee
that their acquired knowledge is mucli increafed and im-
proved, and that by a proper and ftrift dilciphne we can
train them up to a mode of acting 'direftly contrary to their
iniliniSls, or natural propcnfities. If thefe obfervations be
jull, (and wc cannot fee how they can be quclUoued,} it fol-
lows, that in the lower animals inftinft is fufceptible of very
great and llrikir.g modifications. To produce thefe, how-
ever, ftridl culture and difcipline arc neceffary ; without
which, we do not think, that their own experience and obfer-
vation would ever teach them to deviate much from the line
of acting chalked out to them by their inftinds, or original
propenlilics. And' accordingly we agree with a remark of
Mr. Hume's, "that though animals learn many parts of
their knov/ledge from obfervation, there are alfo many parts
of it which they derive from the original hand of nature,
which much exceed the (hare of capacity they poffefs on ordi-
nary occalions, and in wiiich they improve /Me or nothing, by
the longeit pradice and experience." Yet, notwithitanding
this fulceptibility of improvement by culture and education
in the lower animals, we can never obferve in them any thing
approaching to the knowledge and fagacity of man. They
do not, like him, heap obfervation upon obfervation, they
do not improve by the experience of the paft, nor manifell
any indications of a regard to futurity ; their manufactures
are always llationary, and all their acquifitions of knowledge
periih with the individuid- They never learn the arts of man ;
for inftance, though often as fond of artificial heat as we are,
not one of them has been ever known to lay a piece of coal
or of wood upon the lire to keep it from going out. All
this may be owing to their want of language ; but it feems
llrange, that they poflefs not this art, as fomc of themfeem
to have organs of articulation, as perfeft as our's. They
ufe means, it is true, for obtaining their ends fometimes ;
but thefe in general are very fimple and obvious. They rea-
fon

I N S

ibn too on fo'me occafions ; but t!ie want of language, or of

g iioral iigiis, puts it out of their power to reafon, but on

V ■•;;oalar facls. The pOAers of claffifying obje<fts, of ab-

•l reafoiiitig^, of ufing artificial figiis as iiiilrumeiits of

^ht and of mutual tommuiiic.uioii, ftt^m to be aimed

•ther peculiar to man. From thefe confiderations, and

..1 others, relating both to the intelledlual and moral fa-

cs of man, as coiitrailed with thofeof the lower animals,

.• been inferred, that the regular chain of being every

iv elfe obfervable on our globe, fails entirely here, and

their faculties differ from our's, not in degree, but in

I'hus then we fee, that anin^ils perform certain operations
t! !■ 3xe ne\t\\<iT rational , habitual, \ioT mahamcal ; andalthough
;• .■ .ni!0t be doubted but fotne of them r;;afon in feveral m-
■:, lliil, even from the ihort details now gi%cn, we can-
allow, that their natural operations are performed with a

■ to confequences. Nor ought the effefts of inilincl,

■ hbotirs of birds and bec< for. inilance) appear extra-
ary to u', when we confider what aftor.ilhing effefts

which has been happily called "a fecond nature,"
'.:a us to produce. For inllance, we need go no farther
ilia 1 reading, writing, and playing upon mulical inftru-
ruc'.its, all ot which we learn by great attention, pains, and
ftiuly ; and molt of all, perhaps, coiTeft and quick extem-
porary eloquence. And furely, when the effects of an ac-
quired principle are fo very uncommon, it cannot be deemed
ftrange, that an original principle of the conilitution of aiii-
inals ihould perform works ilill greater or more afconiihing.

INSTrrA, a word ufed by the chirurgical writers, for
a fillet or other bandage of that kind ; and by medicinal
writers, for that fort of flat worms bred in the iateftines
called by many the tape- worm, or flat worm.

INSTITUTE, National, of France, was newly
organized in purfuance of a decree of the French government,
with the advice of the council of ftate, as follows : I. It
is now divided into four clafTcs, vi%. i. Clafs of phylical
and mathematical fciences. 2. Clafs of French language
and literature. 3. Clafs of hi'.lory and foreign literature.
4. Clafs of the fine arts.

The aclual members and foreign afTociatesof the inflitute,
fliall be divided into thefe four chfFfs.

A committee of five members of the inllitiite, named by
theFirft Conful, ihall adjuR this divifion, which fhall be fub-
initted to the approbation of government.

II. The firft clafs flinll be formed of the ten feciiors which
at prefent compofe the lirft clafs of the uiltitute, with a new
fcftion of geography and navigation, and eight foreign affo-
ciates.

The feftions (hail be compofed and called as follows :

r Geometry 6 members.
Mechanics ------ 6 ditto.

^--:— ^'•'^•Attrono.-ny 6 ditto.

. u.eaces. | Qeogntphy and Navigation - 3 ditto.
L General Phyfics - ... 6 ditto.

rChemiflry 6 members.

Mineralogy - 6 ditto..

■Ti'..r^,\ c ■ 1 Botany 6 ditto.

'' ' ''"'; "^ '^'' <! Rural Economy and Veterinary

'"■'"" I Art 6 ditto.

I Anatomy and Zoology - - 6 ditto.
[ Medicine and Surgery . . 6 ditto.
T!i? fi-d clafs ihai! appoint, with the approbation of the
V\rX Conrul, two perpetual fecretarics, one fcrthe mathema-
tical fci'.MCcs, tlie other fcr the phyfical fciences. The per-

I N S

petiul fecretaries fhallbc members of the claf«, but (hall not
form a part of any feftion.

The firft clals may cledl fix of its members from the other
claffes of tiie iniKtute.

It may name an hur.dred corrcfpondentK feleiSed from the
learned men of France and foreign countrie>-.

III. The fecond clafs (hall be compofed of forty mem-
bers.

It is particularly charged with the compolilioTi of th«
dictionary of the French" language. Jt (hall examine, with
refpeft to language, the important works of litcr;:ture,hiftory,
and tlie fciences. The collcftion of its critical obfervations
fha!l be publiflied at lead, four times in a year.

It fliall name from its own body, and vvi'th the approbatiotl
of the Firft Conful, a perpetual fecretary, who (liall continue
to be of the number of the forty members which ctmipofe it.

It may eleft twelve of its members from the other claffes of
the inlHtute.

IV. The third clafs fliall be compofed of forty member^
and eight foreign aiTociates.

The objcdl of its refearches and labours fhall be learned
languages; antiquities and monuments ; hidory, and all the
moral and political fciences ccnr.ecled with hillory. It fhall
particularly apply itfelf to the enriching of French literatur?
with the works of Greek, Latin, and Oriental authors, which
ha»e not yet been tranflated.

It fnall employ itfelf in tlie continuation of diplomatic
collections.

It fnall name from its own body, under the approbation
of the Firft Conful, a perpetual fecretnry, who (hall be of
the number of the forty members which compofe the clafs.

It may eleft nine of its members from the other piaffes of
the inftitute.

It may name fi.xty correfpondents, natives or foreigners.

V. The fourth clafs fhall be compofed of twenty-eight
members and eight foreign afTociates.

They fhall be divided into feclions, defcribed and formed as
follows ;

Painting 10 members.

Sculpture 6 ditto.

Architecture - . . . C ditto.

Engraving - - - . . 3 ditto.

Mulic (cumpofition) - . . 3 ditto.

It fhall appoint, with the approbation of the Firft Conful,

a perpetual fecretary, who (hall be a member of the clafs,

but iliall not be apart of a fection.

It may elect fix of its members from the other clafTeB of
the iadit\ite.

It may name thirty-Cx correfpondents, national or fo-
reign.

VI. The foreign affociated members (liall have a delibera^
live voice only on lubjects of fcier.cc, literature, and the arts ;
they fhall not form part of any fcciion, nor interfere in any
ulage.

VII. The prefent aftual national afTociates of the inftitute
fhall form part of the one hundred and ninety-fix correfpond-
ents attached to the clailes of the fciences, belles lettrcs, and
fine arts.

Correfpondents may not affume the title of members of
the inftitute.

They fhall lofe that of correfpoudent when they fhall be
domiciliated at Paris.

VIII. Nominaticnsto vacant places fhall be m.ade by each
clafs in whicli the vacancy happens; theperfons eletted ihall
be conlirmtd by the Firft Conful.

IX. Tlie mciiibers of the four cb-fTes ftiall enjoy a recipro-

cal

I N S

cbI right to afliil at the particular iittings of each elafs, and
may deliver ledtures when they are requeued.

They (hall re-unite four times in a year into one body, to
communicate their proceedings.

They {hall eleft in common the librarian and under libra-
rian of the inlHtute, as well as all thofe agents who belong
to the iiiilitute in common.

Each clafs fhall prefent for the approbation of the govern-
ment, the particular ftatutes and regulations of its internal
jolice.

X. Each clafs fltall hold one pubhc fitting ever)- year, at
which the other three fliall aiTill.

XI. The inftitute (hall receive annually from the public
treafury ijoo fr. for each of its non-afrociated members,
6000 fr. for each of its perpetual fecretaries ; and for its
expences, a fum which (liall be fi.\ed every year, upon the
demand of the inftitute, and comprifed in the eftimates of
the minifter of tlie interior.

XII. There niall be an adminiftrative comrrittee of the in-
ftitute, compofed of five members, two from the firfl: clafs,
and one from each of the others, named by their refpeftive
clafTcs.

This committee fliall regulate in the general fittings pre-
fcribed by art. IX. all that relates to the adminitlration, to
the general cxpenccs of the inftitute, and to the divifion of
its funds between the four claires. ,

Each clafs (hall afterwards regulate the application of the
fund& afligned to it for its expences, as well as all that con-
cerns the printing and publiftiing its memoirs.

XIII. Every year the clafies fliall diftribute prizes, the
number and value of which (hall be regulated as follows:

The firft clafs, a prize of 3C00 francs.

The fecond and third clafs, each a prize of 1500 firancs.

The fonnh clafs, grand prizes of painting, fculpture,
archileiflure, and mufical compofition. Thofe who fliall have
gained one of the grand prizes (hall be fent to Rome, and
maintained at the cxpence of government.

The above decree was followed by a fecond, appointing
the members of the different claffes, and regulating the days
cf their meeting.

The fittings of the firft clafs are lo be held every Monday ;
thofe of the fecond clafs every Wednefday ; thofe of the
third every Friday, and thofe of the fourth every Saturday.

Thefe fittings are to be held in the fame place, and to laft
from three o'clock till five.

Institutes, Irjluuta, in the Cm'tl Laii', a book,
containing the; elements, or principles of the Roman law ;
and which conftitutcs the laft part of the corpus juris
civVlis.

The inflitutcs are a compendium, or fummary of the
whole body of civil law, in four books, compofed by Tri-
bonianus, Theophilus, and Dorotheus, by order of the
emperor Juftinian, for the life of young ftudents ; who,
having the firft elements of the whole profellion in this
little treatifc, might the fooner gain a competent knowledge
of it without being difcouraged by the bulk of the other
books.

Thefe inftitutes proceed, with no contemptible method,
from I. " Perfons" to II. " Things ;" and from things to
III. Adion.=i;" and the article IV. of " Private Wrongs "
is terminated by thel princi;;les of " Criminal Law." For
an abridged account of tliefe intlitutes, f'e Gibbon's Decl!
and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. vii. See alfo Civil
Law

Institutes likewife denote a fyftcm of law, or rules in
any fcience.

1 N S

INSTITUTION, in a general lenfe, the aft of ordain-
ing, founding, or eftablifhing anything.

Thus we fay, Mofes inftituted the ceremonies of the old
law ; Jefus Chrift inftituted the facraments of the new.

In.stitution, in the Canon and Common Laiv, is the aft
of the biihop, or of one commifTioned by him, whereby a
clerk, after the patron's prefertation has been admitted, is
inverted with the fpiritaalities of a rectory, or vicarage: for
by inftitution the care of t!ie fouls of the parifli is committed
to 'lis charge. See Present.^tion.

The clerk kn -els down before the bi(hop, whilft. he pro-
nounces thefe words of inftitution (inftituo te reftorem
ecclefis de A. B. cum cura anim.arum, & accipe curam
tuam & meam) ; and the clerk holds the written inilru-
ment, with the epifcopal feai annexed, in hie hand, during
the ceremony.

Before the clerk is inftituted, he muft fubfcribe the thirty-
nine articles of rehgion, in the prefence of the ordinary, or
his fubftitute ; and this fubfcription m.uft be without referve,
exception, or quahfication ; elfe his inftitution is, ipfo faSa,
void and null, and the church ftill vacant. 13 Eliz. c. 12. —
At the fame time the ordinary requires the clerk to fubfcribe
the other two articles mentioned in the 36th canon about the
king's fupremacy, and the hwfulnefs and ufe of the litur-
gy : the clerk muft alfo, before inftitution, fubfcribe to that
part of i!ie declaration enjoined by the aft of uniformity,
14 Car. II. c. 24, v'fz. " I will conform to the Liturgy
of England, as by law eftablifned."— Before inftitution, he
mull alfo take the oaths m.entioned in the firft ftatute of
William and Mary, c. 8. inftead of the former oaths of
allegiance and fupremacy, required by ftat. i Eliz. and then
he muft take the oath againft fimony, enjoined by the 40th
canon, and the oath of canonical obedience ; and if it is a
vicarage, the oath of perfonal refidence ; and he is to
have certificates given him of his fubfcribing the declaration
contained in the aft of uniformity, in Engiifh, in a diftinft
inftrum.cnt, under the hand and feal of the bifhop ; and of
his other fubfcriptions and oaths, in Latin.

The clerk ought by a'l means to have witnelTes of his infti-
tution, his taking the oaths, making fubfcriptions, &c. and
therefore he (hould make fome prefent to write their names on
the back of his inftruments, and make memorandums who
they are, and where they live.

The church, by inftitution, is full againft all perfons but
the king, but it is not full againft the king, till induftion ;
aid the clerk by it may enter upon the parfonage houfe and
glebe, and take the tithes ; but he cannot let or grant them,
nor fue f jr them, if they be refufed to be paid till he be
indufted.

After inftitution, the clerk is to receive a written mandate
from the ordinary to the archdeacon, or other proper per-
fon, in order to his induftion ; without which he has not a
full right to his temporalities, unlefs the benefice be a dona-
tive. See Induction.

Institution, Jfncan, a focicty formed by the friends of
the Abolition of the Slave-trade affembled on the 14th of
April 1807, and eftabhfhed on the fubfcquent 15th of Jnly.
The rcfolutions adopted by the conllitilent meeting, as
the bafis of the a(rocialion, are as follow : i. That tliis
meeting is deeply impreifed with a fenfc of the enormous
wrongs which the natives of Africa have fuftered in their in-
tcrcourfe with Europe ; and from a defire to repair thofe
wrongs, as well as from general feelings of benevolence, is
anxious to adopt fuch meafures as are bcft calculated to pro-
mote their civilization and happincfs. 2. That the approach-
ing ceflation of the flaye -trade, hitherto carried on by Great
Britain, America, and Denmark, will, in a confiderabie dc-

gree,

INS INS

pree, remove the barrier which has fo long obftrufted the formation amongft them rcfpcfting the means whereby they
natunil courfe of fecial improvement in Africa ; and that may improve the prefcnt opportunity of fubftitufinfj a benc-
the way will thereby be opened for introducing the comforts ticial commerce in place of the fliive-trade. 4. To intro-
aiul arts of a more civilized (tate of fociety. 3. That the diice amongft them fuch of the improvements and ufeful arts
happieft effects may be reafonably anticipated from dilfufing "f Europe, as are fulled to their condition, j. To promote
ufetul knowledge, and exciting indul^ry among the inhabit- the cultivation of the African foil, not only by exciting and
ants of Africa, and from obtaining and circulating through- directing the induilry of the natives, but by furnifhing,
out tiiis country more ample and authentic information con- where it may appear advantageous to do fo, ufeful feeds and
cerning the agricultural and commercial faculties of that vaft plants, and implements of hufbandry. 6. To introduce
continent; and that through tlie judicious profeciition of amongit the inhabitants beneficial medical difcoveries. 7. To
tlale benevolent endeavours, we may ultimately look for- obtain a knowledge of the principal languages of Africa,
ward to the eftablifhment, in the room of tliat traffic, by and, as has already been fo.md to be practicable, to reduce
which Africa has been fo long degraded, of a legitimate them to writing, with a view to facilitate the difiufion of iii-
and tar more extended commerce, beneficial alike to the na- formation among the natives of that country. 8 To em-
tivi-s of Africa, and to the manufacturers of Great Britain ploy fuitable agents, and to eltablidi correfpondenees, as
and Ireland. 4. That the prefent period is eminently fitted iball appear advilable ; and to encourage and reward indivi-
for profecuting thefe benevolent defigns ; fince the fufpen- dual enterprife and exertion in promoting any of the pur-
fioii, during the war, of that large (hare of the Slave-trade, pofes of the i .lUtution.' — Firll Report. Befides, the fo-
V iuch has commonly been carried on by France, Spain, and ciety has adopted from the beginning, and fince lleadily pur-
Holland, will, when combined with the efl'eift of the Aboli- fued, the refolution of watching over the ftriCt execution of
tion laws of Great Britain, America, and Denmark, pro- the abolition laws — of procuring all information refpeCling
duce nearly the entire ceffation of that traffic along a line of the evafion or breach of thofe laws, which daring fpecula-
coall extending between two and three thoufand miles in tors may attempt — of keeping the attention of the govern-
length, and thereby afford a peculiarly favourable opportu- nient alive, and quickening the exertions of the crown-offi-
nity for giving a new direction to the indullry and commerce cers on thofe points — of fuggelting, from time to time, fuch
ot Atrica. 5. That, for thefe purpofes, a fociety be imnie- improvements in ihole laws as a practical experience of their
d:.;'. 'ly formed, to be called the "African Inftitution." See imperfections, or the change of circun,ilance^, may pouit
li. • iirll report of the fociety, which proceeds to obviate the out ; — and, finally, of promoting, as far as poflible, by com-
ditlic'.ilties which may appear to lie in the way of the attain- municating information, and other appropriate methods, the
incnt of thefe interefting objects; and particularly to re- abohtion of the African Slave-trade in foreign countries,
ir.ove the moft fpecious objection" to the defign, -viz. defpair This latter fervjce is quite effential to the improvement of
cf its fuccefs. The means by which this laudable affocia- Africa ; and it is fuch as a body, like the African inlHtu-
tiuii purpofed to accomplifh its noble and captivating objedts tion, is well adapted to perform The prefldent of the
pre as follow; Firll of all, this inftitution, wife by the ex- African Inftitution is the duke of Gloucefter ; and of the
le of the Sierra Leone company, difclaims in the outfet directors, who chiefly carried on its ordinary bufinefs along
■ojefts of a colonial or commercial nature. It embar- with this dillinguifhed prince, we ihall only mention the
ufelf with no concerns of government — no mercantile names of Mefl'rs. Wilberforce, Thornton, Vanfittart, W.
.i,cculations — no factories or forts— not even with the pof- Smith, Brougham, Ciarkfon, G Sharp, .Alen, Stephen, and
lelfion of a fingle fliip, or an acre of ground. This clears Macaulay, who, much to the advantage of the fociety, un-
the way for exertion, not only by removing every fufpicion dertook the laborious and difficult office of fecretary, until
of unworthy or doubtful motives, but by throwing off a it could be filled by a permanent arrangement. A refpect-
thoufand clogs which mull have hampered an eflablifliment able fubfcription of about 3000/. was immediately raifed.
of a different character. For obvious reafons the fociety At the end of 1808, this liad increafed to 4J74/., of which
alfo difclaims all fchemes of religious miffion ; and avowing, Jji/. arole from annual fubfcriptions. Since that time the
upon that important fubjeCt, not certainly any kind of indif- funds have been augmented by many donations, and the
ference, but a wife and neceffary neutrality, it leaves in lit of annual contributors fooii increafed. For a further ac-
other hands the talk of propagating the gofpel among the count of this inilitution, we refer to its annual reports, and
Africans, and confines its own exertions to the introduction to the Edinburgh Review, No. 30.

of that civilization, which is the belt prep ra.ive for the ly.sTlTUTiONS, in Literary Matters, denote a fyftem

truths of Chriltianity. Not to mention oth r reafons for of the elements, or rules, cf any art or fcience. Such arc

this falutary caution, it has- one molt important and benefi- inltitutions of medicine, inltitutions of rhetoric, &c.

eial effect. It opens wide the doors of tfie inftitution to all INSTI iU i'ORES, in Botany, that fet of authors in

feds and denominations of Chriftians, — whom it thus invites this fcience who have laid down certain fettled rules, axioms,

to co-operate for purpofes equally fubfervient to every form and in iitutlons m it.

of worlhip, and every modification of religious belief. The INS i'RUCTIVE COLUMS. See CoLU.MS.

means wliich it is propofed by this f<>ciety to employ for the INS I'RUMENT denof s a thing'which is fubfervient to

purpofe of promoting civilization and improvement in x^frica, a caufe for producing its effeft.

we of the following kind: " I. To colleft and diffufe A common cafe of mathematical inftruments contains fe-

thruughout this country accurate information refpeCting the veral compalfes, a feftor, fcale, drawing-pen, and protractor.

natural productions of Africa, and, in general, refpeCting A cafe of furgeons initruments for the pocket contains dif-

the agricultural and commercial capacities of the African ferent fized lancets, fciffors of tl-veral kinds, plain and toothed

continent, and the intelledtuai, moral, and political condi- forceps, Itraigh: and crooked ineifion-knives, a fpatula, probes,

Hon of its inhabitants. 2. To promote the inftruction of needles, &c. Allronomical inftruments, are the telelcope,

the Africans in letters and in ufeful knowledge, and to cul- quadran", &c. Chemical inftruments, fee L.vboraTORY.

tivate a friendly connedtlon with the natives of that conti- For the method of dividing mathematical and allronomical

nent. 3 To endeavour to enlighten the minds of the Afri- inllruments, fee EnodJE and Gr.-\DU,\tion.

«ias xkh rcfpcct to their true interelts ; and to diffufe in- Lnstkuments*/' Sacrifice, in the Antique Archltcaure, are

uruameuts.

INSTRUMENT.

otaaments, as vafes, paterae, candlefticks, knives, &c. where-
wich the viftims were killed, &c. inttances of which we fee
in a Corinthian frieze in the remains of a temple behind the
Capitol at Rome, Sec.

Instrument is alfo ufed, in Law, to fignify feme public
aft, or authentic deed, by means whereof any truth is made
apparent, or any right or title ellabUfhed, in a court of juf-
tice;

Instrument, primarily denoting writing, charter, or
record, is fomclimes ufed by Latin writers for the Old and
New Teftamcnt. It occurs feveral times in TerluUian,
reckoned the moll ancient Latin writer of the church now
remaining. He calls the Gofpels, or the New Teftament
in general, the Evangelic Inilrument, ;ind fays, " how large
chafms Marcion has made in the epiflle to the Romans, by
leaving out what he pleafes, may appear from one entire In-
flrument," or one unaltered copy of the New Teftament,
particularly of that epillle. Speaking of the flicpherd of
Hermas, he fays, it was not reckoned a part of the Divine
Indrument ; thereby meaning, as it feems, the New Tefta-
ment, He calls the law and the prophets the Jewifh inllru-
ments, that is, ^Yritings or fcripturcs. He fpeaks of the
antiquity of the Jewifli inllruments, or fcripturcs. He
feems in one place (Apol. cap. iS.) to ufe the word iiiftru-
ment as equivalent to fcripturcs, containing the doftrine of
revelation, or the revealed will of God. Lardner.

In.strumext, in Mufic, is a generical term, under which
all artificial bodies, capable of producing and varying mufical
founds in imitation of the voice, are comprehended. Every
body capable of agitating the air by fome ihock, and excit-
ing by its vibrations in this agitated ftate imdulations fuffi-
ciently frequent, may produce found ; and all bodies capa-
ble of accelerating or retarding ihefe undulations may vary
their fo\mds. See Sounds.

There are three ways of producing found by inftruments:
by the vibration of ftrings, b)- the vibration of elaftic bodies,
and by the collition of air inclofed in pipes. The invention
of thefe inftruments will be confjdered at the word Music.

Inftruments are generally clalFfd under the three following
heads; ftrlnged-iiiftruments, wind-inltruments, and inftru-
ments of percuffion. The ftringed-inftruments of the an-
cients were very numerous. Thofe moft known were the
following : the lyra, pfalterium, trigonum, fambuca, cithe-
ra, pectis, magadis, barbiton, teftudo, epigonium, fimrai-
cum, epandoron, &c. All thefe inftruments were touched
with the fingers or played with a plectrum.

f heir principal wind-inftruraents were the tibia, fiftula,
taba, cornu, htuus, hydraulicon, &c.

Their inftruments of percuffion were the tympanum, cym-
baluni, crepitaculum, tinlinnabulum, crotalum, &c ; but
many of thefe are monotonous, and only render one found.

Of moft of thefe ancient inftruments reprefentatiolis on
plates have been given (Hift. Muf. vol. i.) from drawings
made at Rome under our own eye, and under the guidance
of. Piranefi, and Mefirs. Jenkins, Morrifon and Byers, the
beft antiquaries at Rome in 1770 ; with a defcription and au-
thorities for their local fituation at the time.

The beil books on the fubjeft of ancient mufical inftru-
ments, and the moft wortliy of being confulted, are Blanchini
de Tribus Generibuslnftrumentorum VeterumOrganica ; Ga-
biuelto Armonica, del Bonanni ; Bartblinus de Tibiis Ve-
torum ; and Eifais fur la Mufique par M. Laborde ; who
has given reprefcntations vc-ry neatly engraved of the mufical
inftruments during tlie middle and lower ages, from illumina-
tipjB in ancifjnt MSS. of the Bibl. Royale at Paris in 1780;
wnrch, 'if the wifti to render their delineation pidturefque lu.d
not a little injured their fidelity, would be invaluable.

Instruments, Mufual, of the AbyfTinians, from i
Bruce, the authenticity of whofe account feems to t-

>nger

doubted, we {hall

from his letter inf

Burney's General Hiftory of Mufic, vol. i.

" There are fix mufical inftruments known in Abyf;"
the flute, the trumpet, the kettle-drum, the tambour
the fittrum, and the lyre.

" The foiir firft are ufed in war, and are by much the 1
common ; the fifth is dedicated to the fervice of the chuvtl. ,
and the fixth is peculiarly an attendant on feftivrty and re-
joicings.

" There are two principal languages in Abyfiiiiia, the
jEtliiopic, « lilch is the literal, or dead language ; and the
Amharic, or language of Anihara, fpoken by the court.

" The flute, in the iEthiopic, is called A'carfs;, a word dif-
ficult to be written or founded in Englifh ; in the Amharic,
it is called Agada : it is about the fliape and fize of the
German flute, but played upon lo.ng-ways, with a nRouth-
piece refembling that of the claiinet ; its tone is not loud,
but accompanied with a kind of jar, like a broken hautbois ;
not owing to any accidental defect, but to conftruftion and
defign, as it would not be efteemed without it.

" The kettle-drum is called in both languages Nagareet,
becaufe all proclamations are made by the found of this
drum (thefe are called Nagar), if made by governors, thej
have the force of laws in their provinces ; but if made b-y
the king, they are for all Abyffinia. The kettle-drum is
a mark of fovereign power : whenever the king promotes a
fubjeft to be governor, or his lieutenant-general in a pro-
vince, he gives him a kettle-drum, and Itandard as his in-
veftiture. The king has forty-five of thefe drums always
beating before him when lie marches. They are in (hape
and fize like our's, only they are braced very difadvantage-
oufly ; for the llcin is ilraiiied over the outer rim, or lip of
tlic drum, and brought a third down its outfide, which
deadens it exceedingly, and deprives it of that clear, me-
tallic found which our's has. Each man has but a fingle
drum, upon the left fide of his mule, and beats it with a
crooked tiick, about three feet long. Upon the whole, its
found is not difagreeable, and I have heard it at an iacrcdihle
diftance.

"The third inftrument is the fmall drum, called Kabaro,
in iEthiopic and Amharic ; though in fome parts of Am-
hara it is alfo called Hatamo. It is about half the diameter,
and twice the length of our common drum ; it is juft the
tambourine of Provence, only rounded to a point at the
lower end. This is beaten always with the hand, and car-
ried fometimes on foot, fcmetimes on horfcback, when any
inferior officer (not having a Na?areet) marches.

"The trumpet is called Meieketa, or Mcieket ; and Kenft
ill Amharic, but Keren in iEthiopic (or horn) ; which
Ihews of what materials it was anciently formed. It is
now made of a cane that has lefs than half an inch aperture,
and about five feet four inches in length. To tliis long
ftalk \i fixed at the end a round piece of the neck of a
gourd, which has juft the form of the round end of our
trumpet, and is on the outfide ornamented with fmall white
fhtUs ; it is all covered over w ith parchment, and is a very
neat inftrument. This trumpet founds only one note, E, in
a loud, lioarfe, and terrible tone. It is played flow when'
on a march, or before an enemy appears in fight ; but after-
wards it is repeated very quick, and with great violence,
and has the eft'ect upon the Abyifinian foldiers of tranfport-
ing them abfolutely to fury and madnefs, and of making
them fo regardlcfs of life, as to tiirow themfelves in the
middle of the enemy, which they do with great gallantry,
I have often iji time of peace tried what effect tliis charge

would

INSTRUMENT,

VDuld have upon tlieni, and found that none who lieard it
could continui" foated, but that all tofe up and continued the
whole time in motion.

" The fifth inilrument is the liftrum: it is ufed in the quick,
nieafure, or in allegros, in tinging pfalms of thankfgiving.
Each priell has a fiftrum which he (hakes in a very threaten-
ing manner at his neighbour, dancing, leaping, and turning
round witli fuch an indecent violence, that lie refembles
rather a prieft of paganifm, whence this inilrument was de-
rived, than a Chriltian. I have forgot the name of the
fiftrum in Ethiopic, but on looking into my notes I fhall
find it.

■ " The fixth and laft inftrument is the lyre, which is never
played folo, but always in accompanying the voice, with
which it plays conftantly in unifon ; nor did I ever hear mufic
m parts, in any nation, favage or poli(hcd, out of Europe :
this is the laft refinement mufic received, after it was in pof-
feflion of complete inftruments, and it received it probably
in Italy.

'♦ The lyre has fometimes five, fometimes fix, but moft fre-
quently feven ftrings, made of the thongs of raw fheep or
goat flcins, cut extremely fine, and twifted ; they rot foou,
are very fubjeft to break in dry weather, and have fcarcc
any found in wet. From the idea, however, of this inftru-
ment being to accompany and fuftain a voice, one would
think that it was better mounted formerly.

■ " The Abyffinians have a tradition, that the fiftrum, lyre,
and tambourine were brought from Egypt into ^Ethiopia, by
Thot, in the very firft ages of the world. The flute, kettle-
drum, and trumpet, they fay, were brouglit from Paleftine
with Menclek, the fon of their queen of Saba, by Solomon,
who was their firft Jewilh king.

"The lyre in Amharic is called beg (the flieep) ; in
Ethiopic, it is called mesTnko ; the verb ^iiio fignifies to
ftrike ftrings with the fingers : no pleBrum is ever ufed in
Abyflinia, fo that mejmho being literally interpreted, will
fignify " the ftringed inftrument played upon with the fin-
gers." This would feem as if anciently there was no other
ftringed inftrument in Abyflinia, nor is there any other ftill."
See TiiEBAX Harp, with Mr. Bruce's drawing and ac-
count of it, in the fame volume.

Modern mufical inftruments will be defcribed under their
feveral heads as they occur.

In modern times, fince harmony lias fuftained fo important
a part in mufic, mufical inftruments have been divided \nX.o per-
fea and imperfeS, the firft of thefe being fuch as are capable of
executing or founding as many notes of different pitches
within a given compafs, as within an oftave for inftance, as
the harmony of the mufic performed upon it may require,
without being forced to introduce notes, which make falfe
or tempered intervals, or ivolves with the other notes of the
piece, founded at the fame time ; as in the fecond clafs
neceffarily happens, in very numerous inftances, where the
notes are previoufly fixed and tuned, as it is called, to fome
certain fcale orfyftemof 12 notes within theoftave, and which
notes the performer of any one part in a piece of mufic has
not the power of altering and adjufting to the true harmonic
relation with the fimultaneous notes of the bafs, or other
principal part : imperfeft inftruments are not, however, con-
fined to thofe with 12 ftrings, pipes, &:c. in an oftave, but
the term applies, though in a lefs degree, to inftruments
with 14, 16, or 17 ilrings, as flicwn in our article Hawke's
temperament of the mufical fcale, where his 1 7 notes in tiie
oftave are proved to be incapable of banifiiing wolves, or
falfe intervals, even from tempered fyftems, and which
• Vol. XIX.

Dr. Smith's harpfichords with n notes in the oftave
were alike unable to efFedl:, in the numerous paflages of
modern mufic where double fliarps or double flats oc-
cur : but on the improved organs and piano fortes of
D. Loefchman, whofe fcale is extended to 24 notes,
all fuch notes as ufually occur can be truly given, accord-
ing to any afiigned fyftem of temperament. The vio-
hn, viola, bafs-viol or violoncello, and double bafs, have
held a diftinguiftied rank in modern refined concerts a»
perfeft inftruments, and were, indeed, the only inftrumentt
that fliould be admitted to accompany the human voice,
which exceeds, in the perfeftion of its fcale, any inftrument
whatever, fince a vocal performer, with a good ear and in-
tonation, can inftantly ftrike a perfeft interval to any note
whatever, without the leaft beating or degree of tempera-
ment or imperfedion in the harmony, and this he does, by
attempering the leaps or intervals of the melody (fee Melo-
dy, Temperaments of) : it being abfolutely and demonftrably
impoflible to avoid temperaments, or the ufe of imperfeft
intervals, either in the harmony or in the melody, (but they
need not be ufed in both,) on perfeft inftruments, as on im-
perfeft inftruments they neceflarily muft, as is Ihewn in our
article Harmony, Temperaments of: the late Mr. Maxwell,
in the year 1781, in his " EfTay on Tune,'' flcetched out
the principles of an organ capable, by means of 44 pipes in
each oftave, of entirely banifhing temperaments from the
harmony, in 24 keys, 1 2 major and 1 2 minor : but we never
heard until very lately, that any one had conftrufted fuch an
inftrument. It appears, however, that on the 3d of July
1810 the Rev. Henry Lifton took out a patent for his enhar-^
monk organ, and in the autumn of the year ifiued propofal*
for publilhing, by fubfcription, " An EITay on perfeft Into-
nation," and for exhibiting one of thefe patent organs in
London, which had been completed in Scotland, and tuned,
fays his profpeftus, " perfeftly true throughout, luithout any
temperament whatever, and performs every chord, in every
key abfolutely perfea, nor is there any combination which it is
not capable of performing." — " The decided fuperiority of
the harmony has been acknowledged by the beft judges, and
the performers have found no ferious difficulty in the moft
fudden and extraneous modulation, or in the wideft range of
keys;" fuch were the pretenfions of this fnftrument, and
which no mufical perfons that we converfed or correfponded
with feemed difpofed to expeft would be realifed : how-
ever, in the beginning of this month (April 181 1), Mr. Lifto*
arrived in London with his organ, and had it put up at
Flight and Robfon's, organ builders in St. Martin's lane, and
tuned it, and on the i6th politely gave us the opportunity
to be the firft that heard it performed on m London, and of
hearing the eff'eft of fome glees fung to it ; which proved
delightful indeed, and rather exceeded our expeftations than
otherwife, though they had, as above hinted, been raifed
above thofe of moft mufical perfons. The Rev. Mr. Lifton
alfo favoured us with the perufal of the manufcript of the
firft part of his intended work, in which we were delighted to
obfervc, that a good knowledge and a correft application of
mathematics is combined with a thorough knowledge of
compofition, and of the wants of the praftical mufician :
the defeft of one of which eflentlal qualifications we have
fo often had to deplore, and even to reprobate, in our nume-
rous quotations and references to modern writings on tem-
perament, and on the nature and magnitude of mufical inter-
vals, in the diff'erent articles of our work. Mr. Liilon's work
will defcribc an inftrument with 24 pipes in each octave, and
to each of which two valves or Ihadcrs, of different fizes,
are adapted, affixed to radii from rolls or axles, that can be
D d turned

I N S

turned by means of pedals, fo that each of thefe pipes can
be made to found one major comma or two major commas
flatter than the pitch of the pipe, niakii>g~in all 72 founds
in each oifave, which, by the 12 ufual finger keys and the
ufe of twelve pedals, enables the performer to give ^3 per-
feA keys, without any tempered harmonies. The inflru-
ment, ihewn ae above, has not b F, but contains 20 pipes,
and gives 60 different foands within th? otiave. See the
Philofophical Mafravine, vol. x.xxvii. p. 273, and our article
LlSTOs's ScoIls of Mujical Intervals .
In'STUument, IV'md. See WiNn.
INSTRUMENTAL Arithmetic. See Arithme-
tic.

In-strumek't.m, Caufe. See C.-irsE.
INSTRUMENTUM Synodale. See Sykodale.
INSUFFL ATIO, a term ufed by fome writers in medi-
cine, to exprefs the blowing into any part, in order to con-
vey the fumes of medicine into it.

INSULATE, or Insulated, a term applied to a co-
lumn or other ediiice, which ftands alone, or free and detached
from any contiguous vrall, S;c. hke an iiland in the fea ;
whence the denomination is apparently derived.

Insulated, in Eledncity, is a term applied to bodies that
are fupportcd by eleftrics or non-conduflors ; fo that their
coi'nmunication with the earth, by conducting fubftances, is
interrupted.

INSULT, in Laiu. See Assault.
Insult, a military term ufed for the attack of any poft
with open force : without the apparatus of trenches, faps,
or any regular approaches. See Assault.

INSULTUS, a word ufed by the writers in medicine to
fignify the accefs of the paroxyfm in intermittent difeafes, or
fometimes the firil invafion of a difeafe.

INSUMA, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Hedsjas ; 10 miles S.W. of Mecca.

INSUPER, a word ufed by the auditors of the Ex-
chequer. In their accompts they fay, fo much remains in-
fuper to fuch an accomptant 5 that is, fo much remains due
on his accompt.

INSURANCE, or Assurance, in La-^- and Commerce,
a Gontrait or agreement whereby one party, in confidera-
tion of a tlipulated fum, undertakes to in iemnify the other,
againft certain perils or riiks to which he is expofed, or
againft the happening of fome event. 'I'he party, who takes
upon himfelf the rilk, is called the " Iiilurer," fometimes
the " Underwriter," from his fubfcribing his name at the
foot of the policy ; the party protected by the infurance is
called the " infurcd ;" the fum paid to the infurer, as the
price of the rilk, is called the " premium;" and the written
inllrument, in which the contraft is fet forth and reduced to
foiin, is called a *' policy of infurance, or affurance." See
Policy-.

The rifks againfl which infurances are made are infi-
nitely various, and many frauds have been pra&ifed on tiic
ignorant and credulous, under pretence of infurance, which
the legiflature has found it ncceilary, from time to time, to
leprefs. In the reign of queen Anne, feveral offices were
opened for making ii'.furances on marriages, births, chriften-
ings, fervice, &c., and fr.iudijent prailices prc\'ailed to fuch
a degree, that by llat. q Ann. c. 6. J ■^y, a penalty of 500/.
is impofed on every perfon fetting up fuch otSce, and locA
on every perfon making fucii aflurancgs in any office already
fet up. Fraudideiit infurauces have alfo occurred among
dealers ia lotLei^ tickets, the (hares and the chances of them,

1 N S

which, befides the reftraints to which they are fubjecf^- \n
the annual lottery afts, have occafioned the ftat. 27 Geo. III.
c. I, made exprefsly with a view to this evil, and by whici;
they have been confiderably diminilfied. See Lottery.

Infurances of the greateft pubhc utility are, " Mariiii?
Infurances," including bottomry and refpondentia, which aij
a fpecies of marine infurance (fee each of thefe articles ) ; —
" Infurance upon Lives" (fee Assukakce) ; and " 1:;-
furances againft Loffesby Fire."

Insurances, Marine, are made for the protection of p
fons having an intereft in lliips, or goods on board, ironi !
lofs or damage that may happen to them from the peril
the fea, during a certain voyage, or a fixed period of tin
By " peril" is here meant, not danger or hazard, accortli
to the common acceptation of the term ; but it fignifies i'.
"happening" of the event or misfortune of which danger
was apprehended. The utility of this contraft confiits m
the proteftion it affords to maritime commerce, by dividing
lofTes, when they happen, between many, fo as to make them
fall lefs heavily on individuals, who are thus enabled to em-
bark their whole capitals in hazardous enterprifes. (See the
preamble to the ftat. 43 Eliz. c. 12 ) As the Turks are
unacquainted with infurance, they require for the loan of
money 15 or 20 per cent.; and when they lend money
to merchants ^vho trade by fea, they charge 30 per cent.
Some have afcnbed the invention of infurance to the ancient
Romans. Accordingly Piiffendorf, Barbeyrac, Loccanius,
Kulpis, and others, refer to a paftage in Livy (1. xxiii c 44.).
who fays, tliat when the Roman army in Spain was dillreifed
for provifions, cloathing, and other neceflaries, a company
engaged to convey to them every thing of which they ftood
in need, under this ftipulation, that the ftate ftiould make
good their lofs, in cafe their velfels ftiould be fnip-.vrecked by
ftorms, or taken by the enemy. This was undoubtedly a
promife of indemnification, but by no means an infurance, in
which it is always neceftary to give a premium. Kulpis,
Anderfon, Malyne, and others, rely on the authority of
Suetonius (1. v. c. 18.) who tells us, that the emperor Clau-
dius promifed to indemnify merchants for their lolfes, if their
ftiips lliould perilh by ftorms at fea ; but neither this paiTage
nor another that has been referred to in Valerius Maximus
(1. vi. c. 5.), contains any thing that can be applied to in-
furance in the modern fenfe of the term, A paftage has
alfo been quoted bv Grotius from Cicero's epiftles (Epift.
ad Fam. ii. ep. 7.1, as a proof that the Romans were ac-
quainted with this contraft. But Cicero's words, juftly in-
terpreted, feem to bear a much ftronger allufion to the prac-
tice of remitting money by means of bills of exchange, than
to that of infuring againft the perils of the fea. In the Pan-
dects we have an oblervation of Ulpian, which affords greater
reafon for fuppofing that the contract of infurance was not
altogether unknown to the Romans, than any of the paflages.
already cited. He fays (Dig. 1. xlv. de verb, oblig.), " lUa
ftipulatio, decem mlllia falva fore promittis ? valet." This
paffajje, however, ftiews, as ferjeant Marftiall has obferved,
that the contradt alluded to, wliatever it might have beenj
was very little known at the time when Ulpian wrote, fince
he thought it neceifary to remark, that " it was net illegal."
Malyne, Anderfon, &c. affirm, that infurance is mentioned
in the marine laws of the ifle of Oleron, on tlie coaft of
France, which was much celebi-ated in the nth, 12th, and
following centuries, on account of its trade. But in thefe
laws there is no trace of infurance, as the learned editor,
Cleirac, acknowledges. The celebrated maritime laws of
the city of Wi(by, in the ifland of Gotliland, are equa'ly
filcnt with regard to infurance. Infurance was, uudoubtedly,
6 not

INSURANCE.

known in IJO?' "''^s" the ordinances of the Hanfeatic
lie were framed, nor in 1614, when fevtral new regula-
; were added ; bccaufe, though the coiitraft of bot-
r\- is mentioned in thefe regulations, there is not a word
!.o fub'ieft of infurance, nor does any thing certain occur
th > collection of maritime laws, intitlcd " II Confolato del
M.irc," written in the Catalonian dialeft, partly framed in the
I ith, bat for the moll part in the 15th century, and pub-
lilud at Leyden in 1704. (Sec Marine Law.) Some
. ■ faid, without fufficient authority, that the pradice of
ance was introduced by the Jews in 1182 ; and others
■ fought its origin about the year 1560, in the great
woollen commerce that fublifted between England and the
i Netherlands. But as the maritime commerce of the Ita-
[ lian ftates appears to have been carried on to a very coniider-
\ able extent about the end of the I ^ih century, it is very
f probable that infurance came into ufe in Italy about that
' time. From thence it was tranfplanted into all the coun-
l tries where the Lombards had eltabliihed their trading com-
i panics. One of thefe companies fettled in London, and
! TTom them Lombard-ftrcet in that capital took its name.
According to Malyne infurance was introduced into Eng-
land by the Lombards fomewhat earlier than into the neigh-
bouring countries on the continent ; and in proof of this, he
fays, that even Antwerp, in its meridian glory, borrowed
infurance from England ; and that, do\vH to the time in
which he wrote (1622), there was, in every policy made at
Antwerp, and other places in the Low Countries, a claufe
inferted, that it fhould be in all things the fame as policies
made in Lombard-llrcet, in the city of London ; the place
where the Lombards are known to have firll fettled, and
carried on their commerce in England, and where the mer-
chants of London ufed to hold their meetings before the
Royal Exchange was built. Anderfon ( Hill, of Com-
merce) fays, that the vaft commerce carried on about the
middle of the l6th century, between England and the Ne-
therlands, introduced the practice of infuring from lolTes by
fea, by a joint contribution. But the preamble to the
flatute 43 Eliz. c. 12, already cited, which ftatute was
pafled in 1601, dillinctly ftates, that it had been an '• imme-
morial ufage" among merchants, both Englifh and foreign,
when thev made any great adventure, to procure infurance
to be made on their lliips or goods adventured. From this
it m.ay be reafonably fuppofed, that infurance muft have been
in ufe" in England long before the middle of the preceding
century. The law of infurance, fays Mr. Marlhall (ubi
infra), is cenfidered as a branch of marine law ; and it is alfo
a branch of the law of merchants (fee Law) ; and it may
be coUefted from thefe two fources in the ordinances of dif-
ferent commercial ftates, in the trealifes of learned autliors
on the fubjett of infurance, and in judicial docifions of this
countrv, and alfo of others profcfung 10 follow the general
marine law and the law of merchants. The earlieft ordinance
jiow extant on the fubjeft of infurances is that of Barcelona,
fuppofed to have been publiflied about the year 145 J. The
next ordinance on this fnbjciSt was publilhed at Florence in
the beginning of the year IJ23. The emperor Charles V.
in 1551 publilhed feveral regulations concerning maritime
commerce, called the " Caroline" code,- to which his fon
Philip 1 1, added anumberof new ordinances in 1^63 and 1565.
Magens, in his "Treatife on Infurance, Average, and Bot-
tomry," publirtied at Hamburgh in 1753, has collected
many of thefe ordinances ; but the moft complete fyilem of
pofitive law for the regulation of infurances, that has yet
appeared in any country, may be found in t-he celebrated
ordinance of the mariuc of Louis XIV., pubbllicd in 1681.

The ftatutes pertaining to thia fubjca, which have been
enaded in England, have not been numerous ; and, fherefi);-c,
the praftice among us has been found moft conforraable'to'
the general ufage of trade. As to treatifes on infurance, thfc
earheit now extant is that entitled " Le Guidon de la Mcr,"
\yhich is found in the colleaion of marine inC.itutions, pub-
liflied at Rouen in 1671 by Cleirac, under the title of " Les
Us et Coutumes de la Mer." This is fuppofed to have been
written about the jjth century. In France, Valin, Pothier,
and Emerigon, have written on this fubjed. The treatife
of the latter is, in the judgment of ferjeant Marlhall, the moil
ufeful to an Englifh lawyer of all the foreign publications
on this fubjcft. Roccus, Cafaregis, Locennius, Bynkerf-
hock, and Santerna, have alfo pubhlTied treatifes oa this
lubjed. We have alfo in England detached obfervations
on mfurance in the treatifes of Malyne, Molloy, Beawes,
Poftlethwaite, and fome other.? of lefs note. Mr. Marens'
a merchant, in 173,-, republilhed in two volumes 4tot his
"Effayon Infurance," which he had before pubhihcd in
German at Hamburgh. Mr. Millar, a learned advocate at
the Scots bar, pubhflied at Edinburgh, iu 1787, the " Ele.
mcnts of the Law relating to Infurances ;" Mr. Park has alfo
given to the world his excellent " Syftem of the Law of In-
furances;" and in 1802 the public was favoured by Sa-
muel Marlhall, ferjeant at law, with his " Treatife on the Law
of AITurance," in 4 books, containing an ample account of
every thing that is elTentially neceftiiry to be known on this
fubjed. As to judicial decifions, none of thefe are con-
fidcred as binding authorities in our fuperior courts, exccnt
fuch as have been there determined ; and even thefe may b??
re-confidered and over-ruled. Before the pafling of the ad
of queen Elizabeth, above cited, alnioft all difputes, arifmg
upon contrads of infurance, were fettled by arbitration, and
without recurring to any legal proceedings. And there
feems to have been a particular tribunal for fuch arbitrations,
eftabhflied in London, compofed of perfons annually ap-
pointed by the lord mayor. From Malyne we learn that
there was an '< office of alTurances," on the weft fide of the
Royal Exchange, where infurances were made ; and to this
office belonged certain commifltoners, who were annually
appointed. The authority of thefe commifiioners was co::-
firmed by ad of parliament, in the latter period of the reign
of queen Elizabeth. (See Court of rolicies of AJurame.)
This court gradually funk into diirepnte, and all fuits on
policies of infurance were preferred in the courts of common
law. After fome of the decifions of the courts of Weftmin-
fter, on queftioiis of infurance, came to be generally known,
the confidence which the juftice, impartiality, and ability
of thofe courts infpired through Europe, foon induced the
merchants of all countries to prefer Englifli infurances to
thofe of any other country.

The parties to the contrad of infurance are the infured
and the infurers. In this country, all perfons, whether Bri-
tifii fubjeds or aliens, may, in general, be infured. The
principal, if not the only exception to this rule, is the cafe
of an alien enemy. The infurance of the (hips and mer-
chandize of France, during a war with that country, 19
prohibited by 21 Geo. II. c. 4; and by 33 Geo. III.
c. 27. j 4, which latter ftatute not only declares fuch in-
furances to be void, but alfo fubjeds the parties concerned
in them to three months' imprifonment. The policv of this
prohibition was liowcvcr difputcd in 1741, by fir John
Barnard, and in 1 748 by fir Dudley Rider and Mr. Murray,
then attorney and folicitor-gencral. But their objedioi'is
were ovcr-rujed. Neverthelcfs, it appears that a neutral,
though rcfiding in tJie enemy's country, and carrying on
D d 2 trade-

INSURANCE.

trade there, and e»en in partnerfliip witji an alien enemy,
may infure his interell in the joint property.

Thofe who are infurers, or underwriters, fliould be per-
sons of great prudence and circumfpeftion ; and cafes may
occur, which will require more than ordinary fagacity, pe-
netration, and experience. At common law, any man, or
company of men, might be infurers ; and individuals, upon
their own feparate account, have ilill the fame right. But
about the beginning of the lail: century ic was thought expe-
dient, partly with a view of counteradling the evil arifing
frem infurance by infufRcient perfons, and perhaps, princi-
pally for enabling government to raifc a fnm of money by the
fale of a monopoly, to ereft two companies for making ma-
rine infurances, with fuch funds to anfwer all demands on
their pohcies as might give cenfidence to mercantile adven-
turers, who were unwilling to depend on individual under-
writers ; ftill, however, leaving to merchants the option of
infuring with fuch underwriters whom they thought proper.
To this end the flat. 6 Geo. I. c. 1 8, authorized the king
to grant charters to two diftinft companies or corporations,
for the infurance of {hips, goods, and merchandize, at fea,
or going to fea, and for lending money on bottomry. In
purfuance of the powers given by this aft, the two propofed
companies, the one called the " Royal Exchange Adurance,'"
and the other the " London AfTuraiice," were ellablilhed by
royal charter, bearing date June 22, 1720. The moil im-
portant privilege granted to thefe companies was the exelu-
five right of making marine infurances, and lending money
on bottomry, as a " Company" or " Partnerfhip," on a
" joint capital."

Infurance is faid to be " a contract of indemnity from lofs
or damage, arifing upon an uncertain event." So that the
objeft of infurance is to avoid a pofllble lofs. Hence it ap-
pears, that there cannot be an indemnity without a lofs, nor
a lofs without an intereft. A policy, therefore, without
interell, is not an infurance, but a mere wager. It is not
eafy to define and afcertain infurable interell. The intereits
of commerce, and the various rights which different perfons
may have in the fame thing, require that not only tliofe who
have an " abfolute" property in fliips and goods, but thofe,
alfo, who have a " qualified" property in them, may be at
liberty to infure them ; and this principle has been fo extended,
that if a merchant abroad, in order to fecure the payment of
a debt due to his correfpondent in England, mortgage to him
his intereft in certain goods and freight ; the correfpondent,
after the mortgage becomes abfolute, may infure the " legal"
intereft on his own account, or the " equitable" interell on
account of the mortgagor. A reafonable expeftation of
-' profit,'' or a well-founded expeftation of a future intereft
in the thing infured, is -an infurable intereft. But a mere
hope or cxpeftation of future gain, however well founded,
is not an infurable intereft, unlefs accompanied by polTeffion
of the fubjeft-matter of the infurance. Of this nature is the
intereft which the captor acquires in a prize regularly taken
in war. It alfo appears, that perfons in the charafter of
" truftees,'' for the difpofal of fhips and goods according to
fuch inftrudlions as they mii^ht receive from third perfons,
may infure fuch fhips and goods for the benefit of the per-
fons who may eventually be entitled to the produce of tliem.
Accordingly, commiflioners, entitled " The Honourable
Commifrioners for the Sale of Dutch Property," were ap-
pointed by ^^ Geo. III. c. 80. § 21. to take into their care
all Dutch ftups, &c. detained in Britiih ports, and to dif-
pofe of them in purfuance of direftions from the privy coun-
cil ; and they were authorized to infure, in their own names,
fuch (hips, after feizure at fea, and while they were on their

paffage to England. At common law, an infurance might
have been made without intereft ; nor is it neceflary to aver
intereft in any cafe not prohibited by 19 Geo. II. c. 37.
An infurable intereft can only be founded on a legal or equi-
table title ; but a mere claim, which the law cannot admit
to be either legal or equitable, is not an infurable intereft.
As freight can only be due to the legal owner of a fliip, he
only can infure it ; and no pcrfon can have either a legal or
equitable title to a ftiip, unlefs he be named in the regifter.
Although " refpondentia" and " bottomry" areof themfelves
a ipecies of infui'ance, yet the lender has an infurable inte-
rell in his fecurities, and therefore may protedl himfelf from
the fea-rifli by infuring them. However, a policy on bot-
tomry or refpondentia cannot be fubfcribed by the borrower
of the money ; for if he were to become an infurer, this
would be no longer a loan upon bottomry, bst a cloak for
ufury. See /^fl^fz-PoLiCY, and the fequel of this article.

Infurances are of various kinds, as on fhips or parts of
Ihips, on merchandize fingly, and on ftiips and goods jointly,
on freight, and bottomry loans ; and thele are again branched
out to run either for a time ilipulated, or to one fingle
port, or out and home, with liberty to touch at the different
places mentioned in the policy.

It is laid dovin as a general rule, that no infurance can be
legally made upon any voyage undertaken contrary to the
laws of this kingdom, or to thofe of its dependencies, or to
the law of nations. Nor is it of any importance whether
the infurer was or was not informed that the voyage was ille-
gal. Confequcntly, an infurance upon a voyage undertaken
contrary to the navigation laws would be void. The cafe is
the fame with regard to a voyage prohibited by the laws
made for the proteftion of the monopoly of the Eaft India
company. Under the treaty allowing the Americans to trade
to the Britifti colonies in India, concluded in 1795 and con-
firmed by 37 Geo. III. c. 97, it is not neceflary that this
trade ftiould be carried on from America to the Britifli fet-
tlements in the Eaft Indies " diretl ;" but it may be carried
on " circuitoufly'' by the way of Europe. With refpedl to
the riflis or perils againft which infurances are ufually
made, they are exprelfed in the words of the policy, which
are as follow : " Touching the adventures and perils which
we theaflurers are contented to bear, and do take upon us in
this voyage, they are of the feas, men of war, fire, enemies,
pirates, rovers, thieves, jettifons, letters of mart and counter-
mart, furprifals, takings at fea, arrefts, reftraints and de-
tainments of all kings, princes, and people, of what nation,
condition, or quahty whatloever : barratry of the mafter a;.d
mariners ; and of all other perils, lofles, and misfortunes,
that have or Ihall come to the hurt, detriment, or damage
of the faid goods and merchandize, and (hip, &c., or any
part thereof, without prejudice to this infurance." But by
the agreement of the parties, the general words of the policy
may be altered or qualified, and any of the rill<s may be
wholly or in part excluded : and the infurance may be made
only againft fome particular rifles, or up to, or beyond cer-
tain degrees, or upon particular articles. In the pohcies of
moll countries it is ftipulated that the infurer ftiall not be
liable for any partial lofs under a given rate per'cent. A claufe
to this purpofe, which was fi'-ft introduced in 1 749, is in-
ferted at the bottom of all Englifti policies, Neverthelcfs,
the infurer is liable for loflfes, however fmall, called " general
average," and lofles occafioned by the " ftranding of the
fliip." In the policies of private miderwriters the memoran-
dum is as follows : " corn, (comprehending every fort o£
grain, and alfo peafe and beans,) fifli, fait (not nicluding
falt-petre), fruit, flour and feed, are warranted free from
9 average

INSURANCE.

\\rf, unlefs general (denoting loflcs arifing from any caufe
MHtr tlie geiieval fafety of the fhip and cargo), or the
I .) be ftranded : fugar, tobacco, hemp, flax, hides and
lluiis art warranted free from average, under i^ per cent., and
all other goods, alfo the (liip and freight, are warranted
free from average, nnder 3 per cent, unlefs general, or the
fhip be ftranded." In 1754 the two companies, wz. thofc
of the London and Royal Exchange affurance left out the
\vordci, "or the (hip be ftranded ;'' but private underwriters
have continued tliem. If any lofs or damage happen to the
goods, from any fault or defeft of the ftiip, the owner has
his remedy againft the proprietors of the (liip, and the in-
furer is not liable ; becaufe, in every contrail of infurance,
there is an implied warranty, that the ftiip is fea-worthy : if
otherwife, the contract is void. In many cafes the mafter alfo
is liable. The marine law, with which agrees the common
law of England, confiders the owners, as well as the mafter,
as common carriers, and anfvverable for all loffes, except fuch
as arife from the S.&. of God, the king's enemies, or the pe-
rils of the fea. In order to charge the infurer, the lofs muft
happen in the courfe of the voyage, and during the continuance
of the rifk. In our policies the words ufually employed
to exprefs the commencement and end of the rifiis on goods
are thefe : " Beginning the adventure upon the faid goods
and merchandizeyroOT the loading thereof aboard the fa':d Jhip,
and fo {hall continue and endure until the faid (hip with the

faid goods fhall be arrived at (her port of delivery),

and until the fame be difcharged and fafely landed." This
rule, however, admits of fome exceptions, which our hmits
will not allow us to enumerate. The duration of the riHc on
the fhip varies with us in almoft every cafe. In outward-
bound voyages it is generally made to commence from her
beginning to load at her port of departure. Ships engaged
in the coafting-trade, or in ftiort voyages, are infured for a
limited period of time ; and in fuch cafes, the rifle commences
and ends with the term, wherever the fhip may then happen
to be. If a fiiip be infured/rom the port of London to any
other port, and before (he breaks ground, an accident happen
to her, the infurers are not anfwerable ; for the riilc does not
commence till (he fets fail on her departure from the port
of London : but if the infurance be " at and frotn" the port
of London, the infurers are liable for any accident that
may happen to her, *' from the time of fubfcribing the po-
licy."' When a (liip, in homeward voyages, expefted to
arrive at a certain place abroad, is infured " at and from"
that place, or from her arrival there, the rifli begins
from the firft moment of her arrival at the place fpciified ;
and the words "■ frfl arrival'' are implied, and always
underftood in policies fo worded. As to the termina-
tion of the rifle on Englifli policies, it is ufually made to
continue only " until the Jhip hath moored at anchor 24 hours in
good fafety '' The rifle on the furniture, the rigging and
tackle, and provifions of the (hip, may continue even when
put on (hore. With infurers, a liberty to touch and ftay at
any ports and places, means ports and places in the ufual
courfe of the voyage. This liberty to touch and ftay at
any ports or places, does not authorize the infured to break
bulk and trade. Although a fhip, through neceffity, change
the order of the places at which (he is to touch, yet if (he
do not abandon the original voyage, the rifle continues. In
an infurance upon freight, the rifle generally begins from the
time the goods are put on board. If an accident happen to
the (hip before any goods are put on board, which prevents
her from failing, the infured cannot recover for the lols of
freight, v.'hich the ftiip might have earned if the accident
kad not happened. But if part of the cargo be put on

board, and the reft be ready to be Ihipped, the infured may
recover for the whole freight, upon a valued policy. (See
Policy.) If a ftiip be loft in her way to her port of load-
ing, the ipifurer is liable for the whole freight.

If, after the infurance is eftcfted, any thing be done by
the infured to alter the nature of the rifk, this muft be
done with the confent of the infurer, otherwife it will
avoid the contraft.

Infurances may likewife be made on goods fent by
land, or by hoys. Sec. on rivers ; and this is frequently
done, more efpecially on jewels, and other things of great
value. They may likewife be made on ftiips and goods,
lolt or not loft, which is commonly done when a ftiip ha»
been long miffing ; and thofe words being inferted in the
policy, oblige the underwriters to p.iy, though the ftiip
was loft at the time of making fuch infurance, except the
affured had then certain knowledge of the fliip's being
wrecked ; in which cafe the fubfcription {liall not oblige,
as this is accounted a mere fraud. So likewife if a perfon
get more infured than the ftiip is worth, with a villainous
defign to deftroy her, this fraudulent ai-t \vill not oblige the
infurers, but expofe the proprietors to fuffer death for their
knavery. An infurance made on prohibited goods is illegal
and void, unlefs they were not prohibited till after the in-
furance was made. The infurance of feamen's wages is
prohibited in all maritime countries ; and by the law of
England fuch infurance is unqueftionably illegal. But they
may infure goods purchafed abroad with their wages ; and
the captain is allowed to infure goods which he has on
board, or his (hare in the ftiip, if he be a part-owner. By
the law of France, the infurance of freight, not adiually
earned, is prohibited ; but in England the freight, as well
as the fhip, may be legally infured. To entitle the owner,
however, to recover for a lofs on a policy for freight, it
muft appear, that, before the lofs, the owner's right to
freight had commenced ; that is, that the fhip had actually
begun to earn freight, for till that time the rifle on freight
does not commence. Although it is not unufual in England
to infure profit, the queftion whether this be a proper fub-
jeft of infurance has never yet come under folemn difcuflion.
Where the policy exprefsly mentions that the fhip is to de-
part with convoy, it is intended that ftie ftiall, if poffible,
keep with the convoy during the voyage, and if fhe depart
wilfully from the convoy, it is a fraud ; but if having de-
parted with the convoy, fhe by ftrefs of weather loies the
convoy, and is taken, the infurers are liable. (See AVar-
RANTY.) If there be thieves on board among themfelvcs,
the mafter of the (hip is to anfwer for that, and not the in-
furers ; for though the words of the policy infure againft
loffes by thieves, yet affaihng or external thieves are only
here intended, and for external theft the infurer as well as
the owner of the fhip is liable ; but the proprietor of the
goods, or the infurers in his name, may recover againft the
owners. An infurance made in a foreign country, may be
fued in England by the common law, if the infurers come
here. Where the policy is againft reftraint of princes, that
does not extend to a navigation carried on againft the la\T
of nations, or where there (hall be a feizure for not paying-
of culloms or the Hke. If goods be infured as the good*
of an ally, when they are the goods of an enemy, it is a
fraud, and the infurance not good. . If a man pays money
on a policy of infurance, fuppofing a lofs where there wa»
none, this fliall be money received for the ufe of the infurer,
for which he may maintain an aftion. A fupprefTion of the
truth, or a falfe allegation, is fuificient to difcharge the
policy ; for it is a general rule, that the infured ought to

iulorib

INSURANCJE.

inform the infurer of all material circinifl.'inces that were
come to liis knowledge at tlie time of making u" policy,
in order that th^ contraft may be fairly adiulled ; which
being a contradl upon chance, cannot be done, if one party
knows more than the other ; for equality in contrafts, by
the law-merchant, is effential ; but a proof of an intention
to make a deviation, will not avoid the policy before the
deviation is aftually made. See Rf.pkesextation.

By an aft made in 19 Geo. II. c. 37. it is determined,
that after the firft day of Augull, 1746, no infurance fliall
be made on ihips or lading, '■ intereft or no intcreft,'' or
" without further proof of interell than the policy," or
by way of gaming or wagering, or without benefit of fal-
Tage to the infurer, and that every fuch infurance Ihall be
void : that it fhall not be lawful to make re-infurance, un-
lefs the infurer {hall become infolvent, become a bankrupt,
or die : in which cafes fuch infurer, or his executors, &c.
may make re-infurance to the amount of the fum before
infured, provided it be expreffed in the policy to be a re-
infurance (fee Reinsurance) : that all fums of money
lent on bottomry or refpondentia, upon any (liips belonging
to his majefty's fubjefts, bound to or from the Eaft Indies,
Ihall be lent only on the (hip or merchandize, laden, or to
be laden, on board fuch fhip, and fliall be fo expreffed in the
condition of the bond ; and the benefit of falvage (hall be
allowed to the lender, his agent or affigns, who alone fliall
have a right to make infurance on the money fo lent ; and
no borrower of money on bottomry, &c. fhall recover more
on any infurance, than the value of his intereft in the fhip
or merchandize, exclufively of the money fo borrowed ; and
in cafe it fliall appear, that the value of his fliare in the fliip
and merchandize does not amount to the full fum bor-
rowed, fuch borrower fliall be refponfible to the lender for
fo much of the money borrowed, as he halh not laid out on
the fliip or merchandize, with lawful intereft for the fame,
together with the infurance and all other charges, to the
proportion which the money not laid out fliall bear to the
whole money lent, notwithftanding the fliip and merchandize
foe totally loll. And, in all aftions brought by the infured,
the plaintiff, or his attorney or agent, fliall, within 15 days
after he fliall be required fo to do, in writing, by the de-
fendant, or his attorney or agent, declare in writing what
jfum w fums he hath infured or caufcd to be infured in the
whole, and what fums he hath borrowed, at refpondentia
or bottomry, for the yoyage, or any part of the voyage in
queftion.

Whenever advice is received of the lofs of a fliip or
goods infured, application is to be made to the infurers,
and the vouchers produced ; and if they are fatisfied, they
will pay the money : but if they have caufe to fcruple the
doing it, the iufured muft ftay till the infurer can obtain a
more fatisfaftory account 5 but if nothing be heard of tiie
ihip in any reafonable -time, the infurers will be obliged to
pay the money agreed upon.

In adjufting a lofs,, the quantity of damage for which the
(Underwriters are refponfible is {irft to be afcertaiued ; and
the next point to be fettled is by what rule this fliall be
^ppretiated. The adjuftnieDt is ufually indorfed on the
policy and figned by the underwriters. When the lofs is
admitted to be Mnl, ;uid the policy is a valued one, the
infured is entitled to receive the v.hole fum infured, fubjcft
to fuch dednClions as may have been agreed by the policy
*o be made in cafe of lofs. it is merely in refpeft of total
Jofs that any difference fubfifts between an open and a v.alued
f olicy. Upon the latter the value is admitted, and the in-
jured has only to prove, if the infurance was on goods, that

the goous valued were on boar('. Upon an open policy,
it is necefl"ary to prove, not only that tlie goods were, on
board, but alfo the value of them, which the infurers, pro-
vided it does not exceed the fum infured, are bound to pay.
But in the cafe of a puri'ml lofs, the am.ount of the lofs
fliould be afcertained in both kinds of policy. When a
part of the goods infured is faved, and this exceeds thj
amount of the freight, tlie praftice is to deduft the freigi-.t
from the falvage, and to eftimate the lofs by the difference ;
but when the freight exceeds the falva^'e, then it is a total
lofs. If the goods infured are damaged in the whole, or in
part, it will be neceffary to afcertain the quaiilhy of fuch
damage, which is done by taking the value of the goods,
in their damaged ftate, from the prime coft, and the remainder
will be the amount of the lofs. If feveral articles be in-
fured for one entire fum, but with a dilliatt valuation to
each, and only one be fent in rifk, and if that one be loft,
the infured fliall recover fuch a proportion of the fum in-
fured as the value of that article bore to the value of the
whole. If the policy has a claufe, to be free of average
from a particulai- riflv, under fo much per cent, and a lofs
occafioned by that riik takes place, the proportion which
the lofs bears to the cargo muft be calculated upon the
cargo which was on board when the lofs happened, not
upon that which was on board at any other time. With
refpeft to the valuation of goods infured, there has been
a difference of opinion ; fome contending for the prime coft,
others for the current price at the time of lofs ; fome
again infifting on the price at the time and place of fliipping
the goods, others on tiie price at the port of difcharge. In
England, if the pohcy be an open one, it is an invariable
rule to eftimate a total lofs, not by any fuppofed price
which the goods might have been deemed worth at the
time of the lofs, or for which they might have been fold,
if tliey had reached the market for which they were deftined;
but according to the prime coft, that is, the invoice price,
and all duties and cxpences till they are put on board,
together with the premium of infnrance. The value is
never affefted by the rife or fall of the market, nor by the
courfe of exchange. A fliip is valued at the fum fhe
is worth at the time when flie fails on the voyage infured,
including the expence of repairs, the value of her furniture,
provifions and ftores, the money advanced to the failors,
and, in general, every expence of the out-fit, to which is
added the premium of infurance. A partial lofs upon
either fliip or goods is tliat proportion of the prime coft,
which is equal to the diminution in value occafioned by
the damage. An adjuftment, being indorfed on the policy
and figned by the underwriters, with a promife to pay in
a given time, is prima facie evidence again ft them, and
amounts to an admilfion of all the fafts nccefiary to be
proved by the infured to entitle him to recover in an a6lion
on the policy. It is like a note of hand, and being proved,
the infured has no occafion for further proof. An ad-
juftment, however, may be impeached by fiicwing that the
imderwriter was induced to fign it by fome fraud or con-
cealment, or by feme mifconception of the law or faft ;
but this mutt be done by evidence, and not by doubts or
furmifcs after the time for payment is come.

If it be inquired, under what circumftances the infured
fliall be entitled to demand a return of pi-emium, the par-
ticular cafes are as follow. In general, the premium ought
to bo returned, when the contraCl is void ab initio ; that is,
either for want of intereft in the infured, or becaufe the in-
furance is illegal, or on account of fraud on ilic one fide or
the other. However, upon a wager-policy the infured can-
not

INSURANCE.

pot recover back the premium, it lead after the rifle is run.
!',> Geo. IT. c. 37. But before the rifle is run, and while
-nitraft is executory, the infured may recover hack the
iim. If tlie contract be void, as being a re-infiirance,
ill the above cited ftatute, the infured (hall not be intitled
return of premium. If, under any circumilances, the
r might, at any time, have been called upon to pay
vhole lum infured, the premium is earned, and he (liall
'k- obliged to return any part of it. Although an in-
l.::a;.ce to proted trading with the enemy is void, yet the
inUuvd (hall not recover back the premium. In the cafe of
f'.iuj likevvife on the part of the inUirers, the premium fliall
: jcunicd. However it lias been doubted, whether tiie
■r be bound to return the premium, in a cafe where
i has been committed by the infnred. The court of
ery, in two inilances, ordered a return of premium
■ the policies were declared void for fraud committed
:• infured. The courts now hold a contrary doCtrine.
M the commencement of the rirti, the rule in England
t where the riik has not been begun, whether this be
; to the fault, pleafure, or will of the infured; or to
:hercaufe, the premium lliall be returned. But if the
uices be upon a voyage, divilible into feveral diftinft
. or, which amounts to tlie fame, into feveral dillincl
3, the premium may be apportioned, according to
iVveral rifles ; and if one or more of thefe riiks fliould
,;ve been commenced, the proportion of premium ap-
!c- to thofe parts fliall be returned. But if the rifle be
and be once commenced, tliere fliall be no return. If
■i the premium is to be returned upon the performance
:'ie ilipulation agreed upon between the parties, this
i:i 111 be returned, though the infurer be obliged to pay a
partial lofs. As the infurer can never, by his own act, dif-
charge himfelf from the contraft, it feems reafonable, that,
where the infured thinks proper to put a ftop to the adven-
ture, and prevent the rifl< from ever commencing, he fliould
make fome compenfation to the infurer for his trouble and
difappointment ; it is therefore the general cultom in all the
maritime countries of Europe, to allow him to retain one-
half fer cent.

With regard to aftions on policies of infurance, the
fole jurifdiclion belongs to the courts of common law ;
and the proper form of aftion againll private under-
writers, is fpecial " Afl'umpfit ;" which fee. The two
infurance companies, being corporations, can do no aft
but by deed under their common feals. Their policies of
infurance, being under feal, no aAion of " Afl^umplit" will
lie upon them, but only debt of covenant. See llat. 6 Geo. I.
c. iS, and 8 Geo. I. c. 30. The evidence generally adduced
on the part of the plaintiff is reducible to the following
heads, viz. proof of the contract, payment of the premium,
interell of the infured, performance of warranties and lofs.
For a further detail of thefe and other particulars, relating
to matters of infurance, and the determinations of judges
and courts of law in illullration and confirmation of them,
fee " A Treatife on the Law of Infurance,'' by Samuel
Marfliall, ferjeant at Law, in 2 vols. Loud. 1802. On this
fubjed, fee farther under Bahratry, Infurance Brokers,
Deviation, Policy, Salvagk, U.vdkhwriters, and
AVAi;R.\NTy. See alfo Bottomry and Re^I'ONdesti.\.

In-surance upwi Liv.s, is a contraft by which the in-
furer, in confideration of a certain premium, cither in a
grofs fuin or by annual payments, undertakes to pay tlie
perfon, for wliofe benefit the infurance is made, a ftipulated
fum of money, or an equivalent annuity, upon the death of
the perfon whofe life is infured, wlicncver this fliall happen,

if the infurance be for the \vhole life, or in cafe this fli3!l
happen within a certain period, if the infurance \)e for a
limited time. For the principles on which this kind of in-
furance is made, and other particulars relating to it, fee the
article A.ssuuance. It is generally a condition or war-"
ranty, in infurances upon lives, either inferted in the policy,
or contained in a declaration or agreement figiied by the
infured, that the perfon whofe life is meant to be infured
has not any diforder which tends to the fnortening of life ;
that he has, or has not, had the fmali-pox ; and that his age
does not exceed fo many years ; that this declaration fliall
be the bafis of the contraft between the infurers and the
infured ; and that if any untrue averment be contained
therein, the contraft fliall be void, and all money paid on
account of the infurance forfeited. As tliis declaration is to
be t;iken as part of the written contraft, amounting to a
warranty, it behoves every perfon who makes an infurance
upon a life, to be very circumfpecl in afcertaining the truth
of the allegations which it contains; becanfe upon that the
validity of the contraft mull depend. When there is no
warranty, the infurer takes the rifle upon himfelf, wtiatcver
may be the ftate of health of the perfon whofe life is ii:fured,
unlets there be fome fraudulent mifreprefeutation or conceal-
ment.

In order to check the fpirit of gaming, which is ready to
avail itfelf of infurance upon lives, it is enafted by Hat.
14 Geo. III. c. 48. § I, that no infurance fliall be made by
any perfon or perfons, bodies politic or corporate, o;i the
life or lives of any pei'fon or perfons, or on any other event
or events whatever, wherein the perfon or perfons, for whofe
uie or beiie(it, or on whofe account, fuch polity or policies
fhall be made, fliall have no intereft, or by way of gaming or
wagering ; and that every infurance made contrary to ilie
true intent and meaning of this act, fliall be null and void to
all intents and purpofes whatfoever ; and that it fliall not be
lawful to make any policy or pohcies on the life or lives of
any perfon or perfons, or other event or events ; without
inferting in fuch pohcy or policies the name or names of the
perfon or perfons interelled therein, or for what ufe or be-
ne(it, or on whofe account, fuch policy is fo made or under-
wrote;— andthatin all cafes where the infured hath an interell
in fuch life or lives, event or events, no greater fura fliall be
recovered, or received from the infurer or infurers, than the
amount or value of the intereft of the infured in fuch life or
hves, or other event or events. This acl extends to every
fpecies of infurance except marine infurances, which are
exprefsly excepted. The different infurance companies an-
ncx to the contrail certain conditions or exceptions. For
thofe of the " Royal Exchange Afl'urance" (fee As-
SURANXE.) The fame exceptions are adopted by the " Well-
minller Society." The " Equitable Affurance," and the
" Pelican Life-infurance," adopt the fame exceptions, only
omitting the word " duelling," even where the party infures
his o-.vn hfe. Other focieties for infurance on lives, fuch an
the " Rock Infurance Society," &c. have been more
recently cllabliflied, and infurances of this kind are ni;.de by
fome of thofe focieties, which will be noticed in the next
article.

The focieties which reftridl themfelves to infurance or>
lives are the following ; via. the " Amicable Society," in-
corporated by royal charter of queen Anne in 1706, fanc-
tioned by the grant of two fubfequent charters in 1730 and
in J 790, and further improved under the powers conferred
by a nev/ charter in 1807. By virtue of this charter, peifons
are admitted to iafure their own lives, or the lives of others,
in which they raayhave an interell, on the following payments :

Table

INSURANCE.

Table for the whole of life, for each (hare, amounting to
1 80/. tvilh fuch addition as the circumjlanca of the year may
produce, to be paid on the death of the infured.

Prem-mm

Annual

1

Premium

Annual

Age.

on

Contribu-

Age.

on

Contrilra-

Admiffion.

tion.

Admimon.

tion.

:(S

S. d.

£. s. d.

£. s. d.

£. s. d.

8 to 14

II 0

3 8 6

4'

260

6 II 0

15

II 6

« 10 6

42

266

6 ij 0

16

12 0

3 126

43

270

6 19 0

17

12 6

3 15 °

44

2 8 0

730

18

13 0

3 17 0

4?

290

770

19

14 0

3 19 0

46

296

7 II 6

20

14 6

406

47

2 lo 6

7 16 0

21

i; 0

4 2 0

48

2 II 0

8 I 6

22

15 6

440

49

2 12 0

8 7 0

23

16 0

4 5 6

50

2 13 0

8 12 0

24

16 6

470

51

2 14 0

8 18 0

25

17 0

490

52

2 14 6

940

26

17 6

4 II 0

53

2 ,56

9 10 0

27

18 0

4 13 0

54

2 16 0

9 17 0

28

18 6

4 15 0

55

2 16 6

10 4 0

29

19 0

4 17 0

56

2 17 6

10 II 0

30

19 6

4 19 0

57

2 18 6

10 19 0

31

0 0

S I 6

58

2 19 6

I, 7 6

32

0 6

540

59

306

II 16 6

33

I 0

560

60

3 I 6

T2 6 0

34

I 6

590

6i

3 26

12 16 0

3^

2 6

5 II 6

62

3 3 6

13 7 °

36

3 °

5 14 6

63

3 46

13 19 0

37

3 6

5 17 6

64

3 5 6

14 I. 6

38

4 °

6 I 0

65

3 6 6

15 6 0

39

4 6

640

66

3 7 6

16 10

40

5 0

676

67

3 8 6 16 17 6 1

The whole of the annual contributions for every ftiare
granted previous to the laft charter, and feven eighths of the
contributions on {hares fubfequently granted, are to be di-
vided every year amongft the claimants by deaths which hap-
pen in that year : a principle of divifion, which is calculated,
in the general courfe of things, to raife each claim con-
fiderably above 180/. which fum at lead the corporation
engages each (hare (hall produce to the claimant. See As-

URANCE.

The " Society for Equitable Alfurances on Lives andSur-
yivor(hips" was eltablifhed by deed, inrolled in his niajefty's
court of king's bench, Weftminfter. For an account of
this fociety, which has acquired high reputation, under the
conduft of its prefent aftuary, William Morgan, efq. fee
Assurance. The "Weftminfter Life Infurance Office'' was
eftabhftied in 1 792. The " Pelican Office" for infurance of
lives, granting annuities and endowment of children, was
cftabliftied in the year 1797. The " Rock Life Aft'urance
Compnny" was inftituted in 1806, on a principle different
from that of any fociety hitherto eftabUfhed for the alTurance
of a fum to the reprefentatives of a perfon afTurcd. The
company confifts of a number of proprietors, pofteffing a
capital (lock of one million ; and each proprietor is under
the neceffity of alTuring a fum on his owh life, if accepted

by the direftors ; or on that of an approved nominee, t«
the amount of one quarter of the ftock in his name. Thus
by affuring each other's lives, the proprietors have a mutual
intereft in the fupport of the fociety, and are engaged to
each other to take care that no improper life, with their
knowledge, be admitted into it. By the mode of aJTuring
property in this fociety, the reprefentatives of the alTured
receive a certain fum at his deceafe, and whatever addition "
may have been affigned to that fum by the previous refolu-
tion of the fociety, agreeably to its deed of fettlement.
The perfons who aiTure in this office are not all partners ;
they are not all refponfible for the payment of the fum af-
fured to each individual. The aflured are either proprietors
or non-proprietors. The proprietors are anfwerable each
to a certain amount ; they lay down a certain fum, and
form a determinate capital to anfwer all contingencies, and
by thus forming a capital, they are enabled to make a due
affignment of the fum to be added at different periods to
various pohcies of affurance. The afTured non-proprietors
have no fliare in the riik : they pay down definite premiums,
which afTure to the reprefentatives the fum afTured, and
who partake equally with proprietors in the addition which
may be made at different periods to each policy. The fe-
curity for the payment of tliat fum is the capital ftock of
the company and the amount of all the premiums, with the
intereft upen them. Such a fecurity, it is faid, may be
deemed as a " rock," whence we apprehend the company
derives its appellation ; for the transfer of (hares will produce
a continual renovation of policies, which, with the capital
of the company, and the amount of annual pajTiients from
affurances, will form an increafing fund, adequate to every
purpofe of profit and fecurity. The charafler of WiUiam
Frend, efq. the aftuary of this fociety, as a mathematician,
is well known. The " Provident Life Inftitution'' was
eftabliflied in 1806. In the fame year was alfo eftablifhed
the " Philanthropic Annuity Inftitution ;" the objeft of
which is to enable thofe, who wi(h to raife an immediate fum
of money by the grant of annuities, or to inveft money for
the purpofe of accumulation, to do it on the molt advan-
tageous terms fuited to the various circumftanccs and contin-
gencies of life ; and alfo to provide endowments for children,
&c. The inveftment of money in this inftitution may be
made in three different ways : lil, by paying a certain fum
of money down, to receive an annuity, to commence imme-
diately : 2dly, by paying down a certain fum of money, to re-
ceive an annuity, to commence at a future time : and,3dly, by-
paying a fum of money at particular periods, to receive back
a fum, or an annuity when the inveftor requires it. The
" London Life Affociation'' for the affurance of lives, con-
fifts of perfons infuring their refpeftive lives for the whole
term of life ; and the members become, to the amount of
their policies, mutual affurers to one other. The fociety
alfo undertakes every defcription of affurance on the lives of
perfons, not members ; and it is part of its plan to make
endowments, and to grant and purchafe annuities, by vir-
tue of an aft of parliament of the 47th Geo. III. c. 32.
The diftinguiftiing principle of this fociety is, that the bene-
fits refulting from its tranfaftions (hall be enjoyed by the
members, during life, fo as to render life affurance as cafy to
the affured, as a due regard to fecurity will admit. The
" Royal Exchange Affurance Annuity Company" has been
already mentioned under the article Assukance : but is
May 1803, the foUowiiig table of rates was formed ;

A Tabic

INSURANCE.

A Table of Rates of the Royal-Exchange AfTurance Aiuiuiiy Company.

Single Lives

Joint Lives and the Survive

Age

chafe.

percent,
per Ann.

[ chafe.

perCent.
perAnn.

.^e

Yeais

Pur-
chafe.

perCen,
Ix^rAnn.

£

s.

£

s.

£. s.

3

16,39

6

2

30

15,87

6

6

'57

11,63

8 12

4

16,66

6

0

31

15.87

6

6

:58

11.36

8 16

5

16,95

S

18

32115.62

6

8

59

II, II

9 0

6ji6,95

18

33

15.62

6

8

60

10,87

9 4

7 17.24

16

34

15.38

6

10

61

10,63

9 8

8 i;,24

16

35

'5.38

6

10

62

10,41

9 '2

9 '7.24

16

36

15.15

6

12

63

I0,20

9 16

10 17,24

16

37

15.15

6

12

M

10,00

10 0

ii|i7,24

16

38

14,92

6

14

'65

9.80

10 4

■2 '17,24

16

39 14,921 6

14 i 66

9,61

10 8

13 1 17.24

16

40 14,70 1 6

16

67

9.43

,0 12

14 1 16,95

iS

41 1 14,49 1 6

iS

,68

9.25

10 16

i; 116,95

18

42 14.28 1 7

0

:69

9,00

n 2

I 'J 16,95

18

43 14.0S

7

2

8.77

II 8

17 16,95

18

44 13.88

7

4

71

8,54

II 14

iS|i6,66

6

0

45 ; 13.70

6

;72

8.33

12 0

19:16,66 i 6

0

46113.51

8

!73

8,13

12 6

;o; 16,66

6

0

47 13.33

10

:74

7.93

12 12

21 16,66

6

0

48

13.15

12

75

7.75

12 I§

22

16,39

6

2

49

12,98

14

176

7.57

13 4

23

16,39

6

2

5°

12,82

16

i'Z

7.40

13 10

24

16,39

6

2

51

12,65

7

18

78

7.24

13 16

25

r6,39

6

2

52

12,50

8

0

79

7.09

14 2

26 16,12

6

4

53

12,34

8

2

80

6.94

14 8

27

16,12

6

4

54

12,19

8

4

Up«-3

rds6,94

14 8

:8

16,12

6

4

55

12,05

8

6

29

15.87

6

6

56

11,90

8

8

IksuR.*.\'CES aga'injl Fire, are founded on a contraft, by
which the infurer, in confideration of a certain premium,
received by him, either in a grofs fum, or by annual pay-
ments, undertakes to indemnify the infured againft all lofs
or damage whicli he may fuflain in his houfts or other build-
ings, goods, and merchandize, by fire, during a limited pe-
riod of time. Although the prccife time of the introduftion
of this kind of infurance into England cannot be afcer-
tained, it has certainly been in ufe here confiderably more
than a century. Of late years, notwithllanding a very
heavy, and we may add impolitic, (lamp-duty impofed on
thefe infurances, they have very generally, not to lay univer-
fally, prevailed in this country : particularly in London,
and other cities and large towns. In other countries they
Ijave been lefs general, and more recently introduced. The
Vejt. XIX.

Ago...

Ye„
I'urchafe

per Cent,
per Ann.

1 ■■■
1 As«.

Years
Purchafe

per Cent
per.-inD.

,

£. s.

40&45

£. s.

45&45

15.87

6 6

16,66

6 0

46 46

15.62

6 8

50

16,39

6 2

47 47

15.38

6 10

ss

16,12

6 4

48 48

^5^iS

6 12

60

I5.S7

6 6

49 49

14,92

6 ,4

65

15,62

6 8

50 50

14,70

6 16

1 70

15.38

6 10

51 51

14=49

6 18

■ V

15.15

6 12

52 53

14.28

7 0

; 80

14,92

6 14

53 53

14,08

7 2

45&50

15.38

6 10

54 54

13,88

^ i

S5

15,15

6 12

55 5>

13.70

7 6

\ 60

14,92

6 14

56 56

13.51

7 8

1 65

14,70

6 16

57 57

U'3Z

7 10

! 70

14-49

6 18

58 58

13.15

75

14.2S

7 °

59 59

12,98

7 14

So

14,08

7 2

60 60

12,18

7 16

5oS:55

I4.2S

7 0

61 61

12,65

7 18

60

14.CS

7 2

62 62

12,50

8 0

65

.3,88

7 4

63 63

12,34

8 2

; 70

13.70

7 6

64 64

12,19

8 4

75

13,51

7 8

6s 65

12,05

8 6

1 80

13,33

7 10

66 66

11,90

8 8

i 55 & 60

13.33

7 10

67 67

11.76

8 10

65

13.15

7 12

68 68

11,63

8 12

1 70

12,98

7 14

69 69

11,36

8 16

; 7>

12,82

7 16

70 70

II, II

9 0

1 80

12,65

7 18

71 71

10,87

9 4

60&65

12,50

8 0

72 72

10,63

9 8

70

«2,34

8 2

73 73

10,41

9 12

75

12,19

8 4

74 74

10,20

9 16

80

11,90

8 8

75 75

10,00

10 0

i 65 & 70

11,63

8 12

76 76

9,80

10 4

i 75

11,36

8 16

77 77

9,52

10 10

j 80

9 0

78 78

9.25

10 16

i 70&75

10,63

9 8

79 79

9,00

11 2

; 80

10,10

9 18

80 80

8,69

II 10

1 75&80

Q,6l

10 8

85 85

8,00

12 10

: 80&85

8.47

II 16

N. B. The foregoing annuities are receivable in quar-
terly Payments.

fire-office at Paris is faid to have been eftablifhed in 1745.
In Holland, though infurance againft fire is not altogether
unknown, yet few people feek its protection ; becaufe
they rely on their own caution, and do not chufe to incur
the expence of any greater fecurity. It has, indeed, been
confidently alTerted, by perfons well acquainted with tlic
cities both of London and Amfterdam, tliat after making
all fair allowances, there is, upon an average, more property
deftroyed by fire in the former in one year than in the latter
in feven years.. Sonse perfons have charged many of the
fires that occur in London and its vicinity on infurance :
but though negligence and fraud may in fome inllances de.
rive encouragement from this eftabliflmient, the benefits mull
be allowed far to overbalance the mifchicfs of which it is,
direflly or indireilly, produflive. In London and other
f; c parts

INSURANCE.

parts of the kingdom, companies or focieties for infurances
againll fire have been very numerous ; and their number has
poffibly been augmented by the emoluments that accrue to
thofe who ellablilh and conduct them. Some of thefe are
called " Contribution Societies," in which every pcrfon in-
fured becomes a member or proprietor, participating in
profit and lofs. Such are the " Hand in Hand,'' and the
" Weftminfter" fire-offices, for the infurance of houfes and
other buildings; and the "Union'" fire-office, for infu-
rance of goods. The other companies infurc both houfes
and goods at their own rillc. Of thefe the principal are
the " London'' and " Royal-Exchange" Affurance Cor-
porations, the " Sun," the " Phoenix," and the " Britifii"
fire-offices.

As to the duties to which this contraft is liable, the Hat.
37 Geo. III. c. 90. § 23. repeals all the former Uamp-
duties impofed on policies of infurance againil fire ; and
(by § 24.) impofes on every policy, in lieu thereof, a new
duty of threeJhtUings, wlicre the fum infured is under icoo/.,
and oi fix JhiUings where the fum infured amounts to loco/.
or upwards. And by the ftat. 44 Geo. III. a duty of /ct'O
/hillings and Jtxpcnce per cent, per annum is to be levied on
property infured agamft fire. It is much to be regretted,
that infurances againll fire are often made to a large amount
upon property of very fmall value ; this can only be done
with a fraudulent view, and a premeditated fire muft be the
neceflary confequences. Such praftices require caution in
the infurers, ought to be reftrained, and when they occur
feverely punifhed. If there be feveral infurances on the
fame property in different ofnces, eacii office fhould have
notice, that the fame may be allowed by indorfement on the
pohcy ; in order that each office may fjear its rateable pro-
portion of any !ofs that may happen. But unlefs fuch
notice be given to the office where another infurance is
made on the fame effects, the infurance made without fuch
notice will be void. In general, the riik commences from
the figntng of the policy, unlefs fome other time be fpe-
<ified ; and it will of courfe end with the term for which
it is made. Infurances againll fire are, in general, cither
annual or for a term of feven years, at an annual premium ;
and the offices, as an indulgence to the infured, generally
allow fifteen days from the e.xpiration of each year for the
payment of the premium for the next fucceeding year.
But the infured has always been confidered as being under
the protcftion of the policy till the expiration of the fifteen
days, provided the premium were paid within that time.
Several offices now hold tl'.emfelves liable for any lofs during
the fifteen days that are allowed for the payment of the
renewed premium upon annual policies, and others for a
longer period ; but every policy for a fhorter period than
a year ceafes at fix o'clock in the evening of the day
that is mentioned in it. A policy of infurance, being a
chofe in aftion, is, in ftriftnefs, not affignable at law ; but
it may be afligned iri equity. However, the mere aflign-
ment of the puhcy would be of little avail without an
affignment of the fubjeft-matter of the i!;furance alfo. In
the printed propofals ^ all the offices, it is declared, that,
upon the death of an infured, his intcreil i:i the policy fhall
be continued to his reprefeiitative to whom the property
infured belongs, provided that fuch reprefentalive, before
any new payment be made, procure his right to be indorfed
on the policy at the office. The policien of the Contribution
Societies, t/z. the " Hand in Hand," " Union," and
" Weftminfter," may be affigned, without any exprefs per-
miffion from the refpeSive offices for that purpofe ; and it
is fufiicient if the affignment be brought to the refpeftive
offices to be entered. But the other offices give notice,

generally upon the policy, that it fhall be of no force if
affigned, unlefs fuch affignment be allowed by an entry in
the books of the office, or indorfed on the policy ; and
hence it feems to be a fettled rule in all the offices, not to
allow any transfer of any pohcy without tl;e coi.fent of the
managers. If an afugnor of the property infured under-
take to get the policy transferred to the aflignee, he will be
liable to an adion for negletling to do it ; even though his
undertaking was merely gratuitous. Fir the proof ai.d
reco\'ering of lofs, the following article is found in the pro-
pofals of feveral of the ofBces, importing, " that perfons
infured fuftaining any lofs or damage by lire, are forlhwith
to give notice thereof at the office, and, as foon as potable
afterwards, deliver in as particular an account of their lofs
and damage as the nature of the cafe will admit of ; and
make proof of the fame by their oath or affirmation, ac^
cording to the form practifed in the faid office ; and by their
books of accounts, or other proper vouchers, as fliall be
reafonably required ; and procure a cerlilicate under the
hands of the minifter and churchwardens, together with
fome other reputable inhabitants of the parilh not concerned
in fuch lofs, importing, that they are well acquainted with
the charafter and circumftances of the pcrfon or perfons
infured, and do know, or verily believe, that he, flie, or
they, really and by misfortune, without any fraud or evil
praiiiice, have fullained by fuch fire the lofs and damage,
as his, her, or their lofs, to the value therein mentioned.
But till fuch affidavit or certificate of fuch infured's lofs
fh.iU be made and produced, the lofs-money fhall not be
payable. And if tliere appe.^rs any fraud or falfe fwearing,
fuch fufferers fhall be exciuded all benefit by their policies."
In the policies of thefe ofnces the infurers undertake to pay
the lofs, not exceeding the fum infured, " according to the
e.\ad tenor of their printed propofals," defcribing their
propofals by their refpeciive dates.

Infurances agaiuft fire are defcribed in the plans and pro-
pofals of the difiererit focieties, with little variation, as
common, hazardous, aiid doully hr.7:ardous ; and they com-
prehend buildings and goods. Buildings fubjeft to common
infurances are thofe of brick or ftoi;e, ilai.'ding alone, or
feparated by partition walls, and covered with llate, t le,
copper, lead, or iron, with brick chimjiies ; in which no
hazardous trades are carried on, or hazardous goods de-
pofited. Goods are houdiold goods, in private dwellings,
merchandize and ftock, not hazardous, in brick or Hone
buildings as above defcribed, and in vi'hich no hazardous
trades are carried on, nor hazardous goodr, depofited. Ha-
i.ardous infurances com.prehend buildings of timber orplafter,
br'.ck and timber, or brick and Hone, not having party
walls of brick or ftone, wherein no hazardous trades are
carried on, or hazardous goods depofited, brick or ftone
buildings in which hazardous trades are carried on, cr ha-
zardous go. ds depofited ; alfo thatched bams and out-houfes
(having no chimnies, or adjoining to any building having
a chimney), containing farmer's ftock or implements of
hufbandry : likewife all fhops and warchoufes which have
German or metal floves with pipes. Co-.ds fubjett to the
fame kind of infurance are the ftock and goods of bread-
bakers, brewers, vinegar and fweet-makcrs, printers, hot-
preffers and calenderert, carpenters, chemifts, coach-makers,
colour-men, coopers, hemp and flax-drefl'crs,' innholders,
ma'.thoufes, oil leather-dreifers, fliip and tallow-chandlers,
ftable-keepers, pawn-brokers, hemp, flax, pitch, tar, tur-
pentine, rofin, tallow, hay, ftraw, and all manner of fod-
der, and corn unthrafhed, apothecaries' iiock ; alfo, oil and
fpirituous liquors, as mirehandize and the ftock in timber,
yards. Doubly hazardous infurances comprehend buildings

which

INSURANCE.

xvTiich are thatched, alfo timber or plafter buildings, in
which hazardous goods are depofited, or hazardous trades
carried on ; and goods or ftock in thatched dwellings ; alfo
falt-pctre, working-perfumers, tallow-melters, wax-chand-
lers, fpennaceti candle-makers, and rope-makers in brick
and tiled buildings, boat-builders, china, glafs, or earthen
wares.

The " Hand in Hand Fire-office" was inftituted in the
year 1696 ; and its terms are, for common infurances, ^000/.
or under, 2i. per cent, per annum : for /•<7z(jri/5i;/ infurances,
3000/. or under, ^s. per cent, per annum : for doiMy hazard-
ous infurances, 3000/. or under, 5/. per cent, per annum. If
infurances are defired for any larger fums than are fpe-
cified in the table of premiums, a fpecial agreement may be
made for the fame, and alfo for particular buildings, goods,
&c. not included in the fecond and third articles above

enumerated. Perfons infuring in this office are allowed
one year's premium and duty, and muft pay the requifite
premiums and depofit according to the nature of the
rif!<. They become joint proprietors and members of
the fociety, and are entitled to a proportionate (hare of the
profits.

The " Union Fire-office'' was inftituted in 1714, for in-
furing houfes and buildings, goods, merchandize, and fliips
ii» harbour, in dock, or while building, from lofs or damage
by fire. The fepteniiial infurances arc allowed one year's
premium and duty, and become proprietors, partaking of
the profits of the fociety. The annual or (hort period in-
furers are completely protefted from any lofs or damage by
fire, or from any call or contribution towards any lofs or
damage happening to others, by a very ample fund which
has been raifed for that purpofe.

Table of Annual Premiums.

(Excluft-vi of Govsrnment Duty.)

Co..a>on.

H»7:ir.io.«.

Doublj- Ha/«rduus.

On fums not exceedln

g 3000

£. s. d.

\ "\ ViP""--

£. S. d.

Larger Sums may be infured by fpecial Agreement.

No charge is made for policies of 300/. and upwards. Farming ftock maybe infured at zs, per cent.. The " Royal
Exchange AiTurance," of which we have given an account, as far as it is a life-infurance office, under Assurance inUire*
edfo from lofs or damage by fire.

Table of Annual Premiums.
(Not including Duty.)

Haiftrduus AfTurances.

Donblr Hazardous Affuranre!

Not exceeding ]
3000/. J

. per cent.

Not exceedii

2000/.

3 J. per ant.

Not exceeding 7

2000/. ^j S'- Percent.

Larger Sums may be aiTured by fpecial Agreement ; and Farming Stock at 2s. per cent.

The corporation of the " London AfTurance" infures houfes and goods from fire, and alfo infures lives. (See Assu«
RANCK.) The premiums are as follows :

1 Common Aflurancet.

Ha«rdoii3 APTurancea.

Doubly Hazardous.

Sumsnot^exceedingJ^^ /— '•

Sums not exceeding 3000/. 3/. od. percent.

Above 3000/. and not exceeding 5000/'. 3/. 6d.
Above 5000/. 4J. od.

Farming Stock, it. with
average claufe.

Ee2

INSURANCE.

Perfons afluring for feven years, wiU be allowed one year's Premiums of afTuiance from fire for fhips in harbcsr,

premium, and duty ; for fix years, lo per cent, on the pre- building, or repairing, or for cargoes, or for veiiels and othT

mium ; for five years, 9 per cent. ; for four years, 6 per cent. ; craft employed in inland navigation, and goods, &c. ladeiv

for three years, 4. per cent. ; for two years, 2 per cent. thereon.

F..r one Year.

For fix Mamhs. For three Monflis.

£.
Sums not exceeding 10,000
Above 10,000

s. d.
4 0

s. d.

2 6

3 °

s. d.

2 0 per cenL

3 6

Five^^r cent, difcount allowed on premium. The premium
on goods, hazardous or not hazardous, in any of the ware-
houfes or Iheds, or on the open wharfs, or in any part of the
port of London, within five miles of the Royal Exchange
(the Well India docks excepted), with tlie average claufe,
5^. per cent. ; on goods not hazardous, fimilarly fituated,
3/. per cent. The average claufc, fo often refLrred to, is as
follows : It is agreed, that if the goods afi"ured fhall be of
greater value than the fum allured, and the fame (hall nut be

totally confiimed, the infarer fliall only be liable to pay fuch
a proportion of the lofsasthe ium afTured fliall bear to the
whole value of the goods at the time of the breaking out of
any fire. On fums of 300/. and upward, the policy and
mark are allowed gratis.

The " Sun Fire-office" was eftablifhed m the year 1710,
and infures againll lofs or damage by fire, upon the follow-
ing terms.

Table of Rates.

Annual Premiums to be paid for Infuranccs.

Sums not exceeding 10,000 Common

6,000 Hazardous
3,000 Doubly Hazardou

per Cent.
. Ditto.
. Ditto.

Suras above may be infnred by Special
Agreement.

Fanning Stock, on any Part of the Farm, infured under General Policies, without the Average-Claufe, at 2/. per Cent.
N. B. Any barn, or other out-building, and the farming ftock therein, may be infured under one fum : — premium jj.

Perfons may infure for more years than one, not cxcetding
fcven ; and, in fuch cafe, there will be an abatement of fix-
pence in the pound per annum, on the premiums agreed for,
for every year except the firft : In a common infnrance of
i.ooo/. for feven years, the premium to be paid, by the table,
will be feven pounds, in which the fix-pence in the pound
per annum is to be deducted for the laJl fix years, that is,
three (hillings and fix-pence per annum, which amounts to
one pound one ftiilling, and reduces the fum to be paid to
five poimds nineteen fhiUings, and the fame in proportion for
any other fum or number of years ; and perfons infuring
can never be fubjeft to any calls or contributions to make
good lofTes.

The " Sun Life An"urance Society"' grants annuities,
makes affurances on lives and furvivors, and provides for the
endowment of children ; on the terms, and in the manner of
other offices for infuring lives.

" The Weftminfter Fire-office" was eftabliftied in tlie
year 1717. Tlie terms are, in the firft clafs of common in-
furanccs, for any fum not exceeding lo.oco/., 2s. per cent,
per annum ; in the fecond clafs of hazardous infurances, for
any fum not exceeding 6oco/., ^s. per cent, per annum ; in
the third clafs of doubly hazardous infurances, for any fum
not exceeding 3000/., 5--. per cent, per annum. The fourth
clafs includes infurances by fpecial agreement. Every fep-
teiinial infurer. becomes a member of the focicty, and (hall
be allowed one year's premium ; he will alfo have a propor-

tionable (liare of the profits, and be liable to contribute to
lofTes, but not to exceed lOf. per cent, on the firft ; 15J. on
the fecond ; and 20s. on the third clafs of infurances.

The " Phcenix Fire-office" was eftabliftied in 178: ; and
its premiums are for common infurances, for fums not ex-
ceeding 3C00/., 2s. per cent, per annum ; for hazardous in-
furances, for fiiiubr fums, ^s. per cent, per annum ; and for
double hazardous infurances, the fums being the fame, 5^.
per cent, per annum. Ilay and corn in barns or (tacks, and
other farming ftock, may be infured at 2s. per cent, per an-
num. Ships, barges, and all kinds of water-craft ; alfo,
cargo on board may be infured at 3J. per ant. per annum,
for fums not exceeding 3000/. Inlurances on larger fums,
and on goods, &c. peculiarly hazardous, may be efteded by
fpecial agreement. Perfons chufing to infure for feven years,
will be charged for fix years only ; and for any number of
years, more or lefs tlian feven, will be allowed a reafonable
difcount both on the premium and the infurance tax.

" The Globe Infurance" was eftablifhed in 1S03, and com-
preliends the granting infurances againll lofs or damage by
fire, on lives and lurvivorftiips, the endowment of children,
and immediate, deferred, and progrelfive annuities. This
office makes common infurances at an annua! premium of 2.--.
per cent. ; hazardous infurances at 3^. per cent. ; and doubly
hazardous infurances at the annual premium of 5/. p,T cent.
Farming ftock is infured at 2s. per cent. ; and this may be in^
fmcd for three, fix, or nine calendar months at certain ftipulatcd

lutci.

INSURANCE.

rates. Policies are allowed in all cafes where the annual pre-
iniiim amounts to 6s. Iiifuranccs for feven years arc cliarged
only fix years premiums ; and a confiderable rcduftion is
made on country infurance. The infuranccs on lives and on
furvivorfhip are made at tlie rates of other offices ; nor docs
the company require entrance money, or admiffion fees, from
perfons efFeftiiig hfe infiu-ances. The capital of the com-
pany is llated to be one million fterhng, the whole of which
has been inverted in government or real fccurities, and it is
ftipidatedthat no members of the company (liall be liable to
pay any fum beyond the amount of his fubfcfiption or fliare
in the faid capital of one million.

The " Imperial Fire-office" waseftablifhedin 1803. Its
capital, of one miUion two hundred thouiand pounds iterling,
has been fubfcribed in fiiares of 500/. each ; and no member
is a fubfcriber for more than jooo/. Each member has de-
pofited 10/. per cent, on the amount of his fubfciiption,
amounting in the whole to 120,000/. which fum is invelled,
and to accumulate for five years, without dividends to the
members of the company. In cafe the current premiums on
infurances, with the depofit of 120,000/. and all its accu-
mulations, Ihall prove inadequate to fatisfy the loffes which
may arife, the members of the company are, from time to
time, to be called upon for farther fums, in proportion to
their fubfcriptions, and even to their full extent, if neceflary.
If the current premiums fhall be more than fufficient to
anfwer lofies, and the expences of management, the furplus
is, from time to time, to be invefted ; but fiich profits are in
no event to be divided, but are to be applied for augmen-
tation of the capital ttock ; and the dividends and interell of
the profits only are to be divided, after the expiration of
five years. Tlie premium in common infurances is 2/. per
cent, per annum for 30C0/. and under ; in hazardous in-
furances, y. p:r unt. per annum, for 1000/. or under; and
in double hazardous infurances, Jj-. per cent, per annum, for
icxio/. or under. Perfons chufiug to infure for feven years
will.be charged for fix years only ; and for any number of
years^ lefs than feven, will be allowed a reafonable difcount,
both on the premium and duty.

The " Albion Fire and Life Infurance Company" was
inftituted in the year 1805 ' ^"^ is llated to podefs a capital
of one million fterUng. Its infurance againli lofs or damage
by fire is in the firll clafs of common infurances 2s. per cent,
per annum, to the amount of 3000/. ; in the fecond clafs of
Hazardous infurances, }s. per cent, annually ; and in the third
clafs of doubly hazardous infurances, ^s. per cent, per annum
both to the fame amount. Infurances are taken to a larger
amount than that above dated ; and policies are granted at
fuitable premiums for lefs than 12 months. On infurances
for feven years, or for any greater or lefs term, exceeding
one year, a confiderable allowance ism,-ide, both on the pre-
mium and duty. The following abatements are made on the
premiums of fire infurances of the firft clafs, out of Lon-
don ; -viz. 25 per cent, per annum on policies for fingle
years ; ^o per cint. on policies for three years ; 35 pa- cent.
on policies for five years ; .^o per cent, on policies for feven
years ; and in the like proportion for policies for other
periods. Infurances on hves ure condufted on the fame terms
with thofe of other offices of a fimilar kind. No admiffion
fine is charged on life infurance.

The " Britilh Fire Office" infures houfes and goods in
the three clafles above fpecified at 2s., y., and ^s. per cent,
f'rannum refpeftive'y.

The " Hope Fire and Life Infurance Company" was
inittuted in 1807. Its annual rates of infurance on the three
clafles above recited are, is. per cent., 3/. per cent., and j/.
per cent, on liirns not exceeding to,ooo/., 6000/., and 3000/.,

refpeftively. Farming flock is infurcd at 2s. per cent, on »
fum not exceeding 10,000/. Special riiks may be infured on
terms corrcfponding to them. The following abatements
are made upon country affurances, i<lz. 10 percent, on policies
for a fingle )x-ar ; ly for three years; 20 for five years ;
25 for feven years. Every perfon not being a.proprietor of
a (hare or fhares in the company, and who ffiall infure or pro-
cure to be infured, property to the amount of I coo/., (hail,
upon the payment of 5/. beyond the premium of infurance,
be entitled, out of the profits (arifing from fire infurance
only) to fuch intereft or dividend as may arife and become
payable on one 50/. fliare in the capital ftock of the com-
pany ; and fo on in hke manner for every additional loco/.
fo infurcd ; and fuch intereft or dividend fliall continue to be
paid to fuch perfon or perfons, or to his or their legal repre-
feutative or reprcfcntatives, during fuch period as fuch in-
furanccs fliall continue to be etTedL-d, and in the event of the
fame being difcontinued, all dividends and intereft, which
may be then due or payable, together with the fum of 5/. fo
paid for every 1000/. fo infured as aforefaid, fliall be for-
feited and become the property of the company. Life in-
furances are eff"eaed by this company on the fame terms
with thofe of other offices. Perfons not being proprietors,
who infure, or procure to be infured, joo/. upon tiieir own
lives, or lives of others, will, upon the payment of ten
ftuWmgs per cent, (on the admiffion of tlie party ) beyond the
premium paid for the infurance, be entitled, out of tiie pro-
fits of the Hfe fund, to fuch intereft or dividend as may be
paid on a 50/. fhare to the feveral proprietors thereof, and fo
on in like nian::er for every 50c/. fo iolured ; but in no cafe
whatever are they to be refponfible for any claims which the
life fund may be called upon to pay, the capital of the com-
pany being of a fufficient magnitude for that purpofe.

The " Eagle Infurance Company'' w'as inftituted in
1807, for fire and life infurance, and for granting annuities.
Its capital is ftated at two millions fterlmg. The annual
rates of infurance againft fire are as follows :

Annual Rates of Infurance.

.f. d.

Common Infurance, not exceeding io,coo/. 2 o per cer.i.

Above 26

Hazardous ditto, not exceeding 6coo/. . 3 o

Ditto, above 4 o

Doubly hazardous, not exceeding 3000.'. 5 o

Ditto, above 3000/. and not exceeding 40C0/. 6 o

Ditto, above 4000/. and not exceeding jooc/.- 7 6

Farming Stock.

Without average claufe, for three months i i perar.t,.
for fix months I 6
for any longer "J
period, not 1
exceeding 1 2 I
months 3 ■

The building and ftock of fugar refiners, fugar grinders,
fea bifcuit bakers, diftiliers, mulical inftrument makers,
cotton-fpinners, cahco printers, flax dreffers, and other extra-
ordinary riflvs, may be infured by fpccial agreement.

Policies for fliort periods, or lefs tlian a year, may be
effedled at confiderably reduced premiums, and wi'l pay
only a proportionable part of the duty. The infurance on
hves is conducted as in other offices.

The " County Fire Office" was eftabliflicd in 1 807, for
the cxprcfs benefit of country refijlents. The dillinguifliing'

principle*-

INSURANCE.

principles of this inftitution are, that its bufincfs confifts of
a feleftion of the beft rifks ; that the perfons infured become
members ; that all the members Ihare the profits equally,
according to the fiims which they refpeftively contribute
during feven years (whether their policies be taken out ori-
ginally for {eien years, or be renesved annually), and with
the important advantage of not being liable to make good
the loffes of others, as a furplus capital of 400,000/. has been
provided to meet any excefs of loiTes that may occur. In
common iiifurances of 5000/. and under, in one rifle, the an-
nual premium is 2s. per cent. ; in hazardous infnrances, of
3000/. and under, in one rifk, y. per cent., above 3000/.
and under 5000/., 4J-. per cent. ; in doubly hazardous in-
furances, j;ooo/. and tmder, in one rifle, 51. per cent., above
3000/. and under jooo/., js. per cent. Larger infurances,
according to the above dtfcription of rifks, may be made by
fpecial agreement : and other infurances againft more hazard-
ous rifles may be fettled in the fame manner. Hay, corn,
and other agricultural Hock, of whatever defcription, on any
part of a farm, may be infured in one general fum, at the

reduced rate of 2x, per cettt. without the average claufe.
Perfons infuring for feven years will be charged only for fix ;
and for any number of years more or lefs than feven, dif-
count will be allowed both on the premium and duty. All
the offices infure againft fire by lightning. It will be remem-
bcred, that a duty of 2s. 6d. per cent, per annum, on all pro-
perty infured from fire, is payable to government, under aa
aft of the 44th of George III.

The " .itlas AlTurance Company'' was eftabbflicd in
1808, and undertakes to affure the proprietors of buildings,
merchandize, furniture, farming flock, goods and effeiSs,
and alfo of craft and fhipping upon canals and in harbour,
againft lofs by fire ; and alfo grant affurance upon lives. The
ca[)ital is ftatcd at one million two hundred thoufand pounds,
of which the fum of 120,000/., invefted in government or
real fecurlli?s, will be applicable to the immediate purpofes
of the inititution ; and the remainder guaranteed under a
deed of fettlement by a numerous and relpeclable pro-
prietary.

Rates of Aft'urance per Annum.

Quality.

On Sums not exceeding-

Firft .
Second
Third .
Fourth
Fifth .

Not Hazardous .

Hazardous

Doub'y Hazardous

Farming Stock

Rifles, to which none of the above rates will apply

d.

£.

3 °
5 o

2 o
-Tliefe may be all

J°°°7 Unlefsby

3000 r Agree

5000J

Special
reement.

ad by Special Agreement,

Terms as moderate as the nature of them will permit
N. B. An additional premium of Sixpence per cent, will be required on buildings or goods within the
Water-Side Diftritt, for extra rifk.

No charge is made for policies or indorfements on them : of that period a further affurance of feven years be effefted

and for the encouragement of perfons making affurance for on the fame property, a deduftion of one-lifth part of the

feven years by one payment, a deduftion of one-fcventh part premium, and fo on for fuccceding years. The terms of

of the premium and duty will be made ; and if at the end life-afTurances are much the fame as thofe of other ofEces.

A Table, exhibiting the Amount of the Duty on Infurances for the Year 1810.

Total Amount
381,162/. \s. id.

Property Infured
304,929,650/.

Lady Daj.

Sun ....

Phcenlx . . .
Royal Exchange
Imperial
Globe . . .
Britiflt . . .
Hope . . .
Albion . . .
County . . .
Weftminfter .
Hand in Hand .
Eagle . . .
Atlas . . .
London , . .
Union . . .

27247
16241
10952
9718
79S0
4377
4327
4532
3645
3''3
3161

im

2120

1879
1S03

15 II

10 7

11 10

23144 9 10

12980 J 6 5

1 00 1 2 15 o

7638 9 9

5761 6 9

4198 17 2

3802 4 7

3804 13 4

2773 »5 3

3143 8 2

2853 19 10

2606 4 10

2285 12 o

1608 II 6

1395 15 2

£.

20590

•3875
1 1087
8995
6678

4195
3266

3583
2718
2857
2698
2919
2606

315°
1418

22885 12

14611 8

13014 J7

8995 3

6932 18

3923 6

4482 5

3763 II

4527 14

2939 17

2791 5

2696 I

280? 16

2674 6

1229 14

£. s. d.
93867 16 10
57709 4 10
45067 12 10
35346 14 6
27353 10 6
16695 5 5
15878 17 8
15683 8 II
13664 15 4
12054 13 10
1 1505 12 9
11355 12 8
9815 9 6
9312 17 4
5847 i8 8

INTACT.E,

I N T

INTACTjE, right lines to which curves do continually
approach, and yet can never meet with them ; more ufually
called ufymptolcs.

INTAGLIOS, precious ftones, having the heads of great
men, infcriptions, and tlie like, engraven on them ; futh as
•we frequently fee fet in rings, feals, &c.

IN-TAKER, a name anciently given to certain ban-
ditti, or free-booters, who inhabited part of tlie North of
England, and made frequent incurfions into the very mid-
■dle of Scotland ; plundering the inhabitants wherever they
came.

Thofe who made the expeditions, were called out-parters ;
and ihofe who were left behind to receive the booty, j«-
taiers. 9 Hen V. c. 7.

INTAVOLARE', /to/, to write raufic for the lute and
guitar in tablature, inllead of mulical charadters. See Ta-
BE..A.TURE and TlWE-TABLK.

INTAVVA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bundelcund ; 15 miles E. of Pannah.

INTEGERS, \a Aiithmelk, denote whole numbers ; in
contradilHiiction to fractions.

Integers may be defined to be, numbers which refer to
unity, as a whole to a part.

INTEGRAL, or IxTEGaANX, is applied by the fchool-
men to thofe parts which are neceflfary to the integrity of a
whole. In which fenfe they (land contradillinguiihed from
tffential parts.

Thus the arms, legs, &c. are integral parts ; body and
foul, eflential parts of a man.

Iktegral Calculus, in the New Analyfis, is the counter
part to the differential calculus.

This laft has been completely explained by the marqtiis
Del'Hofpital; but tlie other Itill remains imperfeft, hav-
ing been yet but little cultivated.

The integral calculus of Leibnitz, and other foreigners,
anfwers to what the Englifh call inverfe method of fiux'toni.
See Fluxions, and Calculus.

INTEGRANT Part.s, in Philofiphy, the fimilar parts
of a body, or parts of the fame nature with the whole; as
filings of iron are the integrant parts of iron, and have
the fame nature and properties with the bar they were filed
oif from. Tiie chemifts diftinguifh, in their refolutions of
bodies, between the dividing and refolving them into inte-
grant parts hke thefe, and what they call conftituent parts ;
that is, diffimilar parts, or the principles of the bodies they
work upon. Thus when crude mercury is dilTolved in aqua-
fortis, though held imperceptibly in the menllruum ; yet
when that mjnPiruum is diluted v>'ith water, and a copper-
plate is fufpended in it, the menftruum leaves the mercury,
to work upon the copper, and the mercury fubfides unal-
tered and in its own natural form ; the mercury, therefore,
in this operation, was only divided into its integrant parts,
or fmall parcels of the fame nature and properties of the
whole ; but when artificial cinnabar is refolved or divided
into crude mercury and fulphur, neither of thefe are of the
&me nature and properties with the cinnabar, and are not
its integrant but us conltituent parts. This therefore is the
dividing a body into its conftituent parts or principles.

INTEGRITY of the Ashn. See Action.

INTEGRUM Folium, among .ffs/flni/?^. See Leaf.

lN'ii;(;;iu.\i, in rejlitut'w. See RESTITUTION.

INTEGUMENTS, \n Anatomy, the coverings of the
body ; the word is generally employed with the epithet
tommon, as they are of the fame nature and number in all
parts of the frame. They confiit of the cuticle or epider-
mis, with its appendages the nails, of the rete mucofum,
and of the true Ikin, cutis, or dermis. The hair in . its

I N T

nature feenjs to refemble the cuticle ; but it grows from the
cutis. To thefe three layers a fourth is fometiinos added,
under the name of the ad'ipous membrone. In truth, the Ikiu-
is always connected to the fubjacent organs by cellular tilFue,
the interftices of which in moll cafes contain fat, but not
invariably fo. This connecting ihatum belongs entirely to
tlie cellular organ. See Cellular Subjiance.

To the technical exprelTion 01 coujiiion integuments, the
word Ilvin correfponds in common language ; but tliis term
is often ufed by anatomills to denote the cutis, in oppofition
to the cuticula.

The three parts compofing the integuments of the bedy
are fo different in their organization aiid functions, that we
cannot approve the common arrangement, by which they
are all confidered together as forming one organic fyfteni.
We prefer the method of Bichat, who delcribes the cutis,
with the mucous layer on itb lurface, under the name of the-
da-moid fyllem ; the cuticle with the nails under that of
epidermoid fyilem ; and the hairs under that of hairy iyftem
(fytleme pileux). We (hall employ this divifion, and derive
our account of the fubjedl chiefly from the Anatomic Ge-
nerale of that writer.

Dermoid Syjhm. — The furface of the body is covered
in all animals by a more or lefs denfe membrane, generalh/
proportioned in its thicknefs to the volume of the body,
and ferving the purpofe of protecting the fubjacent organs,
of feparatmg a confiderable portion of the re/idue of nu-
trition and dige'.tion, and eftablilhing the relations between
us and furroiinding objects. In man it is the i'enfitive hmit
of his frame, placed at the extremity of his fenticnt powers,
inccffantly expofed to external impulfes, thus giving rife to
the relations of his animal life,- and connedling his exiftence
to that of external obje(Sls. This covering is the fkin or
cutis.

Ijeing every where proportioned to the external parts
over which it is apphed, it follows their chief inequalities,
rendering the large projeflions very fenf:ble, but concealing
a great number of the fmaller : hence the different appear-
ances- of the body in its entire tind flayed ilates. It is
continuous throughout, and rcfleftcd at the different open-
ings into the interior of the body, giving origin to the
mucous fyftein. The limits of the two fyllems are con-
ftantly marked by a reddiih line, the mucous being within,
and the dermoid on the oulfide of that boundary. The de-
marcation, however, is not fo decided in the organization
as in the colour ; they appear to be infenfibly blended. The
dormoid fyilem becomes thinner in the neighbourhood of
thefe openings, particularly about the face. At their com-
mencement the mucous organ borrows more or lefs of tlie -
characters of the dermoid.

The external furface of the dermoid fyftem is every
where contiguous to the epidermis, and is remarkable on
account of the hairs implanted in it, of the oily m.atter
which habitually covers it, of the fweat which is dcpolited
on it, and of the fenfe of touch refiding in it. We (hall
difregard thefe points at prefent, and confine ourfelves to
the confideratio!! of the external forms of the fyilem.

Various kinds of folds are fecn 011 the external furface.

1. Some depend on certain fuperficial mufcles, which, ad-
hering clofely to the dermis, and almofl confulidated to its
fubllance, throw it into wrinkles when they contract. Such
are the wrinkles of the forehead produced by the epi-
cranius ; the radiated folds round the eyelids formed by
the orbicularis ; thofe of the cheeks by the zygon.atici and
levator aiigiili oris ; thofe round the mouth when the lips
are coi.tcacted by the orbicularis oris, &c. Thefe folds
arife from tlic circumliancc that the Asia cannot contraft

INTEGUMENTS.

as the mufcles do ; and they are of the fame nature with
.what we obferve in mucous furfaces, particularly in the
ftomach, when the contiguous mufcular plane is contraftcd.
Hence their diredion is always perpendicular to that of the
fubjacent mufcles, whofc fibies they cut at right angles.
As the motions of thefe parts in the human countenance are
much influenced by the pafficns, the wrinkles and irre-
gularities in the fnce are highly important in a phyfiognomical
point of view. The repeated aftions of particular mufcles,
under the habitual impreflion of particular paffions, pro-
duce permanent lines, which give the character of the in-
dividual.

2. Other wrinkles arife from the motions of parts, but not
from thofe of the fubjacent mufcles : fuch are thofe of the
palm and fole. Here there is no fub-cutaneous mr.fcle ad-
hering to tiie flcin, except the palmaris brevis, which has no
fliare in producing the folds, where the flcin is habitually
modified by the flexion of the organ. To this clafs belong
the imprefiions at the articulations of the phalanges. In
the palm there are three principal ones : at the balis of the
thumb, produced by the motion of oppofition of that or-
gan, at the front of the palm, by the flexion of the iingers,
and in the middle of the palm. The cutis forms folds in
thefe dcprefled lines when the palm is rendered hollow.
Numerous other fmall folds, correfponding to lefa marked
and frequent motions, cut the former at various angles.

In the back of the foot and hand we obferve numerous
wrinkles at each articulation of the phalanges, when they
are extended : they difappear on flexion, and arife from the
fkin being loofer and more copious in thefe parts to accom-
modate the motions. There are analogous folds at moft of
the articulations, but they are lefs ftrongly marked, be-
caufe the ik'm is lefs adherent to the neighbouring organs.
Over the whole trunk, on the arm and fore-arm, the leg
and thigh, no depreflions are obferved except thofe produced
by mufcular prominences.

3. A third kind of wrinkles, or rather of cutaneous im-
prefiions, which are very ineonfiderable, occurs particularly
in the fole and palm, where they are eaiily dillinguillied
from the foregoing. They indicate the rows of papillae :
and nothing of the kind occurs on the furface of the trunk.

4. Laftly, there are the wrinkles of old age, the nature
of which is quite different. When the fub-cutaneous fat has
begun to difappear, the fl<in is too large for the parts which
It covers : it lofes its contratlility by age, and cannot there-
fore accommodate itfelf to the altered bulk of parts. Thus,
where there was moll fat, as in the face, tlie wrinkles are
TOoft ftrongly marked. When young perfons are fuddenly
emaciated, the fkin contradls, and no wrinkles eniue.

The internal furface of the flcin correfponds every where
to the cellular tilTue, which is loofe on the trunk, the thighs,
arms, &c. and more denfe on the cranium, hand, &c. In
mod animals, a mufcular plane, named panniculus carnofus,
and analogous in its form to that which is every where
connefted to the mucous membranes in man, feparates the
(ki[i from the other organs, and imparts to it various motions.
Traces of fuch a llrutture occur in a few inftances in man,
as in the latifiimus colli, the cpicranius, and the mufcles of
the face.

The cellular tilTue connefts the cutis to mufcles almoft
univerfally in the trunk ; but it has nothing to do with the
motions of thefe mufcles, and receives from them no fen-
fible influence. It ie fcparatcd from the mufcles in the
limbs by aponeurofes. Many vcflcls purfue their courfe
under it : large veins may be obferved through its fubftance;
numerous arterial ramifications are dillributed on its fur-
face ; and nerves arc found among thefe.
7

Orgainzaiton oftht Dermoid Syfiae.
I. Proper Tifue of this S_}Jlem.—Thk comprehends,
ift, thecorion; 2dly, the rete mucofum ; and, 3dly, the
papilla: or villi. The corion is the elTential part, which de-
termines the thicknefs and form of the flcin : the rete mu-
cofum is not very difl.ind from it ; and the papilla; manifeftly
grow out of it.

The corion is always white in the human fubjeft. Its
thicknefs varies coufidcrably. In the head it polTefTes op-
pofite charafters on the cranium and the face : in the former
it is very thick and denfe in its texture, in confequence of
the numerous hairs which traverfe it : in the latter it is every
where thin and delicate, but more particularly in the eyelids
and lips. On the poilerior part of the trunk, and efpe-
cially along the back, its thicknefs is nearly double that
which it has in front, where it is nearly uniform in the
neck, chefl;, and abdomen. We mull except, however, the
penis, fcrotum, labia, and breafls, where its texture is much
thinner. The corion is nearly of equal thicknefs in the
flioulder, arm, and fore -arm ; in the hand its thicknefs is ra-
ther increafed, and more fo in the palm than on the back. It it
generally much thicker on the .thigh and leg, where there
are more bulky mufcles than in the arm and fore-arm. It
grows thicker in the foot, but lefs fo in the dorfal than in
the plantar region, which is the thickeft part of the fyftem.
The relation of its fundlioas to the various degrees of
thicknefs obferved in the hand, foot, and cranium, may be
eafily underllood ; but in other parts we do not clearly fee
the reafon of thefe differences.

It is generally thinner in v.omen than in men, fo as to
prefent a fenlible difference when the two are contrailed in
any region of the body.

In order to examine the interior ftruclure of the corion,
it fliould be carefully feparated from the cellular and adipous
tiffue, to which the inner furface adheres more or lefa clofely ;
we (hall then find that furface differently difpofed in the dif-
ferent regions.

1. In the fole and palm we fee an infinite number of
whitifli fibres, fliining hke thofe of an aponeurotic nature,
detached from the inner furface of the flcin, decuffating each
other in every direftion, leaving, particularly towards the
heel, numerous areolte of different fi/.es filled with fat, and
gradually loll in the fub-cutaneous tiffue. Hence there is
not the fame mobility of the flcin over the covered parts,
on thefe furfaces, as in mod other fituations ; an arrange-
ment well fuited to the fundlions of prehcnfion and fupport
belonging to thefe parts.

2. The cutis of other parts of the body has thefe fibres
much lefs diflind, not interwoven with the cellular tiffue,
and feparated by fmaller areola : hence it is much loofer,
and more eafily diffeclcd from the fubjacent parts. The
areola; reprcfent a vail number of openings placed irre-
gularly by the fide of each other, and lodging fmall maffe*
of fat : when thefe are carefully removed very fenfible
vacuities are left. The fibres, which form them, are fuffi-
ciently clofe to give the appearance of an uniform ftrufture
perforated by numerous apertures. Thefe areola; arc very
favourable to the adlion of the tanning principle, which is
introduced through them to the corion much more ef-
feftually than it can penetrate on the oppofite fide. Bichat
afcertained this point by a dired experiment on the human
flcin. Cliaptal has obferved that the epidermis is a real ob-
ftacle to the aAion of tanning, and that its removal, with
that of the hair, is an cflential prehminary for this reafon :
but that the hide, even when thus prepared, is affetted much
more eaiily on the inner than on the outer fide.

3- 0»

INTEGUMENTS.

^. On the back of the lianJ and foot, as well as on the fore-
}icad, the corion does not exhibit thele numerous openings
on its inner furfnce ; it is finooth and whitifh, particularly
after being mac -rated a little : the fame obfcrvation may be
inade concernin- that of the fcrotum, prepuce, and labia.
Its tifTue is mor? compaft, and exhibits no intervals ; fo
that although it is thinner than on the limbs and trunk, it
contains nearly as much fubdance. In that, which corre-
fponds to the hair and beard, we obferve only the openings
ntceflary for the tranfmiffion of thofe parts.

The three great modihcations in the organization of the
fkin, which we have jull defcribed, are merely differences
of form, and not in the efTential nature of the organ. The
arcolx may be feen in all parts, where tliey exift at all, by
means of maceration, which is a very good method of ex-
amining the ftruclure of the /kin. Immerfioii in water
foftena the fkin by feparating the fibres of its curion, and
rendering their intervals more dillin4t : we then find that
the areolx are not confined to the internal furface, but
are prolonged inlo its fubllance, which is penetrated by
tliem in its whole thicknefs. Thcfe arcolx do not termi-
nate in cul-de-faci towards the external furface, but they
open on that furface by numerous holes very apparent
in Ikin, which has been macerated for a month or two. The
epidermis mull be removed in order to render them fen-
fible : they penetrate the Ikin obliquely, and admit in fome
parts and fome iubjefls tlie introduiition of a pin's head.
They are fimple communications from the interior to the
exterior for the paffage of hairs, exhalants, and abforbents,
as they come to the furface : thus the fubjacent areolae
are merely cells containing the blood-veffels, and the tifTue
of the fkin altogether is a true cellular net-work, of which
the intcrllites are very dilliiift on the infide, but lefs ob-
vious externally. Thus the corion conflitutes the balls
or ikeleton of the cutaneous organ, lodging in its areolae all
the other parts of the organ, and giving to them their
proper form.

Bichat confidcrs that the areolar tifTue, which compofes
the corion of the flcin, has much analogy with that of the
fibrous fyftem. Its deiifity and refillance are nearly the
fame in the heel : it becomes yellowifli and tranfparent by
boiling; it refills maceration for a long time; and it re-
ceives in fome fituations the infertion of muftular fibres.
Yet the fenfibihty and the difeafes of the two fyllcms differ
altogether.

The acute fenfibihty of this organ does not refide in the
areolar tifTue of its inner furtaee, but in the part containing
the papill.e. And we find that the fame part is the l.-at of
mull cutaneous eruptions. The external furface oi)l\ is co-
k)ured by the blood in eryfipelas; and hence flight pjeiTure,
by driving this fluid into the deeper vefTels, removes the red
colour. In meafles, fcarlet-fever, &c. the rednefs is alfo
fuperficial. Injcftions occanon much greater rednefs of the
external than of tiie internal furface ; as the arterial trunks
are found in the latter, and the numerous exhalants in the
former. Thefe conllderations prove clearly that tlie cellular
tiffiie of the Hcin has much lefs vital aftivity than its outer
furface; that this tifTue is foreign to almoll all the great
phenomena occurring in the fkin, particularly thofe of fcn-
fation and circulation, which take place in the papillx and
' the reticular body. Its funflions, like thofe of the fibrous
fyftem, fuppofe it almod always in a pafTivc flat;-, as they
coiifill merely in Ihielding the body, and protecting it againlt
externa! agentfi. Its properties are well fuited to this office
of a general protecting medium. Very large weights are
fupporlcd by ik-nder llrips of f^;in, and dragging i . any di-
rection tears them with great difScultv. Yet this refillance
Vol. XIX.

is flill much lefs ttian when the corion has been fubmiftod to
the aAion of the tunning principle. After fuch preparation
it offers the ftrongell conncfting medium which we have in
the arts : no other tilfue in the animal economy, except llie
fibrous, iinitcs in fo remarkable a degree pliability and re-
fillance.

Haller, wlio ivgardcd cellular fubllance as the principal
component part of moll organs of the human body, and
particularly as forming the bafis of membranes, defcribes
the cutis as being made up of this tiffue in a condenfed form.
" Its llruclure," fays he, " is on the whole the Ctiinc as that
of membranes ; viz. made of Ihnrt, intricate, and clofely-
adhering threads and laininse. Its external furface is denfe;
the internal is gradually refolved into the cellular texture, fo
that there are no accurate limits between the two parts.
Under maceration it fwells and becomes loofcned, and fepa-
rates into its component lamince and fibre?, both in man and
animals." Elements Phyfiulog, t. v. p. 5.

The retr muc Jin, or reticular body of the fltin, is fo called
from its iuppoied perforations by the papilla: and the hairs,
and becaul'e it appears of a foft mucous nature. It was firil
noticed by Maipighi, after whom it is fometimes named rete
Malpighii. The colour of the furface of the body feems to
refide entirely in this membrane : Riolan faid that the caufe
of the black colour in the negi o is in the epidermis, and does
not go fo deep as the true fkin. Maipighi, by fhewing the
dilliiiAion between the cuticle and rete mucofum, demon-
llrated the true feat of the colour of the body. " Ex quo,"
fays he, " deduce non incongruam forte nigredinis .£;hio-
pum caufam: certum enim eft ipfis cutam albam elTe ficuti et
cuticulam, unde tota nigredo a fubjedo mucolo et reticu-
lari corpore ortum trahit."

The rete mucofum in the negro is a thin black layer,
about as thick as the cuticle itfL-lf. Putrefaction eafily de-
taches it with the cuticle from the cutis ; but it can liardly
be feparated from the former. It diflolves in water, and
communicates a turbid cloud to it, like that produced by
the pigmentum nigrum. Mr. Cruikfhaiik defcribes it as
being " double, and confilling of a grey tranfparent mem-
brane, and of a black web, very much refcn;bliiig the nigrum
pigmentum of the eye." The demonflration of this reti-
cular body is much lefs eai'y in the white races than in the
negro ; and indeed very little feems to be known concerning
its anatomy in the former. " Moll authors," fays Bichat,
" reprefeiu the i-ete mucofum as a m\:cous ftratum interpofed
betvxeen the cutis and epidermis, and pierced by a large
uumber of openings for the paffage of papillae ; but I do
not underlland how this can be demonftrated on detaching
the cuticle, if it be fluid according to the ufual defcription.
I have employed, for difcovering it, fevcral means, none of
which has fucceeded. So clofcly does the cuticle adhere to
the cutis, that they cannot be feparated without injuring one
or the other in the recent fiate. Yet, if we fucceed in au
attempt of this kind, there is no appearance of mucus on the
corion. After a longitudiniU ft Ction, particularly in the foot,
where the cpiiderinis is very thick, the line of diftinftion be-
tween it and the corion is very manifoft : but nothing efcapes
from between them. When the cuticle has been removed,
after lioiling the fkin, nothing remains on either of the fur.
faces. Maceration and putrcfa£tion, but particularly the
latter, produce a kind of vifcid covering on the fkin, very
obvious when the ejiidermis is detached: but this is pro-
duced by decompofition, ;;nd nothing of the kind is leen
uader ordinary circumllanccs. I believe, from all thefe con-
fiderations, that there is no fubftance depofited by the vcf-
fels on the furface of the cutis, and forming an exterior co-
verinjf in t!ie icnfe is v hiv,h .Maipighi has reprofented tho
V i matter.

INTEGUMENTS.

matter. I think we fliould underfland, by the reticular
body, an inter-texture of extremely line veflels, the trunks
of which, already very rtvinute, after palling through the
numerous perforations of the corion, are ramified on its fur-
face, and contain different kinds of. fluids. The exiitcnce of
this vafcular net-work is placed out of all doubt by

called tanning : this alteration is %'^ry rapidly produced hf^
jToing much on the watery in confequence of the refleftion ot
the light from its furface. That tliis is the confequeiTce of
the caufe jull afligncd, and that the effcft is not produced by
heat, is rendered obvious by the difference of colour in the
face and hands, and on thofe parts of the body which are

injeftjons, which, entirely change the colour of the'dvin on habitually covered : alfo by the brown tint of the face pro

the outfide, without altering it much internally. This
the principal feat of the various eruptive diforders, moil of
which are altogether foreign to the corion.

" We may then conceive the reticular body as a general ca-
pillary fyftein, furrounding the cutaneous organ, and form-
ing, with the papillse, a ilratum intermediate to the corion
and epidermis. In the white part of the human race this
fyftem contains only white fluids ; in ihe negro they are
black, and of various tints in the other varieties of our fpe-
cies. The enumeration of the different fliades of this organ,
and the confideration ot the caufes of thefe varieties, belong
to the natural hillory of man Hitherto we have very few
data concerning this fubllance : it docs not fecm to circulate
in the part. We fee that llie negro's fl<in is black, and we
know very little more, 'i'lie rete fonietimcs adheres to
the cutis, but generally to the cuticle, when they are fepa-
rated after maceration. It is manifellly foreign to both,
fince they have tlie fame colour in the dark as the white
races.''

duccd by a fummer's fun, which offers a remarkable contralt
to that of the forehead, where it is protedted by the hat.
Our clothes do not prevent the attion of heat upon the fl<in,
but will intercept the luminous ;-ays. The pale and fallow
tints of the inhabitants of large towns, compared to the
florid countenances ot country people, aritc from the fame
caufe. Men are blanched like plants wheii flnit out from
the influence of the fun. Tanning takes place much more
quickly in individuals of light complexion, than in thofe of
an oppofite tharadter. The effeft in all cafes is temporary,
and goes off when the caufe no longer afts. It is produced
in a greater and more jx^rmanent degree in white hidividuals
who move into warm climates: but neither here nor in any-
other inllance is it trani'mitted to the offspring. Phyfiolo-
gidshavc chofen toreprefent this as a change occurring in
the retc nuicofum ; on what authority we do not know.
The light brown fpots, called freck'es, which occur about
the head and neck %vhen expofed to fun and air, feem to be
of the fame nature with the tanning. The colours iniprefled

It feems really to be a matter of doubt, whether in the on the Ikin in the operation of tattowing, refide in the cutis,

white races there be any colouring-matter in the exterior and confequently remain when the cuticle and rete mucofum

capillary fyftem analogous to the black fubllance of the have been dellioyed by maceration. Thefe colours are per- ■

negro, or whether the colour of their furface firife merely manent : they remain through life, and the marks can only

from that of the cutis and cuticle. Tha-t there is fome co- be deftroyed by removing the fliin which contains them ; a

louring-matter is rendered probable by the fingular anomaly circumftance which is hardly reconcileable to our notions of

exhibited in the albinos; which fee. Wt can demonftrate in the conftant changes of decompolition and compofition in

that cafe the abfence of the pigmentum nigrum of the eye, all parts of I he frame.

and we fee clearly the deficiency of colour in the hair. The Mr. Cruikfliank defcribes a vafcular membrane as exifting'

peculiar dead white of the Ikin is referred, by analogy, to the between the rete mucofum and cutis ^ and apparently it is

want of the colouring principle in that organ. There is the fame as the vafcular net-work of Bichat. He injefted

generally a conneftion between tiie colour of the flcin, hair, this in the flvin of perfons who had died of fmall-pox ; and

and eyes, which is remarkably evinced in this inftance. A was led to inveftigate the matter from s converfation with a
dark complexion is accompanied with black hair and tlark • gentleman who conceived that he had injefted veiTels in the

eyes ; and the light irides, as the blue and grey, occur in in- rete mucofum. He macerated in putrid water, during the

dividuals with red, flaxen, or other hght fliades of the hair fummer, portions of fmall-pox fl-;in, which had been kept for

and light (km. All thefe circumllances lead us to conclude fome time in fpirits. " Cuticle and rete mucofum were al--

that the Ikin, hair, and eyes have their colour dependent on ready turned down ; and upon the eighth or ninth day I

fome peculiar matter, the tint of which follows a general found I could now feparate a vafcuiai- membrane from the-
law in all thefe parts.

Even in the white races certain portions of the flvin fome-:
times exhibit a dark colour. The areola round the nipple
becomes black or dark brown in women who are fomewhat
advanced in pregnancy, and affords a very fure maik that
they are pregnant. Haller fays that he faw the flvin of the

cutis, in which were alfo fituated the injeited fmall-pox piif-
tnles. Thefe laft contiiled of circles of long-floating villi-
at the circumference, but of a white uninjecled lubffance in
the centre* This central part Mr. Hunter had pievioufly
faid was a flough formed by the irritation of the variolous
matter. The furface of the ftin, from whence this mem-
pubes in a woman approaching nearly to that of tlie negro brane was fepar.ited, was elegantly porous. The pores novv*
in blacknefs ; and Albinus mentions a iimilar circumftance appeared exceedingly more numerous, and this furface of the
in a man. (kin was ftill tough and fliining. I macerated the fame fkin

The colour of the fltin is tranfmitted to the offspring, and for four or five day
is furprifingly altered by intermarriages of the different
races. Where a black and a white individual copulate, the
offspring has the middle tint between thofe of its parents.
If the child of a black man fliould intermarry with a white
pcrfon, and their child with another white individual, and
fo on, the offspring will be white in the fourth generation ;
or -vice -vtrfa. But the detailed confideration of this fubjeCl
belongs, more properly, to natural hittory

nd fepai-ated ;

embrane.

more delicate than the former, but alfo vafcular. The for-
mer I eafily preferved ; the latter, attrafied by the inftru-
nient that feparated it, or unable to bear the agitation of the
water or fpirits in which it was feparated, conftantly broke
down. But tile eonefponding furface of the fl<in was ftill
tough and fliining ; the pores were now much larger and
more diflincl than before, and convinced me that the appear*
ance was natural, and that the fltin had fullaincd no real in-

The colour of the cutaneous organ in the white races of jury in the procefs." Experiments on tlie infenfible Perfpi-

the human fpecics is much modified by accidental circum- ration of the Human Body, &c. p. ^S.

ftances. Expofure to the funs rays produces various It has generally been ftated that the rete mucofum is not

fliades of a reddifli-brown colour, which effecl is commonly regenerated when it has been deftroyed in ulcers j and confe-

. . 5 qucntly

INTEGUMENTS.

flHentI/ that the cicatrices of blacks are aTway^ white, We
libelieve that this point is not clearly proved.

Whatever opinion we may form concerning the different
ftrata defcribed above, as intervening; between the cuticle
and cutis, whether we regard them as iliftind menibraues, or
;as portions detached by art from the cutis, they are of ini-
-portance, as containing an extenfive diilribution of capillary
veflels. Independently of the colouring matter, thefe vel^-
fels feem ordinarily to be filled with wliite fluids : the ex-
. haling pores, which fnrnifli the matter of perfpiration, arite
from them, and the fame vafcular nct-w tIc is the feat of ery-
■fipelas, and of all the cutaneous eruptions which do not af-
feft the corion.

" The blood," fays Bichat, " does not penetrate this ca-
.pillary fyftem in the ordinary Hate; but numerous caufes will
lead to its being fuddenly diftcnded. Rub the fl<in a little
roughly, and it is inltantly reddened. Irritate it mechani-
cally or chemically, its fenfibility is immediately awakened,
it becomes filled witi' blood, which could not enter before,
and isreddenud in a furface proportioned to the extent of the
irritation. The cheeks exhibit an analogous plienoinenon in
^!•l(hing ; and all rubefacient membi-ancs fliew the great
• ndency of the fuperficial capillary fvllem to admit, under

cumftances of excitation, that blood which it rejefts in its
,'. ,tural Hate. Bliliers, and fire, applied to a degree (hort of
duftroying the furface, aft in the fame way: they caufe a
fudden fpecies of eryfipelas, which is followed by an abund-
ant fi-rous exhalation under the ciiticle.

" Irritation of the flvin is not the only caufe which deter-
mines an influx of blood into the exterior capillary fyftem.
Whenever the action of the heart is accelerated, and the
motion of the blood confequently precipitated, there is a
tendency to this paffagc, as we fee clearly after violent exer-
cife, or on the accefs of the hot (lage in fevers.

" The capillary fyllem of the face is more fubjecl to this
fudden influx of blood than that of any other part. This is
feen in the two cafes juft mentioned, of exercife and fever,
•where the aftion of the heart is accelerated. In various
difeafes of internal organs the facial capillaries are fympa-
thctically affected, and produce rednefs or palenefs of the
countenance ; and tlieir dillention always gives to the face
in afphyxia a livid tint, which is confined to that part. In
deaths refembling afphyxia, where the circulation becomes
emban-atfed in the lungs, and in apoplexy, the head is equally
remarkable for its lividity. Three circumftances may be
■'noticed, in explanation of this great fufceplibility of the
facial capillary fyllem for the admiflion of blood; ill, the
ordinary rednefs of the cheeks Ihews that blood is habitually
contained in thefe capillaries in a certain quantity, which is
not the cafe in other parts ; 2dly, anatomical injetlions fhew
us that the arteries communicate here more freely with the
capillaries; fine injedtions colour the face much more deeply
than other parts ; and, jdly, there is a more acute fenfibility in
-the face ; a flight blow will bring the blood into the cheeks
in an inflant, although it would produce no rednefs in the
arm.

" The blood quits the capillaries of the face as quickly as
it enters them ; the pafhons produce here, almollin iuHan-
taneous fucceflion, the lively red of a febrile attack, the
deadly palenefs of fyncope, or any intermediate fhades.
Thus the face becomes well adapted to fer\-e as a kind of
fcenc, painted fuccefhvely by the paflions with numerous
fhades, wliich are effaced, return, and undergo a thoufand
modifications according to the flate of the mind.

Let me obferve further on this fnbjeft, that the paffions
have a threefold mode of exprcflion in the countenance ; ill,
by the capillaries which, being altogether involuntary, often

betrays what we fhould be iiKlined to conceal ; 2dly, the
mufcular motions, which contract or expand the features to
e:ipn-r5 the fad or the joyful -affeftions, and thus produce the

■ wrinkles already noticed ; and, .^dly, the eye, which, as Buffon
obfcrves, not only receives fenfitive imprelTions, but alf>
exprciFcs mental emotion. The two latter are in fome de-
gree voluntary ; we can feign them, although we cannot
deceive with tlic firfl.

"The tendency of the facial capillaries to become diftended
with blood, difpofes them to numerous morbid affeftions
Eryfipelas frequently attacks' this part ; variolous pulhiles
are particularly aftive here; and feveral eruptions -occur

'more frequently in the face than in other fituations. .

" We niuft therefore diflinguifli two parts in the capillary

-fyilem exterior to the corion. One contains habitually- the
colouring matter of the /Icin, which is at reft, or' experiences
at leaft no other motion, than the fiow and almoft infenfible
one of compofition and decompofition, and vhich therefore
never exhibits fuch fudden changes as we have jutl defcribed.
Though the other fluids are habitually circulated, and are
conllantly efcaping by tranlpiration ; their place is often

•fupplied by blood. We know of no communication be-

• tween thefe ; they appear to be ablolutely independent.

■Some white fluid; remain in the latter part at the time of
death, as the following experiment will prove. Immerfe a

■piece of fkin in boiling water for a fhorftime, and the epi-
dermis will be elevated into numerous fmall veficles containing
a ferous fluid.''

The pa^illii of the flcin are fmall eminences of its external
furface, fuppofed to perforate the reticular body, and' con.-
fequently to be contiguous by iheir extremities to the epi-
dermis ; they differ in form in various fituations, and are
called villi where they are fmall and fine. Malpighi firft
obferved in animals, and particuhu'ly in the foot of the pig,
that the external furface of the fkin is not level, but elevated
into certain prominences under the cuticle. This ftruftur?
does not belong to the whole furface of the cutaneous organ,
which, although rather unequal in confequence of fmall
rifings about the hairs, has no regularly arranged parts de-
ferving to be called papillae. Thus Ruyfdi could find
nothing of this kind on the back of the foot, and acknow-
ledges that they are obfcure in other parts, and only to be
feen after injections ; and other anatomifts have experienced
confiderable d'fficulty in detecting thefe parts, even with the
affiftance of glaffes.

" Neither, " fays Bichat," are we to miftake for papilla;
the numerous and very fenfible tubercles, which make tlie
fl<in of certain fubjects very rough. Thefe confift of fmall eel-
lular and vafcular fafciculr, or of febaceous glands found at
the openings of the corion under the epidermis, through
which the hairs are tranfniitted ; elevate the external furface,
and thus caufe projections. Maceration for two or three
months converts thel'e bodies, which always contain a little
fat, into the firm, whitilh, unftuous and fpermacoti-like
fubftance always produced from adipous matter by macera-
tion ; the flcin at the fame time becomes foft and pulpy, and
is loofencd round thefe tubercles, which are clearly feen to be
continuous with the fubjaceiit fat. Thefe prominences are
more frequent on the limbs and back than on the "front of
the trunk ; and they are more num.erous in the fortner, on

-the afpect of exteiilion than of flexion. The abl'cnce of
thefe rifings, and a confequent fmoothnefs of the outer fur-

"face of the coiion, belong to our notion of a beautiful fkin ;
and this charafter belongs much more to the cutaneous organ
of women than of men. The epidermis covering thefe pro-
minences is often detached in fcales, particularly by any
rather Urong rubbing ; and this contributes ftiil more to the
1- f i ro-ugh-

INTEGUMENTS.

rouglincfs and harflinefs of tlic (kin ; it might lead us to fup-
pofc that the epidermis forms them, although it is only ac-
ceffary. Where the latter is thick, as in the palms and
foles, thcfe cutaneous tubercles are never feen."

The proper papillsc of the fkin are very vifihle in the
hands and feet, and may be feen when the cuticle has been
carefully removed after fimple maceration for a fufficient
time; but ftill more plainly when the cutis has been minutely
injeAed previous to the macerating procefs. We obferve
narrow, longitudinal, and flightly prominent lines in the
cutis, diilributed fpirally at the ends of the fingers and toes.
From thefe ridges arife very fmall conical procelTis like fine
threads or hairs, (lightly inclined towards the nail, (horter
and more impcrfeft in the fmailer toes and fingers ; they give
a rough villous appearance to the furface, which is repre-
fented in the feventh figure of Mr. Cruikihank's work on the
infenfible pcrfpiration. They are very diftinft in the red
part of the lij ?, where they are numerous and long, and pro-
duce a villous appearance ; Ruyfch has figured them in his
eighth Thefaurus. The foft and fpongy fkin of the glans
penis is remarkable for a fimilar ilruAure, which is veil
reprefcnted by Albinus in the Annot. Acad lib.iii. tab. 4.
They are more obtufe in the female niamms. The minute-
nefs of thefe organs renders it difficult to afcertain their in-
ternal ftrufture fatisfaftorily. They receive numerous blood-
velfels, fo as to become much more deeply tinged by
coloured injections than the furrounding Ikin. They receive
numerous nerves, and have generally been regarded by ana-
tomiils in a particular manner as organs of a nervous llruc-
ture. That a confiderable fupply of nerves is bellowed on
ihofe parts of the ikin which have thefe papilli is very
clear ; but, that the minute filaments can be traced into the
very prominences, and that they lay afide their ceverings, fo
that the nervous pulp is bare in them, muft be regarded as
inferences from analogy rather than from direft obferv;ition
The denfity of the corion, and. the extreme flendernefs of
the nervous threads, are alraoft infuperable obftacles to our
tracing the nerves into the papillas.

We can fcarcely doubt, fays Haller, that thefe bodies are
the organs of touch, when we obferve them larger, more
diilinft, and receiving a greater fupply of nerves where this
fenfe exifts in the n:oft acute degree, hardly difcernibie in
other fituations ; and particularly ca'culated by their pro-
minence to be imprefled by external objects. Perhaps their
exiftence in the fole of the foot, where they are covered by
fo thick a cuticle, is hardly reconcilcable with this opinion.

That the vefTels, which they contain, contribute to the
fcparation of the matter of perfpiration, is fo conformable
to general analogy, that we can cailly admit it. Mr. Cruik-
fhank was difpofed to regard them as the organs of cutaneous
abforption from their rcfemblance to the inteflinal villi, on
vhich he difcovered the orifices of the lafteals.

EffeS of iiarious Agents on the Dermoid TiJJue We have

noticed already, under the head of the rete mueofum, the
aftion of light upon the living fl<in.

The aftion of caloric on the living integuments prefents
different phenomena, according to the degree in which it is
applied. A warm atmofpliere relaxes its tiflue, increafes
its aftion, and promotes the evacuation by the exhalants of
the refidual fluid of nutrition and digcftion. It is coutraftcd
and corrugated by cold, and refufes to admit thefe fluids,
which then go off chiefly bv urine. The gradual change
from one to the other of thefe llatcs does not produce any
unpleafant effcft : but fudden viciflitudes are not fo free
from danger. Tlie cold produced by the evaporation of the
cutaneous exhalation, enables the human fubjcft to prelVrvc
kis crdinary temperature in air, heated above the degree of

boiling water. See the very curious fafts en this fubjeft
detailed in the article Heat, Animal. The interruption of
the cutaneous difcharge on the corrugation produced by cold
fufpends this evaporation, and thereby prevents the tempera-
ture from being lowered beyond the nat\iral ftandard.

When more confiderable heat is applied to the fl<in, it
produces firll a fenfible rcdnefs, which fs followed by vefi-
cations. If it be increafed in degree, tlie texture of the
organ is deltroyed ; it is hardened and curled up, like any
other animal tiflue when burnt ; beyond this point it is
blackened and converted into a coal. Tlie firft operation is
on the vital powers of the organ, and confequently can take
place only during life : the latter effefts are produced on the
tiflue, and may be exhibited in dead flcin. The latter, when
heated, contrafts, and then fwells, exhales a fetid odour,
and leaves a denfe charcoal, d fficult to incinerate. On
diilillation it yields the fameprodufts as fibrir.e. Intenfe cold
produces in the firft place a rednefs of the organ, as in the
nofe, ears, fingers, &c. of individuals expofed in a ver)- cold
climate ; inflammatory aftion and mortification enfue. The
latter occurs immediately on the application of high tem-
perature, but after fome interval in the oppofite cafe.

The air evaporates and carries off habitually the matters
fecreted from the flvin : and when this efi^eft is not produced^
they ai-e accumulated on the furface, and render it moiit.
This evaporation is a phyfical phenomenon entirely diftinft
from the vital aftion of tranfpiration. The latter takes
place in a warm bath, as well as in the air ; but in the
former cafe the fluid is difiolved by the water. Does free
expofure of the fivin to air ircreafe or diminiih the amount
of its exlialation ? The common opinion feems to be that the
latter effeft is produced ; the exhaling pores are fuppofed to
be obflrufted by the impreffion of cold on the ikin. Dr.
Stark, however, proved by direft experiment in his own per-
fon, that the body loft more weight in a given time "when
naked, than when covered by the ordinary clothing.

Moifture of the fliin may be produced in two perfeftly
diftinft ways; ift, by increafed exhalation, which may arife
from accelerated aftion of tlie heart, as in violent exercife or
fever ; from relaxation of the organ by the warmth of the
air, or by baths; or from fympathy, as in confumption, fear,
&c. Under all thefe circumftances the increafed difcharge
will keep the fl<in moift. 2dly. The fame efleft will be pro-
duced by inlufficieiit diflblution of the perfpiration when it
is produced, as in bed, or in damp weather.

When the air has aceefs to dead flcin on all fides, it is
dried, and becomes tranfparcnt, unlefs it Ihoiild contain
blood ; it is then firm, but admits of being bent. In this
ftate it yields very little to external agents, does not readily
abforb moifture, and has no difagreeable fmell. Hence flcins
fimply dried are of great ufc in the arts, and afford fervice-
ahle and plcafant coverings ; hence, too, probably the great
durability of the mummie?.

If the fl<in be left on the body, or expofed in moift air,
it putrefies, afTuining fucceffivtly a brown, a greeiiifh, and
lalily fomouhat black colour. It exhales a molt fc'.id odour,
and becomes fwollen by the liberation of gas. A fluid mucus
appears on its furface, from which the epidermis is then fe-
parated. When all the fluids are evaporated, a blackifh
iubllance remains.

Water removes from the living fkin thofe parts of the
perfpired matter which are not difiolved by the air ; and the
ufe of bathint', which is much neglected in thefe di.ys, muft
be regarded as an efficacious means of prelerving the furface
free from acrid and irritating matters, and confequently in a
llate of health. We cannot ftate precifely what aftion baths
have on the hving fiiin ; we arc told indeed that they relax

and

INTEGUMENTS.

End foften, or conftringe and brace ; but no prccifc meaning
is attached to thefc vague cxprcffions. They fcem to affect
the vital powers of the part, to augment or diminiflj them,
but wo know of no influence on the tifluc.

After macerating the (kin for fome hours in water, with
agitation and preiTure, evaporation of the fluid yields a little
gelatine. When macerated longer it becomes foftcned, and
lenfibly whiter, fwells a little, and remains for a long time
without undergoing any other alteration than a degree of
putrefaction, much lefs than xvhat occurs in the mufcular,
glandular, and other tifTues. This putrefaftion is more
marked on the furface in contad with the cuticle, but at
the end of two months the flcin has loft but little of its con-
fiftence ; it begins to be reduced into a fetid pulp at the end
of three or four months. According to Fourcroy, fpon-
taneous decompofition in water or ni )ill earth converts it
into a fatty matter, and into ammonia, which compofea kind
of foap. It produces very little froth when boiled. Juft
before ebullition commences, fo as always to be convex on
the fide covered by the epidermis, and concave on the oppo-
fite ; the fibres are contradled and condenfed at this time,
and the contraflion is greater on the inner furface. where
tlie intervals are the largeft. At the fame period fmall vefi-
cations are obferved. 'This crifpation of the Ikin rendc?rs
it denfe, hard, and elallic, but reduces its dimenfions. It
foon acquires a femi-tranfp3rency and yellowi(h colour, like
that of the fibrous organs when boiled. The hardnefs wliich
it had acquired at the indant of crilpation is now gradually
loll ; the Ikin is foftened, yields much gelatine to the water
in which it is boiled, but inllead of diminifhing, is rather
increafed in thicknefs. All appearance of fibres is loft ia
this ftage ; a fenii-tranfparent, gelatinous, and homogeneous
mafs remains ; ftill it dues not lofe its elailicity ; probably
the large quantity of gelatine, which it contains, occafions
it to retain this property. The flighteft motion excites in
it a general vibration as in the different animal jellies. By a
continuance of the boiling nearly the whole gehitine is dif-
folved, conftituting a vifcid liquor, which by proper evapo-
ration is converted into glue ; and a fmall membranous refi-
due only, which is dilfolved with great difficulty, remains ;
a long time is required to reduce the fkin to this l!ate. From
this (olubility in water, the cutis of animals is moftly em-
ployed in the manufaclure of glue.

Sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids aft on the fkin, as on
any other animal fubftances, but much more flowly, parti-
cularly on the furface coveivd by the epidermis. The firft
redixes it quickly to a blackilh pulp ; the two others, even
in a concentrated tlate, bring it lefs readily into a pulp : the
oxymuriatic acid produces very little effeft on it. Nitric
acid converts it into oxahc acid and fat, while, at the fame
time, azotic gas and pruffic acid are emitted. Acids do not
&& in this way during life ; they never produce this pulpy
ftate of the organ. A piece of caullic, enveloped in a por-
tion of ikin, is reduced to a ye'lowi(h-red thick fluid in the
courfe of a day : the fkin is crifped and contrafted, but not
penetrated ; its tifiue docs not even appear injured on the
furface. Alkalies have different effects, according to cir-
cumftances, in the living ftate ; they deftroy fome grnnula-
tions much more readily than others. An a kaline hxivium,
applied to the furface jf the body, caufes an unCtuous and
llippery feel, as its combination with the undluous matter
produces a foap. Concentrated alkalies diliolve the dead fkin,
converting it into oil and ammonia.

" The cutis," fays Dr. Thonifon, " appears to be a pe-
cuhar moditication of gelatine enabled to refill the aiStion of
water, partly by the compaftiiels of its texture, and partly
by the vifcidity of the gelatine, of which it is formed ; for

thofe fkins which diffolve the mod readily in boiling water,
afford the worft glue. Mr Hatchett lias obferved that the
vifcidity of the ge'atine obtained from (kins is nearly in-
verfcly as their flexibility, the fuppleft hides always yielding
the weakell glue ; but this glue is very foon obtained frutn
them by hot water." Syftem of Chemillry, v. 5. p. 57^.

The production of leather, by the adion of tlie taiinmg
principle of vegetables upon the ikin, is a iubjeft of fi:ch
importance, that it would be ufelefs for ns to enter on it here :
it will be confidered feparately in the articles of the dic-
tionary relating to tanning : further information on the
chemical properties of the (kin may alfo be derived under
the heads Gklatix, Gluk, &c.

Very little is known of the chemical conftitution of the
rete mucofum. Oxymuriatic acid deprives it of the black
colour, and renders it yellow in the negro. Beddoes ftates
that immerfion for fome time in water, impregnated with
that acid, will difcharge the colour in the living fubjctt.
(On Faclitious Airs, p. 4,.) Fourcroy mentior.s that the
tooc of a negro, after a fimilar expofure, nearly loft its co-
lour, but that the original black hue returned in » few days.
Syft des Connoifl" Chimiques, t ix p. 2^9.

Common Parts belonging to the Tijfue of the Dermoid Syjlem. —
The (kin contains a "large proportion of cellular fubftance.
Numerous prolongations of the fubcutaneous celiular ftratum
penetrate the contiguous areola: of the corion, then pafs
into the more exterior ones, and end at the numerous pores
which tranfmit the veftels, nerves, and hairs. Thus, if the
cellular tiffue could be completely fcparated, the cutaneous
organ would reprefent a piece of fponge, being perforated in
every direftion. According to Bichat, boils perform this
difleClion, deftroy the cellular organ, and leave the (kin in
this cribriform ftate. He add^, that the corion itielf is not
tlie feat of any acute affedion : that all difeafes of this nature
either aff'eCl its furface, or the cellular tiftTue of its areola.
But it may be altered by chronic difeafes ; and is mani-
felUy diforganized in e ephantiafis.

In anafarca of long continuance the fubcutaneous ferofity
gradually penetrates the cellul.ir fubftance of the dermoid
areoix, feparates its fibres, and fometimes arrives even at
tlie epidermis, which it burfts ; tlirough thele openings it
efcapes.

Pnibably, fays Bichat, the cellular tilTue does not ex'end
fo far as the external furface, under the epidermis : for when
that covering is removed, no granu!at:ons are formed, al-
though thefe are always produced whenever cellular tilTue
isexpofed.

The arteries, running in tlie fubcutaneous cellular fubftance,
furnifti an infinite number of fmall branches, \\hich enter
the areolse of the flciii with the cellular prolongations, anaf-
tomofe at every point in the areola of the organ, and pene-
trate at laft through the pores of the exernaj lurface to pro-
duce the capillary net-work already defcribed, which, in the
ordinary (late, contains very little red blood. In this paf-
fage, through the areolse of the fltin, very few branches feem
to terminate on the fibres of the corioii itielf.

After penetrating the (kin in the oppofite direction, the
veins opens into the Urge fubcutaneous trunks, which in
many pans may be fo clearly feen through the integuments.
The venoUj ramifications of the areola: are nearly lofenfible
in the natural ftate, but are onhdjrably dilated over can-
cerous tumours, !"o that the (kin is marked by numerous
blueifh fcrpeiitiiie lines. All gradual extenfions of the cuta-
neous organ, as in aneurifms, pregnancy, dropfy, &c are
attended %vith the fame phenomenon, which is never exhibited
in acute cafes.

Nu.merous and confidcrable branches of nerves form a kind

INTEGUMENTS.

.cf iubcutaneous nervous fyftera.producingthefilamentswUich
enter the flcin. They communicate with each other in tra-
verfing the areola of the organ, and probably terminate on
the papills. In the hand, where thefe prominences are
very numerous and clearly marked, there are more fubcu-
tancous nerves, in proportion to the furface, than in any
other part.

A great number of abforbing vcfTels is found under the
(liin ; mfomuch, indeed, that this is the moft favourable
iituation for inveftigating them. The veins are furrounded
by them, and feveral falciculi are obferved in the intervals

• of thefe velTels ; fo that we may reprefent the (Icin and apo-
neurofes as being feparated, in the limbs, by a continuous
ftratum of thefe veficls. We mull refer the origin of many
of them to the coripn, from the areolae of which tliey carry
into the blood the fat and cellular lymph, as well as the
nutritive matter of its fibres. But ig there, moreover, a
pai-ticular order of branches opening on the epidemis, for
the purpofe of abforbing fubllances fi-om the furface of the
body under certain circumitances ? Anatomical invelliga-
tions do not enable us to decide this queflion direcllv : the
abforbing pores cannot be demonllrated : we mud therefore
inquire whether the phenomena of tlie cutaneous functions
indicate their exillence. We may obferve, previoufly, that
the fuperficial abforbents are very numerous, and feeiii to be
in greater number than would be required for abforbing the
contents of the cellular fubllance.

It had long been received as an eftabliflied truth, that the
■iliin is an inhaling or abforbing, as well as an exhaling organ ;
that though the lofs by perfpiration commonly greatly ex-
ceeds what the fyftem gains by abforption, yet fometimes,
according to the varying circumflances of external relations
.and conditions of the body itfelf, the inhalation balanced,
and even furpaflfed the exhalation. Of late this dotfriue of
inhalation has been called in queftion, and, in the opinion

• of many, has been completely overthrown.

The moft dired argument in favour of abforption from
the flcin, is the aftion of various fubllances upon the body,
when applied to this organ. This is ihewn in a particularly
clear view in the inllanccs of opium and mercury. Dr. Cur-
rie (Medical Reports, chap. 19.) conliders, that in all fuch
caies the article abforbed is forced through the epidermis

■ by mechanical prefTurc ; or tliat the epidermis has been pre-

■ vioufly dellroyed by injury or difeafe ; or if found, that the
article applied to it is of an acrid nature, which firft irritates
and erodes this tegument; and then coming into contaft
with the mouths of the lymphatics under it, is of courfe

• abforbed. This explanation is quite unfatisfaftory. The
firm adhefion of the cuticle and cutis is well known : on the

• fuppohtionjuft mentioned they ought to be feparated, wliich
is not the faft, we ought to fee the ointment under the cu-
ticle, which is equally untrue, and the ointment fhould pene-
trnte equally in the dead fubjeft, which is not the cafe.
However, the aftion of mercurial fumigations, where no
friction is employed, affords a cafe of abforption from the
furface of the found cuticle, wliicli cannot be denied.

On the fame fide of the quelUon, it has been aflerted,
that water is taken up by the Ikin in various cafes. Many
inllanccs have been known of perfons at fea, with no fre(h
water, having their thirlt much allayed by wetting their

■ cloths with the fait water. Haller affirms, too, on the au-
thority of Default, that the body acquires an increafe of
weight in the warm batii : " denique vapor aqux calidx in
manum reforbetur, et homini in balneo conftituto cutis tu-
rn et _et rubet, corpus pondereaugetur, fitis fedatur, et om-
nia figna eduntur aqu^e reforbtx et fanguini admillK." t. v.
p. 84. Experiments have fince beea made with every

neceffary care, which feem to contradift tWs pofition, siv^
to prove that the body acquires no additional weight in li :
warm bath. Seguin, from a great many experiments of this
defcription, concludes that there is no inhalation, bccauf"'
the body, fo far from gaining, always loft fome part of v. ;
weight during immerfion, although much lefs than in tl'-
air in equal times. Thus, in a bath feated from 10' to i ; '
of Reaumur, the lofs of weight was to that fuftained duri^i ;
the fame time in air as 6.5 to 17 ; at the temperatures fri : 1
ij^ to iS', as 7.5 to 21.7 ; and from 26' to 28^ as i ^ ; >
23. La Medecine eclaircc par les Sciences Phyfiqi:.- ,
torn. iii.

In other experiments, again, as in thofe of Drs. Gei ,
and Currie, there was no increafe of weight ; but ncit
was the body in general obferved to have fuftered any i
during immerfion in the warm bath. " When I was ;t
Buxton," fays Dr. Currie, " in 1788, I made an experi-
ment on the effefts of bathing on the weight of my bodv,
and after half an hour's immerfion, I found it rather di-
minilhed than increafed. This experiment had, I bcliev:,
been made before by Dr. Pearfon with the fame refult ; it
has fince been repeated with great care, and it is afe.i -
tained, as a faCl, that no increafe in the weight of the body
is produced by immerfion in water at the temperature ot
82'* In the year 1790, I had a patient m diabetes, whofe
cuticle, as is ufual in that difeafe, was in a morbid ftate ;
and being defirous of trying how far the inordinate aftion
of the kidnies might be afPcfted by a gentle ftimidus ap-
plied to the flvin, I immerfed him in a bath of the tempera-
ture of 96 \ weighing him before and after immerfion.
There was no fenfible variation in the weight. This expe-
riment has fince been made by Dr. Gerard in another cafe
of diabetes, an account of which is given in the publication
of Dr. Rollo ; and as it was repeated a great number of
times with the utmolt care and accuracy, it may be confidered
as eftabliflied, that immerfion in the warm bath in diabetes
produces no increafe inweiglit. I have made five different
experiments of the fame kind on myfelf, varying the heat of
the bath from 87° to 95'^ but never in any inllance found
my weight augmented." (Ivledical Reports, vol. i. p. 302.)
The doctor then details a cafe of ftridtured oefophagus,
where the patient gradually waited, and ultimately died of
inanition, although he was immerfed daily in a tepid milk
and water bath.

We may obferve, concerning the fafts juft quoted, that
they by no means warrant a decilive negative inference.
We have every reafon to fuppofe that the aftion of the
fltiu goes not uninterruptedly in the bath, and that the pul-
monary exhalation proceeds as ufual. Yet the weight either
continued unchanged, or, if any lofs was obferved, this was
conllantly lefs, much lefs, than is experienced during 'the
fame interval in air : hence we may argue, that there muil
have been abforption. Dr. Currie's cafe of ilriftured oefo-
phagus merits further confideration : no experiment could
be more unfavourable for an opponent of cutaneous abforp-
tion. The patient, it is true, gained no weight while in the
warm bath, but the lofs continually going on in the air, was,
as in other trials, fufpended during the immcrfions. " It
is worthy of obfervation, that there was neither increafe nor
decreafe of weight in the bath ; yet Mr. M. was at this time
wafting twenty ounces in 24 hours, and confequently, if there
was no abforption in the bath, it might be fuppofed that he
would have loft fivc-fixths of an ounce during the hour of im-
merfion. It is the more remarkable that there was no decreafe,
becaufe in the bath the Ikin always foftened, anrl the forehead
became covered with a gentle moifture." Befides, " he always
expreffed great comfort fron» the bath, with abatement of

ihirft,"

INTEGUMENTS.

fiinrft," and " fubfequertt to tlie dally ufe of it, the urine
flawed more plentifully, and became Icfs punfjent." An
obfenvatioii precilely iimilar is made by Mr. Cruikfhank :
*« a patient of mine, witli a rtritlurc of the ocfojjhagus, re-
ceived nothing, cither folid or liquid, into the ilomach for
two-months ; he was exceedingly thirlly, and complained of
making no water. I ordered him tlie warm bath for an hour,
evening and morning, for a month ; his thiril vanifhed, and
he made water in the fame manner as when he ufed to drink
hy the mouth." Anatomy of the Abforbing Veflcls,
p. lot.
, Dr. Currie ftates further, concerning his patient, that the
difcharge by urine alone exceeded much in weight the wade
of Ibs whole body ; and it cannot be doubted, he adds, that
the difcharge by ftool and perfpiration exceeded the weight
of the clyllerg. Thus it appears that the egella exceeded
the ingefta in a proportion much greater than the walle of the
body will explain." That cutaneous abforption affords the
rt»ly adequate folution of this phenomenon is an irrefillible
conclulion. Still, however, this is denied. When forced to
confefs that there are cafes where tlie egefta exceed the in-
gefta, and which can oi.ly be accounted for by abforption,
tjie opponents of the cutaneous inhalation deny this funflion
to the {kin, and bellow it moil gratuitoufly on the lungs.

Many other examples might be cited, in which the body
evidently acquired weiglit from fome other quarter than by
the food or drink, lialler has many futh inftances. Rye
and Linings gained feveral ounces by expofure in a moill at-
mofphere : and Fontaua experienced a fimilar occurrence.

Some faSs, wliich oppofe the notion of inhalation by the
furface of the il<in, have been obferved in the applications of
medicated fubftances to the body. Seguin made numerous
experiments of this kind, with folutions of muriate of mer-
cury on fyphilitic patients : we are informed, that in cafes
where the epidermis was perfeftly found, neither the known
efFefts of mercury on the body, nor any amelioration of the
venereal fymptoms, was ever obferved. He alfo immerfed
his own arm in a folution of two drachms of the mercurial
muriate in ten poundsof water. At the tempenitureof I0°
and 28^ of Reaumur, no part of the fait was miffing at the
end of the experiment ; but when the bath was at 18^ of the
fame fcale, there was a lofs of one or two grains of the mu-
riate in the hour, though the quantity of fluid was not dimi-
niflitd. It appears to us that the experiments on the whole
fhew that the muriate of mercury was not abforbed ; we can
hardly admit that two grains were taken up as ftatcd in this
account. The entrance of fo large a quantity of this very
r aftive preparation into the fyftcm, mull have been attended
I with very unpleafant effects on the fubjeA of the experiment,
I which do not fcem to have occurred.

The effcfts produced on the odorous properties of the
urine, by expofure of the body to oil of turpentine, are well
known. By inhaling the vapour of this fluid, the violet
fmell is imparted to the urine very fpecdily : even a fingle full
infpiratiou ,is fuftcieiit to produce the effect. Walking in a
room where it has been fpilled will operate in the fame way.
It has been proved by experiment that the lungs are the
organs by which the abfirption takes place, and that the
fluid is not taken up by the fl<in. Dr. Roufl'eau, of Phila-
delphia, expofed.his body freely to the turpentine vapour,
breathing through a pipe, which communicated v/ith the ex-
ternal air, and had no conneftion with the air of tiie room.
No efFe£l was produced on the urine. He immerfed his arm
in fpirit of turpentine for two hours, luting the veffel con-
taining it to the arm, fo that no vapour could efcape ; no
change was perceptible in the properties of the urine. He
fmeared hit body all over fcvcral times with tlie iyirits c£

turpentine, guarding againfl the inhalation of the vapour o^
the lungs, by breathing- the external air through a tube.
?le continued this for fome time, imtil tiie fuifacc \viis irri-
tated, and the pulfe quickened ; the refult was the fame?.
Thefe experiments were frequently repeated, and with the
fame refult, whether the f])irit of turpentine was employed,
or camphor, garhc, or mulk. Currie'e Med. Rep. v, i.'
chap. 19.

'l"he exhalant veffels of the flcin arife in the exterior ca-
pillary fyllem, which furrounds the corion, and which afl^ords
the point of termination of the cutaneous arteries. Tlioy
draw from this lource the fluid which they pour out on the
epidermis. We are entirely ignorant of tlieir form, length,
courfe and direction : but the phenomena of the cutaneous
difcharge, and of injections prove their exiftcnce. They do
not feem to be equally abundant in all parts : in the face and
chell they are numerous, fo that we fweat eafily in tliofe
parts ; the number is fmaller in the back and limbs. Sweat
IS very feldom obferved in the palms and foles : but there ii
great variety in thefe refpcfts in different individuals.

It Appears from experiments, that a confiderable difcharge
takes place from the (kin liabitually, although not in a form
cognizable by our fenfes. This is called inienfible perfpira-
ration, or tranfpiration. Under particular circumflnnces,
the cutaneous difcharge confifts of fluids poffefling very fenfl-
ble properties : this is called fweat. The epithet infenfible
is apphed to the former, todiilinguifli it from the fweat, but
under certain circumllances it may be rendered obvious to
the fenfes. It has been often an"erted that a vapour inay be
obferved to arife from the body, and may be recognized by
its fliadow againil a white wall m the fummer. This is obferved
more readily in a denfe atmofphere. Haller faw a kind of
cloud or fmoke ariflng from the face, hands, and indeed
every part of the naked body in the fubterraneous exca.
vations ofClaullhal and Rammellberg. A ftill more ob-
vious demonflration of the tranfpiration is yielded by holding
a finely pohflied metallic furface near the Ikin ; the watery
vapour is condenfed by the metal, and clouds it. Under
ordinary circumftances, the whole difcharge is evaporated as
it is produced, and paffes off in this invifible form. As all
bodies abforb heat in clianging from a fluid to a gafeous form,
this evaporation mull have a very powerful efieCt in regulating
the temperature of the animal frame. _ When the nature of
our clothing confines the perfpiration, and prevents its evapo-
ration, an unpleafant feeling of heat is produced ; this is_par-
ticularly obferved when the body is covered with oiled lilk.
On the other hand, expofure of the Ikin in a nakod_ Hate,
particularly in the wind, has a very rapid and powerful cool-
ing effect. The ' importance of this funftion in regulating
our hfat did not efcape the notice of that fagacipns obferver
Benj. Franklin : " during tlie hot Sunday at Philadelphia,
fays he, in June 1750, when the thermometei- was up at
loo" in the fhade, I fat in my chamber without exercife,
only reading and writing, with no other clothes on than
a Ih'rt, and pair of long linen drawers, the v.indows all open,
and a bri/k wind blowing through the houfe. The fweat
ran off the backs of my hands, and my fliirt was often fo
wet as to induce me to Call for dry ones to put on. My
body, however, never grew fo hot as the air, Or as the inani-
mate bodies immerfed in the air.'" (Letters and Papers,
p. 365.) It does not appear that Franklin actually meafured
his heat ; but he makes the inference of his comparative cool-
nefs from remembering that all the bodies about him, even
the fhirt out of his drav\er, felt warm to the touch ; and l»e
concludes that he was kept cool " by the continued fweatjng,
and by the evaporation of that fweat.'

Frobfbbly fweat is only an iocreafed quantity of the fame

kuid-

INTEGUMENTS.

kind of fluid w UK i\m of the tranfpu-ation : very fmall par-
tic'es of fluid are obfei vcd on the ikin, and they unite into
larger and larger drops. Heat is the moft common caufe of
fwcating, as it is a very powerful means of exciting the ac-
tion of the heart, on vl'.'.ch this phenomenon depends in
mar.y cafes. : hence war .. ^■r and the warm bath are powerful
caufes. Strong bodily cx'.rticn, and warm food, by llimu-
lating the vafcular fyftcn , produce the fame cffeft. Fear,
and other afTedions of ll;e mind, fainting, and various mor-
bid dates of the frame, ai!\) produce fweating. We cannot
r.aT-.cany particular degr. . of heat at which iweating is cer-
tainly produced : and llio pulfe is often very greatly accele-
rated in difeafe without this confequence. Sometimes a
particular part of the body only fweats : fometimes one
iidc, as Haller has noticed in his own perfon.

Bichat enquires whether the nerves have any influence on
the cutaneous difeiiurge. He obferves, that in palfied pa-
tients fweat takes place on the difeafed as well ;.s on the found
ijc " I lately," fays he, " attended at the Hotel Dieu a pa-
tient, in whom the left fide of the body was rendered per-
feftly paralytic, in confequence of an apopleftic attack : yet
he fweated only on this fide. Examples of the oppoiite
phenomenon arc adduced ; but they cannot invalidate the
common obfervation that the dilcharge is equal on both
fidps. Is it not well known, that when the nervous adion is
entirely annihilated in a paralytic limb, bliilers affedl it in the
ufual manner ? Do convulfions, in \\'hich the nervous adion
is incrcafed, augment the cutaneous exhalation ? Have the
Uates of acute fenfibility, where there is in the cutaneous
nerves fo great a fufceptibi ity of impreflions, any known
influence on perfpiration ? Let us tlien confefs, that in cuta-
neous exhalation, as well as in fecretion, we are entirely ig-
norant of the nature o^ the nervous influence, if any fuch
exift."

Tlie difcharges by the fl<in and the kidney feem to be re-
garded by phyfiologills as the principal means by which the
refiduary matter of luitrition and digellion is expelled from
the body ; and they have attempted to (hew the ratio which
tlicfe bear to each other, to the pulmonary exhalation, and
to the feces. We have not derived much information from
thcfe labours, which merely prove, in a general manner, that
the difchargc is cffei'tcd througli tJie internal organs in cold
climates andfeafons, and through the fliin under oppofite cir-
cumllances. In this refped, the kidney ar.d the Ikin are always
in oppofite rtatcs in rehitian to each other: in winter the urine
is iTiuch loaded with fubllances, and in fummer the perfpira-
tion has a fait tafte aiid other peculiar characters, arifing fom
matters which it does not contain in the former feafon.
Every individual mufl have obferved in iiis own ]perfon that
vvliile he fiveats freely no urine is collefted in the bladder ;
and, that when the cutaneous difcharge is interrupted, the
fecretion of the kidney goes on very actively.

We do not know much about the pulmonary exhalation;
cither as to its quantiy, its nature, or its relations to the
cutaneous difcliarge : but that the tv.o organs very power-
fuily influence each other, is rendered very obvious by the
phenomena of difeafe. The effeif of cxpofure to cold and
moiibire in exciting pulmonary aireflions, and the difpofilion
to fuch diforder; in the winter, vthen the cutaneous cxha-
lanis are lefs adive, are well known.

Wc often have occafion to obferve a manifeft coimeSion
betweei! the perfpiration and the alvine difcliarges.

When the extent of the exhahng organ, the innumerable
tubes by which it is penetrated, the quicknefs with which
wc can even fee the perfpiration produced, are regarded, we
fliall exm-ct to find thai the quantity of the difcli u-ge is very
confiderabie. Although it wot known t« the ancients, who

had noticed its influence on the health, and introduced it int« '
their pathology, we find little detailed information concern-
ing this funftion before the feventeenth century, about the
beginning of which it became the fubjeft of the moft pa-
tient refearch, and of the moft extenlive experiments per-
haps ever undertaken. Sanctoritis, a Venetian phyfienn ,
dedicated thirty years to his experiments, which confift'- *
chiefly in weighing whatever he ate and drank, as well ;i
what he difcharged by urine and ftool. From him the i >•
fefible perfpiration has fometimes received the epithet oi
Sandorian. His example was followed by fev^:;;! perf ^^
in difi"erent countries; by Dodart in France; by K< :',
Robinfon, Rye, and Home in this country- ; and by L:-
nings, in South Carolina. Even our gay monart'i,
Charles II. amufed himfelf with fome experiments c '.
this fubjed. Something muft be taken from the nuiviber^
exprefling the quantity of perfpiration, on account of t! f
pulmonary exhalation, the mucus of the air pafiages a"u
nofe, and fpitting. For, in the experiments now alluded
to, all the diiTerence between the ingefta and tiie egefta ;;•
fel down as lofs by infenftble infpiratioii.

In the experiments of Home, in Scotland, the food
amounted to 41b. 3 or.. ; the feces to gi oz. ; the urine to
2 ', lb., or 3:' lb. ; the perfpiration, iu the courfe of an hour,
varied from two-thirds of an ounce to 40Z., and even fix
under expofure in the fnn. In the twelve hours of night,
the perfpiration varied from 12 to 18 oz. ; and in 137' hour*
the difcharge amounted to 3 lb. 3;^ oz. ; and on another occa-
fion, to 2 lb. 6,^ oz.

Rye, who lived at Cork, in Ireland, found the urine in
the winter feafon to amount in one day to 42 ^'j, oz. ; the
perfpiration to J3 oz. in fpring, the urine wae 40 oz. ; the
perfpiration 60: in fummer the numbers were 37 and 63.
The average daily quantity of urine, therefore, was rather
lefs than 40 oz., and that of th.e perfpiration 56^ oz. The
average daily amount of the feces was 4^ oz. ; that of the
food 96 oz. The large quantity of perfpiration in the
winter is chiefly made up of what is produced during the
night.

Keil found the medium quantity of perfpiration to be
31 oz. ; of urine 38 ; of feces 5 ; food 78.

Robinfon allows that the urine is diminiflied, and the per-
fpiration incrcafed in a very fenfible manner in the fummer,
fo that the average number of ounces of the former is in
fummer 27, in winter above ^o. In the fummer months
the perfpiration and urine are as j and 3, in the winter a»
2 and 3 ; in .April, May, October, November, and Decem-
ber, they are nearly equal. In a young perfon he eftimates
the ratio of the perfpiration to the urine as 1340 to icoo ; in
an old one as 967 to 1000. He makes the average quantity
of foud 8602., and 58 when he was old ; the urine 55 and
z8 ; the perfpiration 46 and 27^ ; the feces ji and 3J.
Thus the food and all the excretions are diminilhed as age
advances.

Hartman, in Germany, found the food to be 8 oz. ; the
urine 28 ; feces 6 or 7 ; and perfpiration 4y or 46.

Dodart, in France, found that the perfpiration was to
the feces as 7 to 1. He eftimates the difcharge in fum-
mer at 40 oz. 3 dr. 26 gr. ; in winter at 26 oz. 46 gr.

Sandorius, in the warm and humid air of Venice, took
8 lb of food ; the perfpiration amounted to j lb. ; the feces
to 4 oz. ; and the urine in the night to 16 oz. ; in the twenty,
four hours to 44 oz.

I.,inings has given us very accurate accounts of his expe-
riments, which were performed in South Carolina. From
his labours, as well as from thofe of Robinfon, in Ireland, it
appears tliat the perfpiration is moft abundant in the warm

mortlis

INTEGUMENTS.

■months, and tbe urine in the cold : the former was in greater fore, before putting on tliis drefs, and immediately after leav-
quantity during five months, and the latter during fevcn. ing it, tlie total lofs by ihepulmonaryand ciitaneousdif. barges
The largelt proportion of urine was 143 oz. which occurred was afcertained. The amount of the lofs by the lun^^s was
in the month of Ueceraber ; and of the perfpiration 1300Z. known by weighinir the fubjeft of experi?iient juft before
in Sep'.ember. The average daily amount of the food, on he put on the drcfs, and again immediately before he re-
a mean of experiments continued for a year, was 27,1802. ; moved it. Wl\en the latter quantity was fubtraded from
of the drink 102,17 ; of the urine 64,84; of the perfpi- the total lofs, the remainder gave the value of the cuta-
ration 60,10 ; of the feces 4,35'. The ingefta were to the ncous difcharge. From repeated trials performed in tliis
•urine, throughout ihe whole year, as 2,03 to i : but at manner, Seguin and Lavoificr found the mean lofs, by the
•many particular times they were as 3 to 2 ; their ratio to cutaneous and pulmonary exhalations, to be aboiit iSgr.
the perfpiration as 2,18 to i ; to the fecal difcharge as in the minute, or 2 lb. 130Z. in 34 hours. The pulmonary'
30,13 to I ; and the perfpiration of the whole year to the difcharge amounted to 15 oz. ; fo that there remains i lb.
urine as i to 1,08. Thefe experiments differ from thofe of 140Z. as the mean quantity of daily perfpiration.
SanAorius and of Rye, in (hewing that the urine exceeds The greateil quantity of matter perfpired in a minute
tlie perfpiration even in a hot climate. was 26,25 gr. troy ; and the minimum 9 gr. The quantity

It appears doubtful, fays Haller, on comparing together perfpired is increafed by drink, but not by folid food,
the re'fults of the trials made by individuals of different Perfpiration is at its minimum during meals, and im.mediately
ages in various climates and feafons, whether the difcharge after : it reaches its maximum during digeition. Memoires
by the (kin exceeds that by the uri:ie. On fu<jR a com- de I'Acad. des Sciences, 1790 ; or in Fourcroy, Syft. des
parifon we mu'.t fet down the cutaneous exhalation much Connoi(r. Chimiqiies, feci. 8, ord. 3.

below the quantity afligncd by Sandorius, as it did not Our next objeft of inquiry is into the compofition and
exceed 60 oz in a. very hot climate, and in colder countries properties of the cutaneous exhalation. As it efcapes from
was 56, 45, or even 30 oz. the furface infenfibly, there is a difficuhy in collefling it in

It will be readily perceived, as we have already obferved, fuflicient quantity for examination : hence its nature and
that thefe cjlculations 'do not give the meafure of the per- compofition are very imperfectly known. Lifter, who col-
•fpiration alone, but of the cutaneous and pulmonary dif- letted it by placing his hand in a glafs, found it to be water
charges together. To feparate thefe, and to determine the with a faltifh or urinous tafte.

■quantity of each, ItiU remained an important problem. The fluid colleded by Mr. Cruikfliank appeared to pof-
the folution of whicli has been attempted only of late fefs all the properties of pure w,\t ?r. When Mr. Aberne-
years. thy had procured 3 dr. of fluid, he evaporated one half :

Mr. Cruikfhank introduced his hand into a glafs jar, and there remained on the glafs a fmall refiduum, which had a
tied a bladder, lixed to the :!iouth of the jar, round his wrift. very flight tafte of fait. The other half was fuffered to
In iefs than a minute the infide of the bottle was rendered ftand many days, in which time no chai'ge appeared. It
dim, as if it had beeiv held over the fteam of warm water : did not alter the colour of vegetable blue ; no coagulation
fmall diops appeared in Iefs than ten minutes, and a tea- or precipitation of animal matter was produced by muri-
fpoonful of tranfparent and perfectly infipid fluid, weighing atic acid, neither was any change caufed by the addition
30 gr., was collected in an hour. AlFuiriing that the h.^nd of pure alkali. It appeared, therefore, to Mr. Abernethy,
is to the whole body as i to 60, and that the who!e furface that the v;ater of perfpiration contains httle of any thing,
perfpires equally, the exhalation at this rate would be 71b. except a very fmall portion of fait.

6 oz. in 24 iiours. When the experiment was repeated after We cannot reafonably doubt that the greater part of the
taking exercife, 48 gr. were collefted in an hour, which matter of perfpiration is water ; but it certainly contains
is at the rate of 12 lb in 24 hours. By breathing into a other matters, of which the nature is not well afcertained.
bottle for an hour, this gentleman collected 124 gr. of I:s fenfible properties are often very perceptible: it caufes
infipid tranfparent fluid : the produce in 24 hours at this the peculiar odour of the body, which is very remarkable
rate would be 6 oz. i dr. 36 gr. If this be added to the in particular individuals, and poflefTes peculiar charaders in
former llattment of the c'.itaneous exhalation, the fum will be whole races of mankind. Its fmel is often four ; and it is
81b. I dr. 36 gr.; and the evaporation from the lungs will faid, under fuch circumftances, to ciiange the vegetable blue
be little more than •-th of the whole. Bichat fays that he colours to red. Berthollet thought he had dacfted the
colledied 2 oz. of fluid by breathing for an hour into a prefence of the phofphoric acid ; he obferved that a blue
veffel. Anat. Gener. t. 2, p. 70X. paper, applied to a part labouring under a gouty paroxyfni,

Mr. Abernethy collected from his hafid and wrift, inclofed became red ; but Fourcroy remaiks, that if this acid were
in a glafs jar for fix hours, about 3 dr. of fluid. He efti- conftantly fccreted, it mull accumulate on the ikin, as it is
mated the furface from which this was colleCled at 4-th of too fixed to be volatilized with the aqueous vapour of per-
the whole body : hence, if the perfpiration be equal at all fpiration.

times and in all parts, the produce in one day would be From' the ftrong odour of the perfpiration when profufe,
about Zr. lb. This reftdt is fo different from that of Mr. and from the tinge which it communicates to linen, there is
Cruikfhank, that there muft be fome fignal error in the data reafon to fuppofe that it contains a particular animal matter.
on one fide or the other. In the perfpiration of the horfe, an animal lubliance tff the

The method adopted by Lavoifier and Seguin feems cal- nature of urea has been dctcficd by Fourcroy and Vauque-
eulated to aftbrd refults more worthy of our confidence, lin, who have alfo difcovered that the phofphatc of lime is
The whole body was iiiclofed in a filk bag, varnitlied with left in confiderable quantity by the evaporation of the per-
elaftic gum, impenetrable by air or moillure, haring a fmall fpircd matter on the f1<in of the fame animal. It feems to
opening carefully cemented round the mouth through which cryft^alhze on the furface, and forms the branny matter de-
the perfon might breathe ; fo that whatever came from the tached by friction of the furface. The above-mentioned
lungs efcaped, while the whole of the cutaneous difcharge chemiils obferve that the urine of this aniiiial contains no
was confined within the bag. By weighing the body, there- calcareous phofphatc.

Vol. XIX. Gg Mr.

INTEGUMENTS.

Mr. Cruikfhank's experiments prove clearly that there is
an oily matter fecreted by the (kin : indeed the familiar
appearance of the repulfion of water, fo as to caufe it to
ri-.n into globules, fufficiently evinces the faft. Mr. Cruik-
{hauk wore the fame veil of fleecy hofiery night and day
during tlie hotteft part of the fummer. At the end of this
time he always found an oily fubftance accumulated in con-
fiderable mafTes on the nap of the inner furface of the veft,
in the form of black tears. When rubbed on paper, it
makes it tranfparent, and hardens on it lilce, greal'c. It
burns with a white flame, leaving behind a charry re-
-fiduum.

Bcfides the condenfablc vapour which is exhaled from
the flcin, it has been aiTerted* that gafcous fluids are alfo
feparated. Many philofophers have labotn-ed on this fub-
jccl, but the rcfults of their experiments are fo contradic-
tory, that we cannot deduce from them any very fatisfaiflory
conchifion.

The count De Milly feems to have been the firft who
called the attention of philofop'ners to this fiibjeft. He
liiid often remarked the accumulation of fmall air-bubbles
on the furface of his body, wlicn immerfed in the warm
bath. At length, by means of a funnel and inverted glafs
jar he coUefted, in a few hours, half a French pint of the
gas, which was examined by Lavoifier. It was incapable
of fuppoiting combuilion, produced a precipitation in lime
water, and fuffcred no change from the admixture of nitrous
gas. Acad. Roy. des Sciences de Berlin, 1777.

Mr. Criiikfhank found tliat a lighted taper, introduced
into a bottle in which his hand or foot had been con-
fined for fome time, burned dimly ; and lime water agitated
in it was rendered turbid.

Ingenhouz could not procure the air from the flcin in
the warm bath in fuch quantity as the Count de Milly
did. What he collected feemed to be azotic gas. Expe-
riences fur les Vegetaux, t. i.

Prieftley denies that any gas is perfpired by the fkin. He
repeated the experiments of Ingenhouz, and never could
obferve the appearance of gas arifing from the body when
he employed boiled rain water, from which the air had been
completely expelled, and detached the adhering bubbles
from his arm. He obferves that the air obtained by In-
genhouz "wasjuft that mixture of fixed air and partially
phlogillicated air, that pump-water, wliich he recommends
for the purpofe, generally abounds with." Experiments and
Obfervations, vol. v. p. 103.

Fontana arrived at the fame coaclufion from his re-
fearches.

Such alfo was the refult of Mr Jurine's jxperience, who,
after remaining in the bath at different temperatures from
18" to 30" of Reaurftur for hours together, never could pro-
cure a Angle bubble of air from his ilcin. He obtained
the fame refult from obfervations on feveral individuals in
water of various temperatures. Hilloire de la Societe
Royale de Medecine, torn. 10.

Mr. Cruikfhank's experiments feemed to prove that air,
which has been confined for fome time -in contaft with the
Ikin, -becomes changed ; though Dr. Prieflley maintained
that the perfpirable matter has no fuch effedi on the air,
but leaves it as wholefome as ever.

A very extenlive fet of experiments performed by Mr.
Jurine, of Geneva, and publithed in the volume already
quoted of the Memoirs of tiie Royal Society of Medicine,
feems to confirm tiie obfervation of Mr. Cruikfhaiik. Al-
though Mr. Jurine could not coliedl any air from his f!.;in,
whea immerfed in the v/arra bath, he always found the air

confined about the flcin much vitiated. He fixed tvcII-
dried bottles under his arm-pits, and round his waiil, and
havino- left them there for an hour, accurately corked and
removed them, that the contained air might be examined
by the ufual tells. In thefe experiments he always em-
ployed the mercurial trough. This air was found, on dif-
ferent occafions, to contain .7, .7-:, .6, .4^ of carbonic
acid gas. He next inclofed his arm in a glafs cylinder
containing 6S5 cubic inches of air. One extremity of this
veffel clofely embraced his arm, round which it was cemented.
To the other extremity was fixed a bent tube, which, d'.iring
the experiment, was plunged under water in the pneumatic
trough. After two hours, the air of the cylinder was found
to contain .8 of carbonic acid gas. In another experi-
ment the fame quantity was Obtained after one hour ; but
the proportion of carbonic acid gas was not greater at the
end of two, three, or four hours. Being thus fatisfied
that carbonic acid gas is formed by the flvin when in contadt
with the»air of the atmofphere ; 4ie concluded, that he ihould
find the fame gas imder the bed clothes which confine the
air round the body during fleep ; and in experiments on
different individuals he found that this, air contained •4>
.6, .7, .55 of carbonic acid gas.

In the fame volume are fome experiments by Gattoni,
which do not lead to the fame conclufions with thole of Ju-
rine : but they do not feem to have been very accurately per-
form.ed, and th.e tell of lime water was not employed.

We come in the next place to the refearches of Mr. Aber-
nethy. From the hand, introduced into a glafs jar filled with
mercui-y and inverted, he collecled, in the fpace of fixteen
hours, one half-ounce meafure of air, whieh had efcaped
in fm-all bubbles from every point of the furface of tlie
imnfcrfed hand. Two-thirds of this gas were abforbed
by lime water ; and the remainder fuffered no diminution
from Ae admixture of nitrous gas. When the experiment
was repeated under water, a fmall quantity of azotic gas
only was obtained, the carbonic acid h.aving been, in the
opinion of Mr. Abernethy, abforbed by tRe water. The
hand was expofed five hours, in a jar containing feven
ounces of atmofpheric air, which was dim.inifhed about half
an ounce. One ounce of the remainder was abforbed by
lime water, with precipitation of the hme. By the tell of
nitrous gas the air was found to contain nearly ith lefs of
oxygenous gas than it did before the experiir.ent. V/hen a
fimilar experiment was performed with feven ounces of
azotic gas, rather more than one ounce meafure of carbonic
acid gas was produced in two iiours. The trials were re-
peated with hydrogenous, nitrous, and oxygenous gafcs,
and in every inllance nearly the fame quantity of carbonic
acid gas was obtained.

In the 4 jth vol. (Sf the Annales de Chimic, there is a fhort
paper by Dr. Trouffct, who had noticed, like Milly, the
appearance of bubbles on the fltin in the warm bath. He
feems to have feen this only in two individuals, and found
the air to be perfectly pure nitrogen. In his own per-
fon, and in many others, he could obferve nothing of
the kind.

Spallanzani is the lail experimental philofopher who has
paid particular attention to this fubjcft. The detail of
his experiments has not been publifiied, but the refults are
preferved in a letter to Senebicr, introduAory to the Me-
moirs on Refpiration. He appears to have been completely
fatisfied that air in contact with the fkin is changed exaAly
in the fame manner as by refpiration. When atmofpherical
air was employed, oxygen difappeared, and carbonic acid
gas was produced : he was of opinion, that the oxygib of

the

INTEGUMENTS.

the atmofpliere had no (hare in the produflion of the car-
bonic acid gas, bccaufe it was equally great when the ani-
mal was confined in gafes containii;g no oxygen ; and l\e
therefore concludes, tiiat the carbonic acid gas was exhaled,
and the oxygen abforbed.

On a review of thefe very contradiftory evidences we do
not feem to be warranted in believing that any gas is fcpa-
rated from the fkin : but perhaps we may conclude that the
air in contaft with the organ undergoes a peculiar modifi-
cation.

Scoaccrus Glands of the Siin. — This organ is habitually co-
vered .viih an oily fiibltance, whicli occafioiis water to run
into globules on the furface of the body, which imparts a
greafy liain to linen, when itjjs worn for a long time, and
which occafions dull, &c. to adhere to the ikin. This
unftuous f ibilance is more abundant in fome pans of the
body than in others. About the face it is obferved in con-
Cderabh quantities, and on the hairy fcalp. Hence, when
perfonal cleanlinefs is not Efficiently attended to, the hair
becomes quite greafy and fliiniiig. It is abundant in fitua-
tions expofed to friction, as the axillce, perina;um, &c. ;
and when confined in inch parts caufes a very difagreeable
odour. It is found in very fmall quantity, fo that it can
hardly be obferved, in the palms and foles. Certain races
of mankir.d, as the negroes, have it in great abundance.
Probably the fenlible qualities of the cutaneous difcharge
depend in great meafure on this matter, the particular na-
ture of which is but httle underftood. It does not feem
to undergo thofe chan jcs of augmentation and diminution
which are obfervable in the perfpiration. Its obvious utility
feems to be that of protefting the llcin from the agency of
external caufes, and keeping it in a Hate of foftnefs.

Is this matter Amply an exhalation from the cutaneous
veiTels, or is it produced by glandular apparatus \ In fome
parts of the (kin, as about the nofe, and in other fitiiations
of the face, the external ear, Sec. there are very manifeft
fmall rouiidilh bodies, with a fimple aperture, from which a
febaceous matter may be fometimes exprelTed like a fine
thread. Morgagni alfo admits their exiftence in the neck,
back, perinx im, buttocks, &c. Haller does not conceive
tliat they are proved to exift in all parts, and we certainly do
not find tliera : yet this oily matter is formed over the whole
body. The examples of the fat of the cellular interllices
and of the medullary fluid of bones (hew us that the exha-
lants can produce matters of this kind.

P roper tia of the Dermoid Syfem.

I. Properties refidt'ing from Organization. — Thefe are found
to exift in die fliin in a very ftriking degree : the changes of
fize, in which diiferent parts, particularly the limbs, fwell
to twice or three times their natural bulk, and then recfcvcr
their former Itate, prove thefe properties ; and the various
tumours, external aneurifms, fudden dillentions from ^reat
bruifes, coUeftions of fluid in the abdomen, pregnancy, en-
largements of the tefticle, &c. aiford additional proofs.
In all thefe cafes the fltin is firft expanded, and then is
rellored when the dillending caufe ceafes to aft. A fquare
inch of integument lias been found ablejto fuftain a weight
of 20olb.

The contraftihty of the (kin oecafions the retraftion of
its edges when it is cut : and this occurs in the dead fub-
jcd ; but it feems to l<e heightened by the vital powers as it,
occurs to a much greater degree during life.

Theext'enfibility of the foin is Icfs in many cafes than it
would appear to be on firft figiit, as the neighbouring in-
teguments are drawn over -a tumour. Thus in large hvell-

" ings in the fcrofum, the flcin of the penis covers part of the
tumour, &c. : in extenfive cicatrices the (kin of the fur-
rounding parts is drawn towards the centre of the ulcer.

- In moil extcnfions the thicknefs of the dermoid tiffue is
diminilhed. When it is diftended by the iiifiltration of water
in its interllices, as in aiafarca, iti ihickneis mcieifes, while
the denfity is diminiftied. It feems to lofe the power of ex-
tenfion, fo as to burll under the attion of a dillending
caufe, from chronic infl^'inmation. Moft of the chronic
affeftions, which alter the tiiTue of this organ, dellroy its
contraclile power.

Vital Properties.

2. Properties of the yimmal Life. — Animal fenfibility exifts
in this orcan in a very high degree : it prefides over the
general fenfe of feehiig, wliich is more acute in tliis than
in other tiffues, and alfo that of touch, which is very dif-
tinft from the former. The general fenfe, called by the
French tact, is the power of perceiving the impreifions
of furrounding ob'ietls : in this fignification it feems to mean
the /ame as the Engiilh word feeling, which is the of&ce of
a nerve in general ; as thofe organs only are fo affeAed by ex-
ternal bodies as to produce fome change by which the mind is
rendered confcious that the bodily organ has been modified.
Thus heat and cold, roughncfs and fmoothnefs, hardnefs
and foftnefs, moiftnre and drynefs ; preffure caufing pain ;
acrid qualities ; titillation producing itching. Sec. are all
perceived by the nerves. This kind of tadl belongs to the
whole body ; and does not fuppofe any peculiar arrange-
ment of the organ ; it is merely the animal fenfibility con-
fidered in a Hate of exercife. Thus, when the particular
modifications of this fenfibility belonging to the other fenfes
have been deftroyed ; when the eye is infenfiblc to light, the
ear to founds, &c. the organs ftill retain the power of per-
ceiving the prefencc of bodies and their general attributes.

The fenfe of touch is the power belonging to the fl<;in
alone, of examining more minutely and accurately thofe
properties of bodies, which we have juil named. For this
purpofe we employ chiefly the ends of the fingers ; thofe of
the toes feem to be -organized exactly in the lame way, but
are incapable of being turned to this ufe by the hardnefs of
their coverings. Thefe parts are confpicuous for the fize of
their nerves, and for the number and prominence of the pa-
])illa:. This organization gives to them a more exquifite fen-
fibility of the fame kind with that belonging to the fkin in ge-
n; ra\ The form of the organ in the human fubjeft, where it is
compofcd of feveral moveable parts, adapts it particularly to
ferve as an inftrumciit of touch, by facilitating its application
to external objj^s ; and this advantage may be more particu-
larly feen in bodies of a rounded figure.. We rub the fingers
gently againft the objeft, fo as \o apply the papillx fuc-
ceifively to the different points of its furface. Wliether any
phyfical change takes place in the organ, whether the papilla:
for example are ereded or no, is entirely unknown.

The diilinftion of colours by blind perfons, if fuch a
power has really exifted in any inftanccs, muft have arifcn
from modifications'in the furface produced by the colouring
matter. We know that the touch in all cales of blibdneft
acquires great acutencfs, as it mult be fo much more cx-
ertifed and depended on, than in individuals who can fee.

The temperature of bodies is eflimated by a comparifuii ;
thofe are called cold, which are of a lower temperature than
what we had felt immediately before ; and vice vci-fd. Or
we refer to the (late of our own furface, and call tlie objects,
from which heat palTcs to us, warm, and thofe of the uppo.
fite kind cold. The fame fluid will appear cold to one h<uid
G£ 2 imd

INTEGUMENT5.

and warm to the other, if \vc have previoufly immerfed one
in a warmer, and the other in a colder medium.

It has been conceived that the fenfe of touch is of great
ufe to us iu^orrefting the errors of the otiier fenfes, and
particularly of the fight. This pecidiarity bclnngs to it
certainly, that the organ is modified by'the very body whofe
properties we are examining ; while, in the cafe of viiion for
example, the eye is aifefted not by the objeft itfelf, but by
the rays of hght. Perhaps we are lefs deceived by the other
fenlcs, and by that of fight itfelf, than has been commonly
imagined. Without any afliiiance from the fenfe of touch,
for which his organization entirely difqualifies him, the horfe
meafurcs the hedge or ditch with his eye mod accurately, ar.d
clears the diftance with great exaftnefs. Newly born animals
feem to commit no errors in feekiug their food or their
parents, &c. On the other hand, the touch is not free from
error. The experiment of rolling a round body under two
f.ngers decuffated, which give us the fenfation of two bodies,
fncws this. Moreover, the touch no more inforjns us of the
real nature of things, than any other fenfe ; we acquire a
knowledge of their properties through certain interp^ifed
media, and alterations in them very much modify the percep-
tion. When the epidermis is removed, external bodies caufe
pain, and do not excite the imprefiions, which inform us of
r jngible properties ; again, when the cuticle is preter-
nnturally thick, as in thehanas of labouring men, no fenfa-
tion takes place.

This fenfe is alfo fubjeft to various morbid conditions. In
hvpochondriacs there is fometimes a feeling as of cold air ;
and the flightcft contaft of air is intolerable. Ann of
Auftria found the fmell linen manufaftures unpleafantly
rouo-h ; and fome have not been able to endure the touch of
filk, or of the dovvfn of a peach.

Habit, too, has a powerful influence in modifying the im-
prefllsns which we receive from the touch. The heat of a
glafs-houfe, which is fuilained u'ithout any unpleafant feeling
by the workmen for feveral hours, is intolerable to a perfon
unaccufiomcd to it.

The touch differs from the other fenfes in not requiring a
peculiar mode of fenfibility for its exercife ; the hand is
rather more ■ fenfible than the reft, of the ilcin, but we can
touch with other parts of our furface. In the other fenfes
there are peculiar kinds of fenfibihty difpofmg the organs to
be afted on by particular obje£ls, and rendering: them
ceptible of other imprcilions. The
determined by volition, and is generally confequent on the
employment of the other fenfes.

Moft of the other fenfes require an exprefs organic ar-
rangement, as well as a peculiar fenfibility in'^he organ ; the
touch, on the contra?)', requires only a particular form in
its organs. If they have the animal fenfibility, and can em-
brace objefls by feveral points, they can dl'.linguifli the tan-
gible properties. The touch will be imperfcft, if the organ
is in contaft with the body only in one or two points ; yet it
will take place. Thus we can touch with the hollo\y of the
axilla, at the bend of the elbow, or the knee. But the fenfe
is exerted more advantageoufly when the points of contaft
arc multiplied. The ftrufture of tl-.o human hand is parti-
cularly well contrived in this point of view ; it fliews us that
man is calculated, muchinore than tlie animals, for commu-
nication with furrounding objcfts ; that the domain of his ani-
mal life is therefore much more extenfive ; that his fenfations
are more precife, as they pofl'efs an additional means of per-
feftion ; that his intellectual faculties are capable of filling
an infinitely greater fphere, becaufe tliey are grounded on
tke exertion of a much more perfcit orgiui.

5 "■ 'f^f^

ife of the touch is

The fenfibihty of the fl.in feemsto refide effenCially in f
papillx, which is the part of the integuments truly bclongii ;,
to the animal life, as the vafcular plexus, compofing the re-
ticular body, h connefted with the organic funitions. Its
very acute fenfibility requires a proteftion from too (Irong
imprefiions; and this is afforded by the epidermis. Wii
that is removed, even the impreflitm of the air is pain'
and caufes a fenfation, which we call fmarting, which !
longs perhaps exclufively to the dermoid fyftem. It is filt
in burns, bliilers, eryfipclas, and in all the inflammations
affefiing the reticular body of the (Idn. Itching is another
mode of fenfation peculiar to thisfyilem.

Befides the imprefiions, which teach us the properties of
bodies, the exercife of this organ produces feelings of plea-
fure and pain. So far as the fenfe of touch is concerned,
pleafure may be confidered as that condition of the body,
which we fiiould wi(h to have coritinued. The more exquifite
feelings of this kind are produced by friftion of the papillx.
Without referring to venereal feiflhtions, we may mention a
praftice of the Chinefe, of introducing a fmall pencil into
the ear and moving it round ib as to excite a very acute plea-
furable feehng. 'i'ickhng muft be fomething of this kind ;
it is pecuhar to the ikin, and in many individuals excites fen-
fations which are a'nioll intolerable. Great diflcrences in
this refpeft are obferved in different perfons. Pain is the
vi-ry reverf=r of pleafure ; and, in the fl<in, is the moft acute,
when the naked organ, where it pofl'effes many papilla;, is
irritated.

The animal fenfibility of the Run, like that of the mucous
furfaces, is under the powerful influence of habit, which
transforms fucceffively into indifference, and into pleafure
what was at firft painful. The air in the fucceffion of the
feafons, heat in the various ftates of the atmofphere, water
in the bath, or in the humid vapours with which it loads the
medium in which we live, our clothes, of which the woollen
are at firfl; very unpleafant, in fliort, every thing which afts
on the il;in by fimple contaft, produces fenfations wfaich are
incefiantly modified by habit. Obferve the varieties of drefs
in different countries ; fometimes the upper limbs are un-
covered, fometimes the lower ; in fome ir.ftances more or
lefs of the trunk is expofed to the air ; often the favage is
entirely naked. The parts which are left naked in each
people, fupport the contaft of the air without any painful
fenfation. Expofe, on the contrary, the parts which are ha-
bitually covered, particularly if the atmofphere be cool, a
painful fenfation will be produced at firft, but, as the parts
become gradually habituated to the contaft, they arc at lall
infenfible to it.

But habit has no power over that heightened ftate of the
cutaneous fenfibility, which refults from an organic affeftion,
as inflammation for example. The flighteft contaft of a
foreign body is extremely painful in this cafe ; and confe-
quently the flcin can no longer exert its funftior. of touch.
Even the taft, or the power of dillinguifliing general fenfa-
tions, is deftroyed. The impreffion of all bodies is uniform ;
it'is that of pain.

The animal fenfibility of the fi<in may be diminiJhed or
deftroyed, as in paralyfes ; but the whole organ is never
affe .ed ; and in thijjjj refpeft there is very fcldom even
hemiplegia. Thefe cafes afford a fiu-ther proof that the
cutaneous o^halation and capillary circulation are not in-
fluenced by the nerves, fince both go on very well as they
do in the paralyfis of the moving organs.

PropenUs of the Organic Life — Tlie organic fenfibility and

the inlenfible contraftilitycxilt in the ikin in'avcry highdegree,

and rtfide jiarticuliu-ly in the exterior capillary fyilem, which

4 foini)

INTEGUMENTS.

forms the reticular body. On thofe properties depend im-
iriediately, I, the capillary circulation ; 2, the cutaneous ex-
lifilation ; 3, the abforption ; 4, tlie nutrition of the dermoid
fyftem ; aad 5, the fecretion of the cutaneous oil, where fe-
baceous glands exid. Befides thcfe numerous funftions, we
mud reflecl that! the (kin is conllanlly cxpofed to tlie action
of external caufes, which keep it in a (late of habitual ex-
citation, as the contents of mucous furfaces aft on thofe
fiirfaces.

The fivin does not feem to poffefsthe fenfible organic con-
traftility ; irritating applications aft only on the capillaries,
and therefore produce an effeft, which is not obvious to the
eye. Yet the corrugation of the integuments under the
ftrong aftion of cold, refembles in fome refpetts the fenfible
organic contractility ; this, wMch takes place in the corion,
fecms to hold the middle between the two kinds of organic
contraftility.

Pajpve SyinpatJiies. — The animal fenfibility is often brought
into adion fympathetically i|) the (kin, by the affections of
other fy!lem£. There are various examples of itchinjT, &c.
without any derangement of tlie part, to which the fenfation
is referred.

Very often tlie feeling of heat or cold occurs in the ilvin,
■when there is no caufe aftecting the organ to produce fuch
fenfations ; there feems to be an erroneous reference of the
unpleafant feeling to its foiirce as in the cafe of pains felt
in amputated limbs. The (hiverings which occur at the
commencement of moll; acute local difeafes are of this kind :
there is often a fudden and fympatlictic fenfation of cold
o'n the frcin at the moment of the expulfion of the femen ;
the (hivering of fear, and the fweat w hich often accompanies
it, feem to be of the fame nature.. A fpecies of fympaibetic
cold is alfo often referred to the (Iciii at the commencement
of digelHon.

The feeling of heat often occurs fympathetically in the
flcin. The flu(hings, which occur fo often and irregularly
in different fevers, are well known, and are not attended with
any difSgagement of caloric. Thefe feehngs of heat and
cold are produced without any alteration of temperature, as
fympathetic pains occur witliout the :ii"lion of thofe obvious
caufes, wliich give rife to them under other circumftances.
In-faft, the fympathics of the animal fenfibihty call into
aftion, in each fyilem, the feeling which is habitual to'it.
The fame caufe which produces the fenfation of heat or
cold in the (Ifin, would have given rife to that of lalfitude in
the mufcles, &c.

The organic properties of the (kin are frequently called
into aftion by fynipa'hies : thus cold drinks fupprefs per-
fpiration. Augmented cutanfous exhalation follows almolt
immediately the introduclioa of warm fluids into the (lo-
macFi. The fweat of fear and that of confumption are
of the fame nature. Difcafes exhibit to us innumerable
varieties of drynefs and moiilure of the organ, phenomena
which are generally fympathetic.

ASive Sympathies. — The irritation of the (kin in tickling,
in very fenfible individuals, excites various organs fympa-
thetically ; as the heart, producing fainting ; the (loniach,
vomiting; an^ the brain, couvulfions. Affeftions of the
cutaneous exhalaiits, or of the capillary fyllcm, from which
t'''>y arife, aft fympathetically on t»rious organs. Thus
v..irm bath di ill; rbs the procefs of digeftion ; while its
ce in many cafes allays difordcrs of the ftomach. The
I cjf cold on the fnrface, particidarly during fweating,
:cc9 feveral fympathetic effefts. We exprefs what oc-
. ry inaccurately, when we refer it to the trandation or
...on of the f erfpiratory matter. The organic fenfibility

of the pleura is fympathetically afTefted by the application
of cold to the (kin ; jull as an uterine or nafal hemorrhage
may be (lopped. The fupprefTion of tranfpiration is an
acceifory circumllance completely foreign to the internal
inflammation. If there were no perfpiration at the time
that the cold is applied, the inflammation would dill come
on.

The (baking of the mufcles, and the concentration of
the pulfe, produced by the weakened aftion of the heart,
are phenomena caufed entirely by the aftion of cold on the
fl<in.

The numerous phenomena occafioned by the fudden dif-
appearance of cutaneous eruptions fliould be referred to mo-
difications of tlie vital properties of the organs, and not to
any morbific matter repelled from the flcin.

The ferous furfaces and the cellular fub (lance on one
fide, and the fliin on the other, are often in oppofition in
difeafes. Patients never fweat during the formation of drop,
fies ; and this drynefs of the fltin is often more remarkable
than the fmall quantity of urine.

Characters nf the I'ilal Propaiies. — I . They vary in the
difFenent regions of the body. The palms and foles are the -
moft diilinguiflied for their animal fenfibility : the hypo-
chondria are fo fenfible in fome individuals, that tickhng
will produce convulfions : the anterior and lateral parts of
the trunk are more fenfible than the back. The organic
properties do not differ lefs ; of r>hich the great fufcep-
tibiiity of the face to the influx of blood is a proof. Par-
ticular parts are fubjcft to particular cutaneous difeafes,.
&c.

2. IntermifTion of aftion in one rcfpeft, uninterrupted'
continuance in another. The former charafter belongs to
this fyftem, as to all the fenfcs, in its animal fenfibility.
Immediately before ileep comes on, external objefts pro-
duce but an obfcure fenfation, which is entirely loll in that
Itate, in which animals feem to part with half their exift-
cnce. Yet the touch feems to be exerted occafionally while
the other fenfes are in repofe : pinch the limb ot-a per-
fon fleeping, and he will move it without wakilig, or re-
taining any recoUeftion of the occurrence. In its organic
fcnfibihty the life of the cutaneous fyftem is uninterrupted ;
confequently the functions, over which this property pre-
fides, have an oppofite charafter to the preceding. The
infenfible tranfpiration goes on continually, although it is
more aftive at fome times than at others.

3. Influence of fex. The animal fenfibility is more acute
in women, in whom every thing belonging to the fenfes is
more developed, while the power of the mufcles predomi-
nates in man. No very fenfible difference can be remarked
in the organic properties.

4. Influence of temperament. The colour and other fenfible
properties of the lliin vary in individuals, and thefe va-
riations even conftitute charafters of the different tempera-
ments. When we fee thefe differences of organization,
can we be furprifed at finding that the feiife of touck is
acute in fome, dull in others ; that fome perfons are very
fnfceptible of tickling, and others almoft infenfible to it ?
That the organic fenfibility admits a great quantity of blood
into the capillaries of trie face in fome, and rejects it in
others ; that fome have a moid and others a dry ilcin ; that
there are difpoiitions in individuals to particidai; cutaneous
affeftions, chronic or acute ? &c. &c.

Developement of the ekrmo'ul Syjlem. — The fkin, in the early
times of concejition, appears as a vifcid coating, which is
gradually coodenfed into a tranfparent layer, torn by the
flighted violence, and allowing tlie fubjaccot orgiins, p;ii>

liculftrly

INTEGUMENTS.

ticaUrly the blood-vcnels, to be eafily feen through it.
Its coniiRi'iice incrcafes until it acquires the appearance
exhibited at the time of birth. In its mucous ftate cel-
lular fubftnnce and veflels compofe it entirely : when the
fibres of the corion are added, it becomes firmer. The ex-
ternal - furface exhibits but few of the wrinkles defcribed
above: they are" prevented from appearing by the large
quantity of fubjaccnt fat. The inner furface adheres but
flightly to, the cellu'ar layer under it. It contains more
blood than at any other period of life. The animal fenfi-
bility is not yet called into e.\ercife ; there are no caufes to
excite it. " Is the organic feiifibility in aftion at this time ?
It muH: be fo in a certain degree to produce the unftuous
fecretion, by which the furface is covered.

This fyftem undergoes a fudden revolution at the in-
ftant of birth. Hitherto it has received only black blood,
and is confeqnently more or lefs livid at birth. This colour
pvcs place to red, produced by the arterial blood now firft
formed : and the ftate of the flcin in this refpecl may be
confidered as an index of what is pafiing in the lungs. Ail
parts of the organ are penetr.-\ted uniformly by the red
colour. A fudden excitation is thus communicated to the
organ, exalting its vital properties, and rendering it more
fufceptible of the impreflions of furrounding objetts. Tlie
furrounding temperature, the air, clothe-s the water ufed
in wafhing it, communicate to the lldn an excitation, which
is the more lenfible in proportion to its novelty. Tlie
fympathies conneamg the fkin to the other organs now
become neceffary : tluis the internal organs quickly feel
the excitations applied externally.

The organic fenfibility is augmented at the fame time ;
tranfpiration is ellabhfhed ; varions (ubllances are feparated
by it ; others perhaps abforbed ; and various difeafed af-
feftions fhew th.emfelves.

The organ ilill continues foft for fome time after birth ;
and melts entirely into jelly very eafily by ebullition. Its
-denfity increafes gradually, but has not arrived at its greateft
ftate till towards the thirtie h year. As this augmen-
tation proceeds, the i'.brous fubllance is increafcd in pro-
portion to the gelatinous. At the fame time the adhcfion
•of the internal furface to the cellular fubllance becomes
ftr

and the wrinkles of the face are gradually formed.
No remarkable change is produced in this organ at puberty :
fweats are more ?.bundant after this time ; in children the
refidue of nutrition pviffes off by the kidnies rather than
by the Ikin.

The organ ftill retains a great aftivity after the age of
growth, and very eafily influences other parts of the frame :
hence the peripneumonies, pleurifies, &c. produced by the
aftion of coid.

The increafe of the fibrous fubftance renders it more
firm ; lefs blood feems to be fent into its vefiels, and it
is kfs fubject to thofe eruptions fo common in infancy and
youth.

In declining age the dermoid fyftem becomes more and
■more denfe : it refills obullition for a long time, but yields
a firmer and more confiflent, though lefs abundant jelly.
It is (Ironger but lefs phant. The blood penetrates "it in
fmaller and fnialler quantity : the rednefs of the cheeks
difappears. The adhefion to the cellular fubftance is much
more clofe. All the wrinkles are more llrongly marked,
and feveral are now perceptible for the firft time.

The vital poiver-s of t!>e ll^in are more weakened than
ihofe of other fyftems in the old man, becaufe it has been
more excited by external objeiStB during life : the habit of
fetling has blunted its ierifibility. The touch is now exer-

cifed but rarely ; as this fenfe is employed in a great meafure
in fubferviencc to tliofe of fight, hearing, &c. to rcftify or
confirm our other fcnfations, the old man, being acquainted
with what furrounds him, has no motive for the ufe of his
organ of touch. Contraft, in this point of view, the two
extremes of life. The infant, to whom every inipreflion on
the fight, hearing. Sec. is new, wifties to touch, to feize
efery thing : his hands are in conftant motion. Touching
is a great plcafure to him, becaufe all new fenfations are
agreeable. If an old man were placed in the midft of ob-
jeds, which had never before imprelled his fenfes, he would
exercife his touch more frequently ; but, among the things
to which he is habituated, there is n<jtliing to excite him.
Kence old age is no longer the time of enjoyment. Ahnod
all our pleafures are relative-; as habit renders thcfe lefs
lively, they ccafc in confequence of having exilled ; thus
the advance of )ears, by leaving us few new fenfations,
dininilhes the fcurces of our happirefs. For the contrary
reafon the happitft age is that of infancy ; becaufe the
whole dom:'in of fenfation lies tefore us unexplored ; at
every ftep of his advancement man leaves behind him a fource
of enjoyment. His career ends in indiiferenee, a ftate very
fuitable to that period, as it diminilhes the interval between
life and death.

The foil- wing phenomena fliew that the organic, as well
as the animal fcnfibihty, is remarkably diminilhed in the
old man. Contagions are lefs eafily abforbed. The fneat
is lefs abundant, and hardly ever exhibits thofe augmentations
which are fo frequent in the adult. The greafy covering
i-; lefs copious, and hence the furface is drier. The various
morbid ajffeftions, fuch as eryfipelas, and the various erup-
tion?, are lets common and much flower. The power of re-
fifting cold is fenfibly diminiihed.

Epidirmoiil or culiciilar S\fiem. — The llighteft examination
is fufficient to Ihew very linking differences between this
and the preceding fyftem^ although phyfiologifts have ge-
nerally defcribed this merely as a dependance of the former.
The organization, properties, funftions, mode of ^owth,
in flior[, every circumftance is different in the two cafes.

Under this head we confider the exterior epiderir.is ; that
which covers a part of the mucous fyilem ; and the nails.
Many charadlers approximate the latter to the epidermis,
akh'ough the external appearance is very different.

Tiie exterior e^icliniiis is a tranfparent layer, differing in
thickiiefs in different parts, every where covering tlie (kin,
and immediately expofed to the excitation of external
bodies.

It has the fame inequalities as the cutis, fince they are
every where exactly contiguous. Various pores penetrate
it, and terminate on its furface : the more ccnfpicuous ones
tranfmit the hairs ; others give paftage to exhalants. The
litter are. not eafily feen ; but if, wiien the fk'n is dry, we
fnddenly begin to fweat, we can dillinguiih them by the
fmall points of moillure then exhibited over the whole cu-
taneous furf ice. We cannot actually fee the pores in the
dead cuticle, even with the afTulance of the raicrofcope ;
and the fluid under a blifter does not efcape through them :
but the phenomena exhibited daring hfe leav» no doubt of
their exillence. The internal furface adheres mull clofcly
to the omer furface o£ the cutis. We conceive the union
to be by means of the exhaling and abforbing vefltls and
the hairs. Dr. Hunter tlioughl that the velicls culd be
demonftrated. On feparating the cuticle after long ma-
ceration, particularly in the fole of the foot, a vaft number
of extremely fn.e and foft tiireads are fecu paffing between
it and the cutis : they break after being extended to about

INTEGUMENTS.

Bne^iglith of an inch. Tliefe may be vefibls ; but it is c!e, and throws it into numerous wrinkles. This effeft is ob.
only a_ conjecture. On examimr.g the furfact of the fe- f^^rved in the application of poultices, and feems to arife from
paralea cuticle, numerous prolongations of various lengths the tiflue becoming penetrated with the fluid • it takes place
are obferved, appearing like f.miU ends of fine threads, or to the gicatelt degree in the foot and ha.d, and often is hard-
as mere mequahties, and dilpoled obliquely. Thcfe may ly fenfib'e in other parts. The fenfibility of the Ikin is ren
be abforbents and cxhalants. Whatever the medium of dercd more obtufe by this change in the cuticle The water
conncaion may be, the adhehon of the parts to each other imbibed by the part is'ifterwards evaporated, the wrinHes
is very ftrong. „ r r d'fappear, and the cuticle recovers its former Rate. When fe-

Various caufes deitroy this adhcfion of the epidermis, and parntcd from the body, and immerfed in water, it is whitened :
occafion its reparation. Ac.ite inflammations, as eryfipelas, it undergoes no putrid alteration, but is covered by a whitifti
phlegmon, &c. are followed by its detachment; and various pellicle formed gf feparate molecuht. At the end of two
eruptions, not of an inflammatory nature, caufe its detach- or three months it is foftened, and may be torn very cafily,
ment in a dry fcaly form ; which hasgivten rife to the notion but does not fwell : it is never reduced to a pulp analogous
thatitismadeupoffcales in its. natural Hate. When the fldn to that of other organs when macerated. I'.oiliiig never
is unequal on the fiirface, friftion detaches it in fmall fcales, produces crifpation or csrrugation of this lifl'ue : prolonged
which give a very rough appearance to the part. Fevers are ebullition renders it kfs reliiiant, fo that it may be torn viry
not unfrcquently followed by defquamation of flcin. The eafily, but never reduces it to gelatine, nor gives it a'yellow
adion of veficatones is famiUarly known. In the dead fub- colour. The laminx which compofe it in the hands and feet
ject, putrefaction, maceration, and ebullition are the molt are eafily feparated after long boiling. Tlie tanning principle
eifedlual means of accomphfliing the feparation. has no adtion on it ; nor has alcohol.

The thicknefs of the epidermis is in genera! very uniform : When well dried in the air, .and expofcd. to the flame of
it does not feem to follow thofe varieties which we obferve a candle, it undergoes no crifpation, as a piece of fl<in does
in the cutis of the trunk, limbs, &c. It is only in the when treated in the fame way : it exhales a fetid odour analo-
palms and foles, and on the correfpondin^r furfaces of the gousto that of burnt horn. It burns with oreatfacilitv.fothat
fingers and toes, that its thicknefs is increafed : and here the if it be lighted at one end, it will often bc^eii tircly confumed.
augmentation is fo confider.ible, that there is no proportion A blackidi fluid is obferved ifi the flame, li.ke that of burnt
between thefe and other parts of the body. . feathers. This is clearly of an oilv nature, keeps up the

There feem to be in this part feveral additional lamina: ; combuRion by its great abundance, and is found in fo large
and the inner furface, after feparation, does not exhibit a quantity only in the hair and nails : this produces a dff-
thofe proceflbs already fpoken of. This exceffive thicknefs agreeable odour. A blackifli coal remains after combuftioni
prevents the action of blulers. In repeated trials Bichat Light does not feem to atTeft the epidermis, which is not
found that they prod-xed no effea. The tranfparence of changed when expofure to the fun has altered the appearance
the epidermis is deftroyed by this thicknefs : it is here of the {l<in.

whitilh, and even opaque. Hence, in the negro, it conceals Nitric acid turns it yellow, but diflblves it witb great diffi.
the black colour of the reticular body ; which, however, is, cuky. Sulphuric, on the contrary, when not rmich diluted,
at the fame time, lefs black hefe than in other parts, ads very powerfully on it, rendering it very thin and tranf!
The epidermis in thefc fituations is manifettly compoled of parent, or diflblving it entirely by long immcrfion. Alkaline
fucceffive lamina, adhering with fuch f^rce, as to be very folutions diflblve it, but with difficuhy°: pure alkali adls on it
difficultly feparated : in all other parts we can difcern only a rapidly; as alfo does lime, according to Chaptal.
fimple layer. No fluid can be noticed in this tiffue : when cut If, fays Dr. Thomfon, the cuticle be tinged with nitric
ki various direftions, either in the living or dead fubjea, acid, the application of ammonia to it is well-known to give
nothing exudes. Its fcales are always perfeftly dry : iJie it inllantaneoufly a deep orange colour. Nov/, as Hatchett
a^bforbents and exhalants merely traverfe it. No biood in has fhewn that this change is alfo produced upon coagulated
the living ftate, nor injeftion after death, enter it in any cafe, albumen in the fame circumftances, and as the epidermis re-
It never participates in the difeafes of the fubjacent organ, fembles that fubftance in all the properties above detailed, it
except by being elevated when that is fwollen, and then de- can fcarcely be doubted that it is any thing eifc than a pecu-
tached. Nerves and cellular tilTue are completely foreign to liar modification of coagulated albumen. Syll. of Che -
it. Thus we fee that none of the general fyllems, common miftry, v. 5, p. 574.

to all organs, enter into the compofition of the epidermis : ProperlUs.— It has very little extenfibility, as the fmalleft

it has not the common bafis of all organized parts ; and in cutaneous tumour caufes' it to crack, and be detached in
this point of view m.ay be regarded as inorganic. It feems fcales. Yet it is not entirely deftitute of this property, as
to contain no fibre in its compofition : it poflefltis very little its elevation in bliilers proves. It has no contraftihty r
power of refinance, breaking under a flight diftention, ex- when no longer diftended, the portion elevated in a blifter
cept in the foles and palms, &c. where it is fo thick. Cvllapfcs in wrinkles, andi'does net regain its original fize.

The aftion of air produces hardly any effeft on it. When It has no animal fenfibility in any part : it may be ; ricked,'
a large piece is expofed, it becomes rather harder, and more cut, torn, or injured in all parts 'without exciting any fenfa-
con.'illent, and is torn more difficultly. Next to the hair tion. It differs from other organs, as cartilages, tendons, &c.
and nails, it is the tiffue lead changed by deficcation. It is ren- which alfo have no animal fenfibility, in being aUogether unl
dered a little more tranfparent, but iminerfion in water reftores fufceptible of that property, which they often acquire under
if to its former ftate. When the fl<in piffes into a Itate of pu- certain kinds of excitement. The epidemiis is equally def-
trefaaion, thecuticleisnotatallchanged. It is feparated from tituteof the organic fenfibility, and organic infenfible con-
the cutis, but not rendered at all putrid ; if it be thoroughly tradility : it poflcffes no circulation, and is fufceptible of no
walked, it has no bad odour. AVhen prcferved in moift air, difeafes, which depend on the organic properties. We have no
it is not chanjj-ed ; and it may be regarded as the moll in- proof, in fnort, that it enjoys any vital powers at ail; fo that
corruptible ot animal fubllances, after the hair and nails. wcmayco-.ifider the whole fupeiticics of the body as c'ompofed
• Moillure applied for a long time whitens the living cuti- of dead matter. " Its life," fays Bichat, " is extremely ob-
3 \ ' Iturc I

INTEGUMENTS.

■fcure ; T cen doubt whether it can be faid to pofTefs life. I
am inclined to regard it as afemi-organized, or rather inorganic
body, placed by nature at ihe point of communication be-
tween external dead matter and the living flcin, and fernng
as a gradation between them.'"

The action of external bodies wears it away, and it is con-
ftantly reproduced. Scrape the furface with the blade of a
knife, and an abundant greyiih dull will be detached. This
matti-r accumulates in greater quantity, when the Dcin is not
frequently walhed ; under fuch circumilances there is often
a confidcrable layer.

It is reproduced very completely after being removed ; and
differs in that circumilance from moil other tiflues. How
this is effeiiled has been a point greatly difputed by phyfiolo-
gills ; but the explanations have been entirely mechanical
and unfatisfadlory. That it is depofited by the velFels of the
fkin cannot be douljted ; and we (hail probably uhderftand
how the procefs is eftedled, when we underftand how the
veffcls make bone, mufcle, nerve, &c. This reproduftion
only takes place on the fldn : the thin pellicle covering the
cicatrices of other tiffues has a completely different texture.
The different excrefcences affeifting the cuticle, as corns, &c.
refult from the exercife of this reproduftive power. They
are all infenfible, have no veffels nor nerves, and poffefs the
fame confiilence and colour as the epidermis. External pref-
fure feems to promote their formation very powerfully ; tight
Ihoes produce corns ; and much handling of heavy inftru-
ments in hard work produces the thick cuticular covering of
the hand » blackfniiths and other mechanics.

The cuticle of the palms and foles is however originally
thicker than that of other parts ; this may be feen in the
foetus.

In the dead body the cuticle has a remarkable effeiS in pre-
venting the evaporation of the fluids ; none of which are
diflipated fo long as this covering remains entire. If the
body be expofed in a high temperature, as of loo or 120',
it does not feem to become dried ; and where the limbs are
diftended in anafarca, if it has not cracked, none of the
fluid cfcapes. Remove the cuticle, and the cutis quickly
becomes dry, tranfparent, and horny, and the fubjacent parts
are fnbfequently affefted in the fame way.

Trie epidermis is feen very clearly in the fcetus, where its
■developement is greater in proportion than that of other
fyileuis. It may be recognized when the flcin leaves that
pulpy ftate which we have fpoken of. At the end of the
fifth month it is thicker in the palms and foles than ia other
P^'ts. It appears to undergo no change at birth ; but grows
rather thicker afterwards as age advances. In the old
fubject it differs from that of the adult only in being
fubje£i'' to fcale and crack, and thereby appearing dry and
plough.

Internal Epidinnh. — Moft authors have admitted an epi-
dermis on the mucous furfaces ; and tliey have generally re-
prefentcd that this is the only part of the integuments that
liaes the mucous cavities. But a h;tle exami::ation will fliew
us that this expanfion forms only a fuperficial flratum, and
that if it be detached by hot water from the tongue, palate,
&c. an organ analogous to the corion is left behind.

I . EpidiTmis at the Origin of the mucous Surfaces. — It is very
dillinS at all the origins of the mucous fyftem, at the glans,
urethra, anus, nafal cavities, mouth, &c. It may be demon-
ftratcd in thcfe fituations by the excoriations which fometimes
affeci them, by detaching it with a line lancet, by the action
of hot water, by maceration, &c. It is much more delicate
in thefe fituations than where it covers fl^'in, and becomes
iiiore and more fo as it penetrates deeper. In thefe parts it

is eafily reproduced. It is deftltute, like the exterior epi-
dermis, of vital properties ; and its nature feems to be in all
refpefts the fame ; it yields the fame refults, when expofed
to the fame agents.

z. Epidermis of the more deeply feated mucous Surfaces. — As
we advance further into thefe organs, the epidermis becomes
gradually thinner, and foon is no longer perceptible. The
moft delicate inflruments and methods do not enable us to de-i
monftrate it in the flomach, inteftines, urinary and gall-
bladders, veficulEE feminales, and the various excretory
paffages. No epidermis is elevated on the furface of thefe
organs by boiling or maceration ; nor by bliiters : nor is
there any thing hke a feparation of fuch a covering in any
difeafes. We fhall be difpofed to conclude, from thefe confi-
derations, that there is no cuticle on the deeply feated mu.
cous furfaces, and that the laige quantity of mucous
fluids poured out in tiiefe fituations fupplies its place by pro-
tefting tlie corion from the imprcfilons of noxious matters.
The only circumftance that could induce us to hefitate, is
tlie occafional feparation of fubllances like membranes,which
might be regarded as exfoliations of an epidermis. Nume-
rous examples occur in medical writers of fuch matters being
voided from the bladder, flomach, and inteftines. On this
fubieft we poffefs no very precife data.

ihe Nails. — We connect the hiftory of thefe organs with
that of the epidermis, as they adhere to it very Ifrongly,
a'.;d come- away with it in maceration. Their form in the
human fubjett differs very much from that wliich they have
in animals ; they are generally thick and conical in the latter,
thin and flattened in the former. They confift of hard,
tranfparent, and elalUc plates, of a fubilance refembling
that of the horns of animals, covering the extremities of the
fingers and toes on the afpeft of extenlion. Thus they are
not adapted to purpofes of offence, but are better fuited to
the fupport of the broad ends of thele members, which confer
on the human fubjeft a more perfeft power of touch. Their
length is limited by the univerfal practice of cutting them
to a level with the end of the finger or toe : if left to them-
felves, they are prolonged, and at the fame time bent fo as to
cover the ends of thof'e parts. The natural limit of their
growth feems to be that period at which they acquire a fharp
cutting edge : for they are then gradually worn away at thp
margin.

Three parts may be very eafily diftinguifhed in the nail : a
polterior portion, covered on botli fides by integuments : a
middle part, which is the mofl coniiderable, adhering by
its concave, and unattached on its convex furface ; and an
anterior, free from adhefion in both refpe<fts.

The poilerior diviiion is about one-fixth of the whole :
it ends behind in a very thin ferrated edge, by which the
nail feems to grow out of the fl<in. This part is foft and
flexible, and of a white colour : it is bounded by a flraight
line, which, with the two margins, give to the organ a
fquare figure. The convex furface adheres intimately to
the epidermis, which cover* it in the following manner.
The cutis terminates over the root of the nail in a femi-
lunar edge, in front of which is a fmall cavity adapted to, -
and filled by, the white part of the nail. Along the con-
cavity of this crefccnt the cuticle forms a fmall and diftinft
fold, wliich may be cut without any feeling of pain, and
which is reproduced. It adiieres clofely to the root of the
nail, and is produced anteriorly for fome length on its fur»
face, unlefs it be cut away. Many defcribe it as being con-
tinued over the whole convex furface. Beliind it appears
to be lofV in the foft and thin poflerior margin. Without
the adhefion, which connefts the lemilunar border of fltin

INTEGUMENTS.

to tlie nail, there would be a fpecies of cul-dc-rac between
thefe parts. Some have conceived that the extenfor tendon
reaches to the pollcrior edge ; but its termination at the
tubercle of ihe lad phalanx is very diftinft ; and there is a
fpace of two or three lines between this and the nail. The
concave furface of this pcilerior divifion adheres in the fame
way as that of the middle part.

The convex unconnefted furfsce of the middle divifion is
fmootb, whitifh behind for a fii;all fpace terminated by a
femicircular edge, and red in the reft of its extent in con-
fequcnce of the colour of the fubjacent parts. On the
fides it is covered a little by the ilvin, wliich is continuous with
the feniil'.inar projedlion already defcribed. The fold of
cuticle is alfo continued, and adheres to the margin of the
nail. The concave furface of this part is laminated longi-
tudinally, and the plates end in very »h;n and mer.ibrane-Uke
edges ; but this laminated texture does not extend to the
white part. The organization may be well Icen in the hoof
of an animal, as the horfe ; Vi-here the plates are of coiifi-
derable breadth and number.

The edge of this concave adliering portion is fixed in
front by the epidermis, which, after covering the extremity
of the finger, is attached to the furface of the nail at the
front end of its laminated portion, in a curved line ; here
ag-.iin it feems to be confounded v.-ith the fubilance of the
oaii.

The loofe anterior portion, the length of which is limited
by cutting, is manifeilly thicker than the middle and pollerior
parts. Indeed the thickncfs, hardnefs, and refillance of the
organ increafe gradually from behind forwards.

At the attachment of the nail, the f]<in is m?,rked by a
deep parabolical groove, in which the former is received :
the fold, which bounds this groove behind, overlaps the
white part of the nail, covers a confiderable portion of it,
and adheres firmly to the pofterior thin edge. From' this
hollow the cutis is produced over the pollerior furface of
the lail phalanx to the end of the finger, between the nail
ahd the bone, and adheres clofcly to the periofleum. At
the fides and in front it is continuous with the common
{Tcin. In this fitu^.tion it has a peculiar organization ; it
becomes fofter and redder, has more numerous veffels, and
is diftributed in longitudinal lamin.T, correfponding to, and
received between, thofe of the nail. Bat the portion of
ficin correfponding to the white part of the nail, is' alfo
different in its colour, and not laminated on its furface.
From this part numerous fine and long papillx or villi arife,
and are received into correfponding hollows of the nail :
the fame ftrufture exills more or lefs over the whole furface
covered by the nail. It appears that the organ grows prin-
cipally from the white part : at leall, if a mark be made
towards the root, it gradually advances to the loofe edge,
coming more and more forwards until it entirely difappears.
The papills of this part give to the organ a very exquifite
fenfibility : hence the acute pain of paronychia, and of that
b'arbarous praflice of tearir.g oft" the nails.

Organ'izdlioa and Properties of the Nails. — ^Thefe can be
inoft advantageoufiy obferved in the larger ones, as thofe
of the thumb or great toe. A fingle lamina occupies the
whole convex furface ; this exills alone at the pofterior edge,
and hence the thinnefs of that part. New plates arc fuc-
cfclTively added on the concave furface towards the front,
fo that the organ becomes fucceffively thicker and thicker :
they may be eafily removed in feparate (Irata, and are fliorter
and (horter as they are placed more and more towards the
front.

Vol. XIX.

Thefe lamina, compofing the nails, feem to bo in their
nature nearly identical with the epidermis. Tlie moft fuper-
ficlal is manifeftly continuous with that organ by its edges.
The nails may be detached and are regenerated exaftly as
the cuticle is. Their vitality is as obfcurc as that of the
cuticle : they exhibit no trace of animal fenfibility, ncr of
any organic property. "Wlu^n burnt they caufe a difagree-
abie odour like that of the epidermis, and exhibit altogether
the fame phenomena. Mr. Hatchett conceives that they
confift, like the cuticle, of coagulated albumen. They con-
tain a little phofphate of lime. Maceration and codion do
not, however, produce in thefe organs the fame want of
confiftence or kind of "brittlenefs v.-hich they do i;i the epi-
dermis, on account of their greater folidity. The aftion
of acids prefents nearly the fame phenomena. Thus, on
the whole, the compofition, organization, and properties of
the nails and epidermis feem to be perfeclly analogous :
they make up together a perfedt infeufible covering to the
cutis, a ilruflure void of vital properties, and therefore
exercifing no vital funftions. The only differences between
them feem to be modifications of form and arrangement
arifing from the ufes of the parts which they cover. Phy-
fiolcgitls affign to the nails the office of fupporting the foft
ends of the fingers by which the fcnfe of touch is exercifed,
affording to the papillx a poir.t of refiftauce, and protecting
them from external violence. They are a fo fuppofed to
enable us to grafp objedls more firmly, and to take up mi.
nute bodies more conveniently.

Dcuelopement of the iVa/'/j. — While the ficin is ftill pulpy in
the foetus, the nails poflefs confiderable I'n mnefs, but are very
thin. Their length at the time of birth is not proportionate
to what they acquire afterwards ; they do not exceed, and
frequently do not reach the ends of the fingers. At this
time their tranfparency enables us to obfcrve the livid co-
lour of the venous blood circulating bef tc refpiraiion, and
to obferve how it is fucceeded by the redder arterial fluid.
After birth they increafe as tlte epidermis does ; and they
become extremely thick in old perfons.

Of tl^e Hah; (S^Jlhne PUcitx of £ic/jal. J— The. human
frau-c poffeffes much lefs of this covering than that of ani-
mals : the contatt of external bodies with the ftcin being
ia great meafure intercepted in the latter, the animal fenfi-
bility of the cutaneous organ muft have much fewer ex-
ternal relations in them, and confequently perform a much
lefs important part. In animals the reprodudtive and di-
geltive funftions feem to be the principal fources of plea-
fure.

I. Hairs of the Head. — The fyftem predominates in this
part, covering the cranium nearly ai the bodies of animals
are covered. For this reafon, as well as on account of its
convex form, which allows it to come in contaft with bo-
dies by a fmall furface only, it is very little capable of afling
as an organ of touch. The face is lefs generally covered,
excepting one part in the male fex. This portion of the
body, in which moft of our means of communication, with
external objefts, as the organs of fight, Imell, and tafte are
alfemblecl, is not favourable in its form to the exercife.of
touch. The elongated fnout of moft quadrupeds enables
them to touch external objects, to turn and move them in
various dire£l!>..j, as well as to feize ihcm for food : in man
the former fundtions are exercifed by the hands.

The boundary of the hair towards the front is very va-
riable in different individuals : and thefe varieties influence
the breadth and apparent height of the forehead ; the di-
rcdion of this part is dependent entirely on the bony ftruc-
ture. Hence the hair influences bu; lliglitly the expieffion
H h of

INTEGUMENTS.

f>f the figure : \re attach the ideas of majefty and grandeur
lefs to the brcadtli of the forehead, than to its perpendicular
direflion. The number of the hairs in a given furfacc is
fingularly variable : they may be fo clofe as to touch in every
point, or may leave intervals in which the (Icin of the cra-
nium is vifible. We hardly know the natural extent of
their growth. They will fometimes become fo long as to
touch the thighs or even legs ; and this circumftance, like a
crowd of others, tends to prove the deftination of the hu-
man fubjet\ to the ereft attitude. It has been quellioned
whether the praftice of cutting them produces any phy-
fiolo^cal cfFcift ; whether the conllant growth, rendered
ueceffary by this praftice, be performed at the expence of
any other parts or funfiions.

The ftrength of the hair is very confiderable in propor-
to its flender bulk : no part in the animal economy, not
even the fibrous fyfteni, will fupport ftich confiderable
weights. Ropes made of hair would therefore be very ufe-
ful, if they could be procured of fiifficient length.

Smooth and ilraight liair grows to the grcateft length ;
in proportion as it is curly it is fhorter, of which the woolly
kind in the negro is a remarkable example. . The colour
varies in the different races of mankind, and thus becomes a
cliaraftcriftic attribute in the natural hiilorj- of the fpecies.
But it varies no Icfs in the different individuals of the fame
fpecies ; and thefe varieties follow the fame general rule
with that which regulates the colour of the ficin and eyes.
Hence thefe differences are to be confidered in enumerating
the charafters of the different temperaments.

The eyebrows and eyelatlies are defcribed under the ar-
ticle Eve. The hair compofing the beard, which we have
alluded to in the article Gener.'VTIox, as one of the fexual
diftinftions of the male, is ftiorter than the covering of the
head, and longer than any other hairs in the body : it is
always more or lefs difpofed to curl, is itronger and lefs
greaiy than the hairs of the head. It generally follows
their colour ; but very often deviates into the red tint. Its
quantity varies fingularly in different individuals : common
opinion affociates the idea of ftrength to its abimdance, par-
ticularly if it be black. For fome remarks on the effedls of
cutting it, fee Hair.

2. Hairs cf the Trunk — Their quantity is expofed to
»ery great variations ; fome being almoli covered, while
Others have the furface perfectly fmooth. Tiiey are much
more numerous in front than behind : and in the former
fituation abound chiefly on the chell, and in the courfe of
the linea alba in men. There are none on the thorax in
women, who have altogether but few on the trunk. A
confiderable collection, refeu|bling the beard in its nature,
is found about the generative organs in both fexes. Thefe
are very feldom light in colour, frequently approaching to
red, and very commonly black. This increafe of the hairy
fyftem is almoft peculiar to the human fubjeft. Its quan-
tity varies very greatly.

3. Hairs of tin Extremities. — Thefe organs are for the
moil part covered : the number of their hairs is nearly uni-
form in moll individuals, but the lergth differs greatly. In
the hollow of the axilla, a fuiall coUedion occurs refembliug
thofe of the genital organs : but there is nothing like this
in the lower limbs. Tiic inner furface of the arm and fore-
arm has none of this covering in moil men : but the lower
limbs are more uniformly covered ; the back of the foot
and hand are conllantly covered, but the palms and foles,
and coirefponding furfaces of tiie fingers and toes, are al-
ways perfeftly fmooth. The latter circumftance feems to
contribute to the pcfcdlion of the organ of touch.

On the organization and mode of growth of the hair, the
reader is referred to that article.

Properties of the Hair. — It experiences but a flight cor-
ru'iation from the aiflion of heat, but it is twifted or curled
in various dircftions : moifture makes it ftraight again. It
hardly poflVnes any extenfibility or contractility. Whether
they have any vital properties is a fubjecl of difpute : at all
events they are exceedingly obfcurc. We are difpofed to
deny their exiftence in this fyftem, as well as in the epi-
dermis and nails. Bichat, who, for fome of the reafons
explained in the article H.^iu, conceives that they are the
feat of vital proccfTes, adds, " we cannot however deny, that
in ib.e natural ftate thefe organs come next to the epidermis
and nails in poffeffing the Icall active life, and having the
feweft relations to other organs. While all other fyllcms
are deranged by difeafe, this is generally unafftclcd ; the
hair grows as ufual, and fecms not to experience the fliglitcll
diflurbance ; its mode of exiftence is, therefore, quite dif-
ferent from that of other ftruiSlures."

Mr. Hatchett concludes, from his experiments, that hair
contains gelatine, and owes its fupplenefs and toughnefs
to that matter. This may be feparated by boiling it iu
water, after which it is much more brittle. If the proccfs
be continued for a long time, the hair crumbles in pieces
between the fingers. The portion infolnble in water pof-
feiTes the properties of coagulated albumen. Vauqiielin
obtained a folution of human hair in water, by raifing tl^e-
temperature of the fluid in Papin's digefter. When the heat
was too great, it was decompufed, and ammonia, carbonic
acid, and an empyreumatic oil formed. Sulphuretted hydros
gen is always evolved, and its quantity increafes with the
heat. The folution of liair effeded in this way contains a
kind of bituminous oil, which is depofited very flowly. Tlie
colour of this oil correfponds with that of the hair. Fil-
tration allows a colourlefs fluid, in which copious precipi-
tates are formed by infufion of galls and oxymuriatic acid,
to pafs through. Silver is blackened by it, and acetate of
lead precipitated brown. Though very much concentrated
by evaporation, it does not concrete into a jelly. Water,
containing four per cent, of potafti, difTolves hair with an
evolution of hydrofulphuret of ammonia. A thick oil, dif-
fering in colour according to that of the hair, with fome
fulphnr and iron, remains undiffolved. Su'phuric, muriatic,
and nitric acids dilTolve it : v.ith the latter an oil is fepa-
rated. Oxymuriatic whitens, and then reduces it to a fiib-
llance of the confiflence of turpentine. Alcohol, digefted
on hair, extrads from it two kinds of oil : the firll is white,
and fubfides in white fcining fcales as the liquor cools ; the
fecond varies according to the hair employed : it is greyifh-
green when black hair is ufed, and as red as blood when red
is employed. When incinerated it yields iron and nianga-
ncfe, phofphate, fulphate and carbonate of hme, muriate of
foda, and a confiderable portion of filica. The aflics of red
hair contain lefs iron and man^anefe ; thofe of white iiair ftill
lefs, but tiiey contain magnefia. The aflies do not exceed
0.015 °f the hair. According to the above experiments,
performed by Vauquelin, black hair is compofed of the nine
following fubftances ; 1, an animal matter, which conftitutii
the grcateft part ; 2, a white folid oil, in fn.all quantity ;
3, a greyifh-green oil in greater abundance ; 4, iron in an

iknown ftate; 5, oxyd of manganefe ; 6, phofphate of

lime ; 7, carbonate of lime, in very fmall quantity ; 8, filica ;
chap. 2. fed. 7.

and 9, fulphur. Thomfon'o Syftem of Chemiftry, book v.

Developemcnt of the Hair. — In the firft months none can
be perceived. When the fibrous part of the cutis begins

I N T

to be perceptible, we fee a flight down on tlie head, con-
cealed, in great meafure. by the white unftiioiis matter.
The colouriefs down begins to afiume fomething of the
tint which the hair will have after birth, but it is in all cafes
pale tiUlbmh, when it may be half an incli long on the head,
although it is only in the ftate of down in any other part.
It grows much more rapidly afier birth than before ; but
is always comparatively lighter in colour in proportion as
the fubjeft is younger. The age of puberty witneffes a re-
markable change in this fyftem in the devclopement of the
beard, of the hair about the organs of generation, and in
the axillae. It undergoes very little change in the following
years ; but is faid to grow more rapidly in fimimer than in
winter. Towards the end of life the hairs feel that general
obliteration which affects all the exterior vefTels : it ceafes to
receive colouring matter, and becomes grey. On the fubjecl
of this change, fee Haiu. After remaining grey for foma
time they fall off, and the bulbs fbrink and difappcar.
Kichat found no traces of the latter parts in the integuments
of perfeftly bald old men : but they were entire in thi; cafe
of a man who had loft his iiair from a putrid fever.

It has been very generally fuppofed that, the hair, nails,
and epidermis continue to grow after death : but we have
no very accurate obfervations on tliis fnbjeft. Bichat faw
the facl in a clofely ihavcn head macerated for eight days :
and there is no greater difficulty in admitting this than in
allowing that the abforbing veflels can continue their aftion
at the fame time. The growth of the hair does not feem to
go on at a rate proportioned to the degree of hving power :
it is as rapid in cafes of proftration as in thofe where thefe
forces are augmented.

Bichat, Anatomic Generale, torn. 4. Haller, Elemcnta
Phyfiologix, lib. 12. Cruikfhank on the Infenfible Per-
fpiration.

Iktec-umen'T is alfo extended to the particular mem-
branes which invell certain parts of the body ; as tlie coats
or tunics of the eve.

INTELLECT, a term ufed among philofophers, to fig-
sify that faculty of the foul ufually called the umhrjianding.
The Peripatetics make tv.-o kinds of intelle<£l ; atfi=oe and
pajjive. See Ir>EA.

INTELLECTUAL Educatiox, is that branch of
education which rcfpefts the under.laiiding, conlidered in
diftinftion from the affections and difpotitions. By intellec-
tual education we underlland that feries of means by which
the various powers, which may be called the intelleftual
powers, are cultivated ; by which thofe habitual qualities of
mind are prodiiced, which immediately refpeft the acquili-
tion of knowledge, or are eifentially auxiliary to it ; and
by which the mind is ilored wiih thofe ideas which are fub-
fervient to fcieutitic acquirements, or to the arts and purfuits
of life.

The full confideration of thefe objefts would lead to three
primary divifions of this branch of education : iirtl:, the cul-
tivation of the feveral intellectual powers and qualities ;
fecondly, the value and mode of cultivation of the different
branches of knowledge ; and thirdly, the pecuhar culture
of mind and intellectual acquilitions requifite for the different
fexes, clafTes, and profefiions. In a field fo wide, it is necef-
fary to make foitie feleclion. In our prefent article we fliall
chiefly confine ourfclves to a brief confideration of the cul-
ture of the leading intellcclual powers and qualities. The
lafl of the three divilions (which will include fome remarks
cUning under the fecond), would in fome meafure lead us
to anticipate what more properly comes under the head of
MoJiAL KJiuatkn ; and wc (hall therefore leave the coufi-

I N T

deration of it to that article, for which alfo we fhall, for the
fame rcafon, defer a comparative view of tlie advantages of
public and private education.

Though it is not our bufincfs, in this department, to enter
into the fubjeft of mental philofophy, yet, as in a work fo'
cxtenfive as the prefent, the fame arrangement, views, and
employment of terms cannot be expefted throughout, we
fhall find it at leafl expedient to fay more refpefting tlie
feveral powers of the mind than might be in any way requi-
fite, if we were poffeffed of what will be brought forwards in
a more direft form, under its appropriate head : indepen-
dently of which confideration, we fhould be induced to give
fuch general views of the intellcclual powers as are neceffary,
in order to underlland the principles of education, by the
hope that thus we might be the means of exciting the atten-
tion of fome of our readers to a branch of knowledge which
is of peculiar importance, not only in the education of others,
but in the cultivation of our own mind.-;.

The firll of the intellectual powers in the order of devc-
lopement is of courfe fenfation (or lefs ambiguoufly the fen-
fitive power) ; by which is mear.t that power or capacity
of the mind, by whole operation it receives fenfations from
things which affecl the organs of fenfe. Proceeding in the
fame order, we next find the retentive power, with.out which
fenfations would be of no avail : this is the power or capa-
city of the mind, by which it retains relids of fenfations or
ideas. Next fucceeds the alTociative power, which is that
power or capacity of the mind by which it connefls and
compounds ideas. This lall principle, if not the foie caufe
of ail our mental phenomena ( except the origin of fenfations,
and the retention of the fimple uncompounded relicts of
them), has fome effedl in the origin and modification of all
of them. It is owing to tliis important principle that fenfa-
tions become the figns of thoughts and feelings, by which
means man becomes a focial being ; that the whole mental
furniture of perceptions, notions, affections, pafiions, fcnti-
ments, emotions, &c. is formed from the fimple relicts of
fenfation ; that man, from mere fenfation, rifes to intellect.
In Ihort, whatever mental operation we attend to, except
at the very earlicll period of mental culture, we find affocia-
tion the caufe of its produitions, or intimately concerned in
it.

Thefe three powers may be confidcred as the elementary-
powers of the mind, to the operation of which all intellectual
phenomena may be referred ; but as it is under peculiar
modifications and combinations that we fee them att, this
fummary divifion would be infufficient for our pnrpofe. We
fhall therefore follow in the order which we find mofl con-
venient, a fomewhat more minute divifion of our intellectual
principles, according to the combinations, or peculiar modes
of operation, of the fimple powers ; -viz. fenf^ation, percep-
tion, obfervation, attention, abltrattion«onfidercd both as
a liabit and as a power, memory, underllanding, and imagi-
nation.

I. Seiifat'iom are the rudiments or elements of all our i«eas,
that is, of all onr thoughts and feelings. When an infant
enters into the world, there is no appearance whatever
which can autiiori'/.e any one to affert that tliere are ideas
in its mind ; and no one can rpafonably doubt, that if a
human being cculd be deprived of all liis org^ms of fenfation,
before any fenfations bad been rt^-eivSfl, that he could never
have ideas. In the earliell exercife of the capacity of fenfa-
tion, fenfations are iimple, uncompounded wiih the reliits of
former correfponding fenfations ; but the fenfations very
foon become percopliohs, that is, they inllanianeouJly recal
the relicts of Oliier correfponding fenfations. That foiifa.
11 !i i liunsj,

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

tions, in a fomewhat advanced Rate of mental culture, are
ufually perceptions, any perfon may fatisfy hinifelf, by con-
fidering tliat fenfations are ufually accompanied either with
an idea of an external objeift caiifing them, or (if they are
merely the effcft of the (late of the bodily fyftem) with an
idea of the fenfatio'i being in that part of the body, in which
the cnufe of h-' fenfation exills ; both of which are com-
plex ideaSj :or;;„ d from a i^reat number of imprefTions, and
which could in no.inftancc be produced by any exertion of
the foniitive power alcne, but neceffarily require the exercife
of tlie retentive and aflbciative powers.

Confidering man as an intellectual beine, the correftnefs
and extent of his perceptions are of the lirll moment. They
are, in faft, the materials of all knowledge refpetling ex-
ternal objefts ; and in the early ftages of mental culture
are the only objefts of the underilanding. Now, the cor-
reftnefs aad extent of the perception depend upon the
vividncfs and efiicaciouinefs of the component fenfations,
and the number of them received from the fame sr fimilar
objeds in difFereiit fit lations, and through the medium of
difterent fenfes. One leading object, therefore, in the educa-
tion of the human being, fhndd be to invigorate and ex-
ercife theorgans of fenfe. Independently of the effecls of
the general healthinefs of the fyftem, it appears decidedly
probable that the organs of fenfe arc capable of being im-
proved by proper exercife. It is a grand law of our
frame, that moderate exertion increafes the power of exer-
tion ; and there are facls which lead to the fame conclu-
fion in this particular cafe. But this may be fafely left to
the natural efft ft of varied exercife. What is principally
to be done is, to afford children the opportunity of exer-
cifing their fenfes on a variety of objefts, and in a variety of
iituations. We fliould think it defirable to proceed a little
farther on the cultivation of the organs of fenfation ; but
fome obfervations on this fubjeft will properly form a part
of what we fliall have to fay under the head of Physical
Education.

II. By the law of affociation, many ideas, received direftly
from fenfible objedls, through the medium of different fenfes,
become connefted, and at lall blended together, fo as to
form one very complex, though apparently uncompounded,
idea; and this complex idea is ofien recalled to the mind
by a correfponding fenfation ; and by affociation it becomes
fo connected with that fenfation, that the complex idea it-
felf is often millaken for a part of the fenfation. For in-
ftance. the fenfation produced by the iniprefTion made by a
globe on the fenfe of fight, is, as can be proved, nothing
more than that produced by a circle, with certain varia-
tions of light and Ihsde : yet, immediately on the fenia-
lion being received, the ideas of the folidity of the objetl,
of its hardnefs, of its magnitude, and of its being fome-
thing external to onefelf, (all of which have been derived
from the fenfe of touch, in conne6iion with this object, or
others i;i fome refpeft fimilar.) immediately rife up in the
mind in one blended form ; by their complete coalefcence
they appear to be one, and by their immediate and conftant
comieftion with the fenfation, they appear to the mind as a
part of the fenfation. The fenfation thus connetted with
the complex idea is the perception : and by the faculty of
perception we underlbnd that compound power (or rather
comljination of powers) by which perceptions are received
from external objefts. The accuracy and vividnefs of the
fenfation depend upon the fenfitive power and its organs :
the accuracy and vividnefs of the perception depend j-artiy
upon the accuracy and vividnefs of the component fenfa-
tions, and partly upoa the adivity of the retentive and al-

fociative powers. Suppofing the powers of fenfation to
be in a found and vigorous ftate, yeX. it is obvious that the
perceptions will vary very greatly in different individuals,
and in the fame individual, at different periods. The per-
ception is in faift tlie fum total of all the notions ^ich the
individual has of the objeft. How much the perceptions
of the fame objeft vary in different individuals, may be
underllood from a fimple inftance. Suppofe a watch to be
fubjeiled to the obfervntion of three perfons, whofe organs
of fcnfa are alike healthy and vigorous, the one a very ig-
norant perfon, totally unacquainted with its purpofes and
movements ; the fecond a well-informed perfon, not how-
ever poffeffed of any acquaintance with the particular
mechanifm; the third an artill, minutely and completely ac-
quainted with it : the fenfation may be precifely the fame
in all in'.lances ; the pifture upon the retina may convey to
the mind an equally imprelTive notice of the object ; but
how different the perception I The firfl fees a number of
minute objects, which attraift his attention perhaps by their
beauty and regularity ; but nothing more : he has no idea of
their fubferviency to each other or of their general ufe ;
there is little more in his cafe than fenfation, indeed we
may fay, nothing more than fenfation befides tliofe affo-
ciated perceptions which fo foon become connefted with
every imprefTion from external objefts, and to which we
have already referred. The fecond, from his general know-
ledge of mechanifm, has fome ideas excited by the fenfatioR
of ufe and connection, but he cannot difcern the fpecific
kind of connection, nor how each part tends to anfwer the
end of the whole. If he fets about to ftudy the mecha-
nifm, he fubjedts each part to minute examination in its
flructure and conneftions ; and by degrees may acquire an
acquaintance witli the whole, which, on a fubfequent in-
fpeftion, would give him an immediate, diftinct perception
of the parts and purpofes. What he thus acquires by la-
borious and patient examination, the third faw at once. His
perceptions have long been cultivated by daily attention to
the movements and their dependencies, by lludying their
defects and excellencies, by the aftual formation of various
parts, and the conftrudtion of the whole : and a great num-
ber of the ideas produced by fuch obfervations and opera-
tions, become fo intimately united with the fenfation, that
at laft this at once excites them, and thus he fees (or»
more correctly, perceives) what lies totally out of the
reach of the obfervation of others.

From this brief account of the perceptive power, we may
readily derive the molt eflential confiderations as to its culti-
vation. To render the fenfations efficacious in forming dif-
tinct ideas, and to connect thefe ideas already derived fro.Ti
any objett with the new imprefTions, depends principally
upon the degree of attention (or fixed diredion of the
mind) which the fenfations receive. Hence thofe who have
the care of infants and young children, /hould give them
every opportunity to keep their attention direfted to the
objects of their fenfes ; and every means Ihould be employed
to lead them to fuch attention. An infant, intently gazing
upon an objeft, or examining it with its httle hands and
lips, is as ulefiilly employed in the cultivation of inlclleft as
the fondeft parent can wi(h. In the early periods of mental
culture there is, however, more to be done in this connexion
by allowing a child full fcope for its own cfl'orts, than by
any direit exertions which can be made by others. When
its attention is fixed upon any objeft, let it remain fo ; if
poiuble let the objects of fenfe be brouglit into view under
different afpecis, and expofed to the examination of different
fenfes. Bifore words become to a child the Cgn-i of vo-

luolary

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

Jintary action, all that can be done is to expofe it to fen-
fations, and to allow them to fix the attention ; but after-
wards more direft efforts may be made, and the attention
may be fixed by various other means befidc the mere aftion of
tlic fenfations thcmfelves.

Children of quick fenfations, for the proper cultivation
c f the perception, require to be frequently induced to ob-
fcrvc minutely the objeds of perception. We do not ven-
tire to go fo far as to aifert, that it is of no confequence
\v!i ;t they obfcrve, provided that they do carefully obferve
it ; but there can be no hefitaUon in faying, that when the
fenfations are conftitutionally \-ivid, every inftance of clofe
obfervation given to objedls which are within the fcope of
the comprehenfion, is cultivating the perception, and con-
tributing to the (lock of materials on which the higheft
efforts of the underftanding are to be exercifed : and how-
ever trifling, in common ellimation, thofe objefts may be,
yet the mind is receiving a ufeful employment, and every
thing is going on as effeftually as could be wiflied. It is a
mofl erroneous idea in education, that nothing is done
except when children are engaged in the ufual rudiments of
indruftion. A child watching the motions of objedts around,
obferving their figure and founds, examining their ftrutture,
is employed in a work which it fhould be our aim as much
as pofiible to aid and encourage, and from which we may
expeft very valuable refults both on the faculties and furni-
ture of the mind.

The leading point with refpeft to thofe whofe phyfical
fenfibihtics are lively, is to engage them to fleady obfer-
vation of the objedts of perception ; with refpefl ta thofe
whofe fenfations are by their conftitution dull, our efforts
muft be directed to the awakening of the percejitive power.
Whatever is found to ftimulate the mind to the excrcife of
the power, mult there be employed. It does not much
fignify in this cafe whether, in the firft inftance we fuc-
ceed in producing ideas which will be permanently ufeful ;
if the perception is exercifed, it will become more vigorous,
and by degrees the original dulncfs of fenfation may be in
fome meaiure remedied, by the influence of affociated feel-
ings. But, in general, dulnefs of perception does not arife
from dulnefs, and dill lefs from deficiency, in fenfation ;
but from the inefHcient employment of the organs of fenfe.
Many lively children are found to be dull in their percep-
tions ; and on the other hand, children whofe phyfical fen-
fibilities are far from vivid, fee what their companions fee
not, and hear what they hear not : the former glance over,
and fee at a glance, the moft impreflive objects, or features
ofanobjeil, but the more minute parts, or the lefs pro-
minent, and brilliant objects, they do not fl;ay to notice, and
though thtfe affeCl the organs of fenfe, they make no im-
prefGon on the mind ; the latter more readily dwell on the
objefts of their fenfations, which allows the various parts to
call up affociated ideas, and in other ways to affect the
mind, and thus to make their fenfations efficacious.

III. The habit of accurate obftrval'ton depends, in a great
degree for its foundation, upon the manner in wliich the per-
ceptive power has been early cultivated, while at the fame
time it invigorates the perceptions : indeed, in fome points
of view, it may be regarded fimply as the employment of
the perceptive power. This habit depends alfo, efpecially
for its utility, upon the cultivation of the judgment, and upon
the aifociatious which become connedtcd with the objects of
fenfe. A child obferves, in the firll inftance, becaufe the
notice of the mind is excited by the plcafure or pain accom-
panying the fenfation.; afterwards a''fo, throug^h the influence
«f csicr.'sal iKoiiveSj that is, aiTociatcd plcafurcs or gains.

When the underftanding is fo far deyeloped aS to perceive th'e
ufes of different objects, this again increafes the motives to
obfervation, aud makes it fubfervient to much valuable culti-
vation of tlic intellect Every faft which is intelligible and
interefling to a child refpefting the objects of perception,
excites the notice of the mind to thofe objects, at the fame
time that the communication, reception of it in the mind,
and repetition of the ideas, increafes the llock of know-
ledge, and exercifes the memory and judgment, and often
the reafoning pov.-ers.

Yet here, as in every branch of education, by aiming to
do too much, we may make our bed direded exertions inef-
feftuiil. To obferve with effeft, requires patient and fre-
quently repeated attention. To obferve is not merely to fee,
but to fee fo as to perceive that, whatever it be, of which
the ever active principle of affociation has made the vifual
fenfation the fymbol or index ; and the more the obfervation
is well employed, the more will be brought into the view of
the mind by thofe fenfations which to another would not lead
on one link in the chain of thought. To force the obfervation
is theref ire impofPiblc. We may make our children parrots, by
giving them words ; but the growth of ideas muft be gra-
dual The obfervation mufl firil be employed upon direftly
fenfible qualities alone ; the more theie are noticed, and
the ideas of them affociated together, (in other words, the
clearer the perceptions,) the better foundation is laid for fu-
ture knowledge. By degrees, and as it is perceived that the
mind will bear it, thofe circumflances and qualities which
imply fome of the fimpleil exercifes of the underflanding,
fhould be brought into view ; and from thefe the fkilful in-
flruiftor (or rather inftruclrefs, for we prefu.me that in gene-
ral the early intellectual education is chiefly conducted, as it
will be beft conducted, by the female fex) will proceed to
others which are flill more remote from mere fenfation. It
will ufually be found that children who have been educated
in the country, or have had continual opportunities of being
in fields and gardens, (other things being equal,) acquire
much more completely tlie habit of obfervation than thofe
who have been bred up in large towns. In the works of
nature there is much more than in the work« of art to excite
the obfervation of children, much more in ijeneral than can
be made the fubjects of plealing inftruCtion ; but the judicious^
parent will not be at a lofs to find numerous objefls within-
doors to excite the obfervation and exercife the perceptive
powers ; and provided that the obfervation is aflivelv cm-
ployed, and correct perceptions are acquired, the mental
culture in this effential point is fuccefsfuily going on.

The habit of obfervation depends in part upon the general
culture of the mind, efpecially upon the aflbciated thoughts
and feelings connected with external objects. The poor
plough-boy, with all the advantages th.at his ruftic employ-
ments afford him for the excitement of his obfervation, wiH
often be found extremely deficient in that habit ; his percep-
tions are dull, aud his mind is fcarcely awakened. Senfa-
tions often repeated, without any alTociations being formed
with them, ceafe to excite the notice of the mind ; and where
the work of infl^rudlion has been totally neglefted, as un-
happily it fo often i<; among the poor in country fituations, the
noble [lowers of tlie mind lie dormant ; there isnothing to ronfe
its capabilities fepar.ate from the narrow round of the daily
employments ; thefe foon become mechanical and ceafe to
excite its exertion ; and as far as intelleft is concerned, the
fituation is furely lefs favourable than that of the untu-
tored favage, whofe ingenuity and obfervation are itimulated
by the neceJTities of life. — As the mind, tlicrefore, is capable-
of. receiving tliem, fucli ideas fhoiJd be communicated in con-

ntdtioa

mTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

neftlon with the objefts of fenfation as are calculated to keep
up the interell which tlie mere feiifations at firft excite ; and
thus to continue that attention to them which may graduallf
render the obfervation habitual.

It will not be fuppofcd that we would wifh the obfervation
to be cultivated, to the exctufion of refleftioii ; the two
lubits ot sniiid arc not in any refpecl in oppofition, in the early
periods of education ; but, on the contrary, the one materially
aids the other. The reflec'tion may be well and fuccefsfully
exercif,:d upon the ideas which liave been left by the abfent
objecl^s of fenfe ; and indeed it is only upon thefe that,
at firil, it can be properly exercifed. It' this be done, the
inlereil by which the" obfervation is ftimulated will be kept
up ; and, what is not lefs important, the employment of the
Obfervation will be rendered effectual, and will afford mate-
rials for af:er-refled!on. The exercife of thought refpect-
ing the occurrences of the day, refpetling thofe tilings
which have been the fubjecl of direcl obfervation, in fliort
refpecling any objecl of fenfation, is in various points of
view of great value ; and the more this is employed, the
more the mmd is prepared for farther obfervation.

Neverthelefs, tlie period of childhood is more the period
of obfervation than of refleftion (or lleady attention to our
own thoughts and feelings) ; and it is the former tliat, in the
preparatory parts of education, we (hould make the primary
■objeft. It JG of elTentiai value in every branch of education,
and in every department of hfe. The fuccefsful acquifition
of every fcience depending upon experiment ; indeed the ac-
quifition of knowledge of every kind which depends upon
the exercife of the perceptive power, the cultivation of the
ta(te, the common concerns of life, the intercourfes of civi-
lity, and the eiforts of benevolence, require the conitant exer-
cife of the habit of obfervation ; and fo long as the obfer-
vation of a child does not reft merely with the immediate ob-
jects of perception, but continues to conneft with them that
information which the inllruftor communicates, or which lias
been derived from pafl obfervation, it is very ufefuUy em-
ployed. Whatever method is found to invigorate and cor-
rect the obfervation, (hould be frequenily made ufe of; till
the un^erftanding has made confiderable progrefs, this fliould
be a leading object in the intelleClual culture ; and in every
period of it, the habit (hould be frequently brought into ex-
ercife. By a proper cultivation of it, the memory and
judgment are diredily cultivated ; and while it ftrengthens
and roufes the energy of the mind, it furnilhes it with fome
-of the moft ferviceable materials for the underltanding and
imagination.

Thofe who have been at all engaged in the bufinefs of
education, well know in what different degrees accuracy and
quicknefs of obfervation are found, and how important it is
•for the progrefs in intelledual acquirements, and often for
the moral culture, that the habit ihould be early and fteadily
cultivated : and we here wifh to exprefs our decided opinion,
that the character of the intelleft and affeCtions, however
much it may be modified by future cultivation, receives its
{lamp from the employment of the firft few years of life ;
that the education of the nurfery is of almoll incalculable
inoment in the mental and moral culture ; that by the neglect
ot it, years of labour may be rendered requifile to tonipen-
fate in fome degree tor it ; and that by a proper attention to
it, a foundation is laid for a clear and vigorous underilanding,
and Hvely and pure affections.

IV. uilUntio7i is an elTential conftituent part of the habit of
obfervation, and is ncceffary to every obfervation of the mind
in its firi ftage. Many corporeal, and ^ven meiUjil opera-

tions may, when become thoroughly habitual, go on with.,
out exciting the attention of the mind ; and this we have no
helitation in faying, notwithftanding the great authority of
Dugald Stewart to the contrary : but this is not the place
for the difcufhon of this point ; and what more immcdiatelv
concerns our purpofe is, that before any operation of mind
is become habitual, the exercife of it requires the direft no-
tice of the mind, that attention is requilite to render fenfa-
tions efficacious, that every exercife of the underftanding re-
quires it, and that the habitual power of employing it in the
direftion which the judgment points out, may be regarded
as what is moft neceifary for the attainment of the higheft
degi-ees of intelledtual culture. In this perfect iiate it ib very
rarely to be met with ; but in a conliderable degree it is
frequently acquired ; and fome good portion of it is fo im-
portant in every Itage of the mental progrefs, that the
formation of the habit cannot be begun too early, nor the
cultivation of it made too ileady an object.

Attention is now not unfrcquently fpoken of as a dillinct
faculty of the mind ; and the philolopher to whom we re-
ferred in the preceding paragraph ha< greatly contributed to
this change of nomenclature, if he did not begin it. It may
perhaps be regarded as a mere verbal dillinftion if we deny
it the appellation ; but, in fact, it appears to be, in its fimple
ftate, merely tlie notice of the mind, which in various m-
ftances is involuntary, but which by degrees may be coii-
nefted with volition, and direfted by habitual tendency, or
direft motives, even in oppofition to the llrongeft impreflions
from external objects. We may very correctly fpeak of the
power of the mind over its attention, and, by abbreviation,
of the power of attention ; but the true point of view in
which the attention is to be regarded, buth when it can be
fixed by ftimuli of different kinds without the diredt inter-
vention of volition, and when it is capable of being produced
by direct volition, is as a ftate or habit, which we would in
the one cafe fpeak of fimply as a ftate or habit of attention,
in the other as the habit of voluntary attention. In very
young children the attention is entirely involuntary ; the fen-
fible excitements of various kinds which we employ attract
the notice of the mind ; and the attention is directed to the
moft imprelTive excitement. This is very much the cafe in
every ftage of education ; but under judicious management
the ftate of mind which we call attention may be early pro-
duced by the influence of motives without fenfible ttimulus ;
and the foundation is then begun for the habit of voluntary
attention.

The attention produced by fenfible ftimulus begins even
with the very firft fenfation which is received. It is a beau-
tiful provifion of Providence, that fenfations which give pain,
while they are the moft imprefiive, are of rai-e occurrence;
and that thofe which are of moft frequent occurrence, or
which it is important for the mind to feek for, are attended
with pleafure. It is probable that no fenfation is at firft in-
different ; and therefore in the commencement of tlie growth
of intellect, every fenfation will excite all the attention which
is requilite to give it the degree of efficacy which is necef-
fary for the period. All we tiieii have to do, is to allow the
attention to remain where the fenfation calls for it. " It is
unfortunately in the power of a fooHfli nurfe," fays Mifs
Hamilton, (vol. ii. p. 47.) " to retard the natural progrefs
of the mind, by perpetually interrupting its attention. A
child that is much danced about, and much talked to, bv a
very lively nurfe, has many.more ideas than one that is kept
by a filent and indolent perfon. A nurfe (hould be able to
talk nonfenfe in abundance ; but then Ihe (hould be able to
J^aow when to Hop.'.'. And the fame very reipecta^k writer
S adds

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION".

I »dd« in a notei from th? obfervation of a judicious friend,
i that nothing more cfTeAually tend; to retard the progrefs of
I rile infant faculties than a cuftoiu prevalent with narfes, of
I keeping the cliilJ in a continual trot upon the kiices ; and
I this cfpccially in cafes wliere its attention is moil clofely,
] and therefore niofl ufcfuU)- engaged.

j But it will not be long before the iniprcfiions v, Iiich have
i often been received ceafe, by the diminution of thi.Ir vivid-
j nefs, to produce the ianie efivci on tiie mind, ^\'iienachild
'■ has had fome cultivation of memory and allbciation, the re-
petition of a former iniprelTion is ofttn much more pleafant
than the full reception of a new one; becaufe, if the impref-
fion ilfelf is lefs lively, and in itfelf confidtred lefi pleaHint,
the affociated circumllanccs often communicate a iiill more
intereiling ploafure: the child remembers the pleafure before
derived from it ; tlio repetition of it fets his little faculties
' to work in connexion with his former fenfation, and the
ideas to which it led, and the moderate exercife of the fa-
culties is generally pleafant ; and there is often a pofitive
i pleafure in the mere repetition of pad impreflions, even
1 when the difpofition of a child is very aftive, arifing from the
increafed power of fully comprehending the objects canfmg
: the impreffions. But before the aflociative power has been
1 much eKercifed, new fenfations are very commonly more at-
I traftive than old cues ; and here begins that relllefs defire of
j novelty, which, while it operates as a molt powerful lUmu'us
: to the purfuit of knowledge, requires to be carefully watched
: in every period of education, left the attention Ihould be
completely diffipated, and no knowledge acquired ; for there
i is no principle in education more certain, than that know-
ledge (clear, correft ideas refpcCling the objctls of fenfe and
! intellect) cannot bo gained by wandering, hafty attention.
At this point the efforts of the parent fhould be given to
lead the httle mind to the examination and re-examination of
the objefts of fenfation ; not indeed fo much by dire£l influ-
ence, as by thofe little contrivances which a judicious mother
fo foon learns by experience, and to aid her in which llie may
confult Mifs Edgeworth's excellent obfervations on the fub-
jedl, which, though they more immediately refer to a later
period of education, fuggell many important hints refpeil-
irg the bell methods to be purfued here.

Though we perceive that we (hall fwcll this divifion of our
article beyond what may be thouglit its due proportion, yet
the fubjcft of attention is fo important, that we fhall feleft
fome of Mifs ±.dg?worth's leading obfervations on the cijI-
tivation of the h?.bit, and fiibjoin our own remarks in addi-
tion. In doing this we with to lead our readers, if they
have not already engaged in it, to the ftudy of a work, the
value of which we rank higher in proportion to our own ex-
perience and cbfervation, and by no means to prevent it.
Though in feveral of her pofitions we cannot agree, though
we think her work effentially deficient, and are by no means
fatisfied as to the probable reftilt of her plans on the whole,
and though to follow them in detail to any conliderable ex-
tent requires a degree of m.ental cultivation, and a combina-
tion of circumilances, which are very rare in thofe walks of
life where the fubjecl is likely to receive the mod attention,
yet we cannot hclitate in ftrongly recommending her work,
as containing a fund of very im.portant obfervations, the re-
fult of varied and long-continued experience, guided by
found judgment and good fenfe, and generally corroA moral
yiews, as exhibiting a number of very important phenomena
and principles fubfervient to mental pliilofophy, and as fur-
ailhing to the " praftical " parent very valuable aids, even
where her plans cannot be minutely followed. Her elcm.ent-
ary works (" Early LefTons,'' " Paror.is' Amft.nt," &c )
ajte mcomparable ; and if Uieir ftriking and much-io»be-la-

mcntcd deficiency in every thing like religious principle were-
fuitably fupplied, they would leave fcarccly a wilh ungrati-
lied. If any female v riter fiiould hereafter come forward to
the public, pofltfliiij.'; the clearjiefs, fimplicity, corrcftnefs,
and wcU-Horcd undcrllanding of an Edgeworth, the brilliant
ycL tiialle imagination and " devotional talle" of a Barbaidd,
and the energy and high-toned moral principle of a More,
diverted of bigotry, and founded upon genuine Chridian
theology, in tl-ie fcale of utility Ihc will probably ftand un-
rivalled among her contemporaries, h.ow ever eminent her age
may be in every thing great and good. But to return to
fober reahties.

The three principles which are laid down by Mifs Edge-
worth in her concluding Summary, as of univerfal applica-
tion, are, that tlie attention of young people Ibould at iirft be
exercifcd for very fliort periods ; that they (hould never be
urged to the point of fatigue ; and that pleafure, efpecially
the pleafure of fuccefs, fhould be affociated with the exer-
tions of children. With refpeft to the tirll of thefe points
we (hall extraft the following remarks from her chapter on
Attention : " Befides diftindnefs and accuracy in the lan-
guage which we ufe, befides care to produce but few ideas
or terms that are new in our firfl leffons, we mull exercife at-
tention but during very (hort periods. In the beginning of
every fcience pupils have much laborious work, we fhould
therefore allow them time ; we (hould reprefs our own im-
patience when they appear to be flow in comprehending rea-
fons, or in furnifhing analogies. We often cxpeCl that thofe
whom we are teaching fliould know fome things intuitively,
becaufe they may have been io long known to us that we
forget how we learned them.'' — " A reafonable preceptor
will not expecl from his pupil two efforts of attention at the
fame time ; he will not require the.Ti at once to learn terms
by heart, and to compare the objecls which thofe terms re-
prefent ; he will repeat his terms till thcv are thoroughly
fixed in the memory ; he will repeat his reafoniiKj till the
chain of ideas is completely formed. Repetition makes all
operations eafy ; even the fatigue of thinking diminiflies by
habit. That we Ihould not increafe the labour of the mind-
unfeafonably, we Ihould watch for the moment when habit
has made one leffon eafy, and then we may go forwards a
new ilep.''

Refpecling the third point, Mifs Edgeworth urges, that
the llimuli which we employ to excite attention (hould be pro-
portioned in degree and duration to the mental charaAer of
the individual, and the circumflances of the cafe. " It is
not prudent early to ufe violent or continual ftimulus, either
of a painful or a pleafurable nature, to excite children to ap-
plication, becaufe we fliould, by an intemperate ufe of thefe,,
weaken the mind, and becaufe we may with a ver)- little pa-
tience obtain all we -.villi without thefe expedients.'' Befitks
which, violent motives frequently dillurb and diifipate the
very attention which they attempt to fix. Regularly recur-
ring motives, which intcreft, but do not dillracl the mind,,
are evidently the bed. In propcrtion^ as the attention be-
comes habitual, the excitements producing it (hould be with-
drawn. Succefs is a great pleafure, and when children-. have
fometimes taded it, they -A'ill exert their attention merely
with the hope of fuccceding. " Inftead of increafmg ex-
citements to produce attention, we may vary tlicm, which
will have jud the fame effeft. When fympathy fails try cu-
riofity V when curiofity fails, try praifc ; when praife begins ■
to lofe its effeft, try blame ; and when you go back again to
fympathy, you will find that after this interval it will have-
recovered its original power.'' At theconclufion of her re-
marks on this head, Mifs E. judly urges the cultivation of
the affeftions of children as a mod ipiportant means of ac-

miiric^

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

quiring power over their minds, and exciting them to tlie fliould be rewarded with univerfal approbation when tli .
robleft exertions. " When once this generous defire of af- give proofs of patient induftry, when they bring any thing t.
feftion and elleem is raifed in the mind, their exertions feeni perfeftion." — " To win the attention of vivacious childr.
te be iniiverfal and fpontaneous : children are then no longer we muft fometimes follow them in their zig-zag courfe, a '
like machines, which require to be wound up regularly to even prefs them to the end of their train of thought. Th-
perform certain revolutions ; they are animated with a hving will be content when they have obtained a full h^ari;'.
principle, which direcls all that it infpires." then they will have leifure to difcovcr that what tht y wi

" With timid tempers we fliould begin with espefting in fuch hafte to utter was not fo well worth faying as tii-
butUttle from each effort, but whatever is attempted (hould imagined ; that their bright ideas often, when fteadily .
be certainly within their attainment ; fuccefs will encourage amined, fade into abfurdities." With refpeCt to child-
the moft timid humility. It fliould be carefully pointed of this charafter, we think Mifs Edgeworth's remarks ;
out to diffident children, that attentive patience can do as cuharly happy ; and from many which we might with ^
much as quicknefs of intelletl : if they perceive that time vantage feleci, we will tranfcnbe the following : " A'
makes all the difference between the quick and the flow, fliould not humour the attention of young people, by tc.;
they will be induced to perfevere." ing them always in the mode which we know fuits ti;

« It is more difficult to manage with thofe who have temper beft. Vivacious pupils fliould from time to lui
■ Jluggijh, than with thofe who have timid attention;" and be accullomed to an exaft enumeration of particulars; aiil
%vith refpeft to that clafs of the indolent " who faunter at we fliould take opportunities to convince them, that ini
play and every thing," Mifs Edgeworth does not appear orderly connettion of proofs, and a minute obfervance o;'
to have difcovered any remedy. If a child's mind is capable apparent trifles, are requilite to produce the lively defcriu-
of aftive exertion in any thing there is hope : the objeft is tions, great difcoveries, and happy inventions, which pupils
to gain the direftion of that exertion to the acquifition of of this difpofition are ever prone to admire with enthufiafm.
knowledge ; but the other cafe flie feems to conflder as They will learn not to pafs over old things, when they
hopelefs. Locke's propofcd of prefenting them (among perceive that thefe may lead to fomething neiu ; and they
other ftimuli) with fine clothes, eating, &c. flie regards as will even fubmit to fober attention, when they feel that t'lii
inadequate, but does not fuggeft any plan by which the is neceflary to the rapidity of genius."

love of knowledge may be produced. We doubt whether Judicious and ufeful as thefe obfervations are, we are of
inftances are at all common of fuch complete want of pliyli- opinion that Mifs Edgeworth has, in her fyftem of educa-
cal fenlibihtv as flie feems to attribute to the fluggifli ; but tion, too much left out of view the aftual condition of
" the pain of attention," if it be not excited to fometliing human nature, that, in every department of life, circum-
which is beyond the powers of the mind, cannot be fo ftances are continually occurring in which it is neceflary
great as to render it preferable to undergo fliame and that the attention fliould be given to objctls not in them-
punifltment, if judicioufly adminillered. It is probable that felves pleafant, from their fubfervicncy toothers which are
a moderate degree of exertion of the faculties is always of importance, and that exertions, in like manner, muft often
attended with fome pleafure. There are employments which be made, to which nothing but a fenfe of duty would
engage the attention, without requiring great effort of mind, prompt. With refpeft to the obfervations which we have
The Ample operations of arithmetic, the copying of paf- extradted, they have all their value, and may be applied,
fa^es from a printed book, &c. are of this kind. If the with modifications, not only to the earlieft periods of edu-
performance of fome of thefe is fteadily made necefl'ary ; cation, but to every fucceeding ftage ; yet her plans ftrike
if temporary abftinence, for inftance, or tlie lofs of every us as deficient. They are principally calculated for thofe
thing which is not neceflary in diet, be made the regular cafes in which, from early example and cultivation, there
confequence of determined fluggiihnefs, and the remilihefs is a defire of knowledge excited, in which it is imbibed
of attention be conftantly followed with the trouble of without diredl eftbrt on the part of the parent or early in-
redtifying errors, &c. ; in fliort, if the pain of attention be ilrutlor, in which, from the habits and purfuits of thofe
conftantly rewarded by the avoidance of fome greater pain, around, its advantages are at once felt, and the acquifition
and the comfort of indolence be conftantly followed by that of it regarded as of the firft importance. In the hands of
greater pain, it cannot be but that in procefs of time the fuch teachers as Mifs Edgeworth, fo well fuited to the taflc
attention will be lefs irkfome, the mind awakened, and the by enlightened judgment, fteady perfeverance, and the ready
idea of mental employment accompanied even with fatisfac- command of much varied knowledge, with children whofe>
tion. If once this ftate is reached, nothing more is wanting, early habits they have themfelves formed, whofe under-
than to make the attention habitual, to employ it gradually Handings they have cultivated and furniflied with ideas,
on more difficult objefts, and as uniformly as poffible to make the procefl'es which flie has pointed out may be all which
remifl^iiefs tlie foiirce of inconvenience naturally following are fufficient : but we doubt wlicther the ends propofed
from it; and to reward exertion by whatever fuitable can, in general, be anfwered by luch means alone ; and il ill
confequence of it is found to gratify the now awakened more, whether they are, in general, calculated to produce
niind. The moft diificult cafe is, «here indolence is united that ftrength and energy of mind which, with a view to an
with that quiet amiablcnefs of difpofition, and that tolerable objeft fixed upon as important, can fteadily purine a courfp
degree of good fenfe, which, united, make thofe who do of arduous exertion.

not know how to appreciate the ill effetls of the baneful The habit of attention muft be gained in order to make
qnality, yield their aifedtion and approbation, and give the any progrefs in intellectual culture ; that is of courfe a point
appearance of injuftice and harflinefs to every meafure of decided. It cannot be acquired too early, becaufe thus the
pain or privation which is employed to excite to e.Kertion. utnioft efficacy will be given to all the other operations of

" Vmacmis children are peculiarly fufceptible of bhimc the mind, and efpecially to the acquifition of clear, im-
and praife ; we have therefore great power over their aU preflive, and ferviceable perceptions ; that is alfo a point
tachnient, if wo manage thefe excitements properly. Thtfe indlfputable. Il mull, too, be alfociated with volition as
children fliould not be praifed for ttiL-ir happy hits ; their early as poflible, and then the foundation is laid for every
jSrft glances (hould not be extolled : on the contrary, they degree of mental culture to which circumllances may direft.

6 Ws

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

■ are of opinion, that, after this point, Mlfs Eilgeworth'a under tlie head of MonAL Education : but we here have
;:s are defcftive. Her pupils are to be allured on too only to Hate the fad, that unlefs every impreflion could
^h. The path of knowledge is often a difficult one, be regulated by a j\idicious parent, from the very birth,
,! fometimcs requires painful efforts; fo alfo the parh of compullion mull fomctimes be employed, even in the bell
Ji.ty ; and the culture to which her fy item is chieiiy con- fymptoms of education, that education ii\ which compul-
iiiL-d, is fcarcely calculated to produce that hardy vigour fion has not been employed, inight prohnbly produce
ot mind, which/whether the poliefibr is called to engage amiable charadlers, but feldoni fuch as will be great in in-
i" the highell purfuits of fcieiice, or in the narrower fphere telleCtual or moral worth, — that as early education has long
.1 k'cial Irmployment and duties, cannot be otherwife than been, and it is to be feared long will be, too generally con-
r.nble. When the power of voluntary attention is ac- dufted without any ileady cultivation of the habits of in-
Mjd, then the various motives of confidence in the judg- dullry and attention, and of ready fiibmifTion to authority,
\M of the teacher, of habitual fubmiifion to authority, the inftruclor to whom children are committed, whether at
;;fleClion, and perhaps occalionilly of fear, Ihould be home or at fchool, will commonly find fome degree of com-
loyedas circumllances diretl, in order to give it ilrength pullion neccffary, in order to produce that degree of attcn-
i aftivity, to excite the pupil to fuch employment of it tion which is requihte for any valuable improvement. With
?s mav make it a hardy vijrorous principle, capable of em- refpeft to this period, and thefe cafes of much ncgleftcd men-
plorm'ent, even where the einploymcjit may have no intrinhc tal and moral culture, the chief points appear to be, to pro-
atti-action, and may even be at firil poiitively painful. portion the exertion required, as much as pofFible to the de-

If a purfuit can be made attradivs to a pupil at the gree, not of actual capacity, but of habits poffefled ; to
outlet, it is well ; but if he have acquired that hardinefs of abftraS as much as poffible all caufes of inattention, and
attention of which we fpeak, which will enable him to to generate the impieffion that the effort mull be made.
ftruggle through firft difficulties, and perhaps by degrees By whatever means the habit of attention is produced and
to take fome delight in them, he is then fitted for the ac- rendered voluntary, and the more frequently and regularly
quifition of any branch of knowledge to which his objects it is produced by volition, the more it becomes at the
in life, or the bent of his own inclination and cultivation of command of the will, the eafier, and confcquently the more
his underftandiiig, may induce his inllruilor to diredl him. pleafant it becomes, and the more therefxjre it can be excited
If he have not acquired that flrength or activity of attention, when the motives are fufiiciently ftrong to produce it. It
difficulties which mull meet him in the higher departments is not, then, " the attention of circumllances," but the at-
of literature and fcience, will often be found to Itop him ; tention of volition : and will then be fubiecl in a great
and however judicioufly his attention may have been eiuly meafure to the judgment, guided by a fenfe of the import-
cultivated, if it have not acquired this firmnefs, the attrac- ance of the objecl either in itfelf or to the individual, or to
tions of lefs arduous purfuits, which will ilill gratify his thofe llrong motives which arife from the pleafures of ac-
talle for knowledge, will effectually check all progrefs. tivity, from the gratification of curiofity, the influence of

There are few points in which the cultivation of the intel- prevailing fafliions, the defire of obtaining the approbation
leftual powers is concerned, in which we do not lind the of thofe we love. Sec.

importance of the moral habits, particularly of diffidence, Wliea the early training of the mind has made its per-
of fubmiffion, and tlie defire of doing what is right ; where ceptions dillinct and efficacious, and has given it the habit
thefe are firitably produced ill the mind by previous education, of Heady attention, the grand points in intelleftual culture
the culture of the attention very greatly depends upon are fecured; and the reft will proceed, with tolerable cart,
the inllruftor. The attention may be relllefs, or it may be in the direftion which found views may didtate.
flagjifh ; but the more fuitable efforts are made to render it _ V. When the attention is direfted to fome particular ob-
voliintarv, the more it comes tinder the command. Thefe jcdt of thought, fo as to prevent its being diverted to any
efforts will be made, if the difpofitions are right ; and when other objett of thought, or to any external imprelTion, it is
the' attention is once become to a confiderable degree volun- denominated AhJlraSmn. This flate of mind has been fel-
rary, the direction of it may be obtained (by the influence of dom dignified with the name of abllradtion, except when
thofe views and motives, which the above-mentioned moral directed to objeits out of the common fphere of thought ;
habits. put in the power of the inllruCtor,) to whatever ob- but Mifs Edgworth has Ihewn, by her ufual happy method
jeft it is thought right to dire£l it. Thus influenced and of illuftration, that it is the fame habit or exercife of mind,
"direfted the way will be comparatively clear. Where the whether it be devoted to the highell flights of philofophic
attention is fairly given, the mere employment of the mind purfuit, or to the ufual concerns of life. " Perfous of or-
fiecomes itfelf pleafant. Difficulties will then be overcome, dinary abilities,'' flie jullly remarks, " tradefmcn and fliop-
Jlnd the pleafure of fuccefs will aid ever)' other motive. By keepers, in the midll of the tumtilt of a public city, m
degrees the utility of the obiect begins to be diilinitly feen, the noife of rumbling carts and rattling carriages, amidk
and the purpofes of the different Heps which are taken to the voice of a multitude of people talking upon various
gain it are aifo difcerncd, and then if the habit of patient fubjeCts, amidlf the provoking interruptions of continual
induftry have been formed, or the continued direftion of the quellions and anfwers, and in the broad glare of a hot fun,
attention be kept up by the influence of the moral habits, c.in command and abltraft their atteition, fo far as to cal-
the judgment will aid and encourage every exertion, and at culate yards, ells, and nails, to cad up long fums in ad-
the'fame time the foundation of a moll valuable habit will be dition right to a farthing, andjo make multifarious bills with
laid, of purfuing definite important ends, by the Heady ufe quick and unerring precilion."

of fuitable means. The habit of abHradtion is dependent upon various caufes;

The habit of attention, or at leaft the direction of the but every perfon to whom the attainment of it is necefliuy,
attention to any objedt, mull fometimes be produced by finds it fufceptible of culture. It much depends upon the
compullion, wholly or in part. What kind of compullion familiarity of the imprefllous which are otherwife moll
fliould be employed, and efpecially whether or not corpo- likely to affedl the mind : novel impreffions from external
real pain is in any inHance expedient for this purpofe, objects, by their novelty attract the notice of the mind and
.',ikI in othir d--partmeiits of education, will be confidercd tend to diftratt the attention: fenfations which have bee'i
Vol. XIX. ■ ■ ■ 1 ' l<^"g

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

long and clofelj* connefle^ with trains of thouglit or feel-
ing, are calculated to divert the attention : objects to which
We have been accuftomed to attend, in like manner folicit
the notice of the mind from thofe to which vi-e may other-
wife wifli to attend. In fituations, therefore, where we
receive novel fenfations, unlefs there is a proportionate de-
votement of the mind to the objett of its attention, thefe
will at fird diftraft the attention ; and fo on in the other
cafes. Abftraftion depends, too, in part, upon the pliy-
fical ftate of the fyftem. If the nervous fyftem is in a ftrong
degree of excitements, external impreffions proportionally
affedl the mind, and, of courfe, tend the more to dillraft
the attention. Abftridion is Hlcewife ferioufly impaired
by a general tendency to dwell upon the diredly feHidi
feelings, whether pleafnrable or painful ; becaufe as theie
are conftaitly prefent to the mind, and conltitute the moft
powerful agents, in their immediate effefts, upon the mental
fyftem, the hr.bltual tendency to give attention to them, puts
an alinoll tutal flop to any valuable degree of abllraftion
in favour of thofe obje^fls, which are not immediately con-
ne£led with fclf ; and this, by the way, furnifhes us with
another inftance of the influence of moral upon intelledlual
education. This habit alfo depends for its vigour, upon
the degree in which the intereft of the mind can be excited
towards an objcj'r. With minds of ardour and ai-tivity, if
the mind be engaged, it is abftractcd from every impreflion
and thought, not immediately connected with the object :
and if the interell of the mind is ftrongly excited from
any other caufe, the fame effeft will liappen. The vigour
of abltraflion alfo, depends, in part, upon the degree in
which the habit of obfcrvation is pofieffed ; indeed they are
fo mucli in oppofition to each other, that to any confider-
able degree they are feldom found united in the fame indivi-
dual. The habit of obfervation implies habitual attention
to the objefts of fenfe ; the habit of abftraftion to the
objefts of iiktelleft. The habit of abftraCtion is not there-
fore to be cxpefted, and indeed ought not to be direftly
cultivated in tlic earlieft periods ef intellefiual education.
Neverthelcfs, both quahties depending upon the general
habit of clofe attention, the cultivation of the obfervation
is indireftly laying a good foundation for the fubfequent cul-
tivation of the abltraftion.

As two objefts cannot cngrofs the attention of the mind
at the fame time, abttraition may be cultivated by rendering
the mind habitually inattentive to thofe objefts which are
not to occupy it, or by making it habitually attentive to
thofe which are from any caufe the objefts of preference.
The former plan fhou'd be adopted, if at ail, with great
caution. It may generally be left to the efficacy of habit in
leflening the efficacy of impreffions ; and the liabitual
negleft of any commonly occurring objefts of obfervation
or reflcftion, is inconfiftent with the purluits of life. The
'fecond plan is in every point of view preferable ; and every
tnflance in which the attention is fixed, whether through
direct volition, or by means of excitement without the ex-
er;;ife of volition, is effcntially contributing to the cultivation
of abltraftion; llillmore fo, every intlance in whicii the at-
tention is engaged upon the oljjefts of tliought, in fituations
in which tiiere are frequent impreffions from external objefts
which, if the attention were not fo engaged, would then ex-
cite the obfervation. Hence it is delirable to accuftom the
young to mental exertion where there are caufes tending to
dirtraft their attention, provided however that from their
novelty or their power they are not calculated to force it.
Whatever tends to make the objefts of the mind interelling,
and to give ardour in the purfuit of tl-.em, alfo tends to culti-
vate the liabit of abltraftion ; for that which deeply interclls

the mind, fixes the attention, and of courfe prevents everr
other objeft from (baring the notice of the mind.

The power of direfting the mind to objects which afford
no impreffion upon the lenfes, and even in oppofition to fuch
as do, is of extreme importance in the later periods of mental
culture, and at the fame time, with the affiitance of previous
culture, is much cafier than would, with any cultivation, be
polfible at an early period. In cliildhood and youth fenfa-
tions more affijft tlie mind, than the fenfations themfelves
can do as we advance farther in hfe ; and thougli aflbciated
thoughts and feelings affifl to keep up tlie influence of the
fenfations themfelves, yet if the mind have been accuftomed
early to think of what are not the direft objeiis of fenfation,
the power of its own thoughts and feehngs ealily overbalances
the cffeft of at leall cuftomary fenfations. Carried to an un-
due extent, the habit of abftraftion is unfuitable to our fitua-
tion as focial beings ; but there is fcarcely any plan of life
in which it is not in fome mcal'ure requifite ; and in the pur-
fiiits of fcience, whether phyfical or mental, it is continually
required, and continually llrengthened by exercife. It is
even very important in the events of hfe. The power of
direfting the attention to fome fpecilic objefts of thought,
to the exclufion of others, and to the exclufion of external
impreffions, conftitutes (as Mifs Edgeworth well oblerves)
the leading feature of that quality which we call prefence of
mind, and which is fo often of lignal fervice to our welfare,
and even to the prefervation of our lives. And this habit is
eflentially requifite in our moral and religious culture ; the
acquilition of religious knowledge conilantly implies the em-
ployment ofabftraftion ; in the exercife of religious affections
it is ahlolutely neceffiuy ; and in the difcharge of duty, in
oppofition to powerful temptations, the power of fixing the
attention upon thofe views and principles which ouglit to
guide us, is of the utmoft importance.

The habit of abftraftion is in general to be cultivated
rather indireftly than direftly, in the earlier periods of edu-
cation ; and it is one advantage of the purfuit of knowledge,
that it frequently requires fixed attention upon the objci;l6 of
thought, without aid from the fenfations. Perhaps it would
be beneficial to extend tlie occafions for this, in literary and
fcientific education. An cafy demonftration carried on
without a figure, an operation in arithnutic fuited to the
progrefs of the pupil performed without the aid of the pen
or pencil, tiic dcicription of fome former objeft of obferva-
tion, the conftruing or parfing of fentences from the claffics
without book, and iimilar exercifes of mind, are all calcu-
lated to cultivate this habit ; and wherever the point can be
gained, it greatly increafes the power of the mind over
Its ■■attention. Thefe mental operations may ufually be begun
early ; a child of three or four years of age, can eafily lie
brought to make a Uttle addition in his Lad ; and while he
does fo, his mind muft neceffarily be occupied to the exclu-
fion of other thoughts and of fenfations. If he thinks
clofely of what he has feen, for the time he is exercifing his
abftraftian. If he is led to think on fome of the fimpie truths
of religion, he is exercifing his abltraftion ; indeed thefe conlti-
tute fome of the earlieft and moft powerful exercifes of abllrac-
tion. It is very important that theft and fimilar mental ope-
rations fliould not be made too frequent, nor continued too
long. They Ihould not be continued too long, left the
fatigue of mind experienced Ihould lelfen the wilh to think,
and in reality check the power over the attention ; they
fliould not be made too frequent, becaufe, as we have already
obfcrved, childhood is the period of obfervation rather than
of abftraftion. If the young mind is too much accuftomed
to think about its own thoughts, the imagination will
gain too much power, and that habit of inattention to e}i-

tenial

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

tcrual impreflions will be formed, which, in moft cafes, is

al.vays injurious, and which in the early period of life is

fuf5i;iont to ilop its progrefs in intelleftual improvement. In

this, however, as in every branch of education, our efforts

il'iiLiId often be regulated by the prevailing mental habits of

• • individual. A child of lively conceptions (hould be

ted as much as praflicable to accurate obfervation ;

.-■ th.e conceptions arc dull, abllraftion ihould be encou-

i ; and it is encouraged by every inltance in which it is

r: fed with pleafure, by every inllance in (hort, in which

.lind is pleafantly enframed upon the objef^s of thought

:mt the affiRance of feniation, and efpecially if in oppo-

3 to feufations. Thefe the intelligent parent has greatly

- - command ; an account of a walk requiring the recol-

.'jii of little circumftances and objetls which occurred

a;-ing it, the retracing of ideas on any interefting fubjeA,

and various other exercifes of a fimilar kind, contribute to

cultivate the abilraftion. But after all, it is rather by in-

-'. — n means, than direttly, that we are in the early periods

ir.telleftual culture, to aim to produce and exercife this

:. By early giving a decided bias for intellcftual pur-

■, and exciting a lively interell in them, and by forming

; - habit of fteady attention to the objedts of knowledge as
ti; y are prefented to the mind, we do in reality prepare it
fi •: the cultivation of the habit of abllraftion, whenever it
. be called for by the higher purfuits of knowledge.
. I'fince of mind fometimes arifes from the mind's being
. occupied with its own trains of thought, but it fhould
not be confounded with abftraftion. The latter implies, at
leaft in the commencement of the particular exercife of it, a
voluntary diredion of the mind ; the former, even where it
is really caufed by mental operations, commonly fuppofes a
■want of power over the attention ; but it very often arifes
from a more fluggifh inittention to external imprcffions.
Abfcnce of mind, proceeding from tiiis lall caufe, ihould be
ftcadily and conftantly checked ; not fo much, however,
^iredtly, as by roufing the attention to the objcfts of fenfa-
tion, by making the nrgleft of them unpleafant, &c. : and it
ihould by every means bo difcouraged in the early periods of
education, becaufe it will by degrees induce a tendency to
reverie which mud almoft inevitably give the imagination
undue power, and which is more than any quality of mind
calculated to dellroy all the valuable effeds of the habit of
well regulated abltraftion. In the external appearances,
abfence of mind proceeding from reverie, differs httlc, if at
all, from the fixed intentional devotement of the mind to
fome objeA of thought ; but thole who have experienced
both, and who have watched their charafteriftics in the
young, know that the difference is very important, and de-
ierving of the careful attention of the early inftruftor. In
feft, the habit of reverie is the moll baneful pofiible to the
influence of the mind over its trains of thought ; and totally
dellroys, if toomuch indulged, all pouer of iteadily directing
the attention to fpccitic objefts of mental purfuit.

VI. We have hitherto fpoken of the kabil of abftraftion,
by which we underlland (agreeably, we believe, to the com-
mon acceptation of the term) the devotement of the atten-
tion to fome objerts of thought, to the cxclufion of others,
and alfo of impreflions from external objeAs ; but it is well
known, that the word is alfo uied by fome writers on logic
and mental philofophy, to denote the po-unr whicli tlie
underllanding has (or rather, is fuppofed to have) of ie-
parating the combinations which are prefented by it. We
introduce the qualifying claufe, • is fuppofed to have,' be-
caufe in many cafes the undcrlhinding has no fr.ch power ; it
»8 impoflible, for inllance, to form a conception of ixtenfion,
witliout fome idf a of colour, or »f length without breadth ;

btit in reality, the abflraaivt potvir is, after all, nothing more
orlefs, thau the power of Icparate attention, the power of
attending to one idea diftinit from the combination in which
it occurs, — of attending to one part of a conception diftincl
from the reft, and perhaps, by degrees, forming a concep.
tion of that part detached from the reft, of attending to one
quality or circumftance feparate from other qualities or cir-
cumftances with which it is really connefted, or conne&ed
in the inind.

The habit of abfti-aftion, or fixed attention to the objeft$
of thought, is effential to any high degree ot mental progrefs,
and is requifite in various circumftances in life ; the power
of abftradbon, or of feparate attention to fome objtcl of the
mind diftinft from the combinations in which it is prefented,
is nccefiary in almoft every procefs of rcafoning, and is the
foundation of an accurate, diicriminating judgment. The
power of abftratlion, in this fenfe, may obvioufly be culti-
vated without the exercife of the habit of abftraftion ; ex-
cept indeed where the object is purely mental. A child at-
tending to one part of a profpeCt, to one part of a flower,
to one of the fenfations which an object prefents, (to the co-
lour of a fubilance, for inftance, inftead of itsfmell or fhape,
or fi7.e or weight, or to any one of thefe witliout attending
to the colours,) is exercifing the power of abftraction ; and
in thefe very ufeful exercifes of the power of abilraclion, the
habit of abilrac'tion is not called for ; all that is wanting is
that of obfervation. On the other hand, the habit of ab-
ftraftion may have been cultivated even to excefs, witliout
tlie individual poffcffing the povTcr of attending to one of a
combinatior. of objetts, or to a part of a conception, fo as
not to allow the retl to influence his reafor.ings and judgment.

The involuntary exercife of the power of abftraction, i«
very often produced by the mere influence of the afiociative
power, without any effort on the part of the individual, and
iometimes by the influence ot the fenfations themielves. In-
ftances of the latter continually occur. That impreffion from
any objeft which is the moil vivid, attracts the notice of a
child ; and while the attention is directed to this, the other
impreiTions from it remain unnoticed. But the exercife of
the abftradtive power is often, in a great meafurc, voluntary ;
and though that degree of this power which fliall completely
feparate at once the combinations whiA are prefented to it,
is probably altogether chimerical, yet it is in our power Xn
acquire it to iuch a degree that the parts which we
wilb to exclude from the attention fhall not affect our
reafonings, and but little even our feelings. We do not
mean that in all cafes we have fuch power ; but the
more the mind is trained to it, the more it is to be ac
quired. And here again we perceive the advantage of the
purfuits of literature and ftill more of fcience. Tlie ab-
ilractive power is continually brought into exercife in moft of
the leading objects of mental occupation. The young ai-e
thereby continually led to leave out of view fome circumftance
or quality, and to dircft their attention to the effential points.
Every definition that is underilood and made the foundation
of rcafoning, every exercife of claffification of words or
natural <jbje(5ts according to fome iyftcm, brings into play
this important faculty. -It is neceffary to every correct judg-
mi^nt, and at the fame time the cultivation of the judgment
ferves as its guide and brings it into exercife.

The abftradive power ftiould be early exercifed, but moft
commonly upon the objefts of fenfation. Still however not
without caution ; becaufe, though feparate, felift attention
ib f great confequcnce in the lafer periods of cdu.atioii,
yet .: the earlier periods, the firft point iscorrci't and exten-
five oL'ervation in order to lay up a fund of ideas for the
future operations of the underltanding.

1 i J With

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

With refpeft to the operations of the abftraftive power,
as ncceflary in the procefTes of the imagination, tiiey may
be very much left to themfelves. We have no wifh tliat
the imagination fhould be facrificed ; for it is of great im-
portance in the conduft of life, in the purfuits of faience,
2nd in fpiritiiahzing the mind ; but where there is that cad
of mind which will lead to form new combinations from its
conceptions ; all that is neceffar)' is, to give tiie obfervation
frequent opportunities of exercife, in'various fituations,
upon the objefts of fenfation, that they may be feen under
different afpefts, and in different combinations. It is in our
own power, at any time, to fee only parts of an objecl ; and by
dwelling upon thefe parts, we can form conceptions of them
detached from others with which they are connetled. Hence,
the vifual conceptions are very eaiily fubjefted to the ab-
ftraitive power ; and as to the objects of hearing and fmell,
they have fo httle neceflfary connection with the objects of
fight, the fenfations can be received, and tlie conceptions
reproduced, fo completely independent of vifual impref-
fions or conceptions, that there is flill lefs difficulty in exer-
ciGng the abftraftive power upon them. Where, therefore,
the imigination has any confiderable flrength and aftivity,
the abicraftive power may be expefted to be fufficiently
at its command without direft cultivation. Where, how-
ever, the imagination is weak or fluggifh, it may be ad-
vifable, by leading the attention to feparate fenfations, and
to parts of objefts diftinft from the whole, and by directing
the obfervation to the fame objefts under different points of
view, to cultivate the ablhaClive power with fpecific re-
ference to the conceptions as materials of the imagination.
And this fhould occafionally be done with a itill higher aim,
to acciiltom the mind to feparate the combinations prefented
to it, in order that thofe hafty, cafual, and erroneous afTo-
ciations may be weakened, which fo often completely mif-
lead the judgment, and which, where they do not direftly
and bbvioufly affeCl it, imperceptibly warp it, and mate-
rially increafe the difficulties which obftruA the reception of
truth.

VII. By the Memory we underftand that power which
retains ideas, and which can bring tliem back again to the
view of the mind. The latter ad is generally known by
the name of rtcoileflion ; the former, as Mr. Stewart has
obferved, has not yet received any appropriate appellation.
It might be called retention ; but it appears decidedly pre-
ferable to appropriate this appellation to that capacity, or
power of the mind, by which relifts of fenfations are re-
tained, by which, in fatt, fenfations produce ideas.

It is totally unnecefFary that we fhould dwell upon the im-
portance of this power of the mind. Were it nut for the
<;apacity of retaining ideas from fenfations, man would be a
being of mere fenfation. But without going to this ex-
tent, if the retaining power of the memory were greatly
impaired, pall impreifions, pall reafonmgs, pail conclufions,
j!ait experience, would be of no fervice to the mind in the
uonducl of hfe, or in the purfuits of fcience ; and without
the .power of recalling them to the view of the mind when
required by circumilances, they woidd in a great meafure
lofe their efficacy and advantage. To make the memory,
however, duly fubfervient to the ufual objects of hfe, and
to the acquilition of knowledge, it mull be placed under
the regulation of the judgment ; and an accurately reten-
tive nicmory, united with facility of recollection, accompa-
nied with, and guid^d by, a found judgmcn:, may be con-
lidered as tiie fummit of excellence in this br.inch of the
mental faculties.

To en'.cr into the proper difcipline of tlie memory, when
the individual is fo far advanced in the cultivation of the

underftanding, as to be able to regulate the culture of In's
own mind, is not our province : and if it were, we fhould
be able to add httle to thofe very excellent and important
remarks which our readers will find in Dugald Stewart's
elegant and fcieutific fedion on the culture of the memory.
Tiie queftion wliich we have to confider is, what cultivation
of t]:e memory is mofl fiiited to thofe periods which are
ufually devoted to education.

We cultivate the memory indiredly by every inilance in
which the attention is direfted to the objecls of fenfation ;
for the vigour and correctnefs of the memory, fo far as it
refpetts external objetls, mull greatly depend upon the
accuracy of the perception. In fonie points of view it
mav be confidered as the only object at which we need aim
with refpeft to the memory in the earlieft periods of edu-
cation ; for where the fenfations are duly made the objecls
of attention, the ftruclure of every mind probably is fuch,
that ideas will be received from them ; and the firli point is,
to gain ideas, which may become the rudiments of per-
ceptions, conceptions, notions, and feehngs.

The mere formation of ideas from fenfation, is, however,
feldom referred to the memory ; .and though this is a molt
important objed, and fcrves as the bafis for every future
operation of the mind, it is fo clofely connected with the
aft of fenfation, that it can fcarcely be diftingui'.hed from
it. In all probabihty every imprefTion and every thought
which has the notice of the mind, have fome effect in mo-
difying or ilrengthening the correiponding ideas which were
previoufly formed, if they do not form new ideas ; and often
without our obferving the procefs : but we do not ufually
fpeak of fuch retention as an aft of memory, confining the
operation of this power to cafes in which we can bring
again into the view of the mind the objefts of obfervation
and refleftion. If the ideas produced by obL-rvation or rc-
fleftion have been fo much impreffed upon the mind, that
by aftive or paffive recolleftion they can be brought again
into its view as they were at firll produced, the retention
and recolleftion of them are confidered as operations of the
memory.

As the mere retention of ideas without the power of re-
calling them, would be of little confequence, and as the
recolleftion of ideas ferves greatly to llrengthen the reten-
tion of them, it appears that one leading object of our aim
in the early culture of the memory, fliould be, to produce
the habit of ready, dillinft, and accurate recolleftion. Tliis
mull of courfe, in the commencement of inlellcftual (;ultur»,
be employed merely upon the objects of fenfation, of which
the firll will be words. When a comparatively fmjll num-
ber of words have been acquired, tlie recolleftion fhould
occafionally be exercifed refpefting pail fenfations ; chieliy
thofe o>f fight, which are in the iirll inilance moil cafily
retained and recalled. By degrees, thofe which have been
received by the fenfe of hearing, fiiould alfo be made the
fubjeft of recolleftion ; partly with a view to llrengthen the
power of recoik'ftion, but itill more the habit of obferva-
tion, and of attention to thofe directions which in the early
periods of childhood are fo eilcntial to wuU-being, ar.d fome-
times evea to exillence. For feveral years. from birth, it
appears to us karcely defirable to exercife the memi>ry much
upon a connected feries of words ; the power of recolleft-
ing words is of great importance in a later period of the
mental progrefs, but in tic earlier, the firil objeft is ideas ;
and young chiluren fhould feldom (if ever) be required to
repeal words without having a clear idea of the meaning of
tlicm. Such ideas mull ncceifarily be deficient ; but they
fhould be corrcft as far as they go, and at any rate fhould
be fuch as the little miud can graip. If tlie hab:t of re-

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATIO^T.

ti-,f mberiiig Xfords, and of recollefting them, without under-
fluiidiiig them, is once begun, there is afterwards a very-
great diRiculty in cultivating the underftandingj and in mak-
ing the memory, what it ought always to be, however im-
portant in itfelf, a fubfervient faculty.

In the early exercifes of the recolleftion, we are to be
fully fatisfied with correflnefs, however deficient it may be
in fulnefs. Correftnefs (we of courfe do not niian in the
repetition of words, but in the rccolleifiion of ideas) fliould
always be aimed at. The imagination will not lofe by this ;
for the correft recollection of conceptions and notions tends
to fix them more upon the mind ; and thcfe are the mate-
rials upon which the imagination is to be employed. Mod
certainly the underftanding will be a gainer ; for the objeft
of the underftandiiig is truth ; and truth cannot be found
by that mind which has been trained up to falfehood by
early habit of inaccuracy. AVe have no objeftion for the
little imagination early to work upon the conceptions which
have already been treafured up in the mind, under thofe
limits which continual attention will neceffarily fet upon
the operations of the imagination ; only let a child be
habituated, in detailing its inventions, to detail them as
fuch ; arid when recolleding the paft objefts of obfervation,
to give a faithful outline of them, however imperfeft it may
neceffarily be. We have known an inftance in which a child
riot above four or five years of age, whofe imagination
was lively, and whofe recoUeftion (and perhaps obfervation
alfo) had unhappily not been trained to accuracy, frequently
told his friends circumftances which had no exiftence ex-
cept in his own mind, with the regularity, and much of
the confiftency of real facts, and, probably, by degrees
did not know whether he was fpcaking of the creations
of his fancy, or of things which he had aftually feen and
heard. Such cafes mull excite our regret for the pall, and
our apprehenfion for the future.

Great difficulty often exifts, efpccially in the minds of
perfons whofe conceptions are vigorous, and who have not
been habittially careful to cultivate accuracy of perception
and corrednefs in the relation of recollections, to know
whether the trains of ideas prefented by the affociative
power are to be referred to the memory or to the imagina-
tion. Such perfons, feizing only the outline of a fadt or
feries of occurrences, owing to habitual inattention to their
fenfations, are, from readincfs of aflbciation, able to fill up
tlie tranfcript, fo as to make it appear plaufible to thcm-
felves ; and by once or twice detailing it without minute
regard to accuracy, except in thofe leading features, they
give a degree of vigour to the ideas, and of clofenefs to the
affociation of them, which at laft leads to the full conviftion
that the whole is recollefted. Cafes of this fort are very
frequent ; and they often leave upon tlie minds of others,
the belief that fuch perfons intentionally depart from truth ;
whereas the fact fometixes is, that part of their error arifes
from a defue to give the whole truth v,-hen they have ma-
terials for only a portion of it in their minds. However,
the fault is one which n;ould be carefully guarded againft,
particularly in the early part of life, by making young per-
fons of lively imagi::ation habitually attentive to the minute
as well as to the lead-ing parts of their imprefiions.

Recolle6tion fhould often be exercifed dircftly : but the
main objeft, after all, is, to acq-iire the power of bringing
forwards our ideas when they arc wanting ; and it ftiould
therefore be often exercifed indire^ly, by leading to it for
thofe various purpofes of life, in v.'hith the young are fome-
rimes capable of being ufeful, and ftill more, by encourag-
fng the liatement of pafl ideas as they arc called up by prc-
fent obj?£ls, efpeciaU^ v<hen the connection ii! natural and of

a kind likely to be ferviceable. This fpecies of recollect ioa
obvioufly depends upon the manner in which the aflbciative
power is exercifed ; and in faft it is itfelf an excrcife of
that power, to which the young (hoidd be led in every prac-
ticable way ; in the period of childhood bv free communication
with their friends on their various p'urfnits and occupations,
and afterwards, in addition to thefe means, by compofition.
Continual opportunities occur in almolt every department
of inftrnftion, for the advantageous recollection of related
ideas which have been before received ; and it is only by their
being brought into employment, and alfociated with other
ideas and trains of thought, that they can be expected to be
permanently retained in the mind, or, if retained, to be at
its command.

The recollection of ideas is greatly aided by the con-
neftion of words both with thern, and with the original im-
prefiions ; for words being, from the conltant ufe of Ian-
guage, familiar to perfons of modcrrate mental culture, even
in Various combinations, they are eaiily retained, and molt
materially affilt in producing the recurrence of the cor-
refponding ideas. And thus, when a perfon is relating a
part fact, the ideas in fome cafes fuggclt the words, and in
others the words fuggell the ideas. Hence illiterate perfons,
other things being equal, do not remember nearly fo well as
others. Hence alfo the importance of teaching the young
to remember words as well as things ; for in nioft cafes, as
words ferve as the bond of ideas, ideas will be loofe and
floating in the mind unlefs connefted with words.

After what we have faid refpcctmg the memory, we
(hall not be mifunderftood when we fay, that the cultivation
of it fhould conltitute a very eflential object in the early pe-
riods of intelleftual education. Without a doubt there are
original diverfities in the capabilities of the mind ; and it
fhould be one grand objeft in mental culture, to excite thofe
which are weak, and to curb and regulate thofe which are
exceflive. With refpeft to the memory, fome young perfons
appear to retain words, and even ideas, with a degree of facili-
ty which aftonifhes and perhaps delights the partial friend,
while at the fame time it furnifhes fome ground for alarm, left
that which ought always to be made fubfervient fhould have
the afcendancy, and prevent due attention to the cultivation
of the judgment and reafoning powers. Others are flow
in acquiring, but retain for a long time. Others again are
diftinguilhed by the readinefs with which they recollect, and
the eafe and aptitude with which they bring forwards what
their m.emory has Itored up ; and if the memory has been
judicioufly employed, and the principles of affociation have
been fuch as are advantageous to the judgment, this is all
which can be withed for. With refpeft to thofe who pofTefs
great facility of retention, it fliould be the aim of the in-
ftruftor to encourage, as much as pofTible, the fourid exer-
cife of the judgment, and the long retention and fuitabk
recollei£tion of ideas, rather than the eafy acquilition of
words, even if properly underftood. Durability of retention
depends in a great meafure upon the manner in which ideas
are atfociated in the mind, and upon the caft of the ideas
which have already been received and retained ; but this fa-
cility of retention, though depending in part upon exercilc,
feems to arife in no fmall degree from corporeal organization.
It is valuable only as made the foundation of a good memory :
it often leads to ncgleft thofe exercifes of the underflanding,
to which it fhould only he auxiliary, becaufe they are
more difficult ; and the confequence, in innumerable in-
ftances, has been, that while apparently the mental pro-
grefs is going on very rapidly, the judgment, and the rea-
foning powers, are almoll dormant, <^jid the whole of the
mental llore of the individual conliiU in the words, or at molt

thi

INTELLFXTUAL EDUCATION.

tte ideas of olhers, without any real acqnifitions of thought,
and even without that new-modelling and an-anging of them,
which would give a decree of appropriation to the polfefiion.
We have known an indiWdual arrived alraoft at the age of
manhood, who iour.d it fo much ealier to learn Euclid's Ele-
mentsby rote, than to underftand them, that he aftually
went through feveral of the early propofitions without any
fufpicion being excited that he had not fully mailered them ; till
on an accidental change in the lettering of the figure, or in tlie
conftruftion itfelf, it was difcovered that memory, not under-
ftanding, had been eseicifed throughout. Where, however,
facility in retention is not pofTefied, though it is by no means
the moft important feature of the memory, yet it fhould be
cultivated, directly by adual exercife, but ftill more by
well ftoring the mind withthofe really valuable ideas which
will ferve as connefting bonds for new ones. That kind or
degree of retention which arifes from aflbciation, not from
original organization, is of the greateft value ; and this may
be improved to almoil any valuable extent, where there is
good fenfe to work upon.

Where the purfuits are direfted to the acquifition of hte-
rature and fcience, there is no danger of a want of objefts on
which to exercife the memory in all its ufual quahtics. In-
deed the danger principally is, of doing too much ; and ftill
more, of cultivating the mem.ory almoft exclufively. The
apprehenfion of this has led many ingenious perfons who
have been concerned in education, to do too little. Tliey
confider it is unneeeffary to exercife the memory more than
they think will be probably ufeful in life, or to burden it
with things which, if they (hould be ufeful, may be eafily
acquired when they are wanting. They fee the memory
often made almoft the only objeft of education, fafts ftored
up without any judicious link of connedion, and words, in
thcmfelves conliderej almoft unintelligible, and which at any
rate convey no ideas to the mind of the learner, committed
to memory without explanation ; and they go into the oppo-
fite extreme, and fuppofe that tlie cultivation of the judg-
ment is all which they need attend to. Truth, as in many
other inftances, hes between the extremes. The cultivation
of the memory ought, moil afl'nredly, never to fnperlcde
that of ' the judgment ; but, on the contrary, flionld be kept
in fubordination to it, and be regulated by it : but when it
is confidercd how many of the purpofes of life require ac-
curacy and facility of recolleftion, liow neceffary the memory
is to the purfuits of fcience and literature, and even to the
tultivation and exercife of the moral fenfe, can we doubt
that as a fubfervient faculty, and, with a view to its fubfer-
viency, we can fcarcely cultivate it too much.

Without a doubt, the recolleftion of ideas is the objeft
of tiie greateft confequence ; but as we have already ftated,
the memory ihouid often be exercifed on words, both as an
aid to the remembrance of ideaj, and on account of the great
importance of an accurate recolledlion of words in the ufual,
as well as in the more peculiar concerns of life. We fluill
never forget, that, in all probability, the reputed murderers
of Sleek- loft their hves by the definite article being intro-
duced, we doubt not unintentionally, by the reporter of their
words; if they faid, " We muft liave had gin there," (not as
we believe was ftated in evidence, " We muft have had the
gin there,") their words, fo far from being a ftrong, indeed
preponderatingargument againll them, were plainly confiftent,
and indeed moft conliftent, with their reiterated aflertions :
they were difcufiing t!ie teftimony of the king's evidence;
and what they probably faid, was defigsed to account to
one another for his reprefentations. We arc often led to re-
peat the ftatenicnts of olhers ; and it very frequently hap-
pens that it is not fuJIicient to give wliat we think their ideas.

If we can give their words, ever/ one may judge for himf '
as to the import of them : if we give merely our own id^:.
of their import, we preclude all correiSion of miftake, if frov.
our peculiar prepofTefQons, or any other circumftances, w
have erred. We have ourfelves known inftances, andprob:.-
bly our readers can at once recollect others for themfelvt-;
where very ferious confequences have followed from perff
detailing their own apprehenfions of the meaning of cthc
infteadof what they adually faid : and from a regard
truth, and from the confideratiun of fuch painful occv
rences, we feel perfuadcd that the habit oi the correft ret
leftion of words flipuld be early made an objeft, and ftic\.:.'
not be loft fight of in any part of education.

But befides the direftly mental effett of the correft reco?-
leftion of words, and tlte importance of it in the concerns o.-^
life, we do not perceive how the neceflity of it can be doubted
in the various employments of a literary and fcientific edu-
cation. We have no wiflt that the memory ftiould be bur-
dened with a number of rules and fafts which are of no
direct fubferviency to the objttls of rational inftrufticBi ;
nor that it Ihoidd be called upon to acquire the principles pf
grammar, and ftill lefs of philofophy, without the continual
exercife of the underftanding : but though the judgment
will afford material aid to the memory, even in the rudiment*
of the languages, and is of indifpenfable utility to its exer-
cife in every department of fcience, yet the ready and accu-
rate recolleftion c.f fundamental rules, of the flexions of
words, of elementary principles, definitions, &c. is of fuch
fignal, and almoft effential, advantage, in the progrefs of
education, that we cannot but fuppole, either that thofe who
objeft fo much to the frequent exercife of the meniorj- on
words, would not wifli to be underftood to the full extent
of their own reprefentations, or othcrwife, that they labour
under a moft material error, arifing from ignorance as to
what exercife of memory even a rational education requires,
or from forgetfulnefs of thofe proceftes by which they have
themfelves made acqnifitions wliich could not have been made
without them.

The exertions of the memory may be clafled in three di-
vifions, (as refpecis our prcfcnt confiderations,) thofe in which
it merely fupplies materials for the judgment ; thofe in which
it furniihes the refults of previous exercifes of the under-
ftanding, (or at leaft what have before been the objects of
the underftanding,) and in which the underftanding fhould
ftiil be concerned ; and thofe in which the prftccfies of the
memory arc become habitual from conftant employment, and
go on "without our flopping to think." The laft clafs is
probably much more extenfivc than is generally fuppok-d ;
facility in arithmetic, and in the fubordinate exercifes in the
languages, continually require fuch an exertion of the me-
mory, and where the memory has not been trained to it, the
difficuhics in thefe elementary acquifitions are conilantly felt.
All the power which we wifti the judgment to exercife in
fuch cafe, is a controlling power ; to fuggeft errors and
omiffioRS, but not to diretl what is right ; and if the readi-
nefs and accuracy of memory have not been early cultivated,
fay before the age of twelve or thirteen, 3t will' often prove
up-hiU work to acquire facility in thofe branches of know-
ledge which, from being of praftical value, are of very fre-
quent occurrence. One cafe has occurred to our own ob-
fervation, in which the exceftive fear of making the memory
paramount inftead of fubordinate, led to fuch a degree of
flownefs in every operation in whicli the judgment is not prin-
cipally concerntd, that the individual found ten-fold difhcul-
tic.«, where the memory of much younger companions (with-
out blindfolding the judgment) futrgeltedat oi.ce every thing
that tl>e circumftances might require, and will doubllcls ena-

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION^.

Me tTiem to fucceed bell in the iifual employments of life.
Of courfe we (hoiitd prefer the cultivated judgment, with
great helitation of memory, to the moit fluent memory
without judgment : but fluency in memory maybe acquired
without fuciihcing the judgment ; and who would then de-
fpife it ? One leading object of the work, of inllriidtion, in
the middle period of it, (perhaps from the age of eight to
twelve or farther,) is to give by practice that facility of re-
colleftion which, if not acquired before the underflanding is
become fomewliat m:tture, will feldom be acquired at all ;
and which, though always to be regarded as a fubfervient
quality, is of ahnoll indifpenfable utility in the concerns
of life, and even in the employments and refearches of
fcience.

The remarks in the laft paragraph were fuggefted by
what we are advancing on the memory of words, and chiefly
" refer to it. Vs'ords continually ftand for many thoughts ;
j and (hort combinations of them frequently imply trains of
reafoning : but it is often fufficient, for the purpofes of ed;u
' cation, and indeed all that is defirable, that the memory
I fliould fuggetl fuch combinations, and afford the impredion
of their accuracy, without the exercife of the underltanding
to (hew the truth of them. Two inllances will illiiilrate
our meaning. The common rule of algebraic mv.ltiplica-
tion, " Like figns give plus, and unlike figns give minus,"
is in itfelf confidered almoii; without meaning, and under-
ftood literally involves an abfurdity ; and we would never
teach it to a boy, without firil tliewing him that it is a con-
venient abridgment of a number of operations in algebraic
multiplication, all of which are well-founded : but when he
has once feen the univerfality of its application, we would
then lead him to employ it without hefitation, and even with-
out thought as to its meaning : of courfe, however, recom-
mending that he fliould never reafon from it, but rcfort to
the fafts themfelves as the foundation of inferences refpefting
the nature and combinations of algebraic quantities. But
to take a more familiar inltance ; in common multiplication,
where the multiplier confilts of fcveral digif:, we :-.re di-
refted to place the firlt figure of each product under the
digit by wiiich we ir.idtiply. Nothing can be cafior, when
the effect of multiplication by lo, loo, &c., and the nature
of our numeration are well underllood, than to n:iderlland
the reafon and meaning of the direction ; but we fhould not
wifh that the pupil fhould continually revert to this explana-
tion ; it is fufficient if he remember the facl diftinctly, and
at the time when it is wanted ; and it would oidy ferve to
embarrafs, if the rationale were to be conflantly brought into
view. ■

Leaving out of confideration all the intercourfes of life,
in which the ready recollection of words is often tlie fonrce
of fo much interetl and delight, there is Hill another point of
view in which we feel the importance of the habit of recol-
Jefting words readily and accurately. Ideas fade from the
memory much fooner when they are not connected with
words. In fickrefs, and ofttn in old age, tlie reafoning
powers become languid ; and ihe vigour of th? mind, whi^h
would fupply a fuccelfion of ii.terelling thoughts, is lo!l un-
der the prclfure of difeafe or gr; dual decay. In fuch circum-
fiances the mind dwells upon tlie prefent impr.fFions of pain,
or weaknefs, and can fcarcely raife itfelf above tiiem ; but
if the memory have been well llored, in the early part of
life, with ufcful and interelling combinations of words, they
will often recur, at fueh periods, without an effort, and
without fatigue, and furnifh objects of thoughts which will
footh and even cheer. Thofe who are fubjeft to any degree
of me ital deprcflion, difabling them from active efforts, to
point out a channel for their thoughts, often find fuch fug-
6

gellions of the memory an important relief to them. And
we need not fay to tliofe of our readers who have a reli-
gious turn of mind, that thefe remarks are peculiarly appli-
cable to tliofe devoti;)nal compolltions and exprefTions, which,
where they iiavebeen early. and deeply iniprelfcd on the mind,
occur at the call of aflbciation to lupport, to ilrengthen,
and to comfort ; and which, thus fu^gellcd hy the memory,
have in innumerable inllances allayed the emotions of pafTion
and defire, or poured balm into the wounded heart.

Wliether the memory fhould ever be exercifed on words
which convey no idea to the mind, we do not ventnre to de-
termine ; but as far as our own experience goes, we fliould be
led to conclude that fuch a cultivation of the memory can be
of little fervice in a rational memory of words. We have at
lealt obferved, that where a boy has poflcffcd ^'reat facility in
committing to memory paffages from the claiTics, without
finding it neceflary fully to underiland them, (fo that the
recital of them went on with little if any aid from the under-
ilanding, but was effected by the mere dint of verbal recol-
lection,) he has ufually found it much more difficult tore-
member paffages from Englifh writers, in which the meaning
is obvious, though the modes of expreflion are out of the
common rounds. It appears to us, therefore, that exercifes
of the memory, in which the memory alone is employed,
fhould feldom be reforted to, iince it does not tend to pro-
duce th:it recoUedlion of words which is fubfervient to, and
indeed accompanied with a recollection of notions and feel-
ings. The firil llage of recollection fhould be accompanied
with the direct exercife of the underftanding : the formula
of words may, by habit, ceafe explicitly to excite the ideas
which on reflection it would convey ; but it lliould not be at-
tended with a feeling of vuimeaningnefs or unintelligibility.

The only cafe (ieparate indeed from the rudiments of
language) in which it appears particularly expedient to exer-
cife the memory upon words alone, is where, though they have
no ufual conneftion with certain facts or truths, they ferve,
by an artificial connection, to bring thofe fa6ts or truths to
reco'ledtion ; and even here there is the feeling in the mind .
that they are merely abbreviated reprefentations of a more full
combination of word.s, which is itfelf at once intelligible.
We refer principally to fuch contrivances as tiiolein Grey's
Memoria Tcchnica. Of courfe we would by no means re-
commend the employment of his method to any thing like
the extent which he propofes ; but if it be of importance
(as we are perfuaded it is) in the reading of hillory, that a
few leading dates Ihould be well fixed in the mind, his mctliod
will be fou':d of great utility by funiilhing an additional aid
to the memory ; and the mere tranllation of his technical
words, affills materially in the permanency of the recol-
lection. Cafes may occur, though not very frequently, in
which it will be very ferviceable to bear in mind with
minute exactnefs the latitude and longitude of places ; and
here alfo, the Memoria Technica may be found of conliderable
fervice : bu; for the general purpofes of geographical know-
ledge, there can be no doubt that much more benefit will be
derived from forming in the mind a clear idea of the relative
fituationof places, bv means of a familiar acquaintance with
the globe, or even with maps. Little advantage can be ex-
prCted from the extenfion of this method to a'.tioiiomy, and
other branches of phylical fcience; but if any circumilances
render it defirable to retain with accuracy the fixe of the
plar.ets, their diilances from the fun, &c. or the fpecitic gra-
vity of different bodies. Greys contrivance will be louiid a
uteful aid, though we can never i\'Commend the employment
of it in fcience, without a full previous accjuaintance with tlic
facts to which it relates, and a frequent explicit reference to.
them ; in (hort it fhould alwiv^'S be cmpfayed merely to aid

the

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

the remembrance of knowledge, not to enable the young to
prate about objefts of which- they are really ignorant. It
is well known to our mathematical readers that there arc for-
mulae of eminent utiUty, in the remembrance of which the
judgment can have little fliare, an^in which readinefs and ac-
curacy of recollection are the chief objedls ; for inilancc,
Napier's celebrated canons for the folution of right-angled
fpherical triangles. Here the (hort fentence, " the rectangle
of the radius and the fine of the middle part, is equal to
the rettangle of the tangents of the extremes conjunct, or,
of the cofmes of the extremes disjunct, " enables the calcu-
lator to folve with the greatelt eafe every cafe of right-angled
fpherical trigonometry : but in the recollection of this com-
prehenfive canon, the iinderftanding affords little, if any
afiiftance ; it is a technical formula, in which there is no op-
portunity of exercifing the perception of truth, except by ob-
ferving the truth of every clafs of proportions which may be
derived from the application uf it ; when the truth of ihefe lias
been demonflrated, all we have to do is to remember the canon.
In this and many other inllanccs in the mathematical fciences,a
ready and accurate recollection of figns of ideas is of great
lervice ; and we cannot have hefitation in maintaining, even
from fuch cafes alone, that it is defirable to train the memory,
among other objects, to the recoUeiStion of words, always
indeed as figns of ideas, or abbreviated figns of thofe which are
immediately figns of ideas, and, as much as circumftances will
allow, with an expUcit exercife of the underftanding, but
ftill fo as to make the exercife of the memory in tl.efe in-
ftances the primary conUderation. The occaiional utility of
the recollection of fuch abbreviations we have already fuffi-
ciently adverted to ; and we will only add one fpecimen of
the advantage even of the abbreviated ftatement of thele ab-
breviations. The formula of Napier is readily fuggettcd
to the mind by the memorial words Tan con, Cot-D'ts ; and
•when thefeare well fixed in the memory, and connected with
the more expanded ilatement of the canon, it is almoil im-
poffible that the mind fnou'd ever be at any lofs in the re-
•coUeftion of the canon itfelf, or at leall of the import
of it.

In cafes where verbal recolleftion is found to be an ob-
ject of importance, the fimplell and moll correct modes
of exprcffion Ihould be employed ; and, when they are re-
peated, it (hould conftantly be done without variation in
the order or felection of words. If we can refort to the
underftanding to check or fugged the words, this is not
of fo much confequence ; but wherever the ready recol-
lection of words is delirable, for purpofes of difpatch and
accuracy, this precaution will be found of great moment.

We do not m.enn to charge the later writers on education
with being the fole caiife of that neglect of the exercife
of verbal recoUeftion, which, a few years agu, was prevalent
and fafliionable at leall in domeftic educaj^ion, and which
made its way into Ichools beyond what experience has ftiewn
to be ufeful ; but the unqualified hnguage which has been
ufed by perfons of intelleClual eminence, aimed, perhaps
in fome cafes exclufively, againll burdening the memory
with founds unmeaning to the learner, and almoil ufelefs if
they were underllood, has in many inllaiices been extended
to all cafes of exaft verbal recollection, and has caufed great
difficulties in the fubfequent periods of education as well
as in the purfuits.of life. We tliink that Mifs Edgeworth
(lands chargeable with contributing to and fupporting tiiis
frror, not perhaps directly, but by the low ellimation in
which (he teaches us to hold the memory, and by the too
unqualified n.anner of her generally excellent obfervations
/>n the culture of it, and the fubjeCtion of it to the judg-
sieiit ; and wc will not deny that we have been led much

farther than we otherwife intended, by our opinion as ta
the imprefTion which

ed from her i

on the fubjeCt. Her own writings (liew that (he lierfclf
pofiefles a judicious memory ; but without more attention
to the cultivation of the rccoUedlion of words than ihe en-
courages, we feel perfuaded that few will obtain one ib
ferviceable. There is in that chapter a great deficiency in
precifion and clearnefs ; and it has confequently been the
fource of much error, or at leall countenanced it : and the
principle is often obvious, that exertion Ihould be exafted
only by being made intereiing. Her conclufion, " that
memory is chiefly ufeful as it furniflies materials for inven-
tion," is one of thofe extraordinary politions which can
only miflead perfons who can implicitly bow to authority,
and who prefer quiet acquiefcence to the trouble of think-
ing. It has not unfrequently occurred to us, that it is happy
for mankind that the human intelleft is not generally to be
moulded by thcorills ; and we have no doubt that in the
common walks of life great numbers, not abfolutely ilh-
terate, may be found, who, though they poffefs a tolerable
fhare of good fenfe and judgment, never have had the m.erit
of forming one new combination of ideas for themfelves,
and who yet, by the aid of mem.ory, guided, we allow, by
the underltanding, contrive to pafs through life with credit
and utihty. Viewing Mifs Edgeworth's pofition as limited
to fcience and literature, the fubferviency of the memory
to invention is only one, and that not the moll important
department of its exertions ; taken as we find it, without
any reftridiion or explanation, the pofition is as unfounded
as it is injudicious.

It is difficult, in education, to lay down any generally
applicable rules, efpecially if they require the fpecification
of ages ; but we (liould be inclined to divide the fourfc of
intellectual education into three periods, the firft extending
to about feven or eight ; the fecond to about twelve or
thirteen ; and the third to the time when diredl inftruflion
ceafes. In the firlt, the exercifes of the memory .niould be
conftantly and directly fubfervient to the culture of the
underftanding, and ihould not be employed but where they
can be made intelligible. In this period the chief objeft
is to produce ideas, and to conncft them v.ith words, Eo
cultivate the obfervation and the judgment, and to ftore
the memory with ideas without much regard to phiiofo-
fophical principles of arrangement. Some notion of caufation,
however, begins verj' early in children ; and where it can
be brought into exercife judicioully, there appears no reafon
why it ihould be neglected ; but the common bond of union
will be conneAion in time and place, and it is by thefe links
of affociation principally that recollection will be firft pro-
duced. In the fecond period, though the exercife and cul-
ture of the judgment fiiould go on as ever, and even be-
come a more prominent objeft of attention, yet the memory
of words fliould now be particularly cultivated. In the
third period, the exercife of verbal recollection ffiould, we
imagine, conftitute a very fubordinate object. The primary
aim mull then be, to ftrengthen the judgment, to exercife
the operations of reafoning, to cultivate habits of correct
generalization and claffification ; and, as the mind expands,
to lay the foundation of that judicious felcdion and ar-
rangement of the objects of the mem.ory, which will make
this faculty of the utmoft utility in every valuable employ-
ment of the underftanding, and indeed make every operation
of the memory itfelf an important exercife of the judg-
ment.

yill. We now proceed to a few remarks on the cnlti-
vation of the Under/landing. AVe employ this general term
(though in reality it may truly be faid'to comprehend all

the

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

tie preceding iHtfllectual liabits or faciiltiis, principally
with a view to thofe operations, which are ufually referred
to the heads of iuclgment and reafoning, and to thofe opera-
tions of the aflbciative posver by which ideas are combined
and aflbciated with words.

The foundation of an accurate, difcriminating judgment,
can only be laid in the acquifition of clear perceptions.
During the period of infancy (that is, before the ufe of
words is underllood), this is almoll tlie fole object of in-
tsUecludl education; and where this is properly attended
to, unlefs in very unfavourable circumftances, the develope-
ment of the underftanding will afterwards go on with fuc-
cefs. Where this has been neglefted, the injurious efFefts
are fcldom completely remedied. The acquiiition of clear
perceptions does not, however, necelTarily introduce the
operations of comparifon, difcrimination, and judgment ; but
when thefe are exercifed, the perception is thereby rendered
more acute and aftive. The perceptive powers are necef-
farily improved in proportion to the attention of the mind
to the objects of perception ; and whatever excites the
operations of the mind, is produdlive of that pleafure which
attends every natural and gentle exercife of the mental fa-
culties, more or lefs in every period of life, but particularly
in thofe to which education- is chiefly direfted. Every fuch
exercife of the mental facidties in connexion with the ob-
jects of perception, tends to excite the attention to thofe
objefts, and confequently to improve the perception. And
thus it is, as in every period of the intelleftual culture, that
the proper exercife of one faculty tends to the general im-
provement of the mind. But to compare, to difcriminate,
and to judge, does not neceffarily follow from the exercife
of the perception. In the more complicated perceptions,
numerous judgments are often included ; but for the for-
mation of thofe fimple ones which are the full exercife of
the mind, nothing more is requifite than retention of ideas,
and that elementary exercife of the alTociative power by
which two or more ideas, derived from the fame or fimilar
objefls, are connected witli the appearance, &c. of tlie
object, fo as to be at once recalled by it, and by degrees
combined with it : neverthelefs, where the mind is attive,
and fuitable opportunities are given, it very eaily begins to
employ thofe faculties of the mind on the notions prcfented
by the fenfes. We have obferved, even at the age of twelve
months, inftanccs of tlie moit decided nature, proving the
attentive examination and accurate difcrimination of the ob-
jects of fenfation. Ainong others, we recal to mind a httle
circumftance which we obferved with great fatisfaCtion, where
parental partiality was not concerned. A boy, of a fine in-
telligent caft of countenance, but not at all able to fpeak,
had a ftrawberry with its llalk on, and a red garden daify
not fully opened, and which very much refembled the ftraw-
berry, placed before him. He had feveral times before
eaten ftrawberries, and of courfe had an infantine motive
for difcrimination. He looked firft at one, and then at the
other ; at laft he took up the daify, but without putting it
to his nofe or mouth, he continued obferving it, and after
fome time he put it down and took up the ftrawberry, which
he almoft immediately ate. Hence it might be fnppofed, on
the one hand, that there was an operation ofreafoning ; and,
on the other, that it was fimply a judgment, formed by com-
parifon of the fenfations.

The truth appears to lie between the two fuppofitions.
As far as we can form an idea of the operation of the in-
fant mind, the cafe was this. There certainly was comi-
fidcrable refemblance between the two objcfts, or the child
(whofe difcriminative powers were obvioufly clear) would-
haic at once cho.^en the right one ; but having ukca up the

Vol. XIX.

daify, it did not, on minute obferva,tion, prefcnt thofe ajj-
pcarances which excited the connected pleafurable feelingj,
already aflbciated with the conception and name of ths
ftrawberry, and confequently did not excite the difpofitJon
to cat it. The judgment was not a diredt intentional one,
and confequently differed from thofe which we employ by
the ufe of words ; but the procefs was the fame with that
which continually takes place in our own minds. The re-
jection of the daify was in confequence of the perception
of diverfity, or at leaft the want of perception of complete
firailarity between the fenfation and the conception vviiich
had been produced by the frequent fight of the fruit. In
this inftance we have no doubt that words were employed to
fet the comparifon in motion. Ciiildren often underttand
many words before they can at all utter articulate founds.
The child was probably told that one was a ftrawberry and
the other a daify, and that he might cat the ftrawberry.

3uch comparifons fiiou'd oft-.-a be produced, but at firft
the objects ftiould, as much as pofllble, be fuch, that the
comparifon may be fuggefted by the wants of the cafe ; and
it fhould, confequently, be always employed on objefts
which are completely within the grafp of the mind, at leaft;
in the view which we wifti to have taken of them. It would
be abfurd, for inftance, to lead a child to compare any of
the qualities of a guinea and a (hilling, but thofe which are
obvious to the fight or the touch. Inftances will be con-
tinually occurring (where proper room is given for the exer-
cife of the faculties), in which comparifon will take place
without any effort on the part of the parent ; but- it v ill
ufually be found expedient fometimes to bring about the em-
ployment of the judgment direAly ; and provided we take
care never to make it painful, by difpleafure at inaccuracy,
or by loo much foHcitude as to the refult, it may be done
witli great advantage. We never can be without objects to
exercife comparifon, when children underftand the meaning
of coinmon words, even if they cannot tkemfelves properly
employ them. The fize of things, theii" colour,, ftiape,
fmoothnefs, weight, &c. (according to the degree in \shich
the underftanding is developed, and the meaning of words
underftood), furnifh conftant means for leading to obfcrve
refemblances and differences in their various combinations ;
and the perception of thefe conftitutes difcrimination.

Thefe things would doubtlefs appear trifling to many of
our readers ; but in all probabihty thofe who may confult
this article will view tilings in a different light. Difcrimi-
nation of judgment is a quahty than which no one is more
eflential in the purfuit of truth ; the ready perception of
refemblances among diverfities, and fti'.l more the quick and
accurate perception of diverfity in the midft of refemblances,
conftitute fome of the moft important operations of the un-
derftanding. And fuch difcrimination will ufually be pro-
duced, where the mind is awakened by having fufficient
fcope and exercife of its faculties. We may often leave it
to its own filent progrefs ; and if we encoiu'age accurate
and attentive obfervation, and the corredt ufe of words, dif-
crimination will, in all probability, be foimd to follow as a
natural confequence. But it muft alfo be our endeavour,
to awaken and exercife the mind by diredt attention on our
part ; and provided we meafure our efforts by the degree
in which the underftanding is developed, and do not attempt
to force it, but only to guide and employ it, we may rcafon-
ably indulge the confidence that llie work of education is
going on fiiccefsfully, and that we are beginning a progrefs
of intellect, from which the moft fatisfadory relults may be
expcftcd.

This quality of aecuratj; difcrimination ftiould be kept in

view and exercifed in every -part of education. It is, indeed,

K k. the

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

the foundation of clear ideas ; and the acqv.ifition of what-
ever can be truly called knowledge depends moll materially
on the potTellion of it. It is exercifed by various objefts of
inltruClion ; and in faft it often is this exercife which gives
thofe objeCls their leading value. Now, if we \\\(h our
children to think clearly, and to n^afon accurately, the
works of thought and reafoniiig mull be attended to early.
Thofe who learn to think and reafon comparatively late in
life, have difficulties to overcome which can fcarcely be ap-
preciated by thofe whofe intelleftual qualities have been early
cultivated. And no fenfible parent need defpair on this
point. ITie objeft to which we would urge, is not to com-
municate extenlive information ; that will be gained, and be-
neficially gained, if the defire of knowledge have been pro-
duced, and the quahties -of mind, on which the acquiiition of
knowledge depends, have been properly trained ; we only
•w'lfh that on thofe objefls which properly fall within the
fphere of capacity, during the early part of childhood, the
obfervation fliould be lb exercifed, that the power of dif-
crimination lliould be acquired. A few fimple play-thitigi,
which a child has the opportunity of obferving in every
fituation, the natural objefts which furround us, and which
ufually ilrikc the attention of a child, if he be allowed to
obferve, piftures of different kinds of animals, the letters of
the alphabet, the difleftcd map, &c. furni(h abundant oppor-
tunities for that difcrimination, the cultivation of which we
ftrongly recommend, as lying at the foundation of every
thing which is valuable in the moft ferviceable exercifes of
the judgment. All that is r^-quilitL- is tl'at we (hould our-
felves be capable of difcrimination ; that we watch the op-
portunity, when the mind is al!\e, to encourage the obfer-
vation, and to produce diftinrt :ind accurate perceptions.
Our bufincfs is not to be continually making direct efforts,
as in the later period of education, but to employ thofe
occafions which fo often prefent themfelves to the attentive
parent, to lead to the exercife of thofe qualities of mind
which he knows to be of high importance. It fcarcely
matters what it is on which we do thus exercife them ; pro-
vided always that we attend to the actual Hate of the mental
progrefs ; circumilanccs which, to uninterefted fpeCtators,
appear of the flightell poffible moment, often to the judi-
cious parent indicate the operation of fome ufeful quality,
and enable him to difcover, more than any fpecific diredlions
can do, what will enable him to promote thofe qualities of
mind which he willies to fee poffelfed. The grand point to
be kept in view is, that we do not aim, on any occalion, to
force the faculties, but to employ them as they advance in
ftrength and accuracy fuitably to their progrefs, and to
furnilh them with appropriate objeCls of exercife : and we
ly feel affured, that fo long as thofe qualities are exercifed,

the bufmefs of education is goin

ch better than if we
were endeavouring to (lore the memory with words to which
indiflinft ideas, or no ideas at a'l, are attached, or even to
ftore it with fafts, however in themfelves conltdered ufeful
and intereiling. We ought never to think the work of
education going on, unlefs the operations of the underlland-
ing are in fo.ne way or other brouglit into exercife : and
when they are, we msy rtll fully fatisfied. If the deve-
lopement of the intelleClual faculties is properly begun, it
will go on by the mere influence of external impreffions.
Our bufinefs is to regulate and employ thofe external im-
prefilons, fo that their influence may be fuited to the (late
of the mind, and really produftive of a fuitable exercife of
the underftanding.

We fhould aim not only to produce difcrimination, but
to lead to the habit of oblcrving the grounds of difcrimina-
litm, the particular qualities or circumfiances in which

ohjcfts refemble one another, and thofe in which they diflTer.
This is by no means a necetfary efFedl of the perception of re-
femblance or difference; and it is often but partially acquired ;
yet it is certainly effential to con-eft reafoning, and may be
properly included under the head of difcrimination. Chil-
dren very carlv acquire the pov. cr of finding ovit the grounds
of differiiic.- aid agrecnic!! : and the quellions, In what are
thefe two things aiikc ? In what are they unlike? often
ferve, at the age of three or four years, to bring into exer-
cife fome of the moll ufeful operations of the underllandnig.
Every thing, in faft, which fets children to think upon the
objects of their fenfations, and upon their ideas, is a moft
ferviceable employment : and the more they are early led to
think correftly, the more eafy in the Liter periods of educa-
tion will correct thought become.

It would often ferve as an important guide, if parents
would thctnfelves confider what qualities, or faculties of
mind, are brought into exercife by the different circimt-
fiances which occur, by their own words to their chil-
d'-en, and the modes of exprefiion which they encoin-age
them to ufe. We fliould always wifli that intelleclnal
cducaticn Ihould be made fubfervient to moral education ;
but attention to the one would in no way interfere
with attention to the other. A found, comprchenfive,
vigorous, difcriminating judgment, is furely of the firft im-
portance, both in a moral and in an intelleftual point of
view. There can be no doubt that much might be done
towards the acquifition of it, if parents kept it in fight as
the chief mental objeft, and regulated their direft efPerts,
and as much as might be controlled accidental iinpreflions,
with a view to the cultivation of it, ufing their own good'
fenfe and patient obfervation as the bell guides to the
probable cffeft of each upon the inind.

IX. Reajontiig, or the drawing of inferences, is a procefs
which may be expefted to go on fuccefsfidly where the
judgment has been cultivated. It begins very early ; indeed
the mental procefs is often independent of words. The
direft exercife of it does not appear to be defirable, till the
mind has acquired fome vigour ; more efpccially til! the
judgment has been tolerably eultiv.-ted, and a conlidcrable
acquaintance with words acquired : and this is the lefs
necelTary, becaufe in every part of early educa.tion, circnm-
llances of conflant occurrence will cuiitiiuialiy bring the
reafoning faculty into exercife, and give it a right dircftion,
if we avail oiirlelves of the opportunities which they prefent.
" Sca.cvlv a .lav paif.s," lays Mifs Edgeworth, "m which
children do n t iiiak..' ionic attempt to reafon about the little
event;; which nitereli them, and upon thefe occafions a mother
who joins ill eunverfation with her children may inllrudt
them m the art of reafoning without the parade of logical
difqniiitions."

As the mind expands, the objefts of the reafoning fa-
cidty, of courfe, increafe in number and frequency of occur-
rence. And the jiKlicinus parent, without making it a for-
midable objeft, maN- ixeretle it effectually. Two points,
which are of uin\erfil a;ij>llt;ilioii, iViouid, however, be
always kept in vieu- : that the premiles fliould be tho-
oughly underllood, and this prtvioufly to the employment
of them in the aft of reafoning ; and that the afl'ent of a
child to the conclufion fhould never be exafted, when there
is any helitation. It is too much to expeft from a child,,
that the conclufion fliould be admitted, if the underftanding
is to be exercifed upon the premifes alfo : and as we cannot
force the reafoning powers, and cannot compel a child to
fee the jullnefs of our reafbiiings, we fliall either lead him
to falfehood by too great eagernefs, or to alfent upon our
aulhoritv and not upon the elfcft of the premifes ; or, we
J (hull

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

JKall confufe his unjerftandlng, and really prevent that ef-
Sbft which would othervvife have readily followed.

Single afls only of re<ifoning fhould be cxercifed in the
carly-periodi of education. We do not mean that one in-
firence fiiotild never be made to folU)w another, after the
underllauding had previoufly acquired fome ftrcngth and
clearnefs : but that, if ever a u-ain of roafoning be em-
ployed, it fliould, in faft, be made to confUl of fingle un-
connciSted reafonings in the (irit place. The links Illiquid be
all comprehended feparately before they are fallened to-
gether. Wiieii a child is fo far advanced as to be able to
purine a train of premiies and concUifions, there can be no
lofs for fubjefts on whieh to exercife the reafoning fa-
culty : the iields of mathematical fcience will by that time
be opening, and they will exercife it, and, at the fame time,
guide it.

' It appears that, in general, the true method of teaching
to roafon accurately, is to acculom children to accurate
reafoning. Long before they can form inferences tor tliem-
felves, they can underftand the inferences of others ; and the
grand point is, that the reafonings which we employ to th.em
?iiall be fully intelligible and thoroughly juft. If we are
rophillicLd with them, it is too much to expeift that they
will groiv up in habits of clear and correct reafoning. If
we make a point of going no farther in our conclufion than
om- premifes will warrant, they will gradually acquire a
kind of tail, which may be coniidered as forming a part of
good fenfe, whicli wi'l cfFedually prev;-nt them from feel-
ing fatisiied with falf.' reafoning, even though they could not
detedl the grounds of the fopliillry.

Parents muft often require the afllnt of their children on
the fcore of authority. They will naturally believe im-
plicitly, if the truth is always fpoken to them ; and it is
fometimes impoilible to give them any reafon which would
be intelligible and fatisfadory to themfelves in reply to
their quelliun, Why ? or, Why not i We prefer that chil-
dren fliould be trojblefome fomjtimes with thefe enquiries,
rather than that they (liould not themfelves be accultomed
to think ; and if a parent has, by judicious management, ac-
quired the confidence of his children, it will generally be
iufficient for him to fay, " It is not always neceffary that
I fhould tell you the reafon of what I defire you to do ; I
widi vou to do it :" and in fome cafes, indeed, not imfre-
quently, it may be expedient to Rate what is often the
matter of fa£l, '• You are not old enough to under.Tand
the reafon, if I were to tell it to you : when you have more
knowledge and underllanding, I .'hall be able to tell you the
reafOns of thofe things better than I can now.'' But after
all, if affent, or obedience, be required on the ground of
authority and confidence, let the ground of reafoning he
kept out of view. If we once make any thiug depend up.m
our reafoning being underllood, let it be kept to that point.
We may often affent to the conclufion as an infidated truth ;
but we never can afient to it as an inference, unlefs the rea-
foning is properly umlerllood.

It may be doubted whether it is defirable to give fpeci-
mcns of fbphiftry to children, before they are really ca-
pable of entering into the ground of the fophillry. But if
ever we find them drawing falfe conclufions, then is the
time to fhew them, if poflible, how and why tliey are falfe.
And it is highly defirable that we fliould accullom them to
caution in their inferences. It is better tiiat they fliould
fometimes reafon very erroneoufiy, and draw very erroneous
conchifions, than that they fliould never realon at all ; and
it is by no means to be expetled, or even wifiied, that their
in fcrences fliould be always accurate : it is not to be wiflied,
te ^-aufe we ihould then have reafon to apprehend, that the

inference was an aft of memory rather than of the under-
iUnding ; and it cannot reafonably be expet\ed, becaufe the
power of reafoning juftly depends upon the degree in
which the terms of the premifes are clearly and fully under-
llood, and alfo requires, for the acquifition of it, a long
courfe of exercife. Neverlhelefs, tlie habit fliould be early
produced of caution in receiving »r in drawing inferences.
We would never ha>'e children fufpedl the accuracy of their
parents; but we fliould fhvw them in what they hear (if it
can be done with prudence), and ftill more in their own
little reafonings, thole defects which their minds are fuffi-
ciently cultivated to perceiw. And without giving rife to
a habit of indecifion, (which fometimes is as injurious as
a habit of prefumption,) v/e ftiould aim to lead them to
take as many circumllancas as podible into account, and not
to be too decided with refpect to inferences which may be
drawn from them. If a child once fees that he has inferred
too much, it will effcftualiy keep him, for a time at leaft,
from prefumption, efpecially in oppofition to the inferences
of others.

In order to acquire that freedom from the influence of
authority which is often neceilary to fueecfs in the purfuit
after truth, it is requifite th:it chddren be accuflom=d, and
encouraged, to Hate their dif&.ulties and objedlions againlt
any reafoning or afTertion which they hear or meet with in
books. We ha/e no wifli to fee the habit of objeftlr:g for
the fake of obje£ling : but thofe are the mod likely to
acquire it, who have been accultomed to think but littlr
when young, and to take every thing upou trull. Having
believed every thing upon authority, when their minds ac-
quire fome d-^gree of independence and aftivity, they ufually
fiiid, or think they find, that many of thofe things which
they have believed are inconfiilent with truth, and tliey lev]
a kind of general fufpicion, with refped to all which they
have been aocullomed to believe ; and the confequences often
are high.ly injurious both with refpeft to the underllanding
and the conduft. Though we wifh to fee an unbounded con-
fidence in parental declaiations, a^'.d unlimited fubmiflion
to parental authority, yet a parent fliould employ each only
for the good of his children. It wdl not excite fufpicion,
if he fometimes lead them to perceive, that he is not equally
fure of every thing that he tells thorn ; that when they grow
older they will perhaps underltand fome things better even
than himfelf ; and that at any rate they mult learn to think
for themfelves, fince he fliall not always be at hand to in-
ftruft and guide them. He will always point out, or, what
is better, lead them to find out, errors in reafoning, &c. in
the books which they read, efpecially though the writers
were men of great eminence. He will accullom them to
think for themfelves ; but at the fame time he will make
them undcrlland that they are not to reject every thing
becaule they lee that fome things are erroneous. If the
mind have been rightly trained, while its education is prin-
cipally conducled by others, things will go on well when
the individual has, as it were, to educate himfelf. If by-
early difcipline, followed up by the well regulated pur-
fuit of uftful knowledge, he have been brought into that
invaluable date of mind, in whieh freedom of thought i«
united with caution, and a tendency to fufpeft one's own
conchifions, at leal! as much as thole of others, it may
reafonably be e.xpcclcd that the acquifition of truth will be
an eafy talk, and that the judgment will have that clearnefs,
adlivity, and correiilnefs, which will enable the poiTefForto
choofe important objedls, and topurfue them by luitableand
judicious means.

X. After all, perhaps, the moft important objeft in early

intelledlual education, next to the cultirat'en of the p-i-

Kk ■>. cep-.vn.

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

<Bp!rion,- is that which fefpefts IVarJs : at lead, this is of
^ential -itnportance; A clear and correft underftanding
t>f the force of words, is of the utmoil confcqcence in
«very period of the intelleftual progrefs. On the care which
js early taken in furthering this objeft, depend, in a great
irieafure, the future developement of the underllanding and
tl» acquifition of knowledge; A well-educated child will
alivays hefitate to ufe words which he does not fo far un-
derft;tnd as to be able to foel their force in the particular
conneaion : and in many inllances this is all which can be
underftood by a child. The names of external objefts, are,
of courfe, the firll words w hich arc acqnired and under-
ftood : and here all is plain. Either the things themfelves
can be fliewn, and the words coimefted with them ; or pic-
tures can be employed to reprefent to the mind what cannot
be direftly made the fubjed of perception. In like man-
ner, names denoting the atlions of animated objcfts, and
the changes which take place among inanimate objefts, the
fenfible qualities of the different fubftances around, and, in
fhort, any thing which can be made the fubjcft of direft
fenfation, or can be reprefented to the fight, are calculated
for the early exercife of the affociative power. And it is in
the application of thefc, that the earliell efforts of cla.Tifica-
tion are employed. The fame name is unavoidably given
to a variety of things or animals agreeing in forae parti-
•culars ; and indeed this circumllance is of the utmoll con-
fequence to the progrefs of intellect. It may be truly faid,
that without general terms little knowledge could be ac-
'quired, that there would be almoft a total Hop to every
procefs of mind not immediately depending upon feniation.
In the firft; periods of language the bufmefs of claffifica-
tion, and the application of general terms, went on to-
gether ; the proceffes of claffification are now, however, in
'innumerable inllances, directed by the cuftomary mode of
applying the terms. Still the apphcation of them is ac-
:c6mpanied with claflllication ; and when the mind is, in
■fome inllances, a little familiarized with the operation, it
acquires, with great eafe, the mode of applying general
terms in others. This is an excellent and important exer-
cife of the judgment ; and it leads to notice circumftances
of agreement and circumftances of difference, which is in
itfelf a highly ufeful employment of the underllanding. In
fome inllances children cannot but be puzzled, either by
the unavoidable irregularities of language, or by the ap-
plication of terms depending upon little niceties which can-
not be expefted to lie within the fphere of their obfervation ;
butwherever the grounds of the apphcation can be (hewn,
=it \Vill always furnilh a ufeful exercife of the mind to be led
■to'obferve them as fuch.

" We have already referred to the great importance of the
mathematical fciences in training the mind to habits of correcl
reifoning ; indeed it is by the various acquifitions of know-
ledge, that the different mental faculties are developed and
Vttltivated ; and we fully expeft the concurrence of our
readers when we fay, that an early and accurate acquaint-
ance with our arithmetical notation and numeration, is pecu-
liarly calculated to lay the foundation of habits of precifion,
of arrangement and claffification. Our notation took its rife
in the necefiities of circumftances, operating upon thofe
powers and qualities of mind v/hich are poffeifed by every
human being ; but it is an objeft worthy of the attentive
examination of the philofopher, while, at the fame time,
from its diftinftncfs and fimplicity, it fcrves as a moll im-
•portant exercife to the juvenile underllanding. A child,
early rnade familiar with the fimple operations of arithmetic,
'(taught, not technically, but by a conftant reference to the
■ princij)ies on which they arc founded, and particularly to

thofe of the notation, on which in fliort the whole depends,)
can fcarcely fail to form fome precife ideas, and to acqiire
a tendency to arrangement and metliod, which will almoft
inevitably lead on to a fimilar employment of the underftand-
ing in other circumftances. It may not perhaps be known
to all our readers, that there is an excellent pofthumous work
of Condorcet, which will furnilh fome highly valuable in-
formation to the intelligent parent, on the beft means of
communicating an acquaintance with the firtt principles of
arithmetic. It is entitled, " Moyens d'apprendre a compter
furement et avec facilite. " If it were more the objeft of early
education to cultivate the faculties of the mind, rather than
to ilore the memory with words, or with ideas, which are of
little importance except fo far as they are made an exercife
of the underftanding, this little Iradl would not have been
fo long left inaccefiible to the mere Englifli reader. The
French editor juftly remarks, that the firtt thing which
diftinguiihcs thefe elements of arithmetic, is, that they are
at the fame time the elements of the art of reafoning. The
ufual formulas of arithmetic are founded upon principles and
procefRs which can generally be made intelligible to thofe
who are capable of employing them ; but the formula; do
not of themfelves fufficiently exercife the underftanding: they
are a fpecies of machinery with \\-\{w\\ v.l- operate almolfc
mechanically. But in fo far ast!i> ,, ij procefies

are made intelligible and famili;ir, , cullivated,

the reafoning powers are exercif-., i - are gained,

and the commencement made of tliule iiilL-ikctiial operations
and habits, which are fubfervient to the higheft purl"uits of
knowledge, and to the beil condudl of hfe.

While we thus recommend the early employment of the
underftanding upon numbers, we ought not in juftice to our-
felves to omit mentioning, that natural hiftory furnifties
ample fcope for the exercife of the intd'etl on ihlngs, on
words, and in clafTification ; and in fome refpecfls it is a more
ufeful objefl of early mental cullure ; it brings into exercife
the habit of obfervation, while it equally i-equires and more
rewards the attention ; it gives more room for the exercife of
the memory, and is more calculated to fet the mind at work,
and fupplies more numerous and interefting fubjedls for its
operations. " The art of forming a found and aftive under-
ftanding," fays Mifs EJgewortli, " confifts in a due mixture
of facls and refleflion. Dr. Reid has, in his Effay on the
Intelledlual Powers of Man, p. 297, pointed out, with great
ingenuity, the admirable economy of nature in limiting the
powers of reafoning during the firll years of infancy. This
is the feafon for cultivating the fenfes, and whoever, at this
early age, endeavours to force the tender ftioots of reafon,
will repent of his radinefs." We have not yet been able to
meet with the paffage to which Mifs Edgeworth refers in
our 8vo. edition of Reid ; but we are fully convinced that
(he cannot go the whole lengths of that philofopher, refpeit-
ing the degree in which the reafoning faculty is naturally
developed, or rather lies undeveloped, during childhood: as
\w have already remarked, children reafon much m.ore than
is ufnally fuppofed : and provided we are cautious in giving
due vigour to the obfervation and judgment, we may fome-
times direftly employ the reafoning faculty, under the
reftridlions which we have already pointed out. Fe haps,
however, it is better to be fatislied with thofe proceffes of
reafoning, which, where the mind is healthy, will almoft in-
evitably follow the exercifes of the obfervation and recollec-
tion, and make no dircifl effort to cultivate the reafoning
facuhy, than to aim to bring it forwards prematurely ; and
it was with a view to this principle, that we have thought it
defirable to fnbjoin the foregoing remarks to what we have
faid on attention to numbers.'

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

In many cafes the force of words can only be learnt gra-
duaUy> by their ufe in various connections ; to attempt to
explain conneftives, for inftancc, by aiTigning their abftraft
force, would be utterly ufelefs to a child ; the force of them
tnuft be (hewn in particular cafes, and from thefe the mode
of applying them, and the force of them will be learnt in
others. Similar remarks may be made with refpedt to all
abilracl terms : and provided we ai-e careful ourfelves to
employ them properly, and to take every opportunity of
fliewin^ the force of them when level to the capacity or
progrefs of the individual, \vc do all which is necelTary, and
probably do better than by attempting to do more.

Though we fully calculate on our readers going along
with us, refpetling the abfolute necellity of early accuftom-
ing tlie mind to feek for, and to acquire, clear ideas in con-
neftion with the figns of ideas, the following remarks of
Mr. Locke may fervc to corroborate their opinions ; and,
together with what we fliall alfo quote from Mifs More,
may lead them to make it an objocl of daily, indeed conftant,
aim in the bufmefs of education, not merely as of great mo-
ment in intellectual cultures, and to fmowth the way for in-
telleftual acquifitions, but as incumbent on every one who
kas in view the moral welfare of his child. " Perfotis having
been accuilomed from their cradles,'' fays our great phi-
lofopher, " to learn words before they knew the ideas for
which they ftand, ufjaliy continue to do fo all their lives,
never taking the pains to fettle in their minds the determined
ideas which belong to them. This want of a precife fignifi-
cation in their words, when they come to reafon, efpecially
in moral matters, is the caufe of very obfcure and uncertain
notions. They ufe thefe undetermined words confidently,
without much troubling their heads about a certain fixed
meaning, whereby, befidcs the eafe of it, they obtain this
advantage, that as in fuch difcourfe they are feldom in the
right, fo they are as feldom to be convinced that they are
in tlie wrong, it being juft the fame to go about to draw
thofe perfons out of their miftakes, who have no fettled
notions, as to difpofTcfs a vagrant of his habitation who has
no fettled abode. The chief end of language being to be
underftood, words ferve not for that end when they do not
excite in the hearer the iame idea which they Hand for in the
mind of the fpeaker."

" I have chofen," adds Mifs More, after making the fore-
going extraft, " to fhelter myfelf under the broad fanftion
of the great author here quoted, with a view to apply this
r'lle in philology to a moral purpofe ; for it applies to the
veracity of converfation as much as to its correcinefs; and
r.s ftrongly recommends unequivocal and fimple truth, as ac-
curate and jufl expreffion. Scarcely any one perhaps has an
adequate conception, how much clear and corredl expreffion
favours the elucidation of truth ; and the fide of truth is
obvioufly the fide of morals ; it is in fact one and the fame
'caufe ; and it is of courfe the fame caufe with that of true
religion alfo.

" It is therefore no worthlefs part of education, even in a
teligious view, to ftudy the precife meaning of words, and
the appropriate fignification of language. To this end, 1
know no better method, than to accuftom young perfons
■very early to a habit of defining common words and things;
for, as definition fecms to lie at the root of correftnefs, to
he accuftomed to define Englilh words in Englifh, would
improve the undcrllanding more than barely to know what
thofe words are called in French, Italian, or Latin. Or
father, one ufe of learning other languages is, becaufc defi-
nition is often involved in etymology, that is, fince many
TEnglifh words take their derivation from foreign or ancient
lau^iiaires, 'they tattnot be fo accurately underltcod without

fome knowledge of thofe Irnguages ; but prccifion of any
kind, either moral or philological, too feldom finds its way
into the education of women.''

If any of our readers wifii for an exemplification of the
method of teaching to define, we refer them, with complete
fatisfaction, to the excellent little work called " Evenings at
Home;" the attentive pcrufal of which muft; furnifh to the
judicious parent, many ufeful refieftions and hints calculated
to facilitate his views in intellectual education. We may
mention in pafiing, that we cannot but confider it as a duty
which the i-efpectable author owes to the public, to make
thofe alterations in the chemical articles which may adapt it
more to the prefent (late of the fcience ; and we are per-
fuaded that he could not render a more ufeful fervice to the
rifing generation, than by fome fupplementary volumes on
other points of natural hillory and phyfiology, and natural
philofophy, calculated, as thofe preceding eminently are, to
convey clear ideas, and to exercife the ur.dcrftanding, We
need fcarcely add, that the mathematical fciences furnilh
mod important IciTons in the art of defining, and fome of
the fineft and mod ufeful fpecin-.ens of it.

With refpect, however, to the plan of definitions, we
muft again obferve, that in a great variety of inilances we
muft reft fatisficd with perceiving that the force of a word
is clearly underftood in the particular cafe ; and we muft
fometimes require even lefs than this. Words which arc
the moft forcible to our minds, in confequencc of numerous
aflbciated thoughts and feelings, often can fcarcely affeft
the mind of a cliilJ. The force of thofe which reprefent
very complex ideas (as moft general terms do), muft gene-
rally be acquired flovvly, by tijc imprelTions derived from
the manner of their employment, and the inftances of their
appHcation. But ^^herever the force of a word can be ex-
plained, fo as to be made intelligible, this ftionld be done ;
and there can be no doubt that the habit (liould be formed
as early as poflibie, of never refting fatisfied without fome
ideas connefted with the words v.hich occur in books on
converfation. We have ourfelves had an opportunity of ob-
ferving the great value and force of this habit. A young
perfou, who, in the courfe of his reading aloud with his
early inftruCtor, had uniformly been called upon to try to
explain the meanings of words, and in cafe of failure had
as uniformly been fent to fearch for a I'uitable explanation
in a good diflionary which was always at hand, by degrees
became fo much accuftomed to this exercife of the under-
ftanding, that, when arrived at years of maturity, he felt
a kind of internal compulfion to refort to the fame means
of information, when he could not othcrwife afcertain to-
his fatisfaction the force of a word in a givenfituation, which
feehng generally overcame the reluctance of indolence, and
even the eagernefs which fo often urges on the ardent mind
towards that which is yet unexplored. The efFedt of fuch
difcipline upon tlie habit of dilcrimination and clearnefs of
intellect need not be pointed out. It can fcarcely fail to
bring tlie mind into the right ftate for the fearch after truth ;
and even if only defective ideas are thus acquired, yet if
corredt as far tiiey go, the grand point is gained. After
fuch Iiabitual cuUnro of the mind, the want of fomething upon
whicli the underftanding may reft with fatisfadtion is con-
(lantly felt ; and if the wliole truth is not grafped, tlie
acquifitions adtually made will ufually be on. the fide of
truth.

It appears highly inexpedient to attempt, in the early
periods of the mental progrefs, to give the moft compre-
henfive meanings of words. The firll bufinefs in the early
acquifiticn ot knowledge, is to begin with individuals, and
after a fuitabie ac^ viuinlarice has been gained with them, to

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

go on to general faSs and (latcments. In like manner with
rcfpeft to words, it is fufficicnt if we can give a clear idea
of the fignification of a word as it occurs : it will after-
wards be an excellent employment of the uiiderftaiiding to
combine thefe meanings logelhc-r, fo as to generalize the
term ; and where the mind lias been well cultivated, this will
be done almoft without our dircft eJTorts. But it lliould
not unfrequently conllitute a dired cxcrcife in the more
advanced periods of education, to trace out that common
fignification which a word has throughout all its varieties of
fignification; and previoufly to this, it is defirable to ac-
cullom the young to cxpecl that the particular force of a
word which they have acquired is by no means the only one,
and to be ready to receive the change of meaning which the
circumftances of the conneilion may require, or which the
writer may, by his definitions, endeavour to communicate to
his readers.

The wrong application of words is one of the chief ob-
ftacles in the acquifition of knov.ledge, and conilitutes the
c;iufe of fome of our earlieft and llrongcft-prcjuJices. By
the magic power of afibciatioii, not only do the conneftions
cf ideas fuggeft combinations of words, but combinations
of words, in innumerable inllances, produce connexions of
ideas. And this ought to furnidi to the early inftruflor, a
powerful motive to caution in the employment of words ; fo
that, in his communications with his pupils, he may avoid,
not only thofe modes of cxprefTion which are in themfelves
calculated to convey wrong ideas, but thofe alfo which mud
convey wrong ideas in confequence of the partial knowl.dge
poGelTed by thofe who hear them. It (liould be a leading
objeft, in every department of education, fince it is totally
impoffible to give full and complete ideas, to render thofe
which we can communicate clear and correft. Where this
objeft is fteadiiy purfued, the underrtanding may be ex-
pefted for itfelf to feek, and wil', in all probabihty, acquire
all which is neceflary beyond.

But notwithflanding all the care and felf-culture of pa-
rents and inftruftors, numerous erroneous aifociations will
be formed or imbibed, whieh will warp the judgment from
the perception of truth, and fometimes obfcure it. A
large proportion of them operate through the medium of
.the affeftions ; and fome attention will be paid to thefe
under the h^ad of Mokai, Education ; but ftill many
remain which arife from the ambiguities of language,
from partial obfervation, from accidental combinations of
external objefts, &c. Thefe will often give way to the
gradual developement of the mental faculties, and the ac-
quifition of knowledge ; but fometimes thefe irregular aflb-
ciations will continue for a long period to perplex and mif-
lead the underftanding. It is highly dellrable, therefore,
to watch for them, and, where they arc difcovcred, to take
fuitable means for de'.lroying them. When we perceive a
-want of readinefs to admit obvious truths which are level
to the progrefs of the intellect, we may ufually conclude
that fome incorrecl idea has been connected with the words
employed. Sometimes the immediate end may be gained by
a cliange of words ; but it is, perhaps, generally preferable
to endeavour to enter into the little mind and trace its errors
and their fources. Wc remember once difcovering that a
child had formed the prepofterous idea, that the dull which
flies about in the road is in part compofed of the particles
of the human body ; an idea derived (by fome procefs of
reafoning, which we do not now recol'edt, aided no doubt
by an effort of the imaginaticm,) from impreffions received
from the words in the burial fervice, " dull to dull." Here,
and in fimilar cafes, to difcovcr the hnk and to feparate it,
are almoll the fame thing. It is one great advantage of

domeftic education, that it enables the parent or inttruflor
to watch over the early aflbciations, and to prevent the
formation, or effeft the difunion, of many which are in-
jurious to the acquifition of knowledge, and what is ftill
more important, unfriendly to the moral judgment, and to the
happinefs of the individual. To have the power of availing
themfelves of ihis advantage, however, parents muil ac-
cuilom their children lo view them as friends, to open (heir
httle minds to them with the utnioll confidence ; they mud
treat their erroneous judgments with mildnefs, and be habi-
tually careful in their own modes of expreflion in their pre-
fence, and efpecially in their direft communications with
them.

Before quitting the fubjeft of words we would add, that
it is very defirable to accuttom children to the peculiar terms
cf fcience and art, as foon as they can uaderfland their
meaning. In very many inllances this can be done with
eafc, not as a formal objeft, but in the courfe of convcr-
fatior, or while explaining what is n et with in books.
When the terms are become fcim;liar, and are pretty well
underftood, the difficulties attendnig the acquifition of any
fcience are greatly lifFcied. Even familiarity with the mere
words employed, is of fome fervice when we begin a new
branch of knowledge ; but in many cafes even clear ideas
may be early obtained in connection with fcientific lan-
guage, which v,-ill efTcdually prejjaie the \\ay for future
progrefs. Suppofe, for iiutaiice, the leading terms of geo-
metry are early exp ained, by means of figures or models,
not only will the uinleillandiiig receive fon-.e exercife by the
acquifition ul dilliuct ideas in conneftion with words, but
it will be ready whenever the reafoning powers are fuffi-
ciently matured to be direfted to geometry, to enter upon
the field without that perplexity which is fo often produced
by the multitude of new words as well of new ideas. The
utmolt care fliould, however, be taken to make our expla-
nations correft as far they go. If poflible, ciiildren fiiould
have nothing to unlearn ;_ and though we cannot eft'eft this
completely, yet more depends than is ufually fuppofed upon ■
thofe who have to guide the early aflociations and mould the
habit ; and the lefs error enters the mind, the more readily
will truth find admittance.

XI. " It is more likely," fays Mifs Edgeworth, " that
nv'it fliould be engrafted upon judgment, than that judgment
fliould be engrafted upon wit." Numerous excellent ob-
fervations may be found in her Practical Education refpeft-
ing the cultivation of the underftanding ; we fliall conclude
what we have advanced on the fubjeft, by quoting her very
judicious remarks on the fubjeft of the early cultivation of
wit.

« We have advifed, that the judgment of children fliould
be exercifed upon the objecls of their fenfes. It is fcarcely
poffiblc that they flioidd reafon upon the lubiefts which are
Ibmetimes propofed to thein : with refpeft to manners and
fociety, thay have had no experience, confequently they can
form no judgment. By imprudently endeavouring to turn
the attention of children to converfation that is unfuited to
them, people may give the ,i^p,arancc of early intelligence,
and a certain readinefs of repartee and fluency of expreflion ;
but thefe are tranfient advantages. Smart, witty children
amufe the circle for a few hours, and are forgotten ; and we
may obferve, that almoit all children who are praifcd and
admired for fprightlinefs and wit, reafon abfurdly, and con-
tinue ign»rant. Wit and judgment depend upon different
and oppofite habits of mind. Wit fearches for remote re-
femblances between objefts or thoughts apparently diflimi-
lar. Judgment compares the objedts placed before it, in
order to find out their differences rather than their refem.

blaiices.

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

Mnnce?. The ccmparifons of judgment may be flow ;
tliofe of wit muft be rapid. The fame power of attention
in children may produce either wit or judgment. Parents
mull decide in which faculty, or rather, in which of thefe
habits of the mind, they wifh their pupils to excel ; and
they muft condiift their education accordingly. Thofc who
are dcfirous to make their pupils witty, mull facrifice fome
portion of their judgment to the acquiiition of the talent for
wit ; they mull allow their children to talk frequently at
random. Amongft a multitude of hazarded obfervations,
a happy hit is now and then made: for thtfe happy hits
children who are to be made wits (hould be praifed ; and
they muft acquire fufficient courage to fpeak from a curfory
view of things ; therefore the millakes thoy make from fu-
perficial examination mud not be pointed out to them; their
attention muft be turned to the comic rather than to the fe-
rious fide of objeCls ; they muft ftudy the different mean-
ings and powers of words ; they {hould hear witty converfa-
tion, read epigrams and comedies : and in all company they
fhould be cxercifed before numbers in fmart dialogue and
repartee.

" When we mention the methods of educating a child to
be witty, we at the fame time point out the dangers of this
education : and it is but juft to warn parents againft expeft-
ing inconfiftent qualities from their pupils. Thofe who
fteadily prefer the folid advantages of judgrr.cnt to the tran-
fient brilliancy of wit, (hould not be mortified when they fee
their children, perhaps, deficient at nine or ten years old in
the fhowy talents for general converfation ; they muft bear
to fee their pupils appear (low ; they muft bear the contraft
of flippant gaiety and fober fimplicity ; they muft purfue
exadlly an oppolite courfe to that which has been recom-
mended for the education of wits ; they muft never praife
their pupils for hazarding obfervations ; they muft caution fly
point out any miftakes that are made from a precipitate fur-
vey of objefts; they ftiould not harden their pupils againft
that feeling of fliame which arifes in the mind from the per-
ception of having uttered an abfurdity ; they ftiould never
encourage their pupils to play upon words ; and their admi-
ration of wit ftiould never be vehemently or enthufiaftically
exprefled."

XII. Imagination refpecls the thoughts and the feel-
ings. Confidered in reference to the conceptions and trains
of thought, it properly falls under the head of Intellcdual
Education : confidered in reference to pleafure and pain, it
comes under the head of Moral Education. How the ima-
gination affecls the moral judgments, and what influence its
pleafures and pains have upon the happinefs of life, how
they are to be cultivated, and how regulated, will probably
be the fubjecl of fome remarks in a iubfequent article : our
bufinefs in this will be very brief.

Confidered as an intellectual faculty, as affilling to raife
the mind above mere fenfation, as prefenting to the mind
conceptions, or trains of conceptions, which are not imme-
diately derived from fenfation, (though of courfe compofeJ
of the elements which fenfation furniflics,) as forming new
combinations of ideas, or as fuggefting the grounds of rea-
foning, the operations of the imagination are very import-
ant, and indeed not only powerfully aid the exercife of the
judgment, and the purfuits of philofophy, bu: are even emi-
nently fubfcrvient to the caufe of morality. Mr. Stewart
furniilies us with many admirable obfervations, which will
afiift in ftiowing the point to which we ftiould endeavour to
raife the imagination, as well as the limits which we ftiould
aim to prefci ibe to it ; and from thefe we fliall feledl the
following, as immediately bearing upon our objeft :

«' P'jinv out to two men," fays this elegant and interefting

writer, ".iny objedl of compafTion ; — a man, for example, re.
duced by misfortune from cafy circumftanccs to indigence.
The one feels merely in proportion to what he perceives by
his fenfes. The other follows, in imagination, the unfortu-
nate man to his dwelliug, and partakes with him and his fa-
mily in tlieir domeftic diftrelTes. He liftens to their conver-
fation while they rccal to remembrance the flattering pro-
fpeCls they once indulged; the circle of friends they had
been forced to leave; the liberal plans of education which
were begun and interrupted ; and pitlures out to himfelf all
the various refourccs which delicacy and pride fuggeft, to
conceal poverty from the world. As he proceeds in the
painting, his fenfibility incrcafes, and he weeps, not for
what he fees, but for what he imagines. It will be laid,
that it was his fenfibility which originally roufed his imagi-
nation ; and the obfervation is undoubtedly true ; but it is
equally evident, on the other hand, that the warmth of hi*
imagination increafes and prolongs his fenfibility.

" The foregoing obfervations may account, in part, for
the effecl whicli exhibitions of fiftitious diftrefs produce on
fome perfons who do not difcover much fenfibility to the
diftrelTes of real life. In a novel or a tragedy, the pifture
is completely finifticd in all its parts ; and wc are made ac-
quainted, not only with every circumllance on which the dif-
trefs turns, but with the fen'.iments and feelings of every
charafter with refpeft to his fituatlon. In real life we fee,
in general, onlv detached fcenes of the tragedy ; and the
impreffion is fiight, unlefs imagination finifhe;; the characters,
and fupplies the incidents that are wanting.

" It is not only to fcenes of diftrefs that imagination in-
creafes our fenfibihty. It gives a double ftiare in the pro-
fperity of others, and enables us to partake, with a more
lively intereit, in every fortunate incident that occurs either
to individuals or to commiinities. Even from the produc-
tions of the earth, and the vicifiitudes of the year, it carries
forward our thoughts to the enjoyments they bring to the
fenfitive creation, and by interefting our benevolent affeftions
in the fcenes we behold, lends a new charm to the beauties
of nature.

" I have often been inclined to think, that the apparent
coldnefs and felfiftinefs of mankind may be traced, in a great
meafure, to a want of attention and a want of imagination.
In the cafe of misfortunes which happen to ourfelves, or to
our near connexions, neither of thele powers is neceftary to
make us acquainted with our fituation ; fo that we feel, of
neceffity, the correfpondent emotions. But without an un-
common degree of both it is impoflible for any man to com-
prehend completely the fituation of his neighbour, or to have
an idea of a great part of the diftrefs which exifts in the
world. If we feel therefore more for ourfelves than for
ethers, the difference is"; to be afcribed, at leaft partly, to
this, that, is the former cafe, the facls, which are the found-
ation of our feelings, are more fully before us than they-
poffibly can be in the latter."

The power of foniiing vivid and accurate conceptions is.
an important acquifition ; but the true fovmdation of it is
only to be hid in clear diftinft perceptions ; and if the ima-
gination early gain fuch influence as to call off the mind
from obfervation, the moft injurious effcfts may be expefted
to fclljw. The exercife of the imagination, (including, as
is generally done, what Mr. Stewart denominates the con-
ception,) is neceftary to enable us to enter into the reafonings
of the philofopher, where thefe refpecl individuals, as well
as into tlie piftures of the poet, and the details of hiftory.
In reference to this laft head, we may be allowed here to
mention, that the conception aids the caufe even of religions
truth : for he who is not able, or who doe.s not take the

trouble,

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION,

trouble, to pifture to tlie mind's eye the ftatements of the
gofpel hillorians, will not have his judgment fuitably affefted
with the reahty of the fadls which they record, nor will his
afFedions be warmed as they ought to be by the contempla-
tion of the charadier wliich, with the moft artlefs fimplicity,
they pourtray.

Like the memory, though in a different way, the imagi-
nation fliould be made a fubfervieut faculty ; and the early
cultivation of it muil depend upon the tendency which we
perceive to the exercife of it, and the degree in which it is
likely to gain ground among the intellectual faculties. If
the conceptions are very lively, and we perceive a tendency
to dwell upon them inllead of the objects of perception, our
aim mull be to invigorate the obfervation, to cultivate the
judgment, and, as much as pofTible, to turn the efforts of the
imagination into the channel of philofophical invention. If,
on the other hand, as is fometimes the cafe, either from early
iiegleft of the obfervation, or a want of what may perhaps
be properly called phylical fenfibility, the conceptions are
very dull, and the mijid fcems unable to enter into any thing
which cannot be made the objedl of perception or abftraiS
reaioning, it is perhaps defirable, with caution, to llimulate
the imagination : and in this view the following remarks of
Mifs More appear to us to deferve the attention of alj who
are concerned in education.

" I would not however prohibit fuch works of imagina-
tion as fuit this early period. When moderately ufed,
they -ferve to flretch the faculties and expand the mind ;
but I (hoiild prefer works of vigorous genius, and pure,
unmixed fable, to many of thofe tame and more affetied
moral flories which are not founded upon Chrillian prin-
ciple. I iliould fuggeil the ufe on the one hand of original
and acknowledged hctions ; and on the other, of accurate
and fimple facts ; fo that truth and fable may ever be kept
feparate and diilinet in the mind. There is fomeliiing that
kindles fancy, awakens genius, and excites new ideas in many
of the bold ficlions of the Eail. And there is one peculiar
merit in the Arabian and fome other oriental tales, which
is that they exhibit ftriking, and, in many rcfpeds, faithful
views, of the manners, habit?, cufloms, and religion of their
refpedtive countries ; fo that fonic tincture of real local in-
formation is acquired by tlie perufal of the wiKlcll fable,
which will not be without its ufes in aiding the future affo-
ciations of the mind in all that relates to Eallern hiflory and
literature."

The imagination fliould early be employed in what is its
peculiar field, invention. We do not of courfe mean, that
which has for its object to foni . .m ' '.:■: ;i,ri^ with the fole
vievvof pleainig the fancy or ; . >; 'n tafte ; but that

which has in view contrivanc-. s lo :.k 'nat the purpofes of
life, and the acquifiiion of fcience.; We by no means willi
to be underftood, that in the early part of education, (and
itill lefs in the later,) the imagination rtiould never be aftively
employed on works of fancy and tafle ; but in a general
yray it fliould be laid down as a principle, that the folid and
Vifeful qualities of the mind fhould be cultivated firft, the
ornamental ;is a fecondary object. The ingenuity and little
inventions of children fliould be encouraged ; and where fuf-
ficient fcope is given for the play of the faculties, and there
ifi no phylical caufe to prevent aclivity of mind, not a day
■ v'ill pafs, .f ven at a very early age, without fome employ-
nient in which the inventive power of the imagination is con-
ferried. The inventions of children generally arife, in the
l^rfl inilance, from neceflity ; but, in their little diveriions,
they often difplay, (of courfe, in a low degree,) the ex-
.^rcife of thofe qualities by which the moft important cora-
'^iiistions and iiivcntions have been effedtd. As they advance

in mental culture, this exercife of the imagination fhould b?
more and more fubmitted to the guidance of the judgment.
Many of the literary and fcientific purfuits to which the
young are direded, have a tendency to cuhivate a philofo-
phical imagination ; and they furnifh numerous opportunities,
w-hich a judicious inftrudor will carefully employ, of calling
forth and exercifing its moft important operations.

Some young perlons, we muft be contented to allow to
pals through life, fatisfied if we can make them comprehend
the combinations and inventions of otkcrs ; but it is very
feldom, where the mind isadtiveand unfliackled, and has been
properly IHmulated and employed by the ufual objeds of
mental purfuit, tliat it will reft here. Either in the manner
in which it attains to its condulions, or in which it tries and
applies them, or in the conclufions themielves, it will leave
the track which may have been beaten by others, and fliew
the exercife of invention Novelty ought never to be our
objed, but truth ; but it is pleafant to fee any indication of
ingenuity ; and it fliould be remembered, thai combinations
and inventions which are not abfoliitely new, may be fo to the
inaividual.
. We fliall now finifti this head with a few more remarks
from Mr. Stewart, which may ferve as a reftraining check
upon the irregular or excefiive exercife of the imagination ;
and may lead the judicious parent to the conclufion with
which Mifs Edgeworth ends her chapter on the imagination,
that it is a good fervant but a bad mailer.

" It was undoubtedly the intention of nature, that the
objeds of perception fliould produce much ftronger impref-
fions on ihe mind than its own operations. And, accordingly,
they always do fo, when proper care has been taken in early
life, to exercife the different principles of our conftitution.
But it i« poifible, by long habits of folitary reflediion, to
reverfe this order of things, and to weaken the attention to
feniible objeds to fo great a degree, as to leave the condud
almofl wholly under the influence of imagination. Removed
to a diltance from fociety, and from the purfuits of life,
when we have been long accuftomed to couvcrfe with our own
thoughts, and have found our activity gratiiied by intel-
Icdual exertions, which afford fcope to ail our powers and
afTedions, without expofing us to the inconveniences ve-
fulting from the buftle of the world, we are apt to conti'ad
an unnatural prediledion for meditation, and to lofe all in-
tereil in external occurrences. In fuch a fituation too, the
mind gradually lofes that command which education, when
properly conduded, gives it over the train of its ideas ; till
at length the mofl extravagant dreams of imagination ac-
quire as powerful an influence in exciting all its paffions, a8
if they were realities. ,

" When fuch diforders of the imagination have been long
confirmed by habit, the evil may perhaps be beyond a re-
medy ; but in their inferior degrees, much may be cxpeded
from our own efforts ; in particular, from mingling gradually
in the bufmefs and amufements of the world ; or, if we have
fufiicient force of mind for the exertion, from refolutely
plunging into thofe adtive and interelling and hazardous
fcenes, which, by compelling us to attend to external cir-
cumftances, may weaken the imprefGons of imagination and
ftrengthen thofe produced by reahties.

" When a man, under the habitual influence of a warm
imagination, is obliged to mingle occafionally in the fcenes
of real bufinefs, he is perpetually in danger of being miflcd
by his own enthufiafm. What we call good fenfe in the
condud of life, confilts chiefly in that temper of m.ind which
enables its poffoffor to view at all times, with perfcd cool-
nefs and accuracy, all the various circumftances of his fitua-
tion ; fo tJiat each of them may produce its due imprciTioii

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.

on him, without any exagsfTation arifing from liis own pe-
culiar habits. But to a man of an ill-regulated ioiagiiiation,
external circumilaiiccs only ferve as hints to excite his own
thoughts, and the conduct he purfucs has, in general, far
lefs reference to his real iituation, than to fome imaginary-
one, ill which he coneeives himfelf to be placed ; in confe-
quence of which, wliile he appears to himfelf to be afting
with the moil perfect wifdom and confi'.lenoy, he may fre-
quently exhibit to others all *he appearances of folly."

XIII. In every branch of iiillruftion, and in the mode of
conveying ir, our lirlt conlideratinn fliould be, its effect upon
the underdanding. The mental habits formed, rather than
the number of ideas acquired, fliould be conhdered as the
leading objedt of attention. We have already inlimated,
that in a fubiequent article we (hall have an opportunity of
fuggelting fome obfervations rel.itive to the manner of com-
municating knowledge, particularly of the fcientific clafs ;
and \ve flwtl conclude our prefent article with fome remarks
which may affill in the appreciation of the value of the com-
mon objects of inllruclion in farthering the cultivation of the
intellect, fuppofing that the bed modes of conveying them
to the mind have been fuccefsfully afeertained. We fliall
not attempt to follow the natural order of them ; but fliall
be guided by that which appears moll fuitable to our ob-

Ihe acquifition of the dead languages forms a leading em-
ployment in education ; and we trull it will belong before it
ceaics to be fo, though we cannot but regret that, it Ihould
ever be made an exclufive object. Thofe who know the
intimate connection which fubliils between the real command
of words, and the noblell exercifes of the underllanding,
will readily allow that the iludy of language forms a moll
important auxiliary in hitellectual culture. We fliall have
occafion to fpecify hereafter to what plans of education the
iludy of the dailies fliould be limited ; and this will lead us
to enter more at large into the importance of the object.
We fliall content uiirfelves therefore, in this place, with
lilting, that the general advantages of this branch of in-
ftruction are, the cultivation of the habits of patience, of at-
tention, of invelligation, of accuracy, of difcrimination, and
of ingenuity ; the poflefilon of a key to the ideas contained
in thofe languages ; greater power in the ufe of our own ;
and the acquiiition of numerous data for that branch of men-
tal philoiophy which refpeCts language.

Geography exercifes the memory, and were it only for
its fublerviency to hiltory, woidd be highly valuable ; but
it has other advantages. It may be made the vehicle for
various topics of information, and from tliefe adjuncts, it
acquires a rank in the fcale of utility, to which, feparately
confidered, it would not be entitled. Independently of this,
the habit of affociating names with things, and of arrange-
ment, which fecn.s likely to be formed by learning geo-
grapliy, entitle it to a place in the early part of education.

We ufe the word in its exadt though confined fenfe ; and
confidered as comprehending its adjuncts, the ftudy of it is
very important. It leads the mind beyond the narrow fphtre
of its own obfervatioH, enlarges its comprehenlion, and
weakens its prejudices ; it forms an interelling link between
mere fenfation and abftradt fpeculation ; it raifes the mind
above the former, and cultivates and ftores it for the latter.
Here, however, it obvioufly borrows its principal utility
from what rather comes under the head of civil or natural
hiflory, or of natural and mental philofophy.

Natural hillory, in its various branches, being principally
.oncerned about things, is well adapted for the early llagc's
•f mental culture. The It^dy of if forms habits of obie---
• ation, of attaching dillincl conceptions to words (and coii-

VoL. XIX.

fequently of ufing words correflly), of clalTification, and
of attention to objefts not connected with felf. In all
the llages of mental culture, ihefc ends are anfwered ; it
gives additional intcrell to furroundlng objects, and leads us
to view them as the works of the great Author of nature.
We mull add here the words of one of our ableil naturalills,
in his introduction to his favourite fcicnce. " I would re-
commend botany for its own fake. I have often alluded to
its benellis as a mental exercifc, nor can any exceed it in
railing curiolity, gratifying a tafte for beauty and ingenuity
oi contrivance, or fliarpenmg the powers of difcrimination.
What, then, can be better adapted for young perfons I The
chief ufe of a great part of our education is no other than
what I have ju!t mentioned. The languages and the ma-
t-liematics, however valuable in themfelves when acquired,
are even more fo as they train the youthful n.ind to thought
and obfervation. In Sweden, natural hiftory is the ftudy of
the fchools by which men rife to preferment ; and there arc
no people with more acute or better regulated minds than
the Suedes."

Mathematical fcience forms a higher ftep in the gradation
of mental culture. The loweit branch of it is arithmetic.
Learnt merely as an art, it is not without its utility in the
culture of the mind. We, however, confider « as more
comprehenfively Hudied, or rather as tavght with further
views. The commencement of habits of clear perception,
of abltraclion, of regidarity and correftnefs in practice, of
acutenels, of ufing definite means in order to obtain definite
ends, and of aCting upon general rules, may reafonably be
expected from the proper mode of learning this fcience. It
thep becomes an introduction to fciertilic invelligation; and
in this view it is peculiarly valuable, from the cxadl ar-
rangement of our notation, and the certainty of the refults
of our operations. Algebra pofleifes nearly the fame ad-
vantages, and in addition to them, others more important
to a higlier degree of mental culture. It generates the
power of invention and combination, and it acculloros the
mind to general reafoning, at the fame time leaving it the
power to check and coneCt that reafoning at every Hep.
Geometry forms a habit of clear and cautious reafoning It
ferves as a corrective to the wild flights of imagination, and
gives proportional vigour to the judgment. The higher
branches of mathematical fcience rcfemble, in their efl'ects
upon the mind, the one of thefe elementary branches v.hicii
they moll refemble in their mode of invelligation. " It there
were nothing va'uable in the matiiematical fciences for the
ufes of human life, yet they are well worth our Itudy ; for
bv perpetual examples they teach us to conceive with cleac-
ncfs, to connect our ideas in a train of dependance, to rea •
fon with ilrcngth and demonllratiop, and to dillinguifli
between truth and faliehood. Somctiiing of thefe fciences
fli;.uld be iludied by every one ; and tnat, as Mr. Locke
expreffes it, not fo much to make us tfiathematicians, as to
make us reafonable creatures."

Another fource of the utility of the mathematics, is their
fubfervicncy to natural philofophy. To defcribe the phe-
nomena of the univerfe, to inveltigate their caufes and the
connection of thefe caufes, ai-e the principal ohjofts of this
fcience. To mention thefe objedts, is nearly all which is
necedary to indicate its valuable effects on the mind. The
habits of accurate and pcrfevering obfervation, of invelliga-
tion, of abilraflion, and of correct reafoning, are more or
lefs produced and cultivated by the iludy of the philofophy
of nature. It furniflies abundant fcope for the moll fublime
fpeculations, and calls forth the noblell exercifes of the
imagination^ yet reftrains the mind witliin the limits of
, reality. It carried us bevond the boundaries of fenle, and
' L 1 Icllens

I N T

lelTeiiS our intcreR in fclf by incrcnfiii;r our concern with
every thing arountl ui;. It enlarores the comprehciilioii of
the foul ; for it offers for contemplation the laws of the uni-
vcrfe. It prepares the ftuiient for an acquaintance with the
human mind ; for the ftridlnefs with which its inveiligations
are condu>fled, prevents that wildnefs of theorizing which is
the bane of fcience, and forms the habit of cautioufly attend-
ing to phenomena, in order to afcertain the general laws
which regulate thorn. It aids the caufe of religion ; for it
acculloms the mind to feek for the caufes of obferved ap-
pearances, and leads it from dcfign and regularity to infer
an inteUigent Firft Caufe.

Hiftory produces or cultivates tlic habit of purfuing with
accuracy a feries of conuefted events or phenomena ; of
tracing caufes from effefts, and of obferving the operation of
caufes, either fmgly, or in their various combinations. Tlie
rtudent is concerned about realities, and his judgment is
correfted ; the web he contemplates is not unfrequently
intricate, and his penetration is exercifcd in unfolding it.
He obferves the flow operation of moral caufes, and he
learns patience as to the refult of his exertions for the good
of others ; he fees the efficacy of minute caufes operating
in conjunftion with predifpofmgcircumllances, and he learns
prudence in the direftion of thofe exertions. The en-
lightened ftudy of hiftory prevents the formation, or pro-
motes the eradication of thofe prejudices which narrow the
comprehenfion of the mind. " There is fcarce any folly or
vice," fays lord Bolingbroke, " more epidemical among the
fons of men, than that ridiculous and hateful vanity, by which
the people of each country are apt to prefer themfelves to
thofe of any other, and to make their own cuftoms, and
manners, and opuiious, the ftandard of right and wrong, of
true and falle." This prefcnts an effeftual bar to improve-
ment in the great focial concerns of man ; and it is apt,
perhaps necefl'arily fo, to be accompanied with contradled
views of the qualities of thofe who differ from us in their
rehgious or political fentiments. Now what in one cafe
deftroys the ihufion tends to diflipate it in the other. He
who has learnt to view the qualities and aftious of other
nations as not to be defpifed becaufe unlike thofe of his
own, places himfelf out of his little narrow fphere of fclf,
and gains a comprehenfive habit of thought, which will pre-
vent him from refufing to admire thofe qualities and aftions,
which can ilaud the teft of reafon, in bodies of men, or
■ in individuals v.-ho differ from him in their modes of think-
ing. The (liidy of hiftory is well adapted to the cure of
thofe prejudices. Accuftomed to contemplate the hiftorv
of other nations, to view them in their mutual dependencies
:uid coniieAions, for a time to make then- in'.erclls our
own, we learn to regard the community nf which we form
a part as itfelf a part of a ftill greater community, and
■without becoming indiiferent to its welfare and its excel-
lencies, we acquire the power of difcerning the value of
opinions and praftices which are of foreign growth.

Tlie ftudy of compofition derives its value, partly from
facilitating our own praftice, and partly from putting it
in our power, more fully to feel and to appreciate the
beauties of the beft autiiors. The praflice of compofition
is highly valuable, becaufe it enables us to benefit others by
our mental attainments ; to judge of the extent and folldity
of thofe attainments { to command our knowledge ; and to
make that knowledge clear and fubftantial. Habits of
corredl compoiition are alnioft nccelTariiy produftive of pre-
cifion in our ideas, of perfpicuity in our reafonings ; they
prevent their poffcffors from refting fatisficd with fiiperficial
notions ; and they force tliem to think clofcly.

The higheft fcienufic objei"t to which the young can

i N T

be direfted, and what indeed fliould furm the lafl art of
education, is inental philofophy, or the philofophy of tlie
human mind, that fcience which teaches us the laws of our
mental fram.e, which fhews us the origin of our variou?
modes and habits of thought and feeling, how they operate
upon one another, and how they are cultivated or repreffed.
The well direfted ftudy of it calls into aflion and improves
the higheft intelleftual faculties ; and while it employs the
powers of the mind, it fuggefts the beft means for their
culture, and the bell mode of their dircftion. It enables
us to trace the intricacies of our own hearts, and points out
the proper difcipline for their correftion. It difcovers to
us the real excellencies of the mind, and guides us in our
efforts for the attainment of them. To fuccefs in forming
the moral and mental character of others, it is more or leis
effential ; for it difclofes the nature of our influence over
their minds, and the beft mode of excrcifing it fo as to
bring their various faculties into the beft adjufted and
moft perfeft ftate. Purfued with proper views, and in a
proper manner, it lays the beft foundation for the h'ighcll
degrees of intelleftual, moral, and religious improvement.
" There are difficulties," to ufe the words of the great
Hartley, " both in the word of God, and in his works ;
and thefe difficulties are fometimes fo magnified, as to lead
to fceplicifni, infidelity, or atlieil'm. Now the contemplation
of our own fiame and conllituiiun, apiiears to me to have
a peculiar tendency to leflei; thcle d:Hiculties attending na-
tural and revealed religion, and to improve their evidences,
as well as to concur with them in their determination of
man's duty and expedlations."

The beft ground-work for the purfuit of mental fcience
is, an accurate judgment, a difcriminating, penetrating in-
telleft, and a habit of correft and cautious reafoning ; and
therefore the beft preparatory culture of mind is the ftudy
of the various branches of the mathematics and of natural
philofophy. But habits of refleftion, and good fenfe, are
all which is effential to the beneficial purliiit of mental
fcience ; and with thefe, it will in all cafes lead to refults
highly important to individual welfare and ufefulnefs. The
young in particular will be led, by an acquaintance with
the praftical laws of the mind, to perceive how their pre-
fent conduft aftetfs their future charafter and happinefs ;
to perceive the importance of avoiding a frivolous em-
ployment of their time without any end beyond mere amufe-
ment ; to perceive the impoffibility of indulging in vicious
gratifications without leffening their means of happinefs,
and checking tlieir progrels towards excellence. Tliey will
learn how habits are formed, aiinoft imperceptibly, and,
when long exercU'eJ, how exccodin,:,rly diificult it is to
eradicate them ; ihey will learn to conlider the formation of
habits, as requiring, therefore, their utmoft clrcumfjiedion.
They will be enabled to difcern what habits of thought and
feeling are baneful, what ufeful ; what means of happinefs
fhould be regarded as of primary value, what ftunild be
regarded as fecondary only. In fliort, there can be no
hefitation in affirming, tliat, next to the imnicdiate purfuits
of religion, to which the laws of the mind direft,' a judi-
cious acquaintance with thofe laws is the moft important
means for the right employment of that period of life on
which the happinefs of our exiftence in a great mcaftrre
depends.

Intellectlial Thinking. See Thinking.

INTELLIGIBLE, any thing capable of being under.
flood, or conceived, by the mind.

Philofophcrs have invented certain beings which are purely
intelligible, and only fubfitt in the nnderllaiiding : inch are
the entia nuionis, uiilverfa! ideas, and otlicr chimeras.

The

I N T

The intelligible, or intelleaunl world, is the idea of the
T-orld in the divine mind, frequently fpoken of by Male-

iNTEMPERIES, in the Galenical mA Humoral Palho-
, the f;\me with dyfcrafy, ouo-xjaaiK, and ihe oppolite of
.,h.p:ramc-r:t, or (-.jxa-i;, crafu. As health was fuppofed to
conliit in tlie proper temperament, or proportion of the
four quahties of hot and cold, dry and moill ; fo the intem-
pTihs, or difpreportionate prevalence of any one or two of
thefe qualities, or of the four humours, in whicli they were
fuppofed to be particularly inherent, was deemed the origin
of all difeafes : and according to the fuj)pofed predominance
of this or that quality or humour, eacli morbid intemperies
received its name. Thus when heat or bile prevailed, it was
called intemperies caliJa, or biliofa ; \vhen cold and phlegm,
inUmperies frtgida, and pituitofa ; and fo on. (See Seimert.
Inftit. Medicinse, lib. ii. cap. 3.) See Humoral Pathology,
and Galen*.

INTEND ANT, one who has the conduft, infpeftion,
and management of any thing.

This is a title frequent among the French : they have in-
tendants of the marine, who are officers in the fca-ports,
whofe bufinefs is to take care the ordinances and regulations
relating to fea-affaiis be obferved ; intendants of the finances,
who have the direftion of the revenues ; intendants of pro-
■vinces, who are appointed by the king to take care of the
adminiltration of juftice, policy, and finances, in the pro-
vinces ; alfo, intendants of luildings, of houfes, &c.

INTENDMENT of Law, the fenfe, intention, or true
meaning of the law.

The judges ought to judge according to the common in-
tendment of the law.

Intendment of Crimes. In cafes of treafon, intention
proved by circumftances is punifhable as if it were put'in
execution. So likewife, if a perfon enter the houfe fn tl>e
night-time, with intent to commit burglary, it is felonv :
and an afiault on the high-way, with an intent to commit
burglary, is felony, and pimillied with tranfportation,
23 Car. II. c. I. 7 Gio. II. c. 21.

INTENSIO, Lat. Intenso, Ital. Intenfe, in Mvfc. In-
tenfe founds are fuch as are produced with the greateil force,
which are loudeft, and heard at the greateil dillance. They
■are fuch founds hkewlfe, as are produced from ilrings of
greateit tenfion, and which, on that account, vibrate more
powerfully.

INTENSION is a term frequently ufed by the Greek
and other ancient writers on mufic : intenfions of the gravitas,
were the major harmonics of the afcent, in the defcending
major fcale of the gravitas, according to M. Overend's Ma-
Tufcripts in the library of the Royal Inftitution, vol. vi. p. 7.
alfo, vol. ii. p. 213. in which volumes much information on
this curious, but ulmoll obfolete fubjeft, will be found.

INTENSIONE, in Law, a writ which lies againft him
who enters after the death of the tenant in dower, or
tenant for life, and holds out him in the reverfion, or re-
mainder.

Intknsione, Ital. 3i prima tntenfione, in Mufc, as well as
painting, implies afletch, a fubjedf, a firft defign.

INTENSUM DiATONUM. See Diatonic and Genus.
INTENT, in Civil Laiu, fignifies to begin or commence
an adtion, or procefs.

INTENTION, or Intension, in iJ/<'^;V;w,that judgment
or method of cure, which a phyfician forms to himfe'.f from
a d'.ie examination of the fymptoms.

Inte.ntios, in Phyjics, the increafe of the power, or
energy, of any qiiahty ; as heat, cold, &c.

By which it Hands oppofed to remffion ; which fignifies
its decrcafc, or diminution.

I N r

Intention, in Mctaphyfus, denotes an exertion of the
intelleftual faculties with more than ordinary vigour ; wlien
the mind with carneftnefs fixes its view on any idea, con-
fiders it on all fides, and will not be called off by any
folicitation.

The fchoolmen alfo fpcak of terms of fird and fecond in-
tention.

Intention, a Term of Firjl, is that which fignifies a
thing ; the primary defign of men, in eftablifliing words,
being to cxprefs things, or the ideas they have of things.

Intention, a Term of Second, is that which does not iignify
a tiling, but another terra, or fign.

Thus, a tree, a man, &c. are terms oi Jiifl intention ; and
the terms in rhetoric, grammar, &c. as figure, kind, &:c.
are terms of yi-ironr/ intention.

Intention, Inlentio, firi'^o-i?, in the ylncient Mufic, wa»
ufed to denote the paffage of the voice from grave to
acute.

INTENTIONAL Qualitie.s. See Qualities.
INTER Cancm el Ltipiim, in Law, words ufed formerly
in appeals, to fignify that a crime was committed in the twi-
light, i. e. inter diem et no&em, &c. This part of a day has
divers other denominations : thus, in fome parts of England,
they call it mockfliadoiv, corruptly muck-Jhade : and, in the
north, day. light's gate ; others fay, betwixt haiuh and buz-
zard.

INTERAMNA, or Interamnium, (Teramo,) in yfn-
cient Geography, a town of Italy, fituated in Latimn, very
near Campania, on the river Nar, which, from its fource to
its mouth, ferved as a beundary between the countries of the
Sabines and Umbrians.

INTERCALARY Day, denotes the odd day infertcd
in the leap year. See Bissextile.

The word is derived from the Latin i/itrrca/.iris, of cah,
ealare, which anciently fignified, to call with a lotid i-iice : an
intercalary day, among the Romans, fignifying a day infert-
ed between two other days ; which, for that reafon, was
proclaimed by the prietls with a loud voice.

INTERCALATION. See Intekpolation.
INTERCAPSULARIA, in Anatomy, a name given
by fome writers to the cavities between the fcapula and tlie
vertebrx.

INTERCEPTED Axis, in Conic Sections, is the fame
with what is otherwifc called the abfcijfa.

INTERCESSION, Interce-ssio, was ufed in y^«W,«^
Rome, for the adl of a tribune of the people, or other ma-
gillrate, by which he inhibited theatls of other magiftratcs;
or, even, in cafe of the tribunes, the decrees of the fenatc.
Veto was the folemn word ufed by the tribunes when they
inhibited any decree of the fenate, or law propofed to the
people. The general law of thcfe interccffions was, that
any magiftrate might inhibit the afts of his equal, or infe-
rior ; but tlie tribunes had the fole prerogative of controlling
the afts of every other magiilrate, yet could not be con-
trolled themfelves by any.

INTERCESSOR, from ;«/«• and Wa, J go between, a
perfon who prays, expoilulates, or intercedes, in behalf o£
another.

In the Roman law, ititercenbr was the name of an officer,
whom the governors of provinces appointed principally to
raife taxes, and other duties.

Intehgessok is alfo a term heretofore applied to fuch bi-
fliops as, during the vacancy of a fee, adminiftered the bi-
fliopric, till a fiiccenbr to the deceafed birtiop had been elefl-
cd. See BlMlop.

The third council of Carthajc calls thefe interventors.

L 1 2 INTER,

I N T

I N T

INTERCIDENT Pui.se, a term iifed by medical in fituation, attachments, and number. They commcirc

writers to exprefs a fort of pulfe, io wliich between two re-
gular (Irokes there is perceived a third irregular.
INTERCOLUMNiATlON.orlsTKUcoLUMNATioN,

behind at the angles of the ribs, and extend in front
the ends of the cartilages. They are attached to the inntr
borders of the edges of tlie ribs ; and their fibres proceed

in Arch't'.cdure, fio-nifies the fpace between two columns, jn an oblique courfe from above do^vnwaids
See the plan of Bifilic, in Plate Arcb'tteauif. wards, fo as to decilflate thofe of llie external ftratiim,

Vitruvius calls 'it intcn-olunmium ; which, according to They form thinner ilrata than the external intercofta'

that author, is of five kinds : \\z. picnq/lyle, A, one dia

more tendinous, have their fibres lefs oblique and con-

fer and a half ; j7/?v/f, B, two diameters ; r///7)'/f, C, two and fcqueiitly rather fhorter. Sometinies a fafciculus of one

a quarter diameters, which is tlie mofl graceful ; diajlyk, D, or two of the internal inlercoftals pafies over one rib

tiu-ee diameters ; and arsojlyh, E, four dian^.eters ; which to be fixed into the fecond. Thefe are vcfy irregular in

fee explained under their proper heads, PicxosTVLE, &c. number, fi/c, and fituation, and do not require a feparate

'I'lie intercolumniation, or fpace between the columns to tha defcription : they have however been noticed as diftinft

arcade F, is feven and a half diameters ; and the interco- mufclcs by the name of /tfc.5/7.,'/ ■/.

iumniation wherein there is a fpace, G, of only one halt a As the external inlercoftals oiiiy reach to the ends of the

diameter, is called coupling columns, an invention afcribed bony portions of the ribs, and the internal do not extend

to the moderns. beyond the angles, a fmall part of the intcrcollal intervals

From a medium, fome authors have laid down the follow- in front and behind is filled only by a fingle ftratum of

ing proportions ; in the Tufcan order, the intercolumniation, fibres ; but the remaining and largeft part is clofed by two

is To be four diameters of the body of the column below
the Doric, three ; in the Ionic, two ; in the Corinthian, two
one quarter ; and in the Compofite, one and a half.

layers.

The internal intercoflal mufcles are covered by the
ternal, from which they are partly feparated by the vcfltis

INTERCOMMONING is when tiie commons of two and nerves of the fame name. Where the former end in
manors lie together, and the inhabitanls of both have, time front, the latter are covered by the thin aponeurofis already
<iut of mind, caufed their cattle to feed promifcuoufly in defcribed. They are lined on the infide by the pleura.

each.

The kvalores co/Ianim (les tranfvcrfo-colliens)

INTERCOSTALES, in Anatomy, the mufcles which thin, and fiat fafciculi of a radiated form, placed behind

fill the intervals of the ribs, and are arranged in two the external inlercoftals, from which they are very di!b'n6t.

ftrata, -diftinguilhed by the epithets of external and internal. They are twelve in number, as each rib has one. Each of

This region of the body includes alfo the levatores coilarum thefe mufcles has an aponeurotic origin from the apex of

and triangularis fterni.

the tranfverfe procefs of the

^fponding dorfal vertebr

The inteicoi'lal mufcles (intercoftiens) confift of two or from the ligament connecting the rib to that procefs ;
thin mufcular planes in each of the intercoftal intervals, hav- its fibres pafs obliquely downwards and forwards, and,
ing their fibres difpofcd obliquely, and attached to the margins growing broader, are attached to the upper edge of the
of the ribs, which bound tlicfe fpaces. rib immediately below. The levator of the firft rib arifes
The f.v/i';-«<;/;n/i';ro/?i!/ mufcles are attached by their upper from the tranfverfe procefs of the feventh cervical ver-
edges to the outer border of the lower margins of the ribs, tebra, that of the fecond from the correfponding procefs of
by means of tendinous and flefiiy fibres. Their fibres are the firft dorfal vertebra, and fo on to the twelfth. They in-
diretlcd obliquely downwards and forwards ; and they are at- creafe in fize regularly from above downwards,
tached below by an infertion exactly refembling the former Befides thefe, each of the two, three, or four lower ribs
to the upper edge of the fuccecding rib. Various blood- has a longer fafciculus, arifing from the tranfverfe procefs
veftels and nerves penetrate them in different parts of the of the fecond vertebra above it. Thefe are called levatores Ion-
trunk. Their origin begins at that part of the rib which is giores, to diftinguifti them from the former, which are named
articulated to the tranfverfe procefs of the vertebra, and is breviores. Theyhavethin tendinous origins from the tranf-
continued towards the front as far as the jimftion of the verfe procefies, pafs over the ribs immediately below thefe
bone with the cartilage: beyond this point the intervals of proceiles, and are inferted into the upper borders of the fnc-
the cartilages are filled with their aponeurotic fibres, which ceeding ribs : thus tlie firft levator loiigior, arifing from the
have fimilar attachments and direftion to the external inter- tranfverfe procefs of the feventh dorfal vertebra, is fixed to
coftal mufcles. the ninth rib.

As the fibres of thefe external intercoftal mufcles pafs Thtfe mufcles are placed between the external inlercoftals

from above obliquely downwards and forwards, they form and the facrolumbalis and longiffimus dorfi.

towards the front acute angles with the upper and obtufe The triangularis Jlerni (llerno-coftalis, fterno-coftien) is a

angles with the lower ribs. The pofterior fibres are more very thin flattened ftratum, of a triangular figure, placed

oblique than the anterior. The ftratum placed under the behind the cartilages of the ribs. It is fixed to the pofte-

firft rib, between it and the fecond, is called the firft inter- rior part of the edges of ihe enfiform caitilage, and of the

coftal muftle ; and thofe of the following intervals, accord- fecond bone of tiie ftern\mi, as high as the cartilage of the

ing to the order in which they fuccecd, the fecond, third, fourth rib, by aponeurotic fibres, which cover a confider-

&c. to the eleventh. able portion of the mufcle. The flelliy fibres, direfted

Theexternal intercoftal mufcles are covered on their outer outwards and upwards, and more oblique as they are nearer

furfa'ces by moft of the broad mufcles of the trunk, as the to the upper part, form at firft a continuous broad layer,

two pcdtorals, obliquus externus abdominis, ferratus anticus, and then divide into feparate portions attached by thin apo-

and the ferrati poftici ; and in fome degree behind by the neurofes to the third, fourth, fiftii, and fixth ribs. It is

facrolumbalis and longiffimus dorfi. They correfpond on the conti"uous below with the tranfverfus abdominis ; cerre-

internal furface to tht- internal inlercoftals, from which they fponds in front to the cartilages of the four laft true lib?, to

Hre partly feparated by the intercoftal velfels and nerves, the internal intercoftal mufcles, and to the mammary velTels ;

i>ear the vertebral column they are covered by the pleura. and behind to the pleura, and for a fmall fpace to the
Tiv iniirnal iiili-rcojlal mufcles exaitly refcmble the former diaphragm.

The

I N r

The motions produced by tlie nuifcles in this region are
the elevation and deprcflion ol' tiie ribf, wliich coincide with
jnfpiration nnd exfpii-atiixi. The agents of elevation are the
ievRtores and intevcolbii muicles, bclides other auxiliary
powers. The fori;T:'-, tixcd to the tranfverfe procetTes,
which are immoveable, can obvioully exert their adion
only on the ribs, whicli lliey elevate and carry outwards.
Thus they increafe tlie tranfverfe diameter of the cheft, par-
ticularly at its lower part, where, on one hand, the mufcles
are much llronger, and on the other, in confequence of the
greater mobihty of the lower ribs, the refinance to be
overcome is much lefs. The aftion of the intercoftals in
elevating the ribs is much favoured by the mode of attach-
ment of the tirll and fecond of thefe bones. They pofFefs
but little power of motion, and therefore form a fixed
point, to w hich the others can be elevated. They arc more-
over (lill further fixed, pt^rticnlarly in deep infpirations, by
the fcaleni, which may carry them in a flight degree up-
wards. Both flrata, although the direfiions of their
fibres are fo different, aA equally as elevators : in faft, as
the upper part of the cliell is fixed, the lower portion mull
be moved by thefe powers. In great infpirations, other
mufcles attached to the cheft, as the peftorales, ferrati. Sec.
afllll the levatores and intercoftal mufcles in elevating and
turning outwards the ribs.

The depreflion of the ribs, or their reftoration from the
elevated to their former ftate, is nearly a paffive motion :
it depends, in the firft place, on the relaxation of the ele-
vating powers, and then on the elafticity of the cartilages
connefted to the fternum. Thefe are twilled in the act of
elevation, and immediately recover iherafelves when this
force ceafes to act. When the depreflion is more con-
fiderable, as in coughing, in difficult expecloi-ations, in
fneezing, cafes in which a ftrong exfpiration is required for
the purpofe of expelling much air from the cheil, an aclive
power is exerted for drawing down the ribs. The triangu-
laris fterni, which has its fixed point in the fternum, de-
prefTes the cartilages of the true ribs. The abdominal
mufcles fix below the loofe edges of the falfe ribs, which
thus become a fixed point to which the other ribs may be
deprefied by the intercoftal mufcles. Thus thsjattcr muf-
cles are elevators or depreiTors, according as the fixed point
is above or below. Moreover, the quadratus lumborum
holds down firmly the laft rib ; and bears the fame relation
to that bone in great exfpirations, which the fcaleni do to
the two firft ribs in deep infpirations. The ferratus
inferior pofticus aflifts the abdominal mufcles on thefe oc-
cafion^.

The intercoftal mufcles and the diaphragm feem to form
an exception to that general law of the voluntary mufcles,
by virtue of which, any mufcle after long exercife goes into
a ftate of fatigue, requiring for the reparation of its power
an intermiflion of atiion, which may be particularly ob-
ferved in fleep. Now the motions of the cheft, beginning
and ending with life, are never interrupted. Thio exception
is only apparent ; each contraftiou is fucceeded by a pro-
portionate relaxation, fo that the time of inactivity of the
peftoral mufcles equals that of their active ftate. More-
over, the diaphragm and intercoilals mutually fapply each
other's places : both are faid to be employed in infpiration,
but fomctimes one and fometimes the others are more ac-
tively concerned ; fo that we may confid.-r them in fome
-degree as alternately acting and refting. The ir.tercollals
appear to be the moft concerned duriug ilcep, and the
diaphragm in the waking ftate. Indeed a confiderable con-
traction of the latter, in forae meafure, oppofes that of the
Invcr inlcrcoftals, fince it tends to contract tlie lower cir-

1 N T

cumference of the cheft which the others enlarge. The
two ftrata of the intercoftals may contract feparatelv ; thus
one may reft while the other is employed. Laftly, the leva-
tores may alternate with the latter mufcles : thus, although
the motions of the cheft are conftant, thoir agents, like all
the other mufcles of the animal life, may be fubjetted to
the law of intermiflion of aftion. Hence, if rcfpiration i.i
confiderably hurried, and all the infpiratory mufcles are
brought into a<£lion, they are aflcftcd wilh a real laffitude,
and at laft cannot coutradl without difficulty. In running,
where the blood is carried in great ahundai.ce to the heart,
and muft pafs quickly through the cheft, we ixioji lofe breatii ;
which is merely experiencing a difficulty in contrafting tlir
tired m.ufcles of uifpirali u. Refpiration is then intti-
rupted, as locemotion would be by a fatigued ftate of th"
mufcles of the lower extremities ; and this may even go fo
far as to produce a real immobility of the inipiratory muicles.
a ftate, which though not dangerous in otlier inltances, m
in the organs ot locomotion for example, is fatal in the refiK-
ratory mufcles as it iiifpcnds breathing. Examples of ani-
mals, and even of men falling fuddeiily dead after great ex
ertions in running, are not extremely rare. Death occurs iu
thefe inftances, as when the phrenic nerve or the fpinal mai row.':
is divided. Thofe affections of the cheft, in which relpira-:
tion-'.s hiu-ried for a certain time,occafion at laft a real laffitude
of the peftoral muicles ; and tlie difficulty of breathing
produced by this tired ilate of the moving or_ans, fuccecding
to that produced by the difeafe itfelf, prolongs the painful
fenfation of fuffocation. We mull diftinguifti, in tiiefe cales,
what belongs to the lung, from that which arifes from the
mufcles. After certain hyilerical attacks, in which the dia-
phragm and intercoftal mufcles liave been violently agitated,
a real fenfe of fatigue is experienced in the cheft, which can
only be moved with difficulty, and not to a fuificient extent
for the production of loud founds, a phenomenon which may
be obferved alfo after exertion in running. The mufcles
require reft before they can expel air m a quantity capable of
producing ftrong and diilinft founds.

IxTEUCOST.'VLKS Arter'is, arteries which run in the inter-
vals of the ribs :. the iniercoftales vense are veins corre-
fponding to thofe. See Artery and Vox.

IxTEKf.O.^TALES Nervi, are the branches of the fpinal
marrow in the back, which accompany thefe arteries and
veins.- The epithet hiurcnjlala is fometimes alfo applied to
the great fympathetic nerve. See Nerve.

INTERCUS, a word ufedby fome medical writers, to
exprefs that fort of dropfv more ufuallv called an anafarca.
IN rERDICT, a cenfure inflicted by a pope, or bifliop,
fufpending the priefts from their functions, and depriving
the people of the ufe of facraments, divine fervice, and
Chriftian burial.

In common law, interdift is alfo ufed iu the fame fenfe
as in the canon law ; where it is defined to be, " cen-
fura ecclefiaftica prohiben? adminiftrationem divinorum."

Interdict is moft properly underftood of a general ex-
communication of a country, or city, as appears by the
Decretals. See ExcoAtMuxicwTiox.

There is a local and a /i^'/yina/interdift : where thefe two
are joined, the interdift is faid to he mixed.

This puniftiment, as well as general excommunication-,
were but little known till the time of pope Gregory VII,
In the year 1169, pope Alexander III. put aU England
under an interdict, forbidding the clergy to perforin any
part of divine fervice, except the. baptizing of infants,
taking confeffion, and giving abfolution t? dying peni-.
tents.

In escommunicating. a prince, aU his adherents, that is,

.hii

1 N T

4.is fub|ecls who retain iheir allegiance, are excommunicated,
and the whole country ia put under an interditl. In the
reign of king John, the kingdom of England lay under a
papal interdict, for above fix years together : it began A. D.
120S.

In imitation of the popes, the bifhops alfo foon began to
interdict ; and it became a common thing for a city, or
■town, to be excommunicated for the fake of a fingle perfon
whom they undertook to fheltcr; but this feverity was found
to have fuch ill effects, that they have been obliged to mode-
rate it.

An interdict is denounced, and taken off again, with the
fame formalities as an excommunication.

Interdicts, in the Reman Law, certain formula of
words by which the praetor, when the pofleflion of any
thing was contefted between many, ordered or forbade fome-
thing to be done with it, till the right or property (hould
be legally determined.

V'liich formula: were called interdifts, becaufe they re-
lated to the poffeflion of the thing in the interim, or till the
right was afcertained.

Thev liad three kinds of mlcrd\€i%, prohibitory, rejlitutory,
and exhihitory. Prohibitory, were thofe by which the judges
forbade any one to vex another in the poireffion of any thing
legally belonging to him. Rejlitutory were thofe by which
the judges appointed any one, who had been expelled out of
his eftatc to be repofleffed, before his right was legally afcer-
tained ; and this was the fame with what they called the re-
ir.tegranl. Exhibitory were thofe by which any thing in dif-
pute was ordered to be exhibited ; as a teftament, &c.

There was alfo a fecond divifion of interdicts ; inz. into
adipifands, rctinaida, and recupcrand^ : the firll tending to
the acquiring a new pofleflion, as the interdid quorum bonorum.
Sec, the fecond to the keeping an old one till it was farther
determined, as the uti pojidelis, &c., the laft to the recovering
one Jolt, as imje li, &c.

INTERDICTION 0/ IVater and Fire, a fentence anci-
ently pronounced againft fuch as, for fome crime, were to be
ba::i'ilied.

They were not direftly adjudged to banifliment ; but by
giving order, that nobody ihould receive them, but deny
.them fre and 'water, they were condemned, as it were, to
a civil death : and this they called kgitimum exilium. Livy.
See ExiLK.

INTEREST, a fum of money reckoned for the loan
and forbearance of fome other fum, lent for, or due at, a
certain time, according to fome certain rate.

The fum lent, or forborn, is called ihe principal, becaufe
It is the fum that procreates the intereft, or from which the
interefl is reckoned.

Interell is eiiher Jimple or compound.

IsTKHK^ir, Jimple, is that counted from the principal only.
Le': p reprelent the principal, n the number of years or
parts of a year, r the interell of i/. for a year, and m the
amount of the principal p for the time n at the rate r ; and
fince the amount of i/. for one year is i + r, the amount
of l/. for B years, muft be 1 + n r ; the interell of the
principal^ at the rate r in n years muft be^« r ; and il. :
I + n r :: p : p + p n r = m the amount : from this general
theorem we can eafily deduce problems for refolving all the
cafes that occur in fimple intere.1.

Prob. I. — Having any principal fum, and time, and rate
of interell given, to find the amount : RSm=:p+pnr=:
p X t -\- n r ; VIC (hall have lliis rule : multiply the intereft
of i/. for A year by the given number of years. Add unit/
Jo the produft and multiply the fum by the given principal :
this fecend produft will be the amount required. £. g.

I N T

what fum will 567/. 10s. amount to in nine years at y^r cent,
per annum P Here p — 567.5, n := 9, and r = .05 ; there-
fore m=pXI-rnr:zz 567.5 X 1 H" '45 = 822. S75 =
822/. ly^f. 6d. Or if it were required to find the amount of
one penny at 5 per cent, fimple interell in 1780 years;
p— id., n zzi 1780, and r =. .05, therefore m = 1 x
1 -j- 89 = 90 ^. = -fS. 6d.

If the time given does not confift of whole years thefra^
tional part may be eafily reduced to decimal parts of a
year.

Prob. 2. — Having the amount of any principal at a given
rate in a given time, to find the principal ; it appears.

from the theorem.

/■ X I +

that/>= ="-

/. e. divide the amount by the produft of the time and intereft
of i/. for a year with unity added to it. E. g. what principal
will amount to 822/. 17.1. 6d. in nine years at ^ per cent. per
annum ? Here m — 822/. 17J. Gd. or S22.875, ^""^ "> *" ^*

before : therefore = -■ "' '^ = 567. ?, or 567/. i cs.

I -r H »• I + .45 .

Prob. 3 — Having the amount of a given principal at a
given rate, to find the number of years. From the theo-
rem we eafily deduce, by tranfpofition and divifion, n ■=.

-, viz. fubtraft the principal from the amount, and

divide the remainder by the produdl of the principal and in-
terell of i/. for a year. E.g. in what time will 567/. los.

amount to 8 2 2/. 1 71. (jd. at 5 per cent, per annum ? n — =

822.875 - 567-> ^ i55-_375 ^
28.375 28.375 ^'

Prob. 4. — Having the amount of a given principal in a
given time, to find the rate, and confequently the intereft

tier cent. From the theorem we eafily derive r = i »

. . P".

1. e. fubtraft the principal from the amount, and di-
vide by the product of the principal into the number
of years; e. g. at what rate per cent, will 567/. ics.

amount to 822/. lyj-. 6d.

Here — -

-.67.

and, therefore, the

^ 3_7i

5107.5 5107.5

interell is ^ per cent.

Prob. 5. — The annual intereft of any principal/ at the
rate r, is p r ; i. e. multiply the principal by the intereft of
ll. for a year, e.g. the intereft of 75/. for one year at 3 per
cent, is 75 x ,03 — 2.25 = 2/. 5J. The intereft of 157/.
l-js. 6d. at ^ per cent, is 157. S75 (reducing the 17/. 6d. to
decimals of a pound) x .05 = 7.^937) — 7/. i7-f- lo^^d.
The intereft of any principal p at the rate r for /; years, is
pr n ; obtained by multiplying the principal, rate, and num-
ber of years.

The daily intereft is found by dividing the annual intereft
by 365 ; thus .05, being the intereft of one pound for one
year at 5 percent., divided by 7,(1^, the quotient will be
.OCO1369, Sec. which is the intercit of one pound for one

day at the fame rate. ' And — =: .0000821 is the int£rc(l

of one pound for one day, at 3 per cent, per annum. The in-
tereft for one day, at any rate, being thus found, titat interell
inu'tiplitd by 2, 3, 4, J, 6, &c. gives the intereft of one
p: und f( r any number oi days ; and thus die following table
of fimple intereft fw any number o4 days is eafily mule.

0 ' ' ATabJ-E

INTEREST.

ATa

Of Simple Iiitcreft The Interca of One Pound for any Xiiniber of Days

j 3^ per cent. 4 per

1^ per c

0000,821 j.oooo,95Sj.oooi,o9j .0001
000 1 ,64 1 i-ooo 1 ,9 1 6, .0002, 1 9 1 .0002,46
0x302,465 ,.0002,8761.0003,287 .0003,698
0003,287 .0003,8.5 J, .0004,3 83 .0004,93
0004, io9,.ooo4,794 .0005,47-91.0006, 164

0004,93 r.oco5,753
0005, 753:. 0006,7 J 2
0006,575.0007,67 1
ooo7,397'.poo8,630
0008,2191.0009,589

.0006,575
.0007,671
.0008,767
.0009,863
.0010,958

0010,547
0011,506
0012,465
0013,424
0014,383

.001

.0013,
,0014.

0007,39;
0008,630
0009,863
001 1,095

0012,328

2,054

^'2461
342
43S

0013,561
0014,794
0016,027
0017,260
0018,493

.0014,794,
.0015,616,
.ooi6,43S|,

0015,342
0016,301
0017,260!
0018,219:
0019,178!

.00 17, 260'. 00.20, 137
.0018,082 .0021,0951
.0018,904.0022,054'
.0019,7261.0023,0131
.0020,5471.0023,972;

0023:
0024,
0025:

C326;

0001,369

0002,739

0004,109
0005,479
0000,849

0008,2 1 9j 6
0009,589
0010,958^ 8
0012,328 9
0013,698 10

5,068 II
.0016,438 I 2
ooi7,8oSj3
ooT9,i78ji4
0020,547; 1 5

0019,726 .002i,9i7'i6
0020,958 -0023, 287, 17
0022,191 .oo24,657ji8
oo23,424|-oo26,o27,i9
0024,657 .0027,397120

.0021,369

.0022,I9I'

.0023,013;

.OO23.S35;

30'. 0024, 657

0024,931.0028,493

0025,8901.0029,589
0026:8491.0030,684

0027, 8cS .0031,781
0028,767^.003 2,876

0027,123

.0028,767
.0030,137:22
128,356 .003 1,80623
,0029,5801.003 2,876'
0030,8211-0034,246

36

.0025,479.
.0026,301 .
.0027,123 .

^ . .0027,945;.
35.0028,7671,

0029,726.0033,97
0030,684.0035,068
003 1,643'. 0036, 164
003 2,602, .003 7,26c
°°33>j64°°38.356

0029,5 ">9;.
0030,41 r.
0031,232.

0032,054'.
0032,8761.

0033,698'.
,0034,520.
0035,3421.
0036,164'.
,0036,986

0034,520:

003 5 '479;
0036,438!
°°37.397!
0038,356;

0039,452
0040,547
0041,643

0042,
0043,835

46 .0037,808
^71.0038,630
1^.0039,452
4f',. 0040,274

'=■^39.313,
0040,274
0041,2321
0042,191!
0043,150

0044,931
0046,027
0047,123
0048,219
0049,3

.0044,009.0050,411
.ooj5,c68 .0051,50^
.0046,0271.0052,60
.0046,9861.0053,69:

0032,054
0033,287!
0034,520!

°°3j'753i
0036,986!

.0035,61626
.0036,986 27
.0038,556 28,
.0039,726 29':
.0041,09530!

0038,219!
0039,452!
0040,684
0041,917
0043,15c

1.0042,465131
•°o43.f'35 32!

•o«45''^05:33i
•0046,575134
•°o47>545:3J

0044,383
0045,616
0046,849

0048,082
0049,315

•c°49,3'j!36

.oo5o,6S4'37i
.0052,054138
.0053,424^9

.54,79440

.0056,164141
•o°57.J34;42
.0058,904143
.0060,274 .J.4
.0061,64345

.0063,013
.0064,383
.0065,753
.0067,123
.0061,643 .0068,493

I 3 1'"

.0041,91;
.0042,739
.0043,561
.0044,383

0046,027
,0046,849
,0047,671
,0048,493

'i P"-- '

C048,
0049,

0050,
0051,

90-1

86;
82"!
78c
.739r

0055,8901.0062,876 .0069,863
oo56,9S6'-oo64,ic9 .0071,232
0058,082 .oo65,342;.oo7 2,602
oo59,i78J.oo66,575'.oo73,972
0060,274 .0067,808'. 0075,342

,0050,137
,0050,958

.0051,780
,0052,602
C05 3-424

C053,
0054,

0056,;

0057,^

0061,309!
0062,465!
0063,561}
0064,6571
0065,753!

0069,041
0070,274
0071,506
0072,739

0=73-97 2i

0058,
0059,
O06O;
,006 1,
0062.

oo66,849|.
0067,945 .
0069,041:.
0070,137!.
0071,232.

0076,712
0078,082
0079,452
6080,821
0082,19

0054,246.
0055,068.
0055,89c'.
0056,712;.
0057,534!.

oo;i3,
0064;
0065,
C066:
0067,

287L
246I.'
205V

;

0075,616
0076,712

0075,205!.
oo76,.^38j.
0077,671 •
0078,904.
0080,137].

0081,369'.
0082,602].
0083,835;.
0085,068'.
0086,301'.

0083,561
0084,93 1
0086,301!
0087,671
0089,041

0090,41 1
,0091,780
,0693,150
.0094,5201
,0095,890

„

0058,356!.
0059,178 .
oc6o,ooo .
0060,821 .
0061,643 .

0068,
0069,
0070,
0070.
0071,

0077,808
0078,904
0080,000

0087,534.

0088,767.

0090,000.
8^0081,0951.0091,232
71.0082,191 [.0092,465,

0097,260!
0098,630

0101,369

ri_:

.0062,4651

.0063,287
.0064,109'
.0064,931!
.0065,753.

,0072,876'. 0083,287 .0093,6981.

■O073'835i-oo84,383..oc94,93i|.
,oo74,794LooS5,479!.oo96, i64|.
■0075, 7 53 1-0086,5751.0097, 397,.
.0076,7 1 2].ooS7,67 11.0098,6301.

0106:
0108:
0109

,109
.479
.^49
,2.9,
.5-!9

0066,575 .

,0067,397!.
,0068,2)9}.
,0069,041 .
,0069,863!

0077,6711.0088,7671.0199,863:.
0078,630 .ooS9,863'.oi 01, 095'
oo79,589!.oQ9o,958i.oio2.328}.
0080,547 j.oc92,o5.Ao 1 03^,56 1 .
0081,506.0093,1501.0104,794

86. 0070. 684Lco82,465]. 0094,2461. 01 06,02

,4241.0095,34^1.0107,260

i,9o.< .0092,05^
1,7261.0093,013
.,547,.oo93,97--
,36(, .0094,93
i, 191^0095,890

5,958;
.,328,
i/:'^8|
i,o68,
J.43SI

0121,917
.0123,287

0099,736 .01 12,101
0100,821 .01 13,424
0101,917.0114,657
0103,013.0115,890
0104,1091.0117.123 .0130,13

.0131,506
.0132,876
0134,24^.
oi35,6i(
0136,986

0105,205.0118,356
0106,3011.0119,589
0107,3971.0120,821
0108,4931.0122,054
0109,5891.0123,287

INTEREST.

A Table of Siinple Intereft.
'I'he Iiiterell of One Pound for a Number of Years.

f

?

At :)pc.

•J-V per coiit .

4 per
ctat.

4 ^ per cent

5 p« cent.

P

I

'°3

.03j

.04

•=^5

•°5

,

2

.06

.07

.oS

.C9

.1

2

.=!

.09

.IC5

.12

•'5

3

4

.12

•'4

.16

.18

.2

4

5

.15

•'-75

.2

•--5

•25

5

6

.18

.21

.24

•27

.3

6

7

.21

.245

.28

•3 "5

•35

7

8

.24

.28

•32

•36

•4

8

9

■27

•315

•36

.405

•45

9

10

•3

•35

•4

•45

•5

10

I,

■U

.;S,

•44

•495

•55

II

12.

•,H6

.42

.48

•54

.6

12

I.?

•39

•455

•585

.65

13

H

•4-!

•49

■50

•^^3

•7

14

ij-

•45

■s^i

.6

•675

•75

'5

i6

.48

•56

.64

.8

16

17

•51

•595

.68

•S5

17

i8

•54

•63

•72

.8i

•9

iS

19

•57

.665

.76

.85;

•95

19

20

.(.

.8

•9

*•

20

21

■^3

•735

.84

•945

1.05

21

22

.66

.88

•99

1.1

22

2^

.60

.S05

.92

I-C35

i.ij

23

24

.72

.84

.06

i.oS

1.2

24

25

•75

.875

I.

1.125

1.2;

25

77j£" Cy^ 0/ the preceding Tab!e. — When the intereft of any
funi of money is required for any number of days, look in
tUe table for the number of days, and even with tliat num-
bt-r, under the given rate of intereit, will be found the in-
tereft of one pound, for that time, and at tliat rate ; which
ir-tereft, fo found, being multiplied by the principal fum,
the prodii£l nnfwers the queftion.

Example. — Wiiat is the intercll of 462/. for 85 days, at
5' per cciil. per annum ?

la the table, even with 8, days, and under 5 per cer.l.,
you find the intercll of il. to be .0116,438.

"Which multiplied by the principal 462, the produft will
be 5/. ■js. :^d.

N.B. If the principal fums contain {hillings and pence,
you muflr reduce them into decimal parts, and multiply ac-
cordingly.

When the intereft of any fum is required for a number
of years and days together, as it frequently happens upon
paying off a bond or mortgage, add the intcreil of one
pound for the years at the end of the foregoing table, to
the intercfl. of one pound for the odd days; multiply that
by the principal fum, and the produdl will anfwer the
quedion.

By the aflillance of the following table the intereft of
any fum of money may be obtained, from a million to a
;.ouirJ, for anv number of days, at anv rate of intercll.

N'.

f.

-

d.

?•

N .

..

-

d.

1- !

1 000000

2739

14

6

0.99

1000

14

9

2.14

900000

24b,-

15

0

3-29

900

9

3

3-1 :

800000

2191

7

1-59

800

'^

10

O.II

7 0000

I917

16

I

3-f^9

700

18

4

1. 10

600000

1643

16

8

2.19

60c

12

10

2. So

500000

1369

17

3

0.49

500

7

5

3-'°

400000

1095

17

9

2.95

4CO

I

1 1

0.50

300000

821

18

4

1.09

300

0

lO

5

1.4-

2CO0O0

574

18

10

3-4°

200

0

10

11

2.30

I 00000

273

19

1.70

100

0

5

5

90000

2.^6

II

0

0.96

90

0

4

o.;i

80000

219

3

6

o.9(>

80

0

4

4

2.41

70000

191

7

1-59

0

,^

10

0.11

60000

164

7

8

0.22

60

0

^

3,

1.81

50000

136

19

8

2.85

5°

0

2

8

b.-^l

40.00

log

9

1.4S

40

0

2

2

1.21

30000

82

3

10

30

0

I

7

2.90

20000

54

10

2.74

20

0

I

I

c.Oo

10000

27

7

11

1.^7

10

0

0

6

2.30

9000

24

13

I

3^23

9

0

0

3^f>7

8000

21

iS

4

l.IO

8

0

0

5

1.40

7000

19

6

2.06

7

0

0

4

2.41

6000

16

8

9

0.82

6

0

0

3

3^76

5000

13

13

II

2. 58

5

0

0

1.15

4000

10

J 9

2

C.55

4

0

0

2

2.52

3000

8

4

4

2.41

3

0

0

1

3.80

2000

5

9

7

0.27

2

0

0

I

1.26

1000

14

9

2.14

'

0

0

0

263

Multiply the fum by the number of days, and the pro-
dudl thereof by the rate of intereft />(■/• cent, then cut off the
two laft figures to the right hand, and enter the table with
what remains to the left ; againll which numbers colljfted,
you have the intereft for the given fum.

Example.— Vlh&lis the intereft of 100/. at ^!. percent, for
365 days ?

£. s. d. q.
N". of days 365 f Then in the table

Mult, by 100 \ againft loco is 2 14 9 2.14

Product - 36500 Soo - 2 3 10 O.II

Mult, by - 5 rate per cent. 20-01 I o.6o

1825 j^nf. 500 0.00

the intereft required. See Smart's Tables. Fergufon's
Trafts, &c. For the method of calculating annuities, fee
Annuities.

IsTKREST Compound, is that which is counted both from
the principal, and the fimple intereft forborn ; called alio
interejl upon intereji.

Compound intereft arifes from the principal and its intereft
put together, as that intereft becomes due. To find this, it
is neceflary to find the new principal, which is ftill created
by the increafe of the growing money, at the feveral times
when the payments of intereft were due.

Although it be not lawful to lend m.oney at compound
intereft, yet in purchafing amiuities, penfions, reverfions,
&c., it is ufual to allow compound interell to the purchafer
for his ready money ; and, llieieforc, it is very iiecefrary to
underftand this fubjedl. Let p, r, n, and m, be as before ;

and

INTEREST.

Ex. 2 — Let n and i -(- r be the fame as above, and m =

i 20.06, tlien will a

120.06 X .04

and let it be required to find m the amount of the lam p ii
years at the rater. Now, fiippofing the amount of i/.

one year to be i - r, the amount of the fame fum in t' ^_ ^^

years will be i + r] ; for i : i -t- r = i 4- r : I -t '1^ ^•°-+' "" '

In like manner i : i -j- r = l + r) : i - r] the amount Ex. l- — Putting i + r and m = 1.04 and 1 20. 06 re.
of 1/ in three years, and the amount of i/. by the fame r«le - -, ^ _

in n years will be i -(- r]". Confcquently the amount m of fpcftivL-ly, and a = 10, « will be — — -' ^j',, = lO.

Viie fum />in /; years will be* . T r '!'• From this equation ' ' ^^^

Ex. 4 Retaining the fame values of m and a as m the

we have^ :

rl"

log, m — \og. p-

and

■ — , anu r . • 120. 06I'' \

log. I 4- r preceding example, and putting « = 10, £ ( = ~ ' ~i )

be — .04146, b (= — ^ will be =

.5454, and

+ -04523 -•54:)4

.,-«.)

will

Example. I.— Let^ = 50 . . I -t- r = 1. 04 . . n =: y-

50, then will m (the amount of ^ol. in 30 years at J,l. per ^^= V.2cj-j^\

ant.) be == 50 x 1.04.]'^ = 162/. 17. be = .04.

E.r. 2 Let m = 162/. 17. . . . n = 30 ( I -|- r =

J53.J-, Since I + r is the amount of i/. In one year, the converfe

1.04), the fum jl %^ ill then be =:: _1 — ^ = 50. ^

i-°4 r-' of this expreffion, or will be the difcountof i/. for

Ex. 3. — Let m, p, and r be rrfpeftively equal to 162.17 ' '^

... JO ... and .04, Uien will n be = jj^^ j-^^g ^j^^ . f^^ if i + ;- to be received at the end of

2.2099705 — I.69S9700 _ ^ a year is of the fame valac with the prefent payment of i/.

.0170333 ~ ^°' by the rule of proportion i/. to be received at the end of a

£.?. 4.— Let m,/, and n be refpeaively equal to 162.17 ■„ , r , r 1 • t, ' A
year will be of the fame value with • now received,

. . . CO . . . and 30, and r will be equal to ' -*-•' 'j r5

50 i
— I = ■04-

As the amount of i/. in n years is i n- rj", the amount
of the fame fum in n — i years will be i J- r]''"',in h — 2 in

years i + 'r\"~-, &c. ; therefore, if i/. be the amount at ^ i ■ - 1 ■ i
the end of the firfl: year, the feries i -j- i + r + i + r\' -f received at the end of two years, and hence =
I + rj"^' will exprefs the amount of i/. per ' + ''I

+ ,.)■■ _ , the prefent value of i/. to be received at the end of n years,
the value of the fum a, therefore, to be received at the end

that is, I + »■ :
+ '■ : I =

By the fame reafon-
the value of i/. to be
will be

annum in n years, which may eafily be found — ^ "^ '"

and m (the amount of the annual fum a) will be =

^' ^ "*" ' , hence a will be :=-. -^ » and n =

1 + rC

of n years will be ^ w = tt ; from this equation the

value of a will be found = rr . i -f- r]", the value

log.)

I02. I

of

„ = '^g^-JfSlII.andtl

In order to find the value of r, let the binomial i 4-
be expanded, &c., and — will be = j + — — r

le value of r = "[»

4- &c. and J!L I. .-I _

log.

1 r 4- Exdwpk I.— Let n be = 20 . . « = 40 . . T~+~r =z
20
1.06, andT= 7;^*'= '•944-

Ex. 2. — If ff = 1-944, I 4- r = 1.06, andn = 40, g

' "^ *■ + ('= ITSf^^ X 1.944") will be = 20.

'^- — • .r* nearly. Put 1 = <-, and =i,thi

■will rbe= \ ib + 26 c
Example I. — If a — ic

J.04, m will be = —

.04

Vol. XIX.

Ex. 3. — Retaining the values of t and i + r, and put-

.„ , 1. 3010? — .28878C6
;inff a — 20, « will he—^ "^ ^-i- = 40.

fa .0253059

Ex. 4. — If T = 1.944 . . a = 20, and n = 40, i»

(= -^° h' - i ") will be = .06.

INTEREST.

The value of i/., pavable at the end of n years, being m _ , j j. "» r «.

■^ - , — therefore vnll be = i -t- r. , and /> = - — i • Ji irom

=:;,, its value at the end of n — i years will be— — ^^_, *-

J + ri- I +11' . r

at the end of n — 2 years = ^. , and fo on. It fol- which r will be found = — -— •

,^-,-1— mp

lows, therefore, that the prefcnt value of the annual payment „ c \ ^. m

' ^ r t ■> ^ Q^j^ , ^^ ^^ p bcmg given to find r. Since - =■

of a for n years will be expreffed by the feries — -— f

a _ a 1 + ;>, the log. I + r will' be

' "" '' 1 + r, and confequently r, will be known.

^===j„ = /; which, therefore, is given when a, n, and Ca/f j.-n., r, /. being given to find n. Tliis is derived

»• are given. If/, «, r are given, the value of a will be ob- from the preceding cafe, being = — ===^-.

tained, being = Vi^^—^ ' . If a, r, p are given, the value q^j-^ 4.-0, m,p being given to find n . . . 1 + r'" being =^

log. a - log. a"^:^ -. ^, I -r H' - 1 "iU be known; and fince r is =

of n will be obtained, beine = _s — ° i — In p

log. I + r ^^ _

order to find the value of r, when a, p, n are given, let the Ij; '_!_ ^ ^ „i]i alfo be known, therefore, fince log,.

I, a '"

binomial 1 -t- /I" in the equation - - ,7;7^7i- = ■?' r+~^' is = n x log. FTT, n will be known, being =

be expanded, &c., and we fliall have — = J , -.

na ^ ' log. 1 -t- r

n+i.n+2 ..„ r ,71 ,7+7 — f-''^/'' ^- — o, r, p being given to find m. 3v Ci^^f J, '«■

r + r , &c. ; confequently — ~ at

^•3 ^^^^^^^^ "^ ^ may be calily found = -—f—.

"^-T- ■HI n-l-I n+I.n+2,,, -;;t;_ a — pi

— j«+' wiUbe= I ^'' + ^r '^'«'^^' — Trt/J 6— a, », / being given to find m. The value of r

— J rnay be derived from one of the foregoing theorems, in which

J 4 r ^^ — r' nearly. Let — j"^' — I = J, and a,/, n are given (being = ^ +•/ i4 — 2^1/), .and hence m =

' ^ " / i p. r +^rJ" will alfo be given.

*, then will r be = i -f- \,' bb — 2lrd. Cafe -j.—nt r, p being given to find m- As r is given, this

» ~ ' value is immediately obtained from the preceding cafe, being

Example I. — Snppofing a, n, r to be refpeflively equal to __ a _ fTITTl";

10, 21, and .DC, then will 6 be =z — — '° -., = Cafe 8.— m, ;>, a being given to find p. By C^y^ i, r is =

.05 .05.x 1.05I ■ ^;r^p,a ^ , am

200 — 71.79 = I2S.2I. T — . therefore/- = — r-,,^--

Example 2.— Let ;;, r, and/> be refpeclive'ry equal to 21, ' "

, p i_ ■„ , -o? X 105'" C/1/c- q.— 7;, »i, r being given to find *. Since — = "i + r'"

.cj, and 12S.21, then will a. be = . / . 1— = y y > ' 6 fa /- ^

iTo5^'-' — I ra

.1:0? X 12S.21 * will be = ^=,\

V-^ =10. ^ I + rl

'■' Ca/* 10. — n, »i, a being given to find/. Let the value

Example 3.— The quantities r and / being (liU the fame of r be found when m, n, a are given by one of the preceding

ard.ij being equal 10, n will be = — T •5"'5°34g _ jj,_ theorems (being = V ii -f- 2.ic — ^), and/ = "*

.0211893 I + r'*

Example \. — a,/, n being refpedively equal toio, 128,21, will then be given,

and 21, r will be equal to V .06246 = .3 — .25 = Cnfe 11.— n, m, / being given to find a. Since — =

.05. ,;;]■

The following twelve cafes, though they do not fo fre- ^ + '' "' '" "''" ^« = ;,'"" "' ^"'^ confequently given ;

quently occur in pradtice as the preceding, may not im- , j. ^,. , r . r j r .u

properly be added here. Let a, as before,, be the anauity, ^'^""^"'"^ ''^'^ ^'^'"^ "'^ " "=">: ^'^ ^""""^ ^'"'"^ '^^ ^^"^^'°" '" =

u the number of years, m the amount of the annuity in n I + »'
years, / its value for the fame time, and r the rate 01 iii^
tercft.

Cafe I — m, p, a being given to find r. In the foregoing Cnfe 12. — r.i, p, r being given to find a. Let - be fub-

•afes m beirg =: _: J , and/ = .fj-'^t '_^, Ilituted for its equal \ + ;' ' in the c.vprelTion "-| _ ,

a:id

6

INTEREST.

_ mp,

and a will be = »»

I VI — p

p

Dr. Mafkelyne, in his introdudion to Taylor's loga-
rithms, has, with the view of facilitating thefe operations,
had recourfe to the tables of logarithmic fines and tangents,
by putting r = /"- . A, 1 + *• = fee' A, I + /■'- = fee.'-,
B, &c. ; thus, in Cafe \, the value of r becomes = - x

for - being
P

— — X a. Inlikemanner, inCfl/fi2, (1= c=^-,,^— -

. B

becomes = 7 — - „ —

fee. B — 1 » .
or m . «= . A X f 0 - <= . B. But though the expreffions
appear more limple, I do not know that in general the opera-
tions will be found to be much facilitated by thefe means.

In the preceding cafes money has been fuppofed to be
improved or difcounted yearly. But all thefe different
theorems may, however, be applied to the folution of cafes
which require money to be Improved or difcounted at
(horter intervals. Thus, fuppofing it were required to de-
termine the amount of 50/., when laid out half yearly, to
accumulate at 4/. per cent, for the term of 30 years : /> is
= 50, n = Z X 30 ^ 60, r th" intereft of I/, for half
a year = .02, and m ~ p i -r r^' becomes = 50 x
i^ '> = 164.05. If improved quarterly it will be =
50 X I 01' " '« = l6j.

A wain, if it were required to determine the amount of
5/. laTd out half yearly, to be improved at 4/. per cent, during

a term of 10 years. In this cafe ;

will

proved quarterly,

rill be

[21.486, and if it be im-

InUke manner, if money be difcounted at {horter intervals
thanayear, the prefent value will be obtained from theexpreffion

. ' ; thusjlettheprefentvalueberequired of 20/. payable
I 4 '■ ' '

at the end of 40 years, fuppofing money to be difcounted every
half year at 61. per cent. I^re n becomes = 2 x 40 =

80, r = --— = -OS' 3nd confequently v = -^^'^.i =

-=-=-CT, = 1.8795.
1.03 '

Let h be any fraftion of a year in which money is to be im-
proved or difcounted, and the amount or prefent value may aU
•ways be found from the amount or prefent value when money
is improved or difcounted yearly, being the fame with fuch

amount or value at - intereft for kn years. Thus, the

amount of 50/. improved half yearly at 4/. percent, for 30
years is the fame with the amount of 50/. improved yearly
for 60 years at 2/. per cent. ; the amount of j/. per ami. im-

proved half yearly for 10 years at 4/. prr rent., is the fame
with the amount of 5/. per ann. improv.d yearly for 20
years at 2/. prr cent. ; and 10/. difcounted half yearly for
40 years at 6/. />-r cent, is the fame with 10/. difcounted
yearly for 80 years at 3/ per cent. The different values of
annuities, when payable yearly, half yearlv, quarttrly, or
at fhorter intervals, may in the fame manner be deduced' from
the preceding theorems, but thefe are explained in the article

AXNUITIEN,.

M. De Moivre, M. D'Alembert, and fome others, inftead
aking theintercft of 1/. for the kh part of a year = —

have chofen to make it = i + ,'* _ i, and hence the
amount of i/. in n yc^rs, or its prefent value at the end of
n years, will be the fame, whether money be improved or
difcounted ye.irly, or at fliorter intervals. But the amonnt
of i/./ifra«rt. will be to its amount when improved yearly
ill the conftant ratio of r to i x i +P' — i, and the
value of an annuity of it. will be to irs value, when
paid yearly, ir.verfely as r to jf , i -f- rM — i, whatever
the length of the term during which the money is to
accumulate, or the annuity is to continue. Now, it is
well known that the difference between the values of annui-
ties payable yearly, and their values, when pavable half-

yearly, quarterly, or at fliorter intervals, is alwa

:;n'ened

the term is extend d, fo that if the annuity be perpetual,
the values will be the fame, whether the payments are made
yearly, orin any fractional part of the year ; which can never
be the cafe on the fuppofition alove menlioned. When n is

= loa

=^— -M02

~l.

-)■ r, an annuity pay.

able every ith part of the year, will be equal to the perpetuity,
fo that an annuity payable haf -yearly, at 5/. per cent, for
90^ years, or quarterly for 80 years, will be equal to the
fame annuity payable yearly for ever. And at dl.per cent.
the annuities will be of equal value if the term be only 72.1
years in the one cafe, or 6j.; years in the other. But while
thefe rules, when the term is very long, give the values of
annuities payable at fhorter inter>-'als than a year too high,
they alwa; s, on the contrary, and efpecially w hen the term is
very long, give the amount of a fum much too low. Thus
fuppofing one penny to be laid out at 5/ percent, compound
intered: at the birth of our Saviour, or 16 10 years ago, it
will accumulate, when money is improved yearly, to a fum
which is equal to 381,860,000 globes of fohd'gold, each
equal to the earth in magnitude. When improved half-yearly,
to a fum which is equal to 1,121,470,000 of fuch globes,
and when improved quarterly, to a fum which is equal to
1,945,680,000 fuch globes ; fo that although in this long
time the accumulation is nearly three limes greater v^hen
money is improved half-yearly, and more than live time*
greater when improved quarterly than it is when money is
improved yearly, yet according to the fuppolition that
l+H* is the amount of i/. in the ith part of a year, or

1 -(- r' ' = its amount in n years, its accumulation will be
the fame, whether money is improved yearly, hulf-yeariy, or

quarterly. It may eafily be fhcwti that 1 + r I' — i is al-
ways lefs than - , or, in other words, that this exprcflion

does not give tU- full intereft of i/. for the /th part of a
year. It is no wonder, therefore, that any theorcnia de ivcd
from a principle fo enooeous, fhould, like the preceding,
lead to concluficns which are not only incorrect but abfurd.
M m J Ti»

INTEREST.

To the foregoing, a great number of ether cafes might
Ije added. But it will be fufficient to give only a few of
the mod curious and important ; fome of which having
occurred in praftice, it would perhaps be improper to omit
them.

Theorem I — To determine the time in which i/. will be
doubled by compound intereft.

5(?/«/;ort —Since i + r\" the amount of i/. at the end of
n years is in this cafe = 2 n, or the required time, will be

= Jq ^— ^ •; from which it appears that money doubles

itfelf at 3/ per cent, in 2j§ years nearly ; at 47. per cent, in
17I years ; at 5/. per cent, in 14J- years ; at 6/. per cent, iu
1 1 ,% years ; at S/. per cent, m 9 years ; at j o/. per cent.
in 75 years ; and at 12/. per cent, in 6^ years nearly.

Theorem 2. — Suppofing money to be doubled.by compaund
interell in n years, required r the rate of interelt at which
it has been improved.
' Solution — The log. i + r, by the preceding theorem

being given = ■ ' "' ", the value of r v.ill alfo be given.
Or, if • the hyperbolic logarithm of 2 be exprefTcd by h, it

annuity to be received annually, and its intereft to be im.
proved half-yearly.

So/ution.— The feries expreffing thefe accumulations is

going exprefGon will then be

67.1567 X 500 = 33>57S'j5- If the above annuity and
its intereft be improved yearly, the accumulation will be
equal to 33,219.4/. and if both principal and intereft be
improved half-yearly, they will amount to 33,998;^.

Theorem 5. — To determine the fum ^ wliich at compound
intereft will amount in the time n to N, and in the time
m to M.

will be found =1 — — —

^ n

Theorem^. — Suppofing 1/. to be doubled in n years at
the intereft r, and in m years at the intereft 2 /•, to iind the found =
ratio of m to n.

'(Jut'wn.—la this cafe/i . i + ;■] = N, and/ . I + r\„
M, from which two equations, the log. oi p may be
log. N — n . log. M

Solution — Since 1 + r]' and I + 2 r\" are each of them
equal to 2, they will be equal to each other, and confe-
quently m will be to n as log. i + r to log. 1 -h 2 ?•, or
by fluxions and the binomial theorem, as i 4- ~

to one very nearly, or ftill more nearly, as | -(-

Examples. — At 3 and 6 percent, mand n are rcfpeclively to
each other in the ratio of .50746 to one ; at 4 and 8 per cent.
of .5093410 one ; at 5 and 10/tr irtn/. of .51 197 to one ; at
6 and 12/fr cent, of 51417 to one ; at 8 aud 16 per cent, of
.5i889.to one ; at 10 and 20 />»r an/, of .52269 to one ; and
St 12 and 2^ per cent, of .52681 to one. From thefe examples
it appears that the higher the intereft the greater will be
tlie ratio of ra ton. It follows alfo from the expreffion

J. 4. ^ ~ *" ' *"; &c. that money will not double itfelf at
" 4

2 r intereft in h ilf the time that it doubles itfelf at r in-
tereft. The truth of this conclufion may perhaps be more
fatisfaAorily proved in the following manner. Since m : n

Corollary 1 — If the fum p amounts to N in the time «,
the log. of the amount M in the time m will be =

,n.lag.N->7^^i.log-/

Corollary 2. — If the fum p in « years amounts to K,
the time m in which it will amount to M, will be =
n . log. N — leg, p^

log. M — log. />

Theorem 6. — Suppofing the fum a to become payable
annually for n years, at wliat time / might all the payments
(n a) be made at once, fo as to be an equivalent , to the
feveral annual payments.

Solution. — The prefent value sf the annuity a for n years

(fee AxsviTiEs) being = - — ■ „ , will in this

cafe be = - , , from which equation / may be found

_ log, nr + log.

=

log. i_
log. .

+ r

log.

1 4- 2
= , we

But th

r = log. I 4- 1
(liall have m : n

is latter fradlion

: log.
muft

I + r

+

+

>■ +

• 1 +

. I 4-

r

fcg

1 +

r.

be lefs

log. I 4- r
E.xampk. — 'L'tl a = 10, n = 15, and r =: .05,
other words, let an annuity of 10/. be payable a
for 15 years at 5/. per cent, at what period will th(
payment of 150/. be an equivalent to this annuity ?
cale / will be =
losf.

log-

log. I . 05

iSlr_

inuallv
fmgl'e
la this

7-5

log. 1 4- r
than unity, therefore m will always be to n in a greater
ratio thai) as i to 2.

Theorem 4. — To determine the fum to which an annuity
e will accumulate at the end of n year»> fuppoiing fuch

nearly, or 7^ years. By the fame rule, if the annuity-
were for 30 or 50 years, a finglc payment made at the end
of 13.17 years, or at the end of 20. { years, will be an equiva-
lent to fuch annuities refpec'tively.

Corollary. — If the payments, inftead of always being a,

vary each year, fo that in the firft, fecond, and tliird years

3 thejr

INTEREST.

tliey are a, I, e, J, Sec refpecttvely, and the whole amount
of them be p, the time / will be =

log. p - log. ( -—-^ + -p^, + ==,, + &c.)

log. I + r

Ihcorsm 7. — Suppofing the fum b to be now borrowed
on condition that the annuity c (houlj be paid in difcharge
of it, after the expiration of n years ; for liow many
years / Ihould fuch afinuity be continued from that time
fo as to be an equivalent to the lum fo advanced ?

Sohit'wn. — The amount of ^ in « years being b . l+r\'
and the value of the annuity c for / years being

Z__L ~ — , thcfc two expreffions, by the condi-

3650o)96774( 3/. 13/. c\d. Brought
7^000

20 Shillings

tion of the problem, will be equal to each other. Let
- be denoted by d, then may / be eafily

1 J-. d

log.

400

Thus, if* = 1032 c ^ i,

and r = .0^, d will be
46.4, and t

400 — ..05 X 1032 X 6.0S

-^ — ^!_ll = q 1.4, that is, if 1052/. be now borrowed
log, of 1,05 o t' > i

on condition that the debt (hould be difcharged at the
end of 37 years by an annual payment of 400/. fuch pay-
ment, computing at 5/. per cent, fhould be continued for
31I years. . .

Corollary. — If c be = I + r]" X i r, the annual pay-
ment mull be continued for ever ; if » be lefs than b r x
1 -f ;-| ", the debt can never be repaid.

From any four of the above quantities being given the
fifth may be obtained without much diiSculty. But it
cannot be neceflary to purfne this fubjedl further, as the
folution of thefe or any other cafes in compound intereil
may be eafily derived from the principles already explained
in this article.

See on this fubjeft, Jones's Synopfis Palmariorum Mathe-
feos, part. i. feft. 3. chap. 10. Gardiner's Tables of Lo-
garithms, p. 13. 3d edition. Philof. Tranfaftions, vol. Ix.
p. joS. and vol. Ixvi. p. 109. Taylor's Tables of Loga-
rithms, p. 30; and Mazere's Scriptores Logarithmici, vol. v.
p. 220. See alfo Annuities Certain, and Discount.

A mercantile friend has favoured the editor with the fol-
lowing univerfal rule for finding tlie intereft upon any fura at
any rate, for any number of days.

Multiply the fum by the rate of intereft, and multiply that
product by the number of days ; then divide that produA by
36500. The quotient will be the anfwer.

Now fuppofe the queftion to be, What is the intereft upoa
127/. at 3,1. per cent, per annum for 254 days I
■ £. £.

127 at 3 for 254 days.
3 Rate of intereft,

381 Firft produdl.
254 Days.

H0480

109500

980
12 Pence.

11760(0

4 Farthings.

47040(1
365CO

10540 Remainder.

It is evident, that in multiplying 127 by 5, according to
the Jirjl operation of the rule, the amount is increafed one
liundred times too much, for the produdl 3S1 is only three,
and eighty-one hundredths, or 381/. which is equal to
7,1. \6s. 2ld. or the intereft of 127/. at 3 percent, for one year.
Therefore, to correft this_yCr^ error, the produdl 381 muft
be divided by 100, and it will be right.

But in following the rule, the _^r/} error is continued, and.
we go on to multiply that product by the number of days,
by which it is alfo evident that the produft 96774 includes
a Jccond error of 365 times (too much, being for days inttead
of for years, and the amount of the two errors taken togetlier
is 100 times 365 times too much, or 36,500 times too much,
therefore, to bring it right, it muft be divided by that
number.

This explains the principle of the firft nnivcrfal rule,
which requires three operations, becaufe it is adapted to any
rate of intereft whatever.

To find the intereft upon any fum at 5 per cent, for any
number of days :

Rub. — Multiply the fum by the number of d.-ivs, ani
divide the produft by 7300.

Example.
What is the intereft upon 2745/. for 365 days?
365

1372J
16470
8^3)

^300)1001925(13;

7300

27192
21900

1524

J905
762

£. s. d.

365oo)96774( 2 13 o^ Anfwcj".

365oo(^
36500

latereit

INTEREST.

IntereS at j (<er etn!. being tlie tnoll common rate in
Great Britain, may in general be worked as Tpeedily by the
above rtiort rule as it can be found by referrinjj to the tablet
in common ufe.

The editor's corrcfpon'dent has never yet met with fo
(hort a rule as this, and as y per cent, is the general and legal
rate of interefl in this country, it iiiuft be very ufeful to
mercantile perfons.

The explanation of the principle of the firft rule being
underftood as above, there can be no difficulty in the lail
ri;le, it being derived from it.

AVhen the interell is at any other rate, take the following
rule;

Multiply the fum by. the number of days; multiply that
product by the rate of intereft, then divide by 36500.
£.xi^mple.

What is the interell upon 16 1?./. for 154. days at ^pcrc:nl.1

6448
So&o

248248
4

36500)992992(27
7^000

3840

1820
If the rate of intereft is not in even pounds, fuch as 2I,
3I, or 4^ p!r cent, take the following rule :

Multiply the fum by the number of days ; multiply the
product by double the rate of intereft, then divide by 7 :;ooo.
Example : — What is the intereft upon 2746/. for 328 days
at 3 i per cent. ?

274^
328

900688
7

£. ,. J

73000)63048*6(86 7 4

73000)6304816(867. yt. 4?/. Brought over,

584000

464816

43800a

53^3^07
51 1000

50.5840(4
:iy2ooo

Any calculation made by the fccond rule may be proved
"by the third rule, and vice vcrja. Therefore every calcula-
tion of intereft at any rate whatever, may be made by eitlier
of thofe rules. When an intereft account of confiderable
length is required to be made out, it may be done as much
fooner by this method than it can be done by any intereft
tables whatever, as there are different lines to be caft.

By the following table of rules, intereft upon any fum for
any number of days at the feveral rates of ]^, \, i, i^, 2, !',
4, 5, and 10 per cent, per annum, may be caft by two opera-
tions only, namely, one multiplication and one divifion.

Firft, multiply the fum by the number of days, then
divide the produft by the number Handing .ngainft the rate
of intereft, and the quotient will be the anfwer.

For intereft at i per cent, divide by 146000

73000
36500
29200
i825(»
14600
912;
7300
3^50

The above rule may be ftill further (hortened in praaic?,
ty cutting off one figure each from the dividend and the
divifor, and in that cafe it will not in any inftance make
more than one farthing difference.

Intereft is the compenfation which the borrower pays to
the lender, for the profit which he has an opportunity of
making by the ufe of the money. Part of that profit na-
turally belongs to the borrower, who runs the rift and takes '
the trouble of employing it ; and part to the lender, who
affords him the opportunity of making this profit. Intereft
has been fometimes confounded with ufury ; and the latter
term, the found of which is odious, has been occafionally
mifapplied and cftimated on erroneous principles. (See
Usury.) Accordingly thofe who are enemies to intereft;
in general, making no diftinftion between that and the kind
of ufury which is criminal, hold any increafe of money to
be indefenfibly ufurious. This they ground, as well on the
prohibition of it by the law of Mofes among the Jews, as
alfo upon wliat is laid to be laid down by Ariltotle in a paf-
fage, (Polit. 1. i. c. 10.) fufpcftedto be fpurious, that money
13 naturally barren, and tliat to make it breed money is pre-
pollerous, and a perverfion of the end of its inttitution,
which was only to ferve the purpofes of exchange, and not
of mcreafe. Hence the fchool divines have branded the
practice of taking intereft as contrary to the divine law,

both

INTEREST.

Botli natural and revealed ; and the canon law (Decret. 1. v.
tit. 19.) has profcribed tlie taking of any, the leaft, increafe
f.n- U:c loan of money as a mortal tni. But it lias been ob-
fcrvcd in reply, that the Molaical precept was clearly a po-
litical, and not a moral precept. It only prohibited the
Jews from taking ufury of their brethren ; but, in ex-
prefs words, (Deut. xxiii. 20.) permitted them to take it
of a ftranger, which proves tliat the taking of moderate
ufury, as a reward for the ufe, for fo the word fignifies, is
not malum infis fmce it was allowed where any but an
Ifraehte was concerned. As to the reafon, deduced from
the natural ban-enncfs of money, and afcribed to Ariftotle,
the fame miy with equal force be alleged of houfes, which
Hcver breed houfes ; and of twenty other things, which no-
body doubts it is lawful to make profit of, by letting them
to hire. And though money was originally ufed for the
purpofes of exchange, yet the laws of any ftate may be well
juftified in permitting it to be turned to the purpofes of
profit, if the convenience of fociety (the great end for
which money was invented) (hall require it. That the al-
lowance of moderate intereft tends greatly to the benefit of
the public, efpec.ally in a trading country, will appear from
that generally acknowledged principle, that commerce can-
not fubfift without mutual and extenfive credit. Unlefs
money can be borrowed, trade cannot be cai-ricd on ; and if

no premiums were allowed for the hire of r

few

per-

fons would care to lend it; or at leall the eafe of borrowing
at a fliort warning (which is the life of commerce) would be
entirely at an end. Thus, in the dark ages of monkifti fu-
perftition and civil tyranny, when intcrelt was laid under a
total ititerdicl, commerce was alfo at its loweft ebb, and fell
entirely into the hands of the Jews and Lombards : but
when men's minds came to be more enlarged, when true re-
ligion and real liberty revived, commerce grew again into
credit ; and again introduced with itfelf its infcparable com-
panion, the doftrine of loans upon intereih And, as to any
Icruples of confcience, fince all other conveniences may either
be bought or hired, but money only can be hired, there
feems to be no greater oppreflion in taking a recompence or
price for the hire of this than of any other convenience. To
denwnd an exorbitint price is equally contrary to confcience,
for the loan of a horfe, or the loan of a fum of money ;
but a reafonable equivalent for the temporary inconvenience,
which the owner may feel by the want of it, and for the
hazard of his lofing it entirely, is not more immoral in one
oafe than it is in the other. Indeed, the abfolute prohibi-
tion of lending upon any, even moderate intereft, introduces
the very inconvenience which it feems meant to remedy.
The neceffity of individuals will make borrowing unavoid-
able. Witliout fome profit allowed by law, there will be
but few lenders : and thofe principally bad men, who will
break through the law, and take a profit ; and then will en-
deavour to indemnify themfelves from the danger of the pe-
nalty, by making that profit exorbitant. Accordingly it is
well obferved by Grotius, (De Jur. Bell, et Pac. 1. ii. c. 12.
§ 22.) " if the compenfation allowed by law does not ex-
ceed the proportion of the hazard run, or the want felt, by
the loan, its allowance is repugnant neither to the revealed
nor the natural law : but if it exceed.'; thofe bounds, it is then
oppreffive ufiir^' : and though the municipal laws may give
it impunity,. they never can make it jult." The exorbitance
or moderation of intereft depends upon two circumftances,
the inconvenience of parting with it for the prefent, and the
ha/.ard of lofing it entirely. The rate of intereit will be
generally in a compound ratio, formed out of the inconve-
nience and the hazard.

Mr. Locke, Mr. Law, and Mr. Montcfquicu, as wdl as

many other writers, feem to have imagined that the increafe
of the quantity of gold and filver, in confequence of the
difcovery of the Spanifh Weft Indies, was the real caufe of
the lowering the rate of intereft through the greater part of
Europe. Thofe metals, they' fay, having become of lefs
value tiian filver, the ufe of any particular portion of them
became necelfarily of lefs value too, and confequcntly the
price which could be paid for it. This notion appears at
firft fight very plaufible ; but it has been contefted, not to
fay refuted, by Mr. Hume and Dr. Smith. It is in vain,
fays the firft of thcfe writers, (EfTays, vol. i. efT. iv.) to
look for the caufe of the fall or rife of intereft in the greater
or lefs quantity of gold and filver, which is fixed in any na-
tion. High intereft arifes from three circumftances: A
great demand for borrowing ; Uttle nclies to fupply that
demand ; and great profits arifing from commerce : and
thefe circumftances are a clear proof of the fmall advance of
commerce and induftry, not of the fcarcity of gold and
filver. Low intereft, on the other hand, proceeds from the
three oppofite circumftances : a fmall demand for borrow-
ing ; great riches to fupply that demand ; and fmall profits
anfing from commerce : and thefe circumftances are all coi>.
nedled together, and proceed from the increafe of induftry
and commerce, not of gold and filver. In inveftigating the
caufes and effefts of a great or fmall demand for borrowing,
Mr. Hume traces the origin and eftablilhment of the Liiitled
intereft ; and he obfervcs, after tracing the manner in which
fome perfons become proprietors of land, and the influence
of a lettled revenue on thofe who are entirely without occu-
pation, that the prodigals among the landholders will always
be more numerous than the raifers. In a ftate, therefore,
where there is nothing but a landed intereft, as there is htlle
frugality, the borrowers muft be very numerous, and the
rate of intereft muft bear proportion to it;, the difference
depends not on the quantity of money, but on the habits and
manners which prevail. By this alone the demand for bor-
rowing is increafed or diminiflied. Were money fo plentiful
as to make an egg be fold for fixpence ; fo long as there are
only landed gentry and peafants in the ilate, the borrowers
muft be numerous, and intereft high. The rent for the fame
farm would be heavier and more bulky; but the fame idle-
nefs of the landlord, with the higher price of commodities,
would difiipate it in the fame time, and produce the fame
neceffity and demand for borrowing; The fecond circum-
ftance, above-mentioned, ijiz. the great or little riches to
fupply the demand, depends alfo on the habits and way of
hving of the people, not on the quantify of gold and liiver.
In order to have, in any ftate, a greater luimber of lenders, it
is not fufFicient nor reqiiifite that there be great abundance of
the precious metals. It is only requifite that the property,
or command of that quantity, which is inthe flate, whether
great or fmall, (hould be colleded in particular hands, fo as
to form confiderable fums, or compofe a great moitied inte-
reft ; this begets a number of lenders, and finks the rate ot
ufury: and this, Mr. Hume affirms,. depends not on the
qu.iutity of fpecie, but on particular manners and cuftoms,
which make the fpecie gather into feparate fums or mafies of
confiderable value. The reduction of intereft muft proceed
from an increafe of induftry and frugality, of arts and com-
merce. Belides the peafants and the proprietors of land,
there muft be another rank of men, who, receiving from the
former the rude materials, work them into their proper
form, and retain part for their own ufe and fubfiftence. As
induftry increafes, and the views of men enlarge, it is found
that the moft remote parts of the ftate can affill eachother
as well as the more contiguous, and that this intercourfe of
good offices may be carried c-a to the grcatcft extent and in-

triciC.y..

[NTEREST.

tricacy. Hence the origin of "Merchants," who ferve as
agents between different parts of the ftate ; and in all the
tranfadlions which this bufinefs of connefting agency or
merchandize occafions, it is neceflary and reafonablc that a
conliderable part of the commodities and labour ihoiild be-
long to the merchant, to wiiom, in a great meafure, they are
owing. Thefe commodities he will fometimes preferve in
kind, or more commonly convert into money, which is their
common reprefentation. If gold and filver have increafed
in tlie ftate, together with the indullry, it will require a great
quantity of thefe metals to reprefent a great quantity of
commodities and labour. If induftry alone has increafed,
the prices of every thing muft fink, and a fmall quantity of
fpecic will ferve as a reprefentative. Trade, fays Mr. Hume,
increafes frugality, and among merchants there is the fame
overplus of mifers above prodigals, as, among the pofieflbrsof
land, there is the contrary. Commerce increafes induftry, as
wel! as frugality. Merchants begtt induftry, and by their fru-
gality they acquire great power over that induftry, and col-
left a large property in the labour and commodities which
they are the chief inllruments in producing. Without com-
merce the ftate muft confift chiefly of landed gentry, whofe
prodigality and expence make a continual demand for bor-
rowing ; and of peafants, who have no fums to fupply that
demand. The money never gathers into large ftocks or
fums, which can be lent at intereft. Commerce alone af-
fembles it into confiderablc fums ; and this effecl it has
merely from the induftiy which it begets, and the frugality
wliich it infpires, independent of that particular quantity of
precious metal which may circulate in the ftate. Thus an
increafe of commerce neceflarily raifes a great number of
lenders, and by that means produces lownefs of intereft.
The next confideration is, that this increafe of com-
merce diminilhes the profits arifing from that profeftion,
and gives rife to the ihird circiunftance, above-mentioned,
requifite to produce lownefs of intereft. When commerce
has become extenfive, and employs large ftocks, there muft
arife rivaldiips among the merchants, which diminifh the
profits of trade, at the fame time that they increafe the
trade itfelf The low profits of merchandize induce the
merchants to accept more willingly of a low intereft, when
they leave off bufinefs, and begin to indulge themfelves in eafe
and indrlence. Low intereft and low profits both arife from
an extenfive commerce, and mutually forward each other.
No man will accept of low profits, where he can have high
intereft ; and no man will accept of low intereft, where he can
have high profits.. An extenfive commerce, by producing
large ftocks, diminifhes both intereft and profits; and is
aUvavs afliiied, in its diminution of the one, by the propor-
tional fiwking of the other. Thofe, fays our author, who
have afferted, that the plenty of money was the caufe of low
intereft, feem to have taken a collateral effeft for a caufe ;
fince the fame induftry, which finks the intereft, commonly
acquires great abundance of the precious metals. But
though plenty of money and low intereft naturally arife from
commerce and induftry, they are altogether independent of
each other. As to the rcduif ion of intereft, which has taken
place in England, France, and other kingdoms of Europe,
that have no mines, it has been gradual ; and has not pro-
ceeded, fays Mr. Hup e, from the increafe of money, con-
fidercd merely in ilfclf ; but from that of induftry, which is
the naiural effeft of the former increaie, in that interval,
before it raifes the price of labour and provifions. Dr.
Sir.ith (Wealth of Nations, vol. ii. p. 39.) coincides in
opinion with Mr. Hume, and propofes a very ftiort and plain
argument, which, bethinks, may ferve to explain the fallacy
by which thofe have been mifled who afcribe the lowering

of the rate of intereft to tlie increafe of the quantity of gold
and filver. Before the difcovcry of the Spanifti Weft Indies,
loper ant. feems to have been the common rate of intereft
through the greater part of Europe. It has fince that time
in difterent countries funk to 6, 5, 4, and ^ per cnit. Let us
fuppofe that in every particular country the value of filver
has funk precifely in the fame proportion as the rate of in-
tereft ; ai d that in thofe countries, for example, where in-
tereft has been reduced from 10 to ^ per ctr.t., the fame
quantity of filver can now purchafe juft half the quantity of
goods which it could have purcbafed before. This fuppofi-
tion will not, as Dr. Smith believes, be found any where
agreeable to the truth, but it is the moft favourable to the
opinion now examined ; and even upon this fuppofition it is
utterly impoffible that the lowering of the value of filver
could have the fmalleft tendency to lower the rate of in-
tereft. If 100/. are in thefe countries now of no more
value than 50/. were then, lo/. muft now be of no more
value than 5/. were then. Whatever were the caufes which
lowered the value of the capital, the lame muft neceffarily
have lowered that of the intereft, and exaflly in the fame
proportion. The proportion between the value of the ca-
pital and that of the intereft muft have remained the fame,
though the rate had never been altered. By altering the
rate, on the contrary, the proportion between thefe two
values is neceffarily altered. If too/, now are worth no more
than 50/. were then, 5/. now can be worth no more than
7.1. IOJ-. were then. By reducing the rate of intereft, there-
fore, from 10 to 5/.-;- cent., we give for the ufe of a capital,
which is fuppofed to be equal to one-half of its former
value, an intereft which is equal to one-fourth only of the
valr.e of the former intereft. Any increafe in the quantity
of filver, while that of the commodities circulated by means
of it remained the fame, could have no other effeft than to
diminifh the value of that metal. The nominal value of all
forts of goods would be greater, but their real value would
be precifely the fame as before. They would be exchanged
for a greater number of pieces of filver, but the quantity of
labour which they could command, the number of people
whom they could maintain and employ, would be precifely
the fame. The capital of the country would be the fame,
though a great number of pieces might be requifite for con-
veying any equal portion of it from one hand to another.
The funds for maintaining produiSive labour being the fame,
the demand for it would be the fame. Its price, or wages,
therefore, though nominally greater, would really be tlie
fame, they would be paid in a greater number of pieces of
filver ; but they would purchafe only the fame quantity of
goods. The profits of ftock would be the fame both nomi-
nally and really. The profits of ftock are not computed by
the number of pieces of filver with which they are paid,
but by the proportion which thofe pieces bear to the whole
capital employed. The common proportion between capital
and profit would be the fame, and confequently the common
intereft of money ; what can commonly be given for the ufe
of money being neceffarily regulated by what can commonly
be made of it. The intereft of money, keeping pace always
with the profits of ftock, might be greatly diminilhed, though
the value of money, or the quantity of goods which any
particular fum could purchafe, was greatly augmented.

In countries, fays our ingenious author, where intereft is
permitted, the law, in order to prevent the extenfion of
ui^ury, generally fixes the higheft rale which can be taken
without incurring a penalty. This rate ought always to be
fomewhat above the loweft market price, or the price which
is commonly paid for the ufe of money by thofe who can
give the nxoft undoubted fecurity. If thib legal rale flipuld

be

I N T

T»e fixed belaw the lowed market rate, tlie effcfts of this
fixation mull be nearly the fame as thofe of a total prohi-
bitioH of intereil. The creditor will not lend his money for
lefs than the ufeof it is wortii, and the debtor mull pay him
for the riik which he runs by accepting the full value of tliat
life. The le^al rate, though it oujrlit to be fomewhat
above, oii^^jht not to be much above tlie loweft market rate.
If the lesral rate of intereft in Great Britain, for example,
was fixed fo higli as 8 or lo per cent., llie g-.eater part of the
money which was to be lent, would be lent to prodigals and
projeclors, who alone would be willing to give this high iH-
tereft. Wliere the legal rate of interell is fixed but a very
Lttle above the lowell market rate, fober people are uni-
verfally preferred, as borrowers, to prodigals and projedors.
Then a great part of the capital of the country is thrown
into the hands in which it is moll likely to be employed with
advantage. The ordinary market price of land depends
every where upon the ordinary market rate of interelt. If
the rent of land ihouM fall fliort of the intereil of money by
a confiderable difference, nobody would buy land, which
would foo:i reduce its ordinary price. On the contrary, if
the advantages fnould much more than compenfate the dif-
ference, every body would buy land, which would foon
again raife its ordinary price. When intereil was at \oper
cent., land was commonly fold for lo and 12 years' purchafe.
As intereil funk to 6, 5, and 4 per cent., the price of land
rofe to 20, 23, and 30 years' purchafe. As to the legal in-
tereil in this country, it has varied and decreafed for 200
years pall according to the acceffion of trade, tJie introduftion
of paper credit, and other circumllances. The Itat. 37 Hen.
VIII. c. 9. confined intereil to lopercent. In the reign of Ed-
ward VI. religious zeal prohibited all intereil. The llatute of
Henry V^III. was revived by the 15th of Elizabeth, cap. 8.
and 10 per cent, continued the legal rate of intereil till the
2 1 11 of James I., when it was rellrided to 8 per cent. It
was reduced to 6 per cent, foon after the relloration, and by
the 12th of Ann. liat. 2. cap. 16. it was brought down to
^ per ctnt. yearly, which is now the greatell legal intereil that
can be taken. But yet, if a contract which carries intereil
be made in a foreign country, our courts will diredft the pay-
ment of intereil according to the law of that country, in
which the contrail was made.

IxTEKEST, Inter-Jfe, in Latv, is commonly taken for a
chattel real, as a leale for years, &c. and more particularly
for a future term ; in which fenfe it is faid in pleading, that
one is pofTelfed de Intereje termini : therefore an ellate in lands
is better than a right or intereil in them. But in legal un-
derliahding, an intereil extends to ellates, rights, and titles,
tliat a man hath in or out of lands, &c. fo as by grant of his
wh*le intereft in fuch lands, a reverlion therein, as well as
polfeflion, in fee-fimple, Hiall pafs.

Interest on legacies. In cafe of a veiled legacy, dueim-
mediately, and charged on land or money in the funds,
which yield an immediate profit, intereil Ihall be payable
thereon from the tellator's death ; but if charged only on
the perfonal e!late, which cannot be immediately got in, it
fhall carry intereil only from the end of the year, after tlie
death of the tellator. If a legacy be devifed, and no certain
time of payment mentioned, and the legatee be an infant, he
Ihall have intereil for the legacy from the expiration of one
year after the teftator's death ; hut if the legatee be of full
aee, he Ihall have no intereil but from the time of the dc.
mand of the legacy. Where a legacy is payable at a day
certain, it mull be paid with intereil trom tliat day.

iNTERiiST, Punitory. See Punitoky.

IxTEiiKsT or no Interejl, a denomination applied to in.
furances made without having any property on board the

Vol.. XIX.

INT

(liips, in which large fums were infured. The ftatnte
19 Geo. II. c. 37. enacled thi.t all fucii infurances Ihould
be null and void. See Marine Insi'RAXCK.
INTERESTED Witne; s. See Witness.
INTERESTING, in the Suppl. to the folio Encyclo-
pcdie, has been made an article for the Beaux Arts, without
the leall allufion to mulic. But dull and uninterelling munc
is, perhaps, more tirefome than the fame degree of inllpidity
in painting and poetry. You can quit a pidlure or a book
whenever you pleafe ; but at a public performance of mu-
fie, you have no efcape from the bad compofition or per-
formance. A young compofer, ambitious of fame, and of
endearing himfelf to the public, {honid never write for
writing fake, he fhould not feizehis pen without ideas, with-
out a fubjecl. There is no art which has more alluring
means of obtaining attention. Grace, pathos, fire, fiincy,
hilarity, rich harmony, and learned modulation, cannot all
have admifiion in the fame piece ; yet it is abfolutely necef-
fary that at lead fome op.e of thefc excellencies Ihould predo-
minate throughout a regular movement. And where a com-
pofer, not certain of his fifrtility and powers of pleafing, has
hallily committed his thoughts to paper, he Ihould (liut it up
in his dellc for at leall nine days, if not nine years ; at the
end of which he fiiould perform it as the produdion of a
ftranger ; then alk himfelf what intereft he thinks his piece
would excite in an intelligent and impartial audience ; and if
felf-love is not the bhndeft of all loves, he will perceive
where he is dull, and where genius and abilities are wanting.
INTERFEMINEUM, a word ufed by fome to exprefs
the perinaeum.

INTERFERE, in the Manege. A horfe interferes,
when the fides of one of his flioes ttrikes againll and hurts
one of the fetlocks. See Cutting.

INTERJECTION, in Grammar, an expreffion nfed to
denote fome fudden motion or paifion of tlie mind ; as oh !
oh ! Thefe exclamations, uttered in a Urong and paflionats
manner, are confidered by fome writers as the firft elements
or beginnings of fpcech.

As the greatell part of the exprelTions nfed on thefe oc-
cafions are taken from nature alone, the real interjeftions in
moll languages are monofyllables : and as all nations agree
in thofe natural palTions, fo do they agree in the figns and
indications of them ; as of love, mirth, &c.

Some deny the interjeftions to be words, or any part of
fpeech ; and make them mere natural figns of the motions
or pallions of the mind, expreiTcd by thefe inarticulate founds,
leveral whereof brutes have in common with us : but as
thefe are paflions, and mull be reprefetited in difcourfe, the
interjedlion has a good foundation in nature, and is a necef-
fary part of fpeech.

Mr. Harris obferves, that interjcftions coincide with no
part of fpeech, but are either uttered alone, or elfe thrown
intoafentence, without altering its form, either in fyntax or fig-
nification ; and that they are not fo properly parts of fpeech,
as adventitious founds ; certain voices of nature, rather than
voices of art, exprefling thofe palfions snd natural emotions,
which fpontaneoully arifc in the human foul, upon the view
or narration of iaterclling events. Hermes, p. 285.

Mr. H. Tooke, in his " Diverfions of Puilcy," excludes
interjections from the parts of fpeech ; ard aflerts, that " tlie
dominion of fpeech is erefted upon the downfall of interjec«
tioHs." See Gkam.mab.

The Greeks confound their interjcflions with adverbs,
and the Hebrews confound them with .their adverbs and
prcpofitions: calling lliem all by the general name par-
ticle.

Nn INTERL\t»

I N T

INTERIM, a term borrowed from the Latin", fignifying^
tkihe mean time. It w-as fird brought into popular ufe by
Charles V. in IJ48, in order to compofe the difturbances of
Germany.

The interim of that prince was a kind of ordinance, or
regulation, to be obferved in the empire with regard to the
articles of religion then controverted, till fuch time as they
ihould be determined by a council ; and therefore was called
interini.

When it was laid before the diet, the archbifliop of
Mentz, prtfident of the eledloral college, thanked the em-
peror for his unwearied endeavours to reftore peace to the
church, and in tiie name of the diet, fignified their approba-
tion of the fyllem of doctrine which he. had prepared, toge-
ther with their refolution of conforming to it in every particu-
lar. Although the whole diet was amazed at a declaration fo
unprecedented and unconftitutional, as well as at the prefump-
tioii of the archbifliop, in pretending to deliver the fenfe of
tiie diet,- on a point which had not been the fubjeft of con-
fultation or debate.; none had the courage to contradict what
he had faid. The emperor held the archbifhop's declaration
to be a full conllitutional ratification of the interim, and pre-
pared to enforce the obfervance of it, as a decree of the em-
pire.

It was faid to have been drawn up by two Catholics and a
P.roteffant ; but as it retained moft of the doctrines and cere-
monies of the Romanill's, though expreffed for the moft part
in the fofteft words, or in fcriptural phrafes, or in terms of
iludied ambiguity, excepting that of marriage, which was
allowed to priells, and communion, which was adminiftered
to the laity under both kinds, moft of the Proteftants re-
jefted it. Thofe who admitted it were nick-named Interi-
mifts, or Adiaphnrifts. Indeed the interim equally dif-
soifted. the generality of both parties, the Proteftants and
Catholics.

Befides this, there were two other interims made : the one
called the interim of Leipfic, the other by the divines of
I'ranconia, who, refufing to accept the two former, made
another for themfelves,

INTERIOR. See Internal.

Interiok Figuri:, Angle of. See Angle.

Interior Polygon. Sec Polygon.

Interior Talus. See Talus.

INTERLACKEN, i-n Geography, a town of Switzer-
lar.d, and capital of a confiderable bailiwick, in the canton of
Berne : deriving its name from an abbey, filuated between
the lakes of Brientz and Thun, and fecularizcd in the year
1528; 32 miles S.E. of Berne.

INT£RLINEATION,fomething inferted between two
lines. See Deed.

INTERLOCUTORY Decree. In a fuit in equity,
if any nutter of faft be (Irongly controverted, the faft is
iifuaily direftcd to be tried at the bar of the court of king's
bench, or at the aflizcs upon a feigned itfue. If a queftion
of mere law arifes in the courfe of a caufe, it is the praiSice
of the court of clianccry to refer it to the opinion of the
judges of the court of king's bench, upon a cafe ftatcd for
that purpofe.

In fuch cafes interlocutory decrees or orders are made.
See Decrees.

Interlocutory Judgments are fuch as are given in the
middle of a caufe, upon fome plea, proceeding on default,
which is only intermediate, and does not finally determine
or complete the fuit. But the interlocutory judgments moft
ufually fpoken of, are thofe incomplete judgments, whereby
the right of the plaintiff is cftabhflied, but the quantum oi
damages fuftained by him is not afcertaiaed, wliicii is the

1 N T

province of a jury. In fuch a eafe, a writ of iriquir)' iiTues
to the flieriff, who fummons a jury, enquires of the damages,
and returns to the court the inquifition fo takenj where-
upon the plaintiff's attorney taxes cofts, and figns final judg-
ment. See Judgment.

Interlocutory Order, that which decides not the caufe,
but only fettles fome intervening matter relating to the
caufe.

As, where an order is made in chancery for the plahitifF
to have an injunftion to quit poffeffion till the hearing of
the caufe ; this order, not being final, is called interlo-
cutory.

INTERLOPERS are properly thofe, who, v.ithout due
authority, hinder the trade of a company, or corporation
lawfullv eftablilTied, by dealing in the fame war.

INTERLOPING, the intercepting or difturbing the
traffic of a company ; or the taking up a new trade, or the
employment, to the prejudice of thofe who were brought up
in it.

INTERLUCATION, in Hujbandry, the thinning of a
wood, or letting in light between, by lopping or cutting
away boughs.

INTERLUDE, an entertainment exhibited on the thea-
tre between the afts of a play, to amufe the fpe<ftators while
the aftors take breath, and fhift- their drefs ; or to give time
for changing the fcertes and decorations.

In the ancient tragedy, the chorus fung the interludes, to
fhew the intervals between the afis.

Interludes, among us, ufually confift of fongs, dances,
feats of activity, concerts of mullc, &c.

Ariftotle and Horace give it for a rule, that the interludes
fhould confift of fongs built on the principal parts of the
drama ; but fince the chorus has been laid down, dancers,
buffoons, &c. ordinai'ilv furnifti the interludes.

INTERMEDIATE, is ufually underftood of the fpacc
of time elapfed from any certain point to any .other.

In Chem'ylry, thofe fubllances are called intermediate, by
means of which, other fubftances, incapable of uniting to-
gether of themfelves, may be united.

INTERMEWING, in Falconry, is a hawk's mewing,
from the lirft change of her coat till fhe turn white.

INTERMEZZO. Ital. In-tekmede, Fr., a piece of
mufic, a dance, or a fliorl dramatic fcene, generally between
two perform.ers of different fexes, exhibited between the
acls of a ferious opera, to vary the entertainment, and'
to reheve and enliven the audience, that may be too mucli
oppreffed and difpirited by tragic fcenes of great intereil.

The ancient Ramans had fatires performed between the
afts of their regular comedies ; and thefe were afterwards
e.xhibited as farces at the end of pious pieces.

Tragicomedies had a very early admiflion on the ftage at-
Bologna during the 17th century : as Andromeda, Tragico-
media, fet by Girobmo Giacobbi, maeftro di cappella of
San Petronio, and founder of the Academy de' Filomafi, in
that city, was performed in 1610 ; and Amor vuol Gioventa,
fchirzo dramatico, at Viterbo, 1659. Mufica di Giamba-
tifta Mariani, 1659. But the only real burlettas which we
have met wiih are Girello, Drama Burlefca, fet by the
famous Piftocchi, 1672, which was reprefented at Venice
by little figures of wax : I dos Diogeno, dramma burlefca
per mufica, and Agripina in Baja, Schirzo drammatico per
mnfjca, were both performed at Ferrai-a, 1687.

There are intermezzi, fays Rouffeau, that are true comic or
burlefquc dramas, which detach the audience from tlie inte-
reft of the principal piece, without tafte or reafon. As the
dance in Italy is never analogous to the drama, they are
obliged to admit it on the ftage as an intermezzo ; " but this-

I N T

is not what I blame ; on tVio contrary, I think it may be
urcful to efTace, by an agreeable dance,the melancholy impref-
Cons left by the events of a grand ferious opera ; and I fee
plainly that the fubjeft of this dance ihoidd have no coii-
netlion with the piece ; but what ofTendi me, continues the
citizen of Geneva, is tliat tliey delboy all the intereft that
has been excited, and render each adTt a new piece." We
Tuppofe he means that the ballet lliould be given at the end,
not in the middle of the opera.

INTERMITTENT, a thing which ceafes its aaion for
fome time ; whicii time is called the interval.

IxTi'KMiTTEKT, in Medic'wr, any animal motion or ac-
tion, wliich ceafes and returns at intervals. The period of
eeffation is termed the interval, or iiitermijjicn.

Thus thofe fevers which, after continuing feveral hours,
altogether go off, and again return at certain intervals, as of
■one, two, or three days, are called intermittent fevers, in
•ontradillinftion from thofe which go through their courfe
with httle variation, or wiih regular diminution and aggra-
vation only ; the former being called continued, the latter re-
mittent fevers. See Fever and Ague.

Various other diforders, belides the acute fevers jufl men-
tioned, put on the intermittent form ; fuch as head-ache,
efpecially the hemicranin, or head-ache of one fide of the
head, the megrim, and fometimes the tic douLureux ; and
pains, feated in various other parts of the body, as in the
liver, bladder, uterus, &c. It is extraordinary, and does
not eafily admit of any explanation, that, in parts of the
body, fuffering fevcre organic difeafe, and aftually much
injured in their ftruclure, the pain coniiefted with this dif-
order fometimes becomes reijularly intermittent with intervals
of abfolute freedom from the diftrefs ; while of courfe no
variation can have occurred in the morbid ilrufture. Such
intenniflions we ba»e witneffed in cancerous and ulcerated
conditions of the womb ; and, in fuppuration in the brain.
But, iiideed, it is equally difficult to account for the faft in
all inftances ; and no fpeculations have yet enabled us to ex-
plain, why the velTels of any part, (as of the fupra-orbital
notch, in the cafe of megrim,) or of the whole fyftem, (as in
ague,) ftiould take on an extraordinary action at regular but
diltant periods, and continue only their ordinary aclionin the
intervals : whether the parts be actually difeafed in ftrufture
or not, the periodical recurrence and eeffation of increafed
▼afcular action is equally inexplicable. Dr. Darwin has in-
genioufly endeavoured to refer thefe periodical changes to
the influence of our diurnal habits, in regard to aftivity and
fleep, exhauftian of fenforial power and invigoration, and
to the diurnal periods of heat and cold, hght and darknefs,
&c. upon all the actions of our frame. That thefe circum-
ilauces greatly influence the operations of the animal body,
cannot be doubted : and were all the periods of action and
intermilTion diurnal only, we might admit the generahzation
as correct. But it is not eafy to difcover how the very fre-
quent intermijffions of difeafe, which continue for tertian pe-
riods, that is, during an interval of forty-eight hours, and
ftill more tliofe which continue for quartan periods, of
feventy-:wo hours, can be referred to this general law. Sec
Darwin, Zoonomia, vol. i. feft. j6.

The bark of the cinchona, and fome other bitter vegetable
fubftanccs, it is well known, pollefs a conliderable degree of
power, when adminiftered during the intcrmiffions, for pre-
venting the recurrence of difcafes of this clafs. But a reme-
dy has been added to the lift of the materia meflica, which
fefems to have a fpecific virtue of arrelling all intermittent affec-
tions r we mean the arfenic, which had long been ufed as an
empiric noftrum, under the appellation of the " taftelefs
ague-drop," but whicb was firft prepared in a fafe and ma-

i N T

nageable form by the late Dr. Fowler, of Vork, »nd i* now
introduced into the pharmacopeia of the College of Phyfi-
cians of London. This medicine has not only been adnii-
nillered with decided benefit in intermittent fevers ; but
alfo in the intermittent head-ache and megrim, with the moll
marked fuccefs. And we have found it, in more inilances
than one, fpeedily arrefl the intermitting paiu.; in difeafed
uterus, and other organic painful difcafes. In a word,
arfenic appears to have a fpccilic remedial powei- over perio-
'tlical difordcrs. But in cafes of organic difeafe, its infiuenco
is of courfe confined to the periodic pains coiincfted with
them, and is not exerted upon the fixed and continued af-
feftion.

The term intermittent js alfo applied to the pulj'e, when,
after an indefinite number of beats, it flops during the time
of one pulfation, or lofes a ttroke. Tiiis is fometimes a
formidable fymptom, when connected with other figns of
affedtiun of the brain, or of the heart itfelf ; but it is more
commonly of minor import, being conneftcd wiili indigef-
tion, and a general irritability of the fyllem, and is ro-
movable by correcting the tlate of the floniach and other ori.
gans concerned in the chylopoetic procefs. See Pt'L.SE.

INTERMITTING Spuin-g.s, in Natural Hiftory, or
ebbing and flowing wells, are phenomena which attracted
a great deal of attention in former times, and feveral works
on natural philofophy contain explanations of the principles
on which they might, by a proper application of the fyphon,
be made, by art, fo as afterwards to be felf-adting : it can
fcarcely be doubted but fome of the intermitting fprings
were natural, or produced their ebbing and flowing or inter-
raiflion, without the aiTillance of art, perhaps that on the
N.N.W. fide of TidefvveU town in Derbyftiire, which for-
mei-ly exiited and gave the name to the town, may have been
of this number; and perhaps alfo Laywell fprings at Brix-
ham, in Devonfhire, may have been natural ; but Mr. FiU-ey,
in his recent Report on Derbyfliire, (vol. i, p. 28S.) flates
the ebbing well at Barmoor, between Caltleton and Chapel-
en-le-Frith, on the flvirt of Peak forefl, in Derbyfhire, to
occupy the fcite of an old Itone-quarry, in the flrll limeftone
rock, and to be evidently the work of art ; he alfomentions
an artificial well of tins kind lately made in the parifh of
Chapel-en-le-Frith. See Spring.

INTERNAL Angles, are all angles made by the fides
of any right-lined figure within.

In a triangle, as KLM [PlateVlll. G€nmetry,J:g. 103.)
the angles L and M are particularly called internal and opps-
Jite, in refpea of the external angle I KM, which is equal
to them botii. See Internal Angles.

Interval ^ngle, is alfo applied to the two angles formed
between two parallels, by a line interfecting thoie parallels,
on each fide the interfering line.

Such are the angles x and y, and * and s {Plate VIII.
Geometry, Jg. 104.) formed between the parallels OP and
Q R, on each fide of the interfcfting line S T.

The two internal angles are ahvays equal to two right
angles.

Internal and Ofpofite Angles, arc alfo applied to the two
angles 2 and x, formed by a Inie cutting two parallels.

Thefe are refpeftiveiy equal to A and u, cgUcd the ex-
ternal and oppolite angles.

Internal AJfeBion, Denomination, Ear, Modes, Ortho-
graphy, Place, Sen/e. See the fubftantives.

Inteknal Plans, in Mining, fignify, according to M.
Werner (New Theory of Veins, Tranfl. p. 194.1, the in-
terna] drawings, or feftions as they are called in this country,
of, the mines and the llrata, or of rocks in which they occUr.
Se^ions of particalar diftridts, forntrd into tablets inlaid
N n 7 nith

I N T

with the principal rocks and minerals of fucli di{lri£ls, hava
long been made by Mr. White Watfon of Bakewell, in
Derbyfhire, Mr. Elias Hall of Caftlcton, Brown and Co.
of Derby, and others, but it lias jullly been objected to all
the tablets or feftions of this kiud which wc have feen, that
they reprefent fome imaginary hill or mountain, intlead of
being in any way proportioned to, or made to reprefent, the
aftual lirata ajid outhne of any diilrid. Now that mineral
furveying, or the methods of obtaining a knowledge of the
interior of ftratificd diilricl.^, as well as of afcertaining
whether they are fo (Iratiiied, has been fully explained m
the Report to tlie Board of Agriculture on the County of
Derby, by Mr. .John Farcy, fenior, and illuftrated by a lur-
vey of that intcrcilnig and difficult county, we hope that
the making of accurate and natural reprefentations or tablets
of the interior, or fedions of different dillrifts, will be at-
tempted. A very neat and interelling way of difpofing a
tablet of a gentleman's mineral ftrata in his eltate, is in the
front of his chimney-piece, iiiftead of the flat or carved mar-
ble flab now generally ufed. Mr. William Milnes of the
Butts in Afhover, in Derbyfliire, has employed Mr. W.
Watfon to make him fuch a chimney-piece, wliich forms a
very intereiling objedl as well as a fubjeil of contemplation to
his friends and viiitors.

INTERNODIUM, in Jimlomy, the fpace between two
articulations. It is only applied to the fingers, where it is
employed in naming fome of the mufcles ; at prefent it is
iifcd enly in the extenfors of the thumb, which are called
extenfor primi, and fecundi internodii polhcis.

iNTiiUNODIu.M, in Botany, the fpace that is between two
knots, or join's, of the ftalk of a plant ; e.gr. of the ftalk
or flraw of wheat, or other corn.

INTERNUS Mallei, in Anatomy, one of the mufcles
ef the oJlicula auditus, called more commonly tenfor tym-
pani. See E.\u.

INTEROSSEI, a number of fmall mufcles of the hands
and feet, fo named from being fituated in tlie intervals of the
metacarpal and metatarfal bones.

The tnterojii of the hai;d are feven ; wa. two for each of
the three middle fingers, and one for the little finger. The
abduftors and the adduclor of the thumb fupply the places
of the interofiei in that member ; and the adduitor oflis meta-
carpi iiidicis holds the place of an internal interoffeous miif-
cle in the httle finger. The interofiei produce the lateral
motions of the fingers to which they correfpond ; they may
therefore be moft conveniently arranged as abduttors and
adductors of their refpective fingers. More commonly,
however, tliey are divided into two clafTes, according as they
are placed towards the palm or the back of the hand, and
•Jiftinguifhed by the names of interofiei intcrni priores or
palmares, and externi polleriores or dorfales. In this diftri-
liution, the internal clafs contains four mufcles, which are
named by Albinus, i, indicis prior, and 2, pofterior; 3, prior
annularis ; 4, prior auricularis ; the external has only three ;
viz. 1 and 2, prior et pollerior digiti mcdii ; 3, pofterior
annularis. .Sometimes they are dillinguiflied numerically,
begiiming from the thumb. The abductor indicis, or fcn.i-
interofiVus, (fee Abductor,) forms the firft external in-
teroffeus of Soemmerring ; who therefore enumerates four
external iuterofTei. This anatomift makes only three in-
ternal interofiei; the lil, internal interoflcus of Albinus,
being one of the heads of Soenimerring's firll external inte-
rofieus. Both clafies are called by fome French writers
metacarpo-fus-phalangiens.

Jnferojfdoi the fore-finger. The abduftor (prior indicis
of Albinus, one of the heads of the firft external interofleus
of Socramerring and otherr,) is attached to tlie radial flat

INT

furface of the metacarpal bone of the fore-finger ; it forms
a tendon towards the finger, which is mferled, in con mon
with that of the abdu<Elor mdici?, into the radial lide of the
metacarpal end of the fint phalanx of that finger, having
alfo a flight connexion to the extenfor tendon ; the radial
artery dips into the palm of the hand between this mufcle
and the abduftor n:dicis.

The adductor of the fore-finger (pofterior indicis, Aib.)
is placed towards the palm of the hand. It ariles from the
ulnar flat furface of the 2d metacarpal bone, and from the
ligaments which unite that to the trapezoid bone. At the
end of the metacarpus it forms a fmall flat tendon, pafii;s
over the articulation of the index and metacarpus, the fide
and back part of the firft phalanx, the articulation between
the firft and fecond phalanges, and the dorful furface of the
2d phalanx. On the middle of the latter bone, it meets at
an acute angle with a correfponding tendon of the lumbri-
calis, and the two tendons unite into a broader one, which
is flightiy contrafted and inferted into the middle prominence
of the back of the third phalanx. About the middle of the
firft phalanx, or rather fooncr, it becomes united to the
broad tendon of the extenfor, from which it feparates a little
before the termination of that tendon.

This conneftion is formed by a thin and broad tendinous
expanfion, which clofely covers the articulation of the index
with the metacarpus.

Interojci of the middle finger. The abduftor (prior di-
git! m.e«lii) is placed towards the back of the hand : it
arifes from the uhiar fide of tlie fecond, and radia! fide of
the third metacarpal bone ; and has a middle tendon, in
which two oblique rows of fibres terminate. The coiirfe
of its tendon correfponds exadiy to that of the preceding,
and is united, at its termination, to that of the fu»iceeding
tnufcle.

The adduftor of the middle finger (pofterior medii digiti)
is placed alfo towards the back of the hand, and has a fimi-
lar form to the laft mufcle. It arii'es from the third ajjd
fourth metacarpal bones, and is inferted in the manner
alread(y defcribed.

Jntiioff'A of the ring-finger. The abduftor, (prior annu-
larif,) placed towards the palm, is attached to the radial
fide lai the fourtJi metacarpal bone, and to the ligaments
which conneft it to the carpus. It terminates in a tendon
ending as already defcribed. The adduftor (pofterior an-
nularis) is placed towards the back of the hand, arifes from
the ulnar fide of the fourth, and from the radial fide of the
fifth metacarpal bone, and has a middle tendon placed be-
tween two planes of fibres, and inferted like the preceding
ones.

The tnteroffius of the little finger. This finger has only
an abduAor (prior auricularis), which arifes from the radial
furface of the fifth metacarpal bone, and from the ligaments
joining it to the carpus. Its tendon has a courfe and infer-
tion like thofe of the former.

The expanfions of the interofiei, where their tendons
begin to join thofe of the extenfors, arc conncdted by many
fibres to the capfules of the joints formed between the meta-
carpal bones and the firft phalanges : their aponeurofes are
alfo ftrengthcncd by the tendons of the lumbricales. The
relations of the interofiei to the funounding parts may be
confidered in a general view. On the fides. they correfpond
to the metacarpal bones, and they are reciprocally in contaA
with each other. They are coveied in .fi-orii by the tendons
of the flexor profundus, by the lumbricale's, and, fo for as
the three firft are concerned, by the adductor pollicis. They
are retained, towards the end of the metacarpus, by the an-
terior iranfvcrfe palmar ligament, at the level of \shich they
is are

I N T

are all direfted backwards. On the pofteri«r fiirface the
firll interofleiis is fubcutaneous : the others p.re covered by
thin aponeurofcs attached to the correfuondino^ metacarpal
bones, feparating the intcroflTei from the exteiil'or tendons,
and in tlicir intervals from the integuments. Their expanded
tendons are placed between the phalanges and the ikin.

Thefe mufcles fcem to perform, as their primary ufe, the
abduction and adduAion of the fingers. They ferve to fix
the extenfor tendons ; which, not being covered by any
fibrous (iieaths, required this lateral fupport. They partake
this sffice with the inmbricales ; when the two interolfei of
any finger adt together, the extenfor tendon is drawn in the
diagonal of their direftion. If the fingers are extended,
they will be fixed more firmly in this pofition ; but if they
are already bent, the flexion is incrcafed by the action of the
interon'ei, which exert themfelves fo much the more efiec-
tUuUy, as their tendon falls perpendicularly in the moving
part. From the courfe which the tendons purfuc, along the
fides to the backs of the fingers, they will have the effect
of extending the middle and lall joints. If the fingers are
fixed, thefe mufcles may bend the metacarpus to them.

The interojja of the foot hold the fame relation to the
metatarfub, as thofe of the h md do to the mstacarpus ; and
a;-e arranged into an internal and an external clafs, or a fu-
perior and an inferior ; of wh.ich the former is placed to-
wards the back, and the latter towards the fole of the foot.
They are the addudtors and abduftors of the toes ; and are
feven in number, three internal, and four external. Of thefe,
fix belong to the three middle toes, and one to the little toe,
their place being fupplied, in the great toes, by its proper
mufcles.

The internal interqfii are the adductors of the third,
fourth, and fifth toes. Tliey agree very nearly in their
mode of origin, figure, courfe, termination, ar.d action.
They are fmall and tendinous at their commencement ; grow
gradually thicker and broader, then again decreafe, andform
long and flat tendons at the digital end of the metacarpus.
They all pafs forwards from the metatarfus towards the toes,
and end at the tibial fides cf the metacarpal extremities of
their refpective toes, near the terminations of the lumbri-
cales. Their tendons are clofely connedted to the capfules
of the firll joints of the toes, to thofe of the lumbricales,
and of the extenfors The firft arifes from the pofterior
part of the under lurface of the third metatarfal bone on its
tibial fide : the fecond from the corref|-onding part of the
fourth, and the third from that of the fifth metatarfal bojie.
The two latter arc a f o connected to the {heath which con--
tains the tendon of tlie peix)neus longus.

The externa! ir.terojfa are i and 2, the addwdtor and ah-
dactor of the fecond toe, 3, the abdudtor of 1 he third, and
4, the abdudtor of the fourth. The three latter refemble
each other, and refemble alfo the external interoiTei of the
hand, in having double origins : each of them has two heads,
arifing from the two contiguous metatarfal bones, tendinous
at their commencement, uniting at acute angles in a middle
tendon, which pafles forwards to the toes. The tendons are
thicker and broader than thofe of the internal interoflei,
connedted in the fame way to the capfules of the firll joints,.
a;id inferted in the fame manner, but on the oppofite fides of
the firll phalanges. The abdudtor of the fecond toe has its
larger origin from rather more than the poiterior half of the'
third metatarfal bone, on its outer or peroneal furface ; the
tmaller head conies from the oppofed furface of the fecend
bone. The .abdudtor of the third toe Has a larger origin
from the fourih, and a fmaller from tiie third bone ; and the
abdudtor of the fourth has the fame relation in its origin to
the fifth and fourth metatarfal bones. The adduftcr cf the

I N T

fecond toe differs from the other external or fuperiar inte-
rolfei, in arifing from one bone only : its origin is derived
from more than the pofterior half of the inner or tibial fur-
face of tl - fecond metatarfal bone : its infertion is fimilar to
that of the others.

The interoflei of the foot have the following relations to
the furrounding parts: On the back of the foot tliey are
covered by the tendons of the two extenfors, and by a very
thin aponeurofis, which is fometimes fcarcely fenlible, anJT
whicii is extended in the intervals of the metatarfal bones.
In the fole they are in contadt with the mufcles of the great
and of the little toe, with the tendons of the flexor longus
digitorum and the lumbricales, and with the dcepfeated
plantar veflels. On their fides they correfpond to each
other, or to the metatarfal bones.

The motions produced by thefe mufcles are analogous t-a
thofe of the correfponding ones in the hand. In the firlt
place they are adductors and abdudtors of their refpedlive
toes. They may adt as flexors of the firft phalanges
through the means of their tendons affixed to thefe bones,
more particularly when the firft joints are already fiightly
bent ; for they are then diredted obliquely or perpendicularly
to the moveable point, with which, in the extended ftate, they-
are parallel. By the portions, which they detach to the ex-
tenfor tendons, they may alTift the extenfion of the laft pha-
langes ; but it is neceffary that the e.x.tenfors fhould have
previoufly adted in fome degree, to carry the lail phalanx
upwards and backwards, and this motion is then incieafcd
by the inleroffci. They ferve alfo, as in the hand, to fix the
extenfor tendons laterally.

INTEROSSEUS, an epithet of certain organs of
the body^ particularly in the fore-arm and leg, which are
fituated between two bones. The interoffeous artery of the
fore-ar.m is a branch of the ulnar, and is divided into an an-
terior and a pofterior interoffeous branch. In the leg, the
peroneal artery is fometimes defignated by this term. The
interoffeous ligaments are aponeurotic expanfions attached
to the oppofed edges of the bones of the arm and leg, and
filling up the intervals betv^ceen thefe bones. See Aiiteuy

and EXTREMITIE.S.

INTERPLEADER, Bill of, in Latu. is where a perfqn
who owes a debt or rent to one of the parties in a chancpry
fi'Jt, but, till the determination of it, he knov\'S not to which,.
defires that they may interplead, that he may be fafe in the
payment. In this laft cafe it is ufual to order the money to
be paid into court, for the benefit of fuch of the parties to
whom, upon hearing, the court IhaJl decree it to be due.
But this depends upon circumftances; and the plaintiff mull
alfo annex an affidavit to his bill, fwearing that he does not
collude with either of the partie-

INTERPOLATION, a term ufed by critics in fpeak-
jng of ai.cient writings and manufcripts, in which fome ipu-
rious additions or alterations have been fince made.

To eftablifh or afcertain an interpolation, P. Ruinart gives
as the five following- rules i. That the piece fuppofed to
be interp ilated appear to have all the antiquity it pretends
ti). 2. That there be good proofs that it has beea interpo-
lated. 3. That the fuppofed interpolations agree to the
time of the interpolator. 4. That tiie interpolations db not
touch the foun<iation of the work ;. r.ndtliat they be not too
frequent, nor entirely disfigure the. piece. 5. That the refti-
tution made, agree perfedlly to the reft of the work. .

Interpolations iiave occafioiied feveralof the various read-
ings in the New Tcftament. Michaelis, in his " Introduce
tion tj the New Teftament," and alfo other writers, have
fuggefted how thef^were introduced, and how theymay<bfr
diilinguifhcd from the original text. E. G. If for a palfage

that-

INTERPOLATION.

that is not abroUitely neceflary to the eonftru^lion, varioos
readings are found that differ materialt)^ from each other, we
have reafon to fufpeft its authenticity j and that all the read-
ings are interpolations of tranfcribers, who have attempted
by ilifLrent methods to fupply the feeming deficiency of the
original. An interpolation is fometimes betrayed by the
cireiimftance of its being delivered in the language of a later
church. To this purpofe Michaelis obferves, that in the
time of the apoftles the word " Chriit"' was never ufed as
the proper name of a perfon, but as an epithet expreffive of
the miniftry of .lefus, and v.as frequently apphed as fyno-
nymous to " Son of God." The expreffion, therefore,
" Chria is the Soft of God," (Afts, viii. 37 ) is a kind
of tautology, and is almoit: as abfurd as to fay Chriil is the
Me.Tiah, that is, the Anointed is the Anointed. But the
-word being ufed in later ages as a proper name, this impro-
priety was not perceived by the perfon who obtruded the
paflage on the text. If one or more words, that may be
confidered as an addition to a paffage, are found only in
MSS., but in none of the mod ancient verlions, nor in the
quotations of the early fathers, we have reafon to fufpeft an
interpolation. Ads, viii. 39. ■znvfix [k-^ioV srsn-ES-iv ".ti -rov ivya-

■ X«'> aw^^o: ^0 K^fls rps-oo-s tot ii>.iT.in-j, is an inftance of this

■ kind, where the words between the crotchets are probably
fpurious. Interpolations of confiderable length are occa-
fioned fometimes in the following manner: The owner of a
MS. makes a note in the margin, either explanatory of fome
narrative in the text, or containing an account of fome event
that was handed down by tradition ; which MS., being af-
terwards trnnfcribed, the copyill writes text and notes with-

' oi.t diftinftion in thebody of his work. " I am perfuaded,"

fays Michaelis, " that .John, v. 4., a ver^' fufpicious paflage,

and omitted in a very great number of MSS. has been in-

' truded in this manner into our prefent test, and that this

' fcholion v.'as written originally not in Greek, but in fome

■ oriental language." The difputed paflage in i John, v. ;.
may probably be a fpecimcn of this kind of interpolation.
Its'fpurioufnefs has been rtiewn by fir Ifaac Newton, in a
letter to Le Clerc, firft publifticd in London in 1754, and
more correftly by Dr. Horfley in 1785, from the author's

' origin al copy. ( See his edition of Newton's Works, vol. v.
p. 495^531-) This letter, fays Dr. Marfh, is lefs known

• than it deferves, as the immortal author has difplayed in it
Tis much critical knowledge, as penetration in his mathema-

■ tical inquiries. The queltion has been likewife examined,

■ •ind with great impartiality, by Bengel, in his " Apparatus
•■Criticus," p. 458 — 482. 2d ed. ; and the difpute has been

• Ifatlsfaftorily terminated by the eminently learned Porfon, in
""^s " Letters to Travis," -publifhed in 1791. See Various

Rkadixgs.

'{■sriinFOi-ATioy, in A/g^cira, is ufed for the finding an
intCTmediate term of a feries, its place in the feries being
given ; and the method of doing this is called the method of
' tnUrpalatlons.

When the algebraic eqiration of the feries is given, the

' 'ter^ required, whether it be a primary or intermediate

term, may be found by the refolution of affefted equations;

but when this equation is not given, as it often happens, the

■ value of the term fought mud be exhibited by a converging
' ferie.s. or by the quadrature of curves.

When the firll, fccond, and other fucceffive differences of
the t<n-ms of a feri.-s become at laft equal, the interpolation
"of any term of fuch a feries may be found by fir Ifaac New-
ton's differential method.

The method of interpolation was firft mvented by Mr.

■ "Briggs, Savilian profcffor of Geometry at Oxford, and ap-

piicd by him to the calculation of logarithms. His prin-

ciples were followed by Dr. Wallis, *ho made feveral inge-
nious applications of this theory ; and by Reginald and
Monton, in France. Sir Ifaac Newton, in lemma 5. lib. iii.
Phil. Priiicip. Mathem. gave a moit elegant folution of the
problem for drawing a curve line through the extremitici
of anv number of given ordinates ; and in the fubicquent
propofition applied the folution of this problem to that of
finding fro.m certain obferved places of a comet, the place of
it at any given intermediate time. Dr. Waring, who adds,
that a folution ftill more elegant, on fome accounts, has been
Gnce difcovered by Menr.<!. Nicholi and Sluling, has alfo re-
folved the lame problem, and rendered it more general, with-
out having recourfe to finding the fucceflive differences.

The theory of interpolation is of very extenfive ufe, rot
only in pure analyfes and geometry, but in various other
fubjefts of mathematical inquiry and computation, and par-
ticularly in aftronomy ; we fliall therefore endeavour to ex-
plain the principles upon which it is founded, and fliew its
application in a few cafes to praftical operations.

Firfl:, then, let a, b, c, d, e,f, &c. reprefent any feries of
fimilar quantities, and let tlie difference between the firft and
fecond, the fccond and third, the third and fourrh, &c.
terras, be taken ; and thefe feveral remainders will form
what is called the firfl: order of difference ; then again, let
the differences of thefe differences be taken in the fame way;
and the differences of thefe laft again the fame, and fo on,
which will give the following refult, obferving, that for the
convenience of exhibiting the operation, we have only re-
tained the firfl remainders in each fucceflive fubtraflion.

feries
III diff.
2d diff.
3d diff.
4th dift".
,-th diff.
6ih diff.

/> &c.

-/

6/+.'

a b c d e

a- b

a ~ 2 b + c

a- ib + $€ - d

a ~ 4b + 6e — ^d+e

a— ^ b + IOC— led +

a~6b+iyc — 2cd +

&c. &c. &c.
Now the co-efficients of thefe terras are refpeflively the fame
as thofe of the co-efficients of the binomial, and the order
of their generation evidently follows the faaie laR-, and
therefore we may conclude with equal certainty, that the
«th difference of any feries of quantities will be expreffed by
the formula

1.2 1.2-3

1.2.3.4

Now it is obvious, that if the given quantities be fuch,
that any order of their differences become equal to o, that
any one of thofe quantities may be accurately expreffed in
fnnclions of the others ; thus, for example, fuppofe the
fourth difference to become zero, that is
a — 4i-f6^ — 4^-t-« = o

... — a + 4* -L 4(/— «

then will c = — •

6

and it is obvious that any other of thefe quantities might be
expreffed in a fimilar manner ; ai'.d therefore, if all thofe
quantities but one be known, that one may be afcertained.
Thus, by way of illuftration, fuppofe we had the tlu-ee
fquares 10'=; 100, 8' = 64, and 7 ■ = 4, and the fquare
of 9 was required ; fince tlie third difl'crences of fquares

'CO + a. 64 - 49 „ J
^ — -ii= 81, and

equal

fliosld have 9'

INTERPOLATION.

tlio fame is obvioiifly true of any terms of wliich the differ-
ences vanith.

But if the differences do not vanilli, then any interme-
diate term foinid by this method only approximate towards
the true refult, which is however fufficiently correct in a
number of cafes ; thus, in finding any lognrithm, of which
thofe confecutive to it are given, the above formula may be
fnccofsfuUy employed; for though, in facl, tlie differences of
logarithm never become zero, yet their fourth differences are
fo fmall, that by confidering them as o, the error will not
effeA the truth of the refult to 8 or 9 places of decimals.

Exam. — Given the logarithms of 101, 102, 104, loj,
to find the logarithm of 103.

Here, caUiijg the log. of ici = a, of io2 = b, 103 = c,
104 = d, and loj = e; and confidering the fourth diiTcr-
enccs of tliefe logs = o ; wc fhall have from the formula
a — 4^ + 6^ — 4(/+f = o
_ 4 (^ + ^) - (fl + f)
6

'•■ice the foilo-.ving computation :

log. loi = 2.0043214= a
li)g. I02 = 2.00S6C02 —b
lo;j. 104 = 2.0170333 = a
log. loj = 2.021 1893 =e

4.0256333 = b -^ d
4

16.1025340 = 4(^ + '')
fubtr. 4.0255107 = a -f- e

6)12.0770233

log. 103 = 2.0128372 as required.

Tliis method of finding the intermediate logarithms
between others that are known, though of little importance
in the prefent ftate of the fciences, was of very effential
fervice to the original computers ; and to «'hom the invention
of it is due, or more p.roperly to Briggs alone, who feems
to have been the firll that entered upon the inveftigation of
this theory.

This doftrine is applied with great fuccefs in various aflro-
nomical operations, and is the means of faving in many cafes
immenfe laborious calculations. Thus, for example, in
finding the places of fome of the planets, whofe motion is
not very rapid, it will be fufficiently accurate to find their
places by calculation for every fourth or fifth day, and then
by means of the method above defcribed, their places for all
the intermediate days may be found by interpolating between
the known terms, which method will give a refult much
nearer the truth, than by proportional parts, becaufe this fup-
pofes a uniformity both in motion and time, which is not
corretf.

Again, in computing the moon'.'! place for any particular
hour, fuppofmg its place for every day at noon to be given,
the method of interpolations may be applied with great fuc-
cefs, the refults having fcarcely any fenfible difference from
thofe that arife from aftual computation, and we may thus
frequently avoid one of the moft laborious of ailronomical
calculations.

By this means alfo, the place of a comet at any particular
time may be afccrtaincd, from obfervatioiir, made on it prior
to, and fubfequcnt to, that precife period, as alfo the times
of the equir-o.xcs snd foifticci, which aie determined rnucl*

more accurately by this method than can be done by propor-
tional parts, for in this, we are obliged to fuppofe that the
fun'8 declinations increafe and decreafc proportionally to the
dillancc of this body from the equinodial point ; which i»
evidently a falfe hypothefis. In facf , adronomy 1ms derived-
more affiliance from this theory than any other of the ina»
thema'ical fciences, although it has been applied to other
purpofes with very great fuccefs ; but in order to render its
application thus general, a much more accur.tte and extended,
inveftigation of the theory than that wiiicli has been at pre-
fent mentioned becomes neceffary, and of which we propofe^
to give a flight view in the fubfequent part of this article.

The general problem to be refolved in all tl'.ofe cafes is this.i
Having given two feries of numbers, which correfpond with
one another, according to a certain law, and of which one
tnay be called the feries of roof;, and the otber the feries of
f'.uiftions, to find an intermediate number, between two
funftions, which fhall anfwer or correfpond to a given interi-
mediate number betw-een two roots. T-liis problem is treated
of in all its generahty by Newton, in his " Metliodus Djf-
ferentialis," and by Stirhng in his " Traftatus de Summa-
tione, &c. ;" fee alfo Lacaiiles Aftronomy, and a paper by,
Mayer in the .'\cla. Petrop. torn. ii. page 108 ; alfo an ex-
cellent mei^pir by Lalande, tranfmitted to the Ac-ademy oi.
Sciences of Paris for 1761; in which he has fhewn that in.
calculating the moon's place, and much more that of any
other of the heavenly bodies, whofe motions r.re more re?
gular ; it will always be fufficient to confider only the third,
differences, and in many cafes only the fecond differences wilL
be requifite, and fometimes only the firft ; in fa£l he has,
fhewn how, and to ^^•hat degree of accuracy, the method of,
interpolation may be employed in moil cafes. The fame au-
thor has alfo a very complete article on this fubjecl in the
Encyclopcdie Methodique where, in explaining the nature
of altronomical in;orpolation, he fays, fuppofe a feries of
numbers o, 1,3, 6, 10, 15, 21, &c. of whicli the differences
are unequal, but follow a certain law, being in facl in arith-
metical progrefTion as i. 2, 3, 4, 5,6, &c. fo that the fecond
differences are conilant, and equal to unity. Now if we
take the alternate terms of this feries-, as for inllance o, 3,
10, 21, &c. the firft differences will be 3, 7, II, &c. and the
differences of thefe differences will be conftant, and equal
to 4 ; that is four times greater than before ; becaufe ia
doubhng the interval, we ha\'e for the firft difference the
fum of I and 2, and in the other the fum of 3 and 4; hence
it follows that the fecond difference increafe in the ratio of the
differences between 2 and 3, and i and 4: the increafe,
therefore, being equal to three times the firft, this fecond dif-
ference will be equal to four times that ; and, if we took
every third number, the fecond difference would be 9, and"
fo on.

Thus, in general, the fecond differences increafe as the
fquare of the intervals of the numbers ; and hence we have
the following rule for fupplying the intermediate terms of a -
feries of numbers of which the law of, their generation is
uniform.

For example, let there be four numbers Tvhich may,
reprefent longitudes, obfcrved at the interval of 12 hours
each; and of which the three differences are 78., 222, and
366, fo that their fecond differences will be conilant, and*.
equal to 144 ; according to the following tablet.

Hours

Nos

3o:>
066

ift Diff.

2 2A.

2d Diff:

Such.

INTERPOLATION.

SuA an example is the mofl fimple that can be conceived loncritudc in feconds and tliirds, hay-ng firft found 7/7j5«';w?-

in interpolation, but fimple as it is, it is all that is required in trlcally the fame for every degree. In general, whatever he

aRronomy, even for the motion of the moon, which is the the nature of the calculation, it will be fufficient to afcert-iii

moft irregular of all the planetarv bodies; fuch at leaft is rigoroufly by trigonometry, or xjthervrife, terms at fuch a

the affertion of Lalandc in the ariicle of the Encyclopedic diilance that their third difterences may become zero, or fo

above quoted. fmall that no fenfible error will arife in confiderkig them as

Nou' knowing the above numbers, or obferved longitudes, ["^h and then all the i«termeaiate terms may be luophed
for ever^- .2 hours, it will be eafv, bv means of the above ^y^^f ^^'''°P' ^}-}^^^ f'^' ^^^" >"ve(bgated Lal^nde h,-.s pub-
rule, to 'find the fame for every f.x hours ; for fmce, in this l>«^ed m the " Connoiffance des Terns for t„, a very
cafe, the fecond differences onght to be only one-fourth of commodious table for abrmgmgthefe kmd of operations and
thofe above, that is 36, it will therefore only be neceiTarv to 'here .s another ft.ll more extended m the Recue.1 des
conftruft a feries of numbers beginning at o, whofe fecond ^■''J°f^°'^ ^^'^'',""- ^ ^ , ,... .^ .
,(j- /: „A \ r E.^^ A t^^^ /J,-,ll Ko -,<;• The fame theorv of fecond dilterences may alio be con^e-
omerences are jo, and whole iecond term (nail be 70 ; . ,■ j ' i. 1 1 • 1 tr \.

^ . T^tnnfN- :5TM-. ifiH trt mryt^f\ /^^Ipii atTrtnc anf nh(pffuatmnQ_ that-

„.^ntly applied to correcl calculations and obfervations, that

therefore ZzJZJ^ = 21 is the firft term of the firft dif- is, by afcertaining the uniformity of the remainders or diF-

2 ferences.

ferences ; and all the other terms will be found by adding For example, a feries of obfervatJons being fubmitted

■fucceffively to this, the conllant fecond difference 36 ; thus to this tell, ought to have a certain order of their

n. ijjj- 21 rn o5 iiQ i6' 20t differences Uniform, and if in any place fucli a uniformity is

Nos. orlong. 0.2W 78', 171, 300, 46}!- 666. not obferved, one difference being greater, or lefs, than 'aa-

° ' •> ^ -> other, It may be concluded with certainty, that fome error

But if, inft.-ad of interpolating one term between each of jj^^ ^^^^^ committed in the correfponding obfervation ; the

the given nuntbcrs, it had been required to interpolate two correction of which may be readiiy made, without repeating

terms, then we muft have taken a ninth part ot t!)e above ^j^^ obfervation ; Lalande has alfo given, in his memoirs

feaond difference, i>/z. 16, and found from heiTce a feries above-mentioned, general formula of corre£tion, for all

of numbers whofe fecond difference Ihould be 16, and the j-.,^,, ^^f^^^ g„^ ^.j^j^h ^^y ^^ app,;^j .^j^j^ ^j^^ greateft fa-

third term of the feries = 78. Now in order to hnd this ^-^^ ^^^j ^j^^ corrldion computed to the utmolt poffible

feries,' it will be fufficient to hnd the firft term of the lit dil- accuracy.

ferences, as all the reft that is required may be determined Qu nearly the fame principles as the foregoing, the ex-

from this ; fuppofe, then, this term to be x, which is alfo the traaion of roots, as the fquare root, cube root, &c. may

firft term of the required fenes, then the iecond will be ^^ ^fr^^^^ ^jj,, ^ ^^f^^ ^y knowing certain equidiibnt

2.V + 16, and the turd 3. r + 48; whence 3 .r + 48 roots. The application in this'cafe being extremdy fimple, it

= 78, or.f::= 10; which gives for n,ay not be amifs to enter a httle into the explanation

the iftdiff. 10, 26, 42, 58, 74, 90, ic6, &c. of it.

Nos. orlong. o.io, 26, 78, 156, 210, 300, 406, &c. _ ,

r -1 ■ ■ 1 1 ■ I ^ ■ u Let then

and on fimilar principles may the interpolation m any other

cafe be tffefted with the fame degree of eafe and accuracy ; r% 1 jv _ ^ j L _ _i I- — — _ ^° 4- <tc

that is, generally, in order to interpolate any number of ^' ' j .r' 9.1' Si .v' 243 -v'

terms n, between any two given terms of a known feries, /; y _ ^,
we mull divide the fecond difference of the given feries

ty (n + I ) ', in order to have the fecond difference of the / ^5 j u _ _^. I I > ^° _ g.^^

new feries; and then again in order to obtain the i ft dif- 3 .v" 9.*' Sl.v' 243 .v"

ferences, we have this formuk ; where ./ = i ft term ill diff. reprefent the cube roots of any three cbnfecutive numbers,

of the given fenes; and rf" = 2d difference new ierics, tlie differences of which are

Iff term .ft diff. =. -JL, ± 'if ; T J_ ^ J_ ^ _1_.^ ^ ^o__ _^ ^^_

■which may be more conveniently exprefl'ed in terms of the j i i 5 10

tft and 2d differences of the given feries as follows; d z= ift 1-7"? [73 "^ Rj TP^ ^2 v" ^ '

<ljfference, {!'■= id difference of tlie given feries, then the

ift term ift diff. of the new ilrics, becomes 2d diff. -^ -j- ^° .■ &c.

. _2d' {n -r I) + K d' *->•*'■ -43-''''

— 5 (11 + I V ' I" the fame way, was it neceffary, we might have found

' the third and fourth differences, and fo on ; but in the.cale

and this term being thus determined, all the others are ,ve (liall fuppofe, of x' > 1000, or .r -- 10, this fecond

readily obtained ; and confequently alio all the mtermediate difference is fufficiently exnft, and even the fecond term of

terms which were to be interpolated. The confideration of this fecond difference is fo fmall, that it may be omitted

fecond difterences, which render the interpolation fo extremely without affeding even the eleventli place of decimals, for
eafy, i-', as wc before obferved, iufhciently-exaft for the

greater part of aftronomical calculations, particularly in the taking .*■ = 10, we have — tS— = ^-— .which

conftriRHion of tables ; it was tlius that Siiarp in 169J cal- 243 x • 2430000000000 '

culated his table of riglit afccnfion and declination for every ,,.],gn converted into a decimal, will not give an effeftive figure

degree of latitude and longitude ; having iirft calciilated tn- ^^{^^^ ^^^ j jt,, place ; we may, therefore, without any fenli.

^onometncaUy the fame for every fiftli degree, the other inter- ' •'

mediate degrees haying been afcerlained by means of tlie ble error, call — - the fecond difference, which will remain

theory of interpolation. Mouton alfo, on fimilar principles, 9 •'■'

calculated the declinntion of the fiKU for eveiy inini>te of cenflant for feveral terms, while our extradion is not carri-d

farther

INTERPOLATION.

?3rthsr tlian to eight decimal place.?. Snppofing, therefore,
the cube root of any two confeciitive numbers greater than
loao to be known, that is, a^j' — r, and \fx^ =^ x ; the
firft difference is afcertained by fimple fubtradlion, and the

fecond difference is found bv the formula ; and with

tliefe data, we may calculate eight or ten of the fubfe-
quent roots, when a new computation becomes necef-
farA".

This is not, however, the fimplefl. manner of employing
the formulx that have been deduced, becaufe it requires the
knowledge of two confecutive roots, whereas it- willbe fuffi-
cient to huve the roots of numbers equidillant from each
other, and by means of which the fird and fecond differ-
ences may be readily obtained, and the fucc-ifivc extrac-
tions will thus become fo many different checks upon each
Other. Suppofe, for example, that we know the cube roots
of 2000 and 2008 ; that is, ,/2CCO = a, and ^' 2008 = I;
and it w^re required to find the roots of all th? intermediate
numbers j calling the lirfl; difference = d, and tiie fecond

Cube root 6:54

tS.45J49»QSj

978802 difference

62S5 ^ 18.454477787

97S697 difference

6286 = 18.43-456484

978592 diffwence

difference =:

then the cube roots will flacd thus :

9<^

4.' 2 coo :

4,'2GC2 = a -r 2 1/ — ;
^20 3 = iJ -h 3 c/ — f, f

^'2004 — a -\- \d — d r.
^2005 = a + 5 r/ — IOC
V3006 = a ->s- (i d — 15 f

■'^zco'] =a + 'jd— lie
'^-2Co8 -a + Sd— zSc = L

And Gnce this lafl root ought to be equal to the known
root i, we have a fecure check upon all the preceding part
of the operation ; or more properly, this condition nviy be
employed for finding tlie firfl difference d, and the check
be made upon the fubfequent difference ; for fmce a + Sd —

28 c = i, we have </ = — '■ — -- — ■ — . This operation

will be better underflood from the following work at
length.

■ Given the cube root of 6280 = 18 449582727, and of
6288= 18.45741356, to find all the intermediate roots be-
tween thofe numbers.

By logaritlims we find — =r 000000105 = c,

9 / 6 2 So
I) — a + zS c
and hence ^ = .00979222 = rf; lience,agau),

the following operation.

Cube root 6280 = 18449582727

979222 difference

62Si = iS.450561949

979117 difference

6282 = 18.451 541066

979012 difference

62^7 = 18.456435076

9784S7 difference

6288 = 18.457413563
And thus may the extra£tion be carried on at pleafure, by
fimple addition and fubtraftion ; the cube roots: of cenain
periodical terms being firfl kiiou h : it is unneceffary to ob-
fervethat the above fuccefGve differences are found by fub-
tractingalA'ays .000CO0105 from tl:e fori going one.

At prefent v,e have Oiily conHden-d tie rrerc elementary-
principles on which the theory of interpolntion is founded ; :t
will be proper, however, before we cdhc ude this article, to
give fotne ide^ of the general formali and r^fuits obiained
from thefe fi.mple and obvious truth", by Newton in his
"Method s Difierentialis ;"andby Stirling, in his tr.tt enti-
tled " Truflatus de Summatione et Interlopatione Sericrtm
Infir.itarum,'' publifhed in 1730, both of which works ore
worthy of their celebrated authors,

Let'us imagine a right Hne given in petition, on vhich let
there be erefted any number of ordinal es parallel tp one
another, and at equidiltances, which ordinates may be con-
ceived to reprefent the terms of a regular feries, continually
increafing or dxreafing ; and one and the farr.e curve will pafs
through ail their extremities, the equation of which will be
determined from tlie given equation to the fei-ies ; that is,
from the equation cxpreffmg generally the relation between
any two or more fuccefGve ordinates : and if this equation
be finite, the equation of the c.irve will alfo be finite, and
confequently an abfolute interpolation of the feries may be
effeded ; for this is nothing more than afligning to every
particular abfcifs, its correfponding ordinate, and this will
alivays be the cafe if any order of the differences become
equal to zero ; thus, in all kinds of figurate numbers, as
trsangulars, /quarts, psnlagonah, &c. the curve paffmg through
their fummits will be the common conical parabola. But if,
as is frequently the cafe, no order of di.^erences become
zero, then the algebraic equation of the curve cannot be
found, and confequently no interpolation can then be made,
except by means of an infinite feries, the quadrature of fome
curve, or fome other approximation.

Let there be propofed, for example, the feries r, 8, 27,
64, &c. the general interpolation of which is required. This
feries is no other than that of the natural cubes, and there-
fore the methodahat we are about to follow is wholly unne-
ce.ffary in this cafe, but the example is chofen in order to
illuftrate the general method, which is applicable in ail cafes,
even when the terms of the feries appear to fol'ow no cenain
law. We firft write the terms of tlie propofed fenes in one
line, then the differences of thefe in the next, and then again
the differences of thefe, and fo on, till the lafl order of dif-
ferences become all equal, or fucli that no fcniible error will
nrifc in confiderir.g them as fuch ; then confidering z as any
abfcifs, the lirfl terms of thefe fucceffive differences will be
t!ie co-efficients of the feries of terms

Vol. XIX.

62S3 = 18,452,520078

978907 difference

^U

_0 ^(=^i)(.-2) ^^
• 1.2.3'

O o which

INTERPOLATION.

which expreffion will then reprerent the correfponding ordi-
nate to the abfcifs z ; and confequently the interpolation oi
the feries may be made general. Thus in the example
propofed.

Series

I

8

lltdiff.

7 19

2d dlff.

12

3d difF. c

onft.

6

64

37

Therefore, confidering y as the correfponding ordinate to
the abfcifs z, we have

■^^ (•tzJ.)4. tL^ll:

0(-

By a little attention it will be feen that the feries is pro ^
duced from the fucceflive multiplication of the terms of thi-
3 5 7.
4' 6' 8'

manifeft, and the interpolation of this, except for the term
between i and I, is evident ; the other interpolated terms

being -, -, - , &c. : let then the term between i and i
be X, then the feries after interpolation will be

' "" 2 3' 4' 5' 6' 7'
and as the propofed feries is generated from the continued

feries — ,

in which the order of formation

&c.

as it ought to be, from the nature of the feries. If, there-
fore, now we had to interpolate a term between each of the
given ones, thefe terms would be (lA)', (25)') iih) >
(4i)^ &c.

And the fame method is applicable in all cafes, but it
fometimes admits of abbreviation, if the law of the feries can
be determined, and therefore this {hoiild be the firll confi-
dcration when the law is not evident.

Let there now be propofed the feries

wTiere the law is not obvious, the interpolation of which
is required.

Series I

id difference — ;

ad difference

3d difference

4th difference

5th difference

affuming y for any ordinate correfponding to any

multiplication of the feries i, — ,

&;c. ; fo will the

1 i

2 4 6'

interpolated terms required, be generated from the con-
tinued multiphcation of the interpolated terms of this lall
feries, which will therefore be

2 2.4 2.4.6

X, - X, ~- X, ^ X, &c.

3 3-5 3-S-7

All, therefore, that is required, is to find the value of .v,
from which any interpolated term may be determined ; and
it may be further oblerved, that the term x of the above
generating feries mull neceffarily be the fecond term of
the required feries after interpolation, or that term which
falls between i and i. Let therefore the differences be taken
as follows, "ulz.

-

8

8

16

16

5
128

28

1

5
16

1
76

128

12S

-7 &c.
256

-^.^-

4o^'

6i_

2j6

t- &c.

136

He „. . ^

propofed abfcifs z, the equation of the (
the fummits of the ordinate!, will be

^ = I - i = + g . — -

paffmg through

I)

«(»

0(^-^1

(^- I) (z-2)(.

But as the objea of our

(<.- I) r^-2) (^-3:1 (^-4)

3-4-5

quiry is more particularly

direded to the finding of the firft interpolated term
prefcnted above by x, we mult make % = i; whence the

from what has been before obferved, the interpolation of
the propofed feries is now complete, being as follows :
J _., 1 % Lli i_4 ^ ^ -5-5 lii_6 .
' • ' ^' 3 ' 2 . 4' 3 . 5 • ' 2 . 4 . 6' 3 . 5 . 7 ^' '^'^^
If it had been required to interpolate two terms between
each of the given terms, it would have only been neceffarv
to have affumed a = i, and j, as is evident ; and therefore
needs no illuftration.

Hence we fee that the general equation of any curve,
made to pafs through the fummits of any number of equi-
j-a._. __j: _ 1 - d,e, f, &c. wiU be

C 4-

iS

above is reduced to

'=-4+T6^^36"'64
in which feries the order of formation of the co-efficients
is obvious, A,. B, C, D, &c. being reprefentatives of the
preceding terms ; and hence, by the fummation.of the feries,
the value of * is found equal to 0.64052, and cojifcquently

diftant ordinates.

D &c.

{<{

3 '

+ {c

")

2b + a)

( =

0 (' - ^)

&c.

which is Newton's formifla in his " Methodus Differentialis."
The limits of our article will not admit of a farther de-
velopcment of the theory of interpolations, we muft there-
fore refer the rcaik-r, who wiflics for more complete in-
formation.

I N T

formation, to tKe work of Newton aliove quoted ; to
Stir!i:ij's " Traclatus de Summatioiie," &c. or to the
tranflation of the fame by Holhday, pubhfhed in 1749;
and to the other traas mentioned in the preceding part
of this article, by Lalande, Maver, &c. Sec alfo Series.

INTERPOSED Attic. See Attio.

INTERPOSITION, the fmiation of a body between
two others, fo as to hide tliem, or prevent their nAioh.

The cclipfe of the fun i< occafioned by an intcrpofition
of t!ie moon between tiie fun and us; and that of the
moon by the interpofition of the earth between the fun and
moon.

INTERPRETATION of Law depend^, on more
equitable and excellent principles than thofe which prevailed
among the Romans, who, when any doubt arofe upon the
conftrnction of their laws, dated the cafe to the emperor in
writing, and took, his opinion upon it. To interrogate the
legidature, fays judge Blackftone, to decide particular dif-
piites, is not only endlefs, but affords great room for par-
tiality and opprelTion. Tlie fairell and moll rational method
to interpret the will of the legiflator is by exploring his
intentions at the time when the law was made, by ilgns
the moil natural and probable. Thefe figns are either the
words, the context, the fubjed-matter, the effects and con-
fequence, or the fpirit and reafon of the law. Words are
generally- to be underllood in their ufual and moll known
fignitication . If words are dubious, their meaning may be
ellablirtied from the context. Thus the preamble often ferves
to aid the conftruftion of an aft of parliament; and the
comparifon of one law with other laws, made by the fame
legiflator, and bearing fome affinity or relation to the fub-
jfidl, will anfwer a fimilar purpofe. As to xhe fubjea-matter,
woi-ds are always to be underllood as having a regard to it.
With rcfpeft to the ejfe8s and confequince, the rule is, that
where words bear either none, or a very abfurd fignifica-
tioD, if literally underllood, we muil a little deviate from
the received fenfe of them. But after all, the moil uni-
verfal and efFeclu.il way of difcovering the true meaning of
a law, when the words are dubious, is by confidering the
nafon and f^'irit of it ; or the caufe which moved the legif-
lator to cnadl it. For whan this reafon ceafes, the law
jtfelf ought likewife to ceale with it. From tliis method
of interpreting laws by the reafon of them, arifcs what vi-e
call equity ; which fee.

INTERPRETER, a perfon who explains the thouglitp,
■words, or writings, of fome other, which before were un-
intelligible.

The word interpres, according to Ifidore, is compofed of
the prspoiition inter, and partes, as fignifying a perlon in
the middle betwixt two parties, to make them mutually
undcrftand each other's thoughts. Others derive it from
inter, and pras, I. e. filejiijhr, q. d. a perfon who ferves as
fecurity between two others, who do not underftand one
another.

There have been great debates about interpreting fcrip-
ture. The Romanlils contend, that it belongs abfolutely
to the church ; adding, that where (he is iilent, reafon
may be confulted ; but, where Ihe fpeaks, reafon is to be
difregarded- The Proteilants generally allow reafon to be
the fovereign judge, or i;iterpreter, though fome among
them have a llrong regard to fynods, and others to the
authority of the primitive fathers. Laftly, others have re-
courfe to the fpirit wiihin every perfon to interpret for them ;
which is what Bochart calls amiu^i! ra w/su/iKTor. It is, or
at leall ought to be, the fundamental principle of all Pro-
teilants, and indeed of all Chrillians, that every man (hould
interpret fcripture for himfelf, admitting no compulfory or

INT

controlling authority, but at the fame tinie availing himfelt
of ail the afPillances which others may afford for direfting
his inquiries and determining his judgment. " Let every
man," fays fcripture itfelf, «' be fully perfuaded in his own
mind."

INTERREGNUM, the time during which a throne is
vacant, or a kingdom without a head.

In hereditary kingdoms, as England, there are properly
no interregnums. (See Right cf Cuowx.) In elective
kingdoms, the interregnums are extremely liable to failions
and diforders.

INTERREX, a magiftrate who governs during an in-
terregmim, or in the interval between the death of a monarch
and the eleftion or inauguration of his fucceflbr.

This magiftrate was ellablilhed in old Rome, and was
almoft as ancient as the city itfelf. After the death of
Romulus there was an interregnum of a year, during which
the fenators were each interrex in their turn, five days
a-picce.

After the eftablifhment of confuls, and a commonwealth,
though there were no kings, yet the name and fundlion
of interrex were flill preferved ; for when the magiftrates
were abfent, or when there was any irregularity in their
election, or they had abdicated, fo that the comitia could
not be held, provided they were unwilling to create a dic-
tator, they made an interrex, whole ofSce and authority
were to laillive days ; after which they made another. To
the interrex was delegated all the regal and confular autho-
rity,, and he performed all their funftions. He aflembled
the fenate, held comitia, or courts, and took care the
election of magiilrates was according to the rules. Indeed,
at llrll it was not thecuftom of the interrex to hold comitiai
at leaft; we have no inflance of it in the ancient Romaa
hiftory. . _

The patricians alone had the right cf elefting an interrex.
This office fell with the republic, when the emperors made
themfelves nuiflers of every thing.

INTERRMENT, Intekmekt, or Enterment, the aft
of interring, i. e. burying, or laying a deceafed perfon in the
ground. See Bukial.

The excommunicated are not to be interred in holy, /. e.
in confccrated ground. The ancients did not inteir tiicir
dead; they burnt tlicm, as the Indians do at this day. See
Burning.

The Abyflinians, in lieu of interring their dead, fliut them
up in the bodies of trees, dug hollow for this purpofe.

Gardeners alfo interr, or earth up, celery, endive, and
lettuce, to blanch, or whiten, and make them the tenderer.

To interr wild flocks in ditches, is what Columella calls
deponere femina fcrobibus. There are fome feeds, as willows,
olives, &c. which grow very well, by interring their trun-
cheons, i. e. cutting a truncheon, or piece, off at both ends,
and planting it in the ground ; which is vshat the Latins
call iiihumare taleas, talis ferere.

INTERROGATE, a judiciary ail, performed by a
judge, or commilfioner deputed to examine or quefliona
party ; who firll gives his oath, that he will anfwer truly to
every thing he is interrogated.

INTERROGATION, \n Rhetoric See Erotesis.
As to the difference between interrogation and a^clanmtion,
(which fee) we may obferve, that interrogations are often
employed with propriety in the courfe of no highc r emotions
than naturally arife in purfuing fome clofe and earned rea-
foning ; whcrea*exclamations belong only to drongcr emo-
tions of the mind, asfurprife, admiration, auger, joy, grief,
and the like. Both interrogation and exclamation, and all
pallionatc figures of fpecch, being natural figns of a movtd
O o 2 and

I N T

and'agitated mind, when properly ufed, operate upon us by
means of fympathy. Hence it follows, that the great rule
with regard to fuch figures is, that the writer attend to the
manner in which nature dictates to us to cxprefs any emotion
er paffion, and that he give his language that turn and no
other ; above all, that he never affedt tlie ftyle of a paffion
which he does not feel. Interrogations may be ufed with
freedom ; but nothing has a worfe effect than the frequent
and u:>!eafonable ufe of exclamations to which raw and
iuvenile writers are addicted. They render compoCtions
Vrijjid to excefs.

Interrogation, in Grammar, is a point which ferves
to diilingiiu'h fuch parts of a difcourfe, where the author
fpeaitsas if he were aficing qiiellions. Its form is this (.'),

INTERROGATORIES, in Lctu, are particular
queftions demanded of wirnefFes brouglit in to be examined
in a caufe, efpecially in the court of chancery. And thefe
interrogatories mud be exhibited by the parties in fuit on each
fide; which are either direft for the party that produces
them, or counter on behalf of the adverfe party ; and ge-
nerally both plaintiff and defendant may exhibit, direft, and
counter or crofs interrogatories. They are to be pertinent,
and only to the points neceffary ; and either drawn or per-
\ifed by counfel, and to be (igned by them. See Co^^f-
r.n»sios to examine 'ZviliiT^es, and EXAMINATION of nvilntlfa.
Seealfo Contempt.

INTERRUPTED Suture, in Surgery See Su-

TUJiE.

INTERRUPTION, in Matters of Prttporilon, denotes
t!ie fame with disjuv.Hwn.

It is noted thus (:: ), and fignifies' the breaking off of the
ratio in the middle of four disjunct or difcretc proportionals :
as A : B :: C : D ; that is, as A is to B fo is C to D.
See Ratio, Proportion, &c

Interruption is alfo a figure in Rhetoric, wherein a per-
fon breaks off his difcourfe fuddcnly, to (hew fome paffion.

INTERSCENDENT, in ^/-.-ira, is applied to quan-
tities, when the exponents of their powers are radical quan-
tities. Thus 7."'', z/"', &c. are interfcendent quantities.
See Function.

INTERSECTION, m Mathematics, the cutting of one
line or plane by another ; or the point or line wherein two
lines, or tMro planes, cut each other.

The mutual interfeclion of two planes is a right line.
The centre of a circle is in the interfedion of two diameters.
The central point of a regular or irregular figure of four
fides, is the point of interfedion of the two diagonals.

The equinoxes happen when the fun is in the interfeftions
of the equator and the echptic.

JNTERSOILING, in HufbarJry, the laying one kind
of foil, or mould, upon another ; as clay on fand, fand on
«arth,'&c.

INTERSPERSUM Vacuum. See Vacuum.

INTERSPINALES, in Jnatomy, are fmali mufcles
placed in the intervals of tiie fpinous proceffes of the ver-
tebrse, and diftinguifhed as belonging to the neck, back, or
loins.

Interfpituiks colli, interfpiniens, epineux du coo, are
arranged in pairs, as the proceffes, to which they are con-
netted, are bifurcated. There are fix pairs, of which the
firfl is placed between the fpinous proceffes of the fecond and
third cervical vertebras, the fecond between the third and
fourth, and fo on to the fi,>:lh, which is found between the
lall cervical and firft dor'.al vertebra. Their furfaces are
flattened, and they have fome refemblance to lengthened
f<juares ; 6ii the outfide, they are in coutaift v.'ith the mulli-

I N r

fidus fpina ; on the infide, the two mufcles eotnpofing the palp-
are in contad ; their upper and lower edges are fixed to the
fpinous proceffes whicli bound the intervals containing them..
With the exception of a few fhort aponeurotic fibres at their
extremities, they are entirely tlefliy. By approximating the
fpinous proceffes, they extend the cervical portion of the
fpine.

Interfpinaki dorfi, epineux du dos.' Small mufcles^
are fometimes placed between the fpinous procefies of the-
lower lumbar vertebrse ; but they are more frequently ab-
fent.

Interfpinales lumborum, epineux des lombes. Thefe
are fix in number, ftldom deficient, tendmous at their ex-
treir.ities, and attached above and below to the fpinous pro-
ceffes of t'.ie lumbar vertebn. They are covered at the
fides by the niultifidi fpinse. The fiiit is placed between the
twelfth dorfal and firft lumbar vertebra ; the fixth between
the laft lumbar and the facrum. They produce in the loins
the fame effeft as the correfponding mufcles do in the neck.

INTERSTELLAR, a word ufed by fome authors to
exprefs thofe parts of the univerfe that are without, and be-
yond, the limits of our folar fyftem.

In the interfteilar regions are fuppofed to be feveral other
fyflems of planets moving round the fixed flars, as the cen-
tres of their refpeciive motions ; and if it be true, as it is
not improbable, that each fixed ftar is thus a fun to fome ha-
bitable orbs, that move round it, the interfteilar world will be
inn;iitely thegreatell part of the univerfe.

INTERTIES, or Interduces, in Architeaure, thofe
fmall pieces of timber which lie horizontally betwixt the
fumniers, or betwixt them and the fell, or raifing plate.

INTERTRANSVERSI, in Anatomy, or interiremfver.
farii, or intertranfjtrfalts, are fmall mufcles belonging to the
fpine, placed in the intervals of the tranfverfe proceffes of
the vertebrae, and diftinguiihed in the different regions of the
fpine by the additional terms of colli, dorfi, and lumborum.

IntertranJverJ- colli, intertranfverfiens, petits tranfverfaires-
du col. Thefe mufcles are diftinguifhed into anterior and
pofterior, as the tranfverfe procefies to which they are at-
tached, are bifid at their ends. The anterior ones are fix
in number ; the firft is placed between the tranfrerfe pro-
ceffes of the firft and fecond vertebra, and the fixth between
thofe of the fixth and feventh. They are flattened in their
figure, and the firit is longer than the fucceeding ones. On
the front, they are covered by the reftus capitis major an-
ticus ; behind, they are in contaft with the anterior branches
of the cervical nerves ; their upper and lower margins are
attached to the tranfverfe proceffes.

The pofterior inter- ran fverfi are five in number, the firfl
being placed between tlie tranfverfe proceffes of the fecond
and third vertebras, and the fifth between thofe of the fixth
and feventh. They very much refemble the preceding
mufcles. They cori-efpond in front to the anterior branches
of tlie cervical nerves, and are covered behind by the fplenius,
tranfverfalis colli, and facrolumbahs. Their margins are fixed
to the tranfverfe proceffes. They are almofl entirely flefhy.
By drawing the tranfverfe proceffes together, thefe mufcles
will infledt the neck laterally.

Jntcrtranfverfi dorfi, petits tranfverfaires du dos. Thefe
refemble in the back the correfponding mufcles of the loins,
but are fmaller ; they are placed between the points of the
tranfverfe proceff'S. Some of the lower ones are of a con-
fpicuous fize ; they become gradually more flender and ten-
dinous, and, in the up;-:cr part of the bick, appear more
like thin tendons than mufcles. In the latter fituatioo they
often do cot exiil la front ihev lie on the iiiterco(!al

liiufclea.

IN r

mnA-Tcs, and they are covered behind by the lon^ffimus
dorfi and facrolumbalis ; above and below they are fixed to
the traiifverfe procefles. They produce the lateral inflexions
of thedorfal vertebrs.

Iniertranfverfi lumborum, tranfverfaires des lombes. Thefe
are fmall mufcuiar planes friling the intervals between the
ti-anfverfe procefles of the lumbar vertebra. Their number
is five, the firll beiiijr placed between the lad dorlal and the
firll lumbar vertebra, and the lad between the fourth and
nftli lumbar vertebrx. They are thin, flattened, and quadri-
lateral. They correfpond in front to the qiiadratus lumbo-
rumj and behind, to the facrolun-.balis ; their upper and
lower edges are fixed to the tranfverfe procefles. They are
almoft entirely flclhy. Their office is that of inclining the
vertebral column towards one fide, or of relloring it to the
ereft (late after it has been fo inclined.

INTERTRIGO, in Medkme, ■^c,.'xr^.^f^x of the Greeks,
fignifies an erythematous aixeftion of the flcin, a fmooth,
fliining reJnefs and tendernefs of the part, chiefly from
frittion.

The Intertrigo moft commonly arifes in thofe parts of the
furface, wliich lie in contact with each other, and are liable
therefore to confiderable attrition during motion ; or in thofe
which are fubjeCt to friftion and prefTure from other caufes ;
and more efpecially when, at the fame time, any acrid fluid
is prefent. Whence it is very frequent about the top of the
thighs and the perineum of infants, when the cloths in which
they are wrapped become wetted with the urine. Similar
affcdlions of the fltin are alfo liable to occur in perfons who
take exercife on horfeback, or in the feet of thofe who have
walked a confiderable diflance, efpecially in tight flioes, and
in the backs and (boulders of fick perfons, long confined to
bed. The firft of thefe varieties, which occur in the /i/ic* or
duplicatures of the fliin, or originate from the attrition of
the bandages impregnated with urine, &c. Sauvages has
called Erythema Intertrigo ; the latter from friction of the
clothes, or bed, he denominates Erythema paratrimma.
See his Nofol. Method. Clafs i. Genus 1 1, fpec. 5and6.
. Dr. Willan alfo treats of the former varieties of the
diforder under the fame head. When fpeaking of erythema,
he fays, we may rank under tiie prefent article that fpecies
of intertrigo which is produced in fome perfons by the attri-
tion of contiguous furfaces, as beneath the breafts, round
the axillje, in the groin, and at the upper part of the thighs,
and is attended with a glairy and fetid fecretion. The in-
tertrigo is moil troublefome when it affects the thighs ; it
commences where they are in contact wnth the fcrotiun, and
extends upwards to the groin and nates, round the fcrotum,
and down the iioUow of the thigh. In places where the
friftion is llrongeft, the rednefs is continuous, but it ter-
minates at the edges in a mixed colour, fuch as characterizes
cn5orefcences generally. This complaint is moll frequent
in very warm weather, and affects perfons of the fanguine
temperament, efpecially thofe who are corpulent. It fome-
times terminates in the prurigo, or pforiafis fcrotaHt. An ap-
pearance analogous to the intertrigo, is produced by acri-
monious dilcharges in perlons labouring under dyfentery,
gonorrhrea, &c. ; in females affcfted with fluor albus, or
uterine fiirrhus, and in infants, from the ilimulus <f the
■ >«rine. See. with which their clothes are almoft conl'cautly
wetted. (See Willan on Cutaneous Difeafes, p. 48 1.)
He rcfufes to clafs thi.s morbid Hate otthe (kin with excoria-
tion, or fiiperficial ulceration, as fevt-ral writers both ancient
and modern have done; and therefore excludes from the in-
tertrigo th'.>fe excoriations included in the 6th fpecies, or
Erythema paratrimma, of Sauvage.s.

Freq .tnt ablution with tepid water is necefl"ary to allay

I N T

the heat and uneafrnifs which attend this eomplalnt, to re-
move the vifcid fecretion from the furface, and to prevent
excoriation. \\'Tien the fkin is fretted by the difcharge of an
acrimonious fluid, fome relief is obtained by the application
of dry abforbent powders ; in cafe of Jibrafion and fifTures,
the elder-ointment may be applied witli much advantage.

INTERTWISTED Suture. See Suture.

INTERVAL, th.- diftance or fpace between two ex-
tremes, cither in time or place.

The word comes from the Latin intervallum, which, ac-
cording to Isidore, fignifies the fpace inter fojfam et murum,
between the ditch and the wall : others note, that the flakes
or piles, driven into the ground in the ancient Roman bul-
warks, were called -va/Za, and the interftices or vacancy
between them iniervella.

Interval, Angle of. See Angle.

Intervals, Lucid. See Lucid.

Interval, in Mufic, the difference between two founds,
in refpect of acute a-.id grave ; or that imaginary fpace ter-
minated with two founds differing in acutenefs or gravity.
When two or more founds are comjiared in this relation,
they are either equal or unequal in the degree of tunc : fuch
as are equal ai-e called uvjfons, with regard to each other, as
having one tune ; the other, beirtg at a diitancc from each
other, conilitute what we call an interval in mufic ; which is
properly the diftance in tune between two founds.

Intervals are diilinguifhed into Jimple si^d compound.

Interval, Simple, is that without parts, or divifion :
fuch are the oftave, and a 1 that are witliin it ; as the
fecond, third, fourth, fifth, fi.'cth, and fcventh, with their
varieties.

IntesvaL, Compound, confifts of feveral lefler intervals :
fuch are all thofe greater than the o£tave; as the ninth,
tenth, eleventh, twelfth, &c with their varieties. But this
dillinftion, it is to be oljferved, regards practice only, be-
caufe there is really no fuch thing as a leaft interval. Be-
fides, by Ajimple interval is not meant here the leaft prac-
tiled, but fuch as though it were equal to tv.o or more leffer,
which are in life, yet when wc would make a found move fo
far up or down we always pafs immediately from one of its
terms to the other. What is meant tlien by a compound in-
terval will be very plain : it is fuch, whofe terms are in prac-
tice taken either in immediate fucccffion, or fuch where the
found is made to rife and fall from the one to the other, by
touching fome intermediate degree ; f»- that the whole be-
comes a compofiti:;n of ail the intervals from one extreme to
the other.

What we here cill ajimp/e interval, the ancients called a
diajlan, and the compound they call a/y/2 m.

Each of thefe hid its diflerenccs ; even of the fimple
there are fome greater, and others lefs : but they are always
difc!)rd ; but of the compound, or fyliems, fome are con-
cord, othi-rs difcord. Unifons, it is plain, cannot pofTibly
have any variety ; for where there is no nifference, ns in uni-
fonance, which ilow.s from a relation of equality, it is plain
there can be no diilinction : unilons 'herefore muft ail be
concords. But an interval depending on a difference of
tune, or a relation of inequality, admi s of variety ; and fo
the terms of every interval, according to their particular re- .
lation or difference, make either concord or difcord. Some
indeed have re 'Gained the word concord to ii:tervals, making
it include a difference in tune : but this is precarious ; for as
the word co. cord tigiiiiies an agreement of founds, it is cer-
tainly applicable to unilons in the firll degree. Intervals, it
is plain, may d tfcr in magnitude, and there may be an infi-
nite variety, accordiiig to the poffible degree of tune ; tor
there is no difference fo great or fo little, but a greater or a

kf»

INTERVAL.

lefs may poflibly be conceived. It is true, with recprd to
praftice, there are limits, which are the greateft and leaft in-
tervals our ears are judgjes of, and which may be aftually
prod'iced by voice or inftrument.

The degrees of tune are proportional to the number of
vibrations of tlie fonorous body in a given time, or the ve-
locity of their courfes and rccourfcs. Now thefe differences
in tune conftitute, as has been already faid, the intervals in
mufic ; thefe therefore mull be greater or lefs, as the differ-
ences are ; and it is the quantity of thefe which is the fub-
jeft of the mathematical part of mufic. Thofe intervals are
meafiired, not in the fimple differences, or in arithmetical
ratios of the numbers espreffing the lengths or vibrations,
but in their geometric ratios ; fo that the fame interval de-
pends on the fame geometrical ratio, and vies ivr/d. It is,
however, to be obferved, that in comparing the equality of
intervals, the ratios exprefllng them muft be all of one fpe-
cies ; otherwife this abfurdicy will follow, that the fame two
founds may make different intervals. To defcribe the par-
ticular methods of meafuring tlie inequality of intervals
would be too tedious : this one rule may be obferved, that,
to determine in general wliich of two or more intervals are
the greateft, take all the ratios as proper fradlions, and the
leafl fraction will be the greateft interval.

The ancients were extremely divided about the manner of
meafuring intervals. Pythagoras and his followers meafured
them by the ratios of numbers. They fuppofed the differ-
ences of gravity and acutenefs to depend on tlie different ve-
locities of the motion which caufes found ; and therefore
concluded, that they could only be accurately meafured by
the ratios of thofe velocities. Which ratios are faid to have
been firft inveftigated by Pythagoras, on occafion of his
paffing by a fmith's ihop, and obierving a concordance be-
twixt the founds of harameis ftriking on the anvil.

Ariftoxenus oppofed this. He thought reafon and ma-
thematics had nothing to do in this cafe, and that fcnfe was
the only judge in the dil'pute ; the other being too fubtile to
be of any ufe. He therefore determined the oftave, fifth,
and fourth, which are the nioft fimple concords, by the ear ;
and by the difference of the fourtli and fifth he found out
the tone ; which, once fettled as an interval the ear could
judge of, he pretended to meafure every interval by various
additions, and fubtrattions, made of thefe mentioned, one
with another : but this method is very inaccurate.

Ptolemy keeps a middle courfe betwixt the two : he finds
fault with the one for defpifing reafon, and with the other
for excluding fenfe ; and (liews ho-.v thefe two may mutually
affift each other in this matter. Malcolm.

Intervals are founded on certain ratios or proportions ex-
preffible in numbers, which may all be analyfed into the prime
numbers 2, 3, and j. And all intervals may be found from
the oftave, fiftlv and third major, which refpeftively corre-
fpond to thofe numbers. Thefe are the muflcian's elements,
from the various combinations of which all the agreeable va-
riety of relations of founds refults.

This is the modern fyftem ; and a late author affures us, it
may be looked on as the ftandard of truth ; and that every in-
terval that occurs in mufic is good or bad, as it approaches to
or deviates from what it ought to be, on thefe principles. He
obferves, that the doctrine of fome of the ancients feems dif-
ferent. Ptolemy, for inttance, introduces not only the primes
2, 3, 4, J, but alfo 7 and 1 1, &c. Nay, he feems to think
»11 fourths good, provided their component intervals may be
expreffcd by fuper-particular ratios. But thefe are juftly
exploded conceits ; and it feems not improbable, that the
contradictions of different numerical h)-^»othefcs, iven in the
age of Ariftoxenus, and their iiiconfille:icy with < xperience,
0

mio-ht lead him to rejeiS nurnbers altogether. Dr. Pej^ufc.
api'Phil. Tranf. N"48i. p. 267, 26S.

M. Euler defines an interval, the meafure of the differ-
ence of an acute and grave found. Tentam. Nov. Thcor.
Mufic, p. 72 and p. 103.

Suppofe three founds a, b, c, of which e is the acute, a
the moft grave, and b the intermediate /bund. From the
preceding definition it appears, that the interval between the
founds a and c is the aggregate of the intervals bctv.-een a
and*, and between i and r. Therefore, if the interval be-
tween a and b be equal to that between b and c, which hap-
pens wlien a:b:: c : d, the interval between a lo c will be
double the interval a to i, ovbtoc. This being coiifidered,
it will appear that intervals ought to be expreffcd by the mea-
fures of the ratios conftituting the founds forming thofe in-
tervals. But ratios are meafured by the logarithms of frac-
tions, the numeraters of which denote the acute founds, and
the denominators the grave. Hence the interval between
the founds a and b will be expreffed by the logarithm of

the fradion -, which is ufually denoted by / — , or, which
<2 a

comes to the fame, lb — la. The interval therefore of
cqnal founds, a to a, will be null, as /a — la==. o. The
interval called an oitave, or diapafon, wiU be expreffed by
the logarithm of 2 : and the interval of the fifth or diapente,
will be /3 — Iz. From whence it appears that'thefe inter-
vals are incommenfurable : fo that no intervals, liowever
fmall, can be an aliquot part, both of the oftave and fifth.
The like may be faid of the intervals / ;, and 1 1, and others
whofe logarithms are difiimilar. But intervals expounded
by logarithms of numbers, which are powers of the fame
root, may be compared. Thus, the interval of the founds
27 : 8, will be to the interval of the founds 9 : 4, as 3 is
to 2 : For / y = 3 / J , and 3 / f = 2/3. Euler, ibid. p. 74.
But though the logarithms of numbers, which are not
powers of the fame root, be incommenfurable, yet an ap- '
proximating ratio of fuch may be found. Tluis the meafure
of the oftave is /l = 0.3010300, and tlie meafure of the
fifth is /3 — /2 = 0.1760913. Hence the interval of the
odave will be to that of the fifth, nearly as 3010300 te
1760913 ; vi'hich ratio being reduced to fmaller terms, in the
method explained under the head R.ATio, will give us thefe
fimple exprelTions for the ratio of the oiTtave and fifth : 2 :
1,3 : 2' 5.: 3> 7 : 4' 12 : 7. i" = 1°. 29 = 17. 4' = 24,
^^ : 31, which lail is vci-y near the truth. Euler, ibid.

In like manner intervals may be divided into anv number
of equal parts : for this purpofe we need only divide the
logarithm of the propofed interval into the fame number of
parts, and then find its correfpondent number by the tables.
The ratio of the number fo found, to unity, will give the
required ratio of the divided interval to its propofed part.
Thus let the third part of an oftave be required ; its loga-
rithm will be = 0.1003433 z= 'j 1 2. The ratio correfpond-
ing nearly to this v/ill be 6^ : 50, or lefs accurately, 29 :
23, or 5 : 4, which laft cxpredcs the third major ; and this
is by the lefs knowing taken for the third part of an oftave,
and feems to be fuch on our harpfichords and organs, where
from C to E is a third, from E to G «: another, and from
G «« or A '" to f another third. But the more intelligent
krow, that G * and A" ought not to be reputed the lame
found, fincc they differ by a diefis enharmonica, wliich is
nearly equal to two commai-:.

M. Euler has intVrted a table of inter\'als in his " Tenta-
men N.iva- Theoria:^ Muficse :" he f ippofes the logarithm or
meafure of the ofteve to be i.oooooo, whence the logarithm

INTERVAL.

of the fifth will be 0.554962, and the logarithm of the
third major will be 0.321928 : from thefe the meafures of
all other intervals may be found. But as it has been cufto-
niary for muficiansto racafurc their intervals by commas, we
ftiall here infert a table of intervals, v/ith their meafures in
commas ; where we fuppofe the logarithm or meafure of the
comma 1^ to be i. 00000: hence the logarithm of the oc-
tave A will be 55.79763, that of the fifth 32.63952, and
laftly, that of the third major 17.96282. From thefe all
the other intervals may be found in the manner exprefled in
the table ; where the firll column fliews the names of the
feveral intervals ; the fecond, the proportions of founds
forming thefe intervals; the third, the compofition of thefe
proportions fram the primes 2, 3, and 5. Thefmaller figures
marked above, and fomewhat to the right of the larger, in-
dicate the power to which the number exprefled by the larger

figures is raifed. Thus "■ ^ - fhews that the feventeenth

power of 1 multiplied by 3, and divided by the eighth
power of 5, will produce -j^ij-^ in the fecond column,
and that this is the proportion exprefling the interval called
efchalon in the firll column. The fourth column of the table
contains fome fimple figns of fonie of the intervals, as h for
h/p€roche, d for d'lsf.s, &c. and the fifth column fliews how the
intervals arife from others : thus over againft femitone major,
I find in the fourth column S, which is here only an arbitrary
mark for this femitone ; and in the fifth column I find j -|-
</ = IV — III, which fignifies that the femitone major is
equal to the lum of the femitone minor and diefis, or to the
difference between the fourth and the third major. Obferve,
that the comma is marked by a dot () ; when this is placed
over the letter or other fymbol, it fignifies that the interval

is fuppofed to be heightened by a comma ; and on the con-
trary, when the point is placed below, it fignifies that the
interval muft be diminifhed by a comma ; thus / =• T figni-
fies that the tone minor increaied by a comma is equal to a
tone-major, and vice •vcrfd: "T — t (liews that the tone-major

diminifhed by a comma is equal to the tone-minor. The
figns ->-,—, =, arc here taken in the fame fenfe as in al-
gebra, to fignify addition, fubtraftion, and equality. So
likewife the dot placed between two numbers, or between a
number and the fymbol of an interval, fignifies that the in-
terval is to be multiplied by the number. Thus 2. IV
fhews that the fourth is doubkd; and thus 7*" = VI -f S
= 2. IV = VIII - T, fliews, that the leflbr flat fcventh is
equal to the fixth major and femitone-major, or alfo to two
fourths, or to the odave. when. the tone-major has been taken
from it. Laftly, the fixth column of the table fliews the
meafures, or logarithms of the ratios in the fecond column.
Thefe are not the ccmmon logarithms of the tables where
1. 0000000 is the logarithm of 10. But here i.cocoo is
afTumed as the logarithm of |-J-, or of the comma, as before
mentioned. Thefe logarithms are eafily derived from the
common, of the large tables of Vlacq, or Briggs : thus
the logarithm of 2, or the oftave = 0.3010299957; the
logarithm of {, or of the fifth — 0.1760912590 : and laftly,
the logarithm of i, or of the third major = c 0969100130.
Now thefe logarithms being feverally divided by the loga-
rithm of -jJ, or the comma = 0.C053950139; the quotients
will give the number of commas in an odave = 55-79763 ;
in a filth = 32.63952 ; and in a third major = 17.962R2.
Hence all the reit may be found by addition and fubtrac-
tion only. Here follows the Table.

A Table of the Mufical Intervals with their Meafu

Names of the Intenals.

tlic luter-
vab

Compofition
of tl,e Pro-
portions

an,i 5.'

S;,r.p!e
Signs.

Compltx Si^'ns to fniw the Compofition
' sf Inlcrvals.

Meafures

Lv
Commas.

Efchaton of Henfling

3932,6
390625

2 "3
5

I- b= iJ - s^^d-S,

C.53222

Didfchifma of Euler

204S
2025

Si

3'- 5"

3*

I

0.90917

Comma

80

2^ 5

T - /

1. 00000

Comma of Pythagoras . . -

53144'
5242S8

3'^

2'^

6 T - VIII

I.C9083

Hyperoche

3072
128

5'

2 '=3
2'

/j

, ~d=5 -zd

'•jr^'95

EnharmonicDicfis, or diminiflied fecond

"^

5'

d

S - s

1. 9091 -

Semi-toned Minor, or leaft: Chromatic]
Diens . - . - j

1'

5'
-'■ 3

^

.' - S = ,/ + Z, = III - 3"

3.2S612

INTERVAL.

A Table of the Mufical Intervals

with their Meafures.

Names of tie InttTvii.

Proportions
oxpreQing
ihc Inter-
vals.

Comixifiticn
of tl.e Pro-
portions
from i, 3,
and ,i.

S^ple
Signs.

Complex Signs to Oien- tha CompoCilon
of Iiitt.T»a!s.

Meafures

4.19529

Limma of tlie Greek fcale,
ficient Semiione Major -

"'"}

256
243

2^

S = IV - 2 f

Lefier Limma, or redundant
tone Minor

Semi- ■)

128

3' 5

2"

;= T - s

4.28612

Semitone Major

- -

16
15

2'

3S

S

s +d=lV -III

5-19529

Apotome of the Greek fcale

2187
2048

3"

2"

T - s = ;•

5.2S612

Greater Limma, or redundan
tone Major

Semi-7

27
25

3'
5^

S = T J

6,19529

Double Semitone Minor

62s

576

5'
2°. 3

2 S = t - d

6.57224

Greateil Limma, or redundan
Semitone Minor

double 1

It2J

1024

3'- 5'

2'^

s ^ 's = T - J

7.57224

Tone Minor -

- -

10

9

2-5

t

S + . = T:^IV-3"=7
III - T • 1

8.43.41

Tone Major - . -

- -

9
8

3-

T

/= V - IV

9.4S.41

2'

r

1

256
225

2*

i + d^2S

10.39058

3- y

Dimiuiflied Third -

1
- - \

1

L

r

1

14+
12;
125

icS

T + J= 3^ -.f

11.39053
'1-76753

2\ y

SuperSuous Second

. -1
1

75
6^4

3-r

2'

T-f. = 3^-^

12.76753

1
Trihemitone of the Greek fcale, or.'
deficient Third Minor - .

32

27

3''
3^

3; = / + S = IV - T

■^3.676-0

Third Mir.or -

- -

6

5

2.3
5

3^

T + S = V - III

14.6767.'

Trihemitone Mnjor -

■ -

4096
3375

2"-

3 S = T -f S 4- </

.5.5858-

3- 5-

INTERVAL.

A Table of the Mufical Intervala with their Mcafur

Names ^f the ImervMs.

r.oportions
e^preffing
il.e Imer-

( om;.ontio„
of ilie Pw-
portioiis
from 2, a,
ai«l '.

Simple
Signs.

Complex Sign' to (hew ,hp Comfiofition

MeafureJ

bv
Comma-..

Extreme dimir.ilhcd Fourth

76S

2'- 3
5*

3^+^=IV -2r

16.53587

Third Major . . - -

4

5
2^

Ill

III = V - 3'

i7.9<52f?2

Dltonus of the Greek Scale, or
diindant Third Major

"■}

81
^4

3'
2'

lii = 2 T

18.962S2

Dlminifhed Fourth .

32
25

2'

III + J= IV -^

19.87199

Superfliioui Third -

"96

5'

III + :■

21.24S9+

2-- 3

Fourth . • - - •

4
3

2"

3

IV

III + S = VIII - V

23.15811

Redundant Fourilli ...

27
20

3'

IV=3' + T

24.15S11

Superfluous Fourth

2y
18

5'

ly +/

26.4.1423

2-3'

Semi-diapente of the Greek fcale

• 1024
729

2'

IV + s

27-35340

3"

Tritonus, or falfe Fourth

45
32

3- 5

2^

IV + ^ = V - s

27-44413

Semi-diapente, or falfe Fifth

64
45

2^

IV 4 8 . = V - /

28.35340

3'- 5

Tritonus of the Greek Scale -

7^3
12

3'
2'

3 T = V - S = IV + y

26.444:3

Diminifhed Fifth -

36
2>

2^. 3'
5'

V-* = 2.3^

29-35340

DcHcient Fifth

40

27

2- 5

3'

V = IV + <

3 '-63952

Fifth

3

2

3

2

V

V + T = III 4-3

32-63952

Superfluous Fifth

25

i6

5""

V + .r" = 2.III

35-92564

Vol. XIX.

PP

INTERVAL.

A Table of the Mufical Intervals v,-ith their Meafwre's-.

Names of Intentds.

Proportions

ihe Inter-
vals.

Compofiiion
of the Pro-
lan ions
from 2,3,

and :,.

Simple

Signs.

Comple.x Signs to (hew the Comiafition
ofliucud..

. Meafuics

Sixth Minor ....

.i 1

1 5

6"

V + s = VIII - in

37-S34S1

Sixth IMajor . . - .

-

: 3

; 5
3

VI

V + / = vin-3"

41.12093

Hexaghord of the Greek Scale,
redunJant Sixth Major .

"]

. -27

123

3'^

2'

VI = V + T = VIII- s"^

42.I2C93

Greater } ^'"'''"'^^^^ Seventh -

<

1

L

r

1 ''

2l6

72

! 3--5'

r -^ S

6" + S =^ 7" - X

VI + . -

43.03010
44.63010
44.40705

5'
5'

2 -. 3^

Greater' } f"P"fl"0"3 Sixth -

■

225

128

3^. S-

2-

VI + ; = VIII - 2 s

45.40705

' :

16
9

2*

7

VI + S =2.IV:r.VIII-T

46.31622

3-

Leffer 1 . ^ -Kr-
Greater) Seventh Minor

'

9

5

3""

7'

vi + s = V + 3^ = -1

VIII - / J

47.31622

5

Seventh Major . ' .

L

' 1

3-5

VII

VI + T = VIII - S

50.60234

2''

Diminifhed Oftave

'

48
-5

2' 3

5'

VII '+ J ^ VIII - s

52.51J53

Superfluous Seventh '

64

5'

2>

VII + s = VIII - J

53. 88S46

Oclave ... . - - •.

-

2

VIII

VIII = V + TV

y5-797f'3

The limma, apotome, trihemito'ne, ditonus, femidiapente,
and tritonuSjinientioned in tliis table, by the naihes of liVnma,
apotome, Scci of the Gr^ek fcale, are fuch as are either men.
tioned by the ancients, oit. allc-sfr occur in; ihei!* fcale, where
fburtlis are divided into two tones and a linimB, and *here
the odave cdnHfted of five tones and two limnias.

The term ri-ilundant, in "lEs table, -is- applied to fuch
inlervals as exceed the truth by a comma ; and fuch as fall
Ihort ©f tJ»e tr*rth-by a- life* qwaittk^ are .called dsjicieiU.
Intervi\ls that exceed tr{ie-diai«uiv intervals, by a fcmitone

minor, are faid to beyu/ifr^uoaj; and thofe which fall fliort
Tjy the fame quantity, arc faid to be dim'ir.'tjhed. Where an
intervtil exceeds a true diatonic interval by the quantity of
two feraitoncs minor, we have called it an txireme fupcrjhious
■interval : and if it falls (hort by the fame quantity, the ap-
pellation (li, extreme dimini/hed interval is given it. Thus, if
from A to D afcending be a true fourth, and from D to a
a true fifth, then if D be fuppofed ralfed by a comma, froni
A to D will be a redundant fourth, and from D to a a d;-
ficient fifth. From A to D a; will be a fuperfluous fourth,

a5.i

INT

and from T) jf; to a will be a diminiflied fiftL In like man-
ner, from A to D", will be a diniiiiilhed fourth ; and from
D to a a fuperfluous fifth. From A to D «,* (D double
fharp) will be an extreme fuperfluous fourt!'., and from A to
D^' (D double flat) will be an extreme dimini(hed fourth.
In like rcasiier from D * * to a will be an extreme di-
■miniihed, and from D ' to rf an extreme fuperfluous fifth.
Such intervals are not to be met wit!i in the practice of mu-
lic ; but if thedivifiou of the oftavc into 31 parts were once
eilabliihed, as it ought for the perfedlion of mufic, fuch. in-
tervals as thefe iierc mentioned will neceflarily occur in
iJiefcale. Vide Phil. Tranf. N 481. p. 273, 274. See
Gen- us.

This table, among other ufes, will facilitate the examina-
tion of any propofed fcale, or interval. Suppofe, for in-
.ttance, it were reqiirei to examine fome of Ptolemy's divi-
fions of the fourth, as liis diatonic um molle, which he makes
^ + -^ + l^r = •'. Take the logarithm of | from the
common tables, and divide it by the logarithm of |.^, the
quotient will be 10. 75', which gives the meafure ornumber
.of commas, and its parts contained in an interval exprefled
by |. Look for the neareft meafure of intervals to 10.75 in
the table, it will be found to be 10.39058, which anfwers
to the interval of two fen:iitones major, or of the di-
miniilied third, as praftitioners call it. But Ptolemy's
exceeds this by 0.36, or about -id of a comma. The
Dext interval in Ptolemy's divilion is \?, which is a true
tone minor. The third is j^i, which will be found to be
3.93 commas, that is, a femitone minor and 0.64 of a com-
ma, or a femitone minor redundant by near Jdsof a comma.
But this is much out of tune. In the common, and in Huy-
gens's temperatures, the femitone minor is increafed only by
about ith of a comma. Vide Ptolemy's Harmon, p. 92.
apud Wallis Opera, torn. v.

Intervals, Concinnous. Difcords are diftingui(hed into
concinnous and incondnmus intervals : the concinnous are fuch
as are fit for mufic, next to, and in combination with con-
cords ; being neither very agreeable nor difagreeable in
themfelves ; but ha^-ing a good effeiSt, as by their oppofition
they heighten the more effential principles of plcafiire ; or
as by their mixture and combination with them, they j^ re-
duce a variety neceflary to our being better pleafcd. See

COXCINXOUS.

The other difcords that are never ufed in mufic, are called
inconclnnous,

Interv.\L, Diminl/h:J, is a defeftive interval, or an inter-
val which is (hort of its jull quantity by a leflTer femitone.
Thus from C l^ to E being a third major, if E be lowered
by a femitone minor, we {hsU have E b , and then from C fc]
to E b is called a dimini/hrd ih.ird, in Mie language of prac-
tical muficians, and occurs frequently in their works. But,
flriclly fpeaking, in this cafe, the note E mud be lowered
more than a femitone minor.

Intekval, Harmon'ual, is an interval, or difference of
two founds which are agreeable to the ear, whether in con-
fonance or fuccelTion.

Harmonical intervals, therefore, are th; fame with con-
-tords ; which fee.

They are thus called, as being the only cffential ingredients
of harmony.

Intervals, in the New Method of HiifoanJry, denote
the wide fpaces, commonly about five f-et, wlucn are left
between any two of the double, treble, or quadruple rows.
See Husbandry.

Intervals, in the Military Art, are the fpaces left be-
tween each regiment in camp, and likewife between eacli

I N T

INTESTATE, a perfon who dipj without making -a
will. An \v:\x ahintcP.ato, is a perfon who inherits an eltatc
by fome other right tlian that of will or teftament.

Heretofore,* thofe who died intcftate, were held infamous',
and accurfed ; in regard, by the canons of feveral councils,
every perfon was enjoined to bequeath a pp.rt of his eftate
(and Matthew Paris fays it was at leaft to be a tenth part)
to the church, for the' fafety of his foul ; which a perfon
who negk'iSted to make a will, and to lc2ve this legacy to the
church, was judged to have abandoned. Several councils
took on them to command the priefts to folicit dying perforip
to be charitable to the church ; and this they did fo earneftly^
that abfolution and tlie viaticum were denied to thofe whom
they could not pre.vail on ; fo that they made no difTerencp
Iietween thefe inteflales and felf-murderers ; and they were
alike denied ChriiUan burial. Du Cange adds, that all
who died without abfolution, without receiving the viati-
cum, a3id without leaving alms to the church (even though
they died fuddenly ), hud their cffefts feized, and confifcated
to the ufe of the church, bifliop, &c. See Ad.M!NISTRA-
Tou and Testament.

In the EngUfli law tliere are two kinds of inteflates : the
one defacioy which are thofe who make no will at all ; the
other dsjare, called alfo quaft inis/tati, which are thofe who
make a will ; but fuch an one as is null and void, either from
the executors refufing to atl, or from fome other caufe :
in v.'bich cafe they are judged to die as inteftate, quajt
intcjlatl

x\nd the 22 & 23 Car. II. c. 10. commonly called the
ftatute of diilribution, appoints a diftribution of inteflates'
eftates, (except of femes covert, which are left as at com-
mon law, flat. 29 Car. II. c. 3. § 25.) after debts and
f\jneral expences are paid among the wife and children of the
deceafed ; or for want of fuch, among the next of kin, &c.
and the a£l of parliament doth immediately upon the death
of the inteilate veft an intcreft in the perfons entitled: fo
that if any one dies before the diftribution, though within the
year, his fhare fiiall go to his executors and adminiltrators ;
and not to the furvivors or next of kin to the inteftate. (i Lil.
Abr. 487. See Administration.) By this flatute the
mother, as well as the father, fucceeJed to all the perfonal
effecls of their children who died intcflate, and without
wife or ifTue : in exclufion of the other fons and daughters,
the brothers and fillers of the deceafed. And fo the law Hill
remains with refpeft to the father ; but by llatute i Jac. II.
c. 17, if the father is dead, and any of the children die iix-
teltate without wife or iffue, in the life-time of the mother,
fhe and each of the remaining children, or their repr^renta-
tives, fhall divide hiseffedls in equal portions. See Custom
of London.

By the fame ftatute it is enabled, that one-third part of
the furplufage of the eftate of any perfon dying inteilate,
fhall be dillributed to his \vidow, and the relidue amongft
his children by equal portions, or among fuch perfons as
legally reprefent his children, in cafe any of them be then
dead, excepting fuch child or children (n<it being heir at
law) who fhall have any eftate by the fettlementof the intef-
tate, or fhall be advanced by the inteftate in his life-time, by
portion or portions equal to the fiiare which rnall by fuch dif-
tribution be allotted to the other children, and in cafe their
portions have not been equal, they fliall be made fo as nearly
as pofTible out of the fame furplufage. Cut the heir at law is
to have an equal part in the diftribution with the reft of
the children, without any confideration of the value of the
land which he hath by defcent orotherwife from the inteilate.
In cafe there be no children nor legal reprefentatives, one
jnoietv of the faid cllate fhall be allotted to tiie widow of
Ppz

I N T

thf intellate, and tlie rcfidue diflributed equally to every of
thi r.ext kindred of the inleftate, who are in equal degree,
and thoie -..ho legally rcprefent them ; provided that there
be no repreferitaiicns admitted among coUaterals, after
brothers and fillers cijildren : and if there be no widow, the
faid eilate fhall be wholly diftributed in equal fhares among
the childreii , or if there be no chil^, to the next of kindred
in equal degree, and their legal reprefentatives. But no
fuch diflribulion of the goods of an inteftate (hould be made
till after one year be fully expired after his death, and thofe
to whom diftribution is made, are required to give bonds
with fufficient fureties, to refund in cafe of debts.

This Itatute of dillributions bears a near refemblance to
our ancient Englifh law, " de rationubili parte bonorum,"
which fir Edward Coke himfelf (2lnil. 33.), though he
doubted the generality of its reflraint on the power of devif-
ing by will, held to be univerfally binding (in point of con-
fcience at leaft) upon the adminiftrator or executor, in the
cafe of either a total or partial intellacy. It alfo bears
feme refemblance to the Roman law of fucceffion " ab intef-
tato ;" which, and becaufe the aft was alfo penned by an emi-
nent civilian (fir Walter Walker), has occafioned a notion
that the parharaent of England copied it from the Roman
prxtor, though it is little more than a redoration, with fome
refinements and regulations, of our old conttitutional law ;
which prevailed as an ellabliflied right and cuftom from the
time of king Canute downwards, many centuries before Juf-
tinian"s laws were known or heard of in the weilern parts of
Europe. Judge Blackllone obferves, however, that the
dottriue and limits of reprefentation, laid dowrt in the flatute
of dillributions, feems to have been principally borrowed
from the civil law ; whereby it will fometimes happen that per-
fonal ellates are divided "per capita," and fometimes " per
ftirpes ;" whereas the common law knows no other rule of
fucceffion but tiiat " per ilirpes" onlv. Bl. Com. b. ii.

INTESTINA, in the Linnaan S\jhm, an order or di-
vifion of worms (fee Vermes) ; the charafters of wliich
are, that they are fimple naked animals without limbs :
fome are pierced with a lateral hole or a kind of pore ; and
others are imperforated and have no lateral pore. The fub-
ordinate genera of this divifion of worms are the a/carts,
irlchocephalus, uncinana, tilaria, fcolex, hgula, UnguatalajJIron-
^lui, echinorhynchus, baruca, cacuUanus, caryophylUus, fafc'iola,
myxine, tania, furia, gordius, h'lrudo, lutnlricus, fipunculus, and
pLinaria.

INTESTINE Motion. See Motion.

Intesti-e W^ar. See War.

LsTESTiSKS, in Anatomy, are portions of the membranous
tube, in which the converfion of the food into chyle, and the
c.xpiilfion of its reCdue in the form of feces is effefted.
They are two in number, and are diftinguifhed by epithets
derived from their relative fize ; theyma/Zinteftine (/«,'. tcnu:)
fucceeds the ftomach, and is immediately followed by the
lar^e (int. crajfum). The ufe of the word in the plural,
with either of thefe epithets, is incorrect ; fince each of
thefc diviiions of the alimentary canal is a fingle tube.

The changes which the food undergoes in the ftomach and
intcllines, and the funfticns of thefe organs, have been fully
difcull'ed under the article Digestion : at prefent our ob-
jeft is merely anatomical, and confiits in prefenting to the
reader the details concerning the formS; fituation, connec-
tions, and ftnifture of the intettines.

The fmali inteiline is that part of the alimentary canal
which extends from the pylorus to the valve of the colon.
It is the longell divifion of the canal, and is fuppofed to be
three or four times the length of the body. It is naturally
<l!vidcd iiito two parts : the fiift of thele, placed between

1 N T

the two layers of the tranfverfe mefocolon, has a fixed f-tua-
tion in the abdominal cavity, and is called duodenum : the
other floats loofely in the abdomen, and is diUing'.ilhed by
an ambiguous and arbitrary divifion into jejunum and ileum.
It is generally, but not always, fm.aller in fize than the large
inteftine ; yet, when it is diilended with air or other con-
tents, it exceeds the empty large intefi;ine in diameter. The
cells and folds of the latter give to its coats in the collapfed
ftate a feel of greater thickneis, although they are not ac-
tually thicker than fome parts of the Imall intellines. A fu-
perficial view would lead us to defcribe it as a cylindrical
tube ; but m.ore accurate e.xamination and aclual meafure-
ment will (liew that it is conical, largeft at its commencement,
fmalleft at its termination, and diminiihing very gradually
between thefe points. When diftended, the outline of its
fefiion is circular : in the empty ftate its fides fall together,
fo that it reprefents an oblong oval.

The ftructure of the tube is the fame, in all eftential points,
throughout its whole extent ; and the diftindions of anato-
mifts regard only points of fituation and conneclion. The
excretory tubes of the liver and pancreas open into the canal,
near its beginning.

The duodenum is that part of the inteftine included between
the pylorus and the point at which the canal efcapes from the
tranfverfe mefocolon. It is placed in the neighbourhood of
the vertebral column, between the two layers of the mefo.
colon, which are connecled to it by a loofe cellular fubftance.
The large end of the pancreas is very clofely attached to if.
From the pylorus it turns backwards, and to the richt, un-
der the neck of the gall-bladder, which touches it : hence it
frequently has a yellow tint in the dead fubjeft. This,
which may be called the firft portion of the duodenum,
forms a dilHnft angle with the fecond, which defcends
alinoft perpendicularly behind the upper layer of the mefo-
colon conneiled to it by a loofe cellular medium. Its pofte-
rior furface correfponds to the right fide of the vertebral
column, anJ to the front of the right kidney : its inner
edge to the pancreas. The third part makes a turn at tlie
lower end of the kidney, or about the third lumbar vertebra,
paffes from right to left acrofs the vertebral column, in front
of the aorta and vena cava, behind the fuperior mefenteric
vefTels, and below the pancreas. At the left fide of the ab-
domen it again turns forwards and towards the right,
efcapes from behind the inferior layer of the mefocolon, and
takes the name of jejunum. Thus this divifion of the in-
teftinal canal forms a kind of half circle, of which the con-
vexity is towards the riaht, and the concavity to the left :
the pancreas is included within it.

The anterior finface of the intefline on'y is covered by
peritoneum ; thepofterior afpe£l being attached to the neigh-
bouring organs by cellslar fubftance. In the part near 'Jie
pylorus, the covering membrane adheres clofely to the muf-
cidar part of the inteftine, as it does in the jejunum or ileum' :
but in the reft of its courfc, the adhefion is much more loofe,
and in the third portion the mefenteric vefi'els are interpofed
between the membrane and the inteiline. A fold of menn-
brane produced from the neighbourhood of the right kidney,
and from the tranfverfe fifi^ure of the liver, is fom.etimes de-
fcribed as the ligamcntum duodeni renale or hepaticum : the
reft of the canal is included within the fpace lett between the
layers of- the mefcco'on.

Its length is about that of twelve fingers' breadtlis.
The united pancreatic and biliarv dufts have their opening
on the pofterior furface, at ihi- angle formed between the
iirft and fecond portions of the duodenum.

The peculiarities of the duodiniim are its incomplete pe-
ritoneal covering ; its circuinftribcd and fixed lituutii u ;

INTEST-INES.

Its conneftion to the pancreas, and receiving the fecreted
fluid of that gland and the liver. Its figure is perhaps lei's
regularly cylindrical, and there are fome differences in the
mucous membrane.

The artei-ics of the duodenum are derived from the gaftro-
duodenal branch of the hepatic, and from the fuperior me-
fenteric : the veins joi '. fome of the trunks, which contri-
buted to the formation of the vena portarum. The abforb-
ing vcflels pafs to the glands at the root of the mefentery.
The nerves come from the cxliac ganglia.

Second Divlfion of the fmall Intefi'mts — This part of the
canal, which is very loofe and moveable, forms numerous
turns, and its convolutions fill up the fpace between the
bladder and uterus below, and the lar^e iuteftine above and
at the fideS : the latter part alnioft encircles the fpace in which
this divilion of the canal lies. As the cascum and the fig-
moid flexures of the colon do not touch below, the fmall i:i-
tefline defcends in their interval, in greater or lefs quantity,
into the pelvis. The umbilical and hypogallric regions of
the abdomen are chiefly occupied by thefe convolutions :
which accommodate themfclvcs, by their perfetl mobility,
to the numerous changes produced in this fpace. A dilUnded
ftate of the Uomavh caufes them to defcend : when the
bladder, refluni,and uterus are empty, much of the inteftine
is found in the pelvis ; but when thefe organs, and particu-
larly the latter, are diilended, the inteibne afcends : in a
word, it pafi'es into any fpace that remains open for it. The
tranfverfe arch of the colon bounds the fpace occupied by
the fmall intet'.ine above : the lumbar portions of the la-ge
intetline, fixed to the back of the abdomen, allow the con-
volutions to pafs in front of them, and to correfpond imme-
diately to the abdominal panetes. The latter limit and con-
fine it in front, and are fepaiated from it only by the great
omentum.

A broad fold of peritoneum, called the mefentery, con-
neftsit in its fituatir.n to the abdomin;U cavity ; this conlifls
of two layers, which receive the inteftine b-twcen them, and
give it a fmooth external coat. Tliis fold is attached to the
back of the abdomen, in an oblique line, extending from
the left lumbar to the right iliac regions : here it is about
fix inches broad. It expands fo confiderably as to be broad
enough on the oppoGte or front margin, to be attached to
the whole length of the jejunum and ileum. In confcquence
of this great breadth of the anterior part, the mefentery
itfelf, in this fituation, forms a va!l number of loi;giti;dii!al
{•laits. The ftat furfaces of the mefentery are fmooth, and
coiitigiious to the inteftinal convolutions. Tl'.e depth of the
mefentery, from its pollcrior or fixed, to its anterior or
kiofe edge, is greateit in the middle, and gradually dimi-
niihcd towards either end. Its ilrufture a-id attachments
are fuch as to preferve the inteilinal convolutions in a certain
relative pofition, and at the fame time to allow in the whole
a coifKlerablc liberty of motion ; it prevents the inteftines
aifo from becoming entangled in the motions of its individual
parts.

It is compofed of two membranous layers, produced
from the peritoneum. The latter membrane, after lining
the pollerior and right portion of the abdomen, when it ar-
rives at the root of the irieientery, is reflefted from behind
forwards, infteadof being continued to the left fide. That,
wliich has lined the poflerior and left divilion of the cavity,
is alfo reflefted from behind forwards, in (lead of paffing in
front of the vertebra;. Thefe laminas, turned towards each
other, form the two furfaces of the mefentery ; they fepa-
»ate at the intelline, and leave a cylindrical tube, in which
that caiul is contained. They are connected by a layer of
cellular lae.nbrane, containing more or lefs feet, and the ar-

teries, veins, and nerves of the jejunum and ileum, as well as
the ladeal vefTels and their glands.

The inteilinal convolutions have no fixed fituation, but
are formed, deflroyed, and renewed, carried upwards,
downwards, S:c. according to the general or particular mo-
tions of the canal ; yet the concavity of each turn is always
at the mefenteric edge, and its convexity at the loofe mar-
gin of the gut. The very loofe attachment to the fides
of the cavity, and the apparently irregular order in
which the convolutions of the intellines are difpofed, feem
at firll fight to prevent us from affigning any particular di-
reftion to this part of the canal. But if we put out of the
queilion the great mafs of the turns, and examine the parts
where it begins and ends, and conlider at the fame time the
direftion of the mefentery, we (liall find that the canal alto-
gether pafles obliquely from above downwards, and from the
left towards the right iide. It begins in faft on the left fide
of the tranfverfe mefocolon below the fuperior mefenteric
veliels, and it terminates in the right iliac region, wliere it is
fixed to the fide of the caecum.

A tranfverfe feftion of the inteftine prefenis an elliptical
area ; of which the fmaller circle correfponds to the mefen-
tery, and the larger to the loofe edge of the intelline. Confi-
dered in its whole length, the nieienteric or attached edge is
concave ; the loofe margin convex. The fmall trunks of the
blood- veffels enter on the former ; their minute ramilications,
and the fine origins of the abforbents, are obfervcd on the
latter.

Sometimes fmall b'ind procefTes, or appendices, varying
in length from a few lines to three or four inches, are con-
nected to the fmall inteftine. It is very uncommon to fee
more than one in a fubjedt. They are cylindrical or coni-
cal towards the extremity, communicate freely with the rell
of the canal, and completely agree with it in ftructure.
There can be no doubt that they are originally formed parts,
and not produced by any morbid exteniiou of the inteftinal
parietes. They are often mentioned under the name of di-
verticula.

When moderately diftended, the inteftine meafures more
than an inch at its largelt diameter, and lefs at the
fmalleft. When it is completely diftended, the figure is
circu'ar.

The coats are thinner than in the ftomach or in the large
inteftine : they are thickeft at the beginning, and grow gra-

Jly th

to the end. They appear proportion

tliieker, when the inteftme is in a concrafted ftate. It is
more fleftiy, elallic, and dark coloured ; in a word, firmer
and thicker in perfeftly healthy men than in women or vale-
tudinarians. When it'is aiTerted that tiie canal is fo many
times the length of the body, we only mean to give a gene-
ral notion of its extent : for there is no relation between llie
(lature of individuals and the volume of their, gallris.
vifcera.

The diftin<!tk)n of the jejunum and ileum is quite arbitrary :
there are no marks fliewing the termination of one, and the
beginning of the other:, but the two ends of the c.inal differ
obvioully in fcveral points. Window gives the former name
to the upper two-fifths of the tube, and. the latter to the
lower three-fifth"!.

Orgam-z,atioti of the fmall ItilefUne. — It coniifts, like the fto-
mach, of three diilinct ilrata or coats, connedted by cellular
fubftance : thefe are moft clearly feen on the cut edge of the
part, after a fimple incillon, when the difference of colour
and denfity enables us to diftinguifli them ealily. Boiling
and maceration in proof fpirit rendtir the difFcCtion of the
inteftinal coats more eafy.

The liril or external coat is aferous membrane, confifting

of.

INTESTINES.

■of a produdion of peritoneum." The two layers of the
niefentery feparateat the concave edge of the inteftine, fur-
"round it, and are continued into each other at the convex
■fide. It covers, therefore, the whole external furface, except-
ing the narrow ftrip where the two layers are fcparated.

This ferous me:r.brane is very thin, fo as to be nearly
tranfparent, and pofTefles no fibres : the mufcular fibres and
the blood-vefTeis can be feen through it. Its external furface
is moill, and perfeClly fmooth ; while the internal, conneftetl
.to the fiibjacent fibres by cellular fubftance, has a rough

two ftrata of fibres. The external, which is thin and fmall,
has a longitudinal dircftion, but their fibres can hardly be
fcen except at the convex edge of the gut. The internal is
much more confiderable ; its fibres are more numerous, and
they furround the inteftine in a circular maimer, fo as to cut
the former at right angles. Tliife fibres are the moft dif-
tinftly marked about the duodiMuiir. : they grow more flender,
poflefs lefs colour, and are therefore hardly obfervable near
.the valve of the colon.

The third or internal covering is a mucous membrane, ge-
nerally called by anatomifts the villous coat of the inteftine :
it is always covered in a g;-eater or lefs degree with a mucous
fiiiid. This is connefted te the misfcular ftratum by a very
copious, white, and rather loofe cellular fubftance, the
nsrvsus coat of many anatomiils. The trunks of the blood-
vefTels and abforbents of the mucous furface are contained
in this in great numbers, and give to it the appearance of
confiderable vafcularity. It not only connefts the mucous
and mufcular coverings together, but alfo unites the dupli-
catures of the former. Through the intervals of the muf-
cular fibres it joins the cellular fubftance connecting the
ferous and mufcular coats. When carefully feparated, it has
the appearance of a fine cotton on both furfaces : and this
appearance may be ftill more I'.rikingly produced by cutting
off the mefentery clofe to the inteftine, inverting the tube
and inflating it forcibiy, when the air will penetrate into the
■whole cellular ftrufture of the organ. If the part be ma-
cerated, after feparating by dilT-ftion the mucous and muf-
cular coats, the water dittends the cells and exhibits the
ftrufture very clearly.

The mucous membrane is much longer than the two other
coats, and it is confcquently collefled, throughout the whole
canal, into folds, by whiA the difference of length is com-
penfated. Thefe are not hke the rugs of the ftomach,
formed only in tlie contrafted, and difappearing in the dif-
tended ftate of the organ ; but they belong to the efTential
ftrufture of the psrt, and exift therefore under all circum-
ftances. They are moftly tranfverfe in their direftion ; that
is, they cut the long axis of the gut at right angles ; and
they are called valvulae conniventes, although they have not,
nor can poifibly exert any thing like the aftion of a valve.
They begin about an inch from the pylorus, are fmall, and
longitudinally difpofed in the duodenum. They then affume
a more regular arrangement, are numerous and large, and
nearly parallel ; tov-ards the end of the inteftine th^y gra-
dually become fmal'er and fewer, and have again in great
part of the ileum a longitudinai difpofition. Near the valve
of the colon the gut is almoft fmooth. -*»

The valvulae conniventes may occupy from one to three-
fourths of the dianieter of the canal, but rarely extend
through the whole circle : they are often joined by fmall
communicating folds, and frequently are bifurcated at their
extremities. When fliort, they are narrow, and are broader
in proportion as they are longer : they are broadeft in the
middle and narrower at the extremities. Their breadth may
i

be from half a line to three Knes. They are fo Sompletelf
unrefifting, that they yield readily in either direftion to any
impelling force, and are applied againft: the furface of the
canal. As they depend entirely on the cellular fubftance,
they are deftroyed by feparating the mucous membrane and
drawing it out : the furface then becomes fmooth, and very
much exceeds the length of the other coats.

The fituation, length andbreadth, direftion, number and
form of the valvule conniventes, can be very well obferved
in a gut inflated and dried ; but their natural appeai-ance,
their thickiiefs, foftnefs, &c. are beft feen in an inverted in-
teftine floating in water.

When the furface of the mucous membrane is attentively
examined, it is found univcrfally covered with very delicate
and minute folds and projeftions, fo as to give it a flocculcnt
appearance ; thefe are named villi. They are more numerous
and large in the commencement of tlie cana', and decreafe
in number and fize towards the oppofite end. In fome ani-
mals, as the dog, thefe villi are remarkably long and nu-
merous, fo that the furface of the mucous membrane coai-
pietely refembles velvet.

When the blood-veffels have been fucccfsfully injeft;ed,
microfcopical examination difcovers other irregularities on
thefe villi, and fliews us that the whole confifts of a clofe
net-work of vafcnlar communications. Each villus contains
moreover numerous abforbing vefTels, fo that they have been
regarded as the great organs of abforption, containing the
m.ouths by which the latteals take up the chyle from the
inteftine. Anatomifts have bufied themfelves much with
attempts to detect the aftuai openings of the lafteals upon
the vJli. Lieberkuhn thought that he could fee, by the
aid of the microfcope, an opening into each villus leading
into a fmall veficular cavity in the centre, which he called
the ampulla. Hewfon did not admit this ftrufture, but
conceived that the vefTels begin by fimple apertures, in the
number of one or more on each villus. Mr. Cruiklhanck
met with a fubjeft, in which the lafteals and villi were re-
markably loaded with chyle, and he e.\amined thefe parts
with the microfcope. Many of tb.e villi were fo full that
they feemed like white veficles, without any diftinftion of
particular vefTels. «' In fome hundred villi," fays he, *' I faw
a trunk of a lafteal, forming or beginning by radiated
branches. The orifices of thefe radii were very diftinft on
the furface of the villus, as well as the radii themfelves,
feen through the external furface, pafCng into the trunk of
the lafteal : they were full of a white "fluid. There was
but one of thefe trunks in each villus. The orifices on the
villi of the jejunum, as doftor Hunter himfelf laid, (when
I aflved him, as he viewed them in the microfcope, how
many he thought there might be,) were about fifteen or
twenty on each villus : and in fome I faw them ftill more
numerous." Anatomy of the Abforbing VefTels, chap, ii,
and plate 2.

It has been calculated, that the furface of this mucous
membrane, when allowance is made for all its inequaUties,
exceeds that of the common integuments.

Numerous mucous glands are fituated on the external fur-
face of the mucous membrane of the fmall inteftine : their
dufts open on the internal furface of the organ. Thefe
parts are always fmall, and in many cafes are not demon-
ftrated without fome difficulty. They are moft advan-
tageoufly examined by flitting up the gut, and holding it
againft the light ; they are diftinguilhed by their compara-
tive opacity. Several exift in the duodenum ; in the jejunum
they are fewer, but they incre:d'e in number again in the
ileum, are coUcfted into confiderable mafTes, and are par-
ticularly numerous towards the end of the inteftine. They

vary

INTESTINES.

rSry in fize : fame are rojind^d, others comprcffed ; the
Idrper are Erenerally placed fiti^j'.y, the fmaller are placed
clofe together in cftUeftions of different extent. The open-
ings of the excretory dufts of the larjer ones on the mu-
cous ftirface of the inteftinc are fiifSciently confnictio'.is.
They fccm to poffefs a very fimple itmftiire ; we can ob-
L'rve in them merely a net-work of minute vafcularramifica-
tiotis, whicli depolit fheir fecreted mucus in a timple excre-
tory tube.

According as thefe bodies are found fingle, or in collec-
tions, they have been called glaviduhe filitarix or agm-nat.z.
Again, they have been named in different parts, after per-
fons who firft dcfcribed them, glandulae Peyeri and Brun-
neri.

The arteries of the jejunum and ileum are derived from tl»e

trtink of the fuperior mefentcric : the veins all end in the

mefenteric root of the vena portarum. The blood in thefe

veins has been obferved to have white ftreaks in it ; but this

: not peculiar to the mefenteric veflels. Fluids injefted into

traflility, which refides in their mufcular coat ; thefe may-'
be witneded in living animals by expofing the abdomen, or
in thofe recently dead, and fometimes in the inteilines ex-
pofed by accident or furp^ical operations. The whole ca ul
is obferved to be in motion, and this is called pcnfalti:, wh ch
term fignifics merely contradtin?. One part of the tube is '.een
to be contraf^ed, wlii!e another is dilated ; one afcends,
vvhile another defcends ; one is extended, another rendered
fhorter : thus a general twilling and creeping is produced,
compared to the motion of wormsi and hence ca led vermi-
cular. Touch a part of the gut with a (harp inftrument,
or with any chemical ftimiilus, and it will be io contraifred .
as to c'ofe the canal. A (imilnr effeft follows the applica-
tion of ftimuli, fuch as air, or other fluids, to the internal.-
fiirface. This is not confined to the mere fpot irritated, but ■
tl'.e neighbouring parts partake of the affi-ftion. This fen- '
fibility continues fome time after death, and is manifefted
even in the intelline when removed from the body.

The ordinary and natural iHmuli, by which the orwr.nic
the chvme or

the mefesteric veins eaiily tranfude on the mucous furface contraftility of the inteitine is excited, are,
of the inteiline. aliment as it comes from the itomach, the air mix- d with

The fuperficinl abforbing veflels have their origin in the and accompanying this, and the bile. The artificial and

unufual ones are purgative medicines, worms, cold applied -
to the abdomen. Cold to the feet, and terror fometimes aft-
fympathetically.

ferous m.embranc, aTaitpmofe very frequently with each
other, and with the deepfeated ones, pafs through the me-
fentery in a fuperior and inferior fet, and enter the mefen-
teric glands. The deeper-feated abforbents, arifing from
the villi of the mucous furface, are called the ladeal or
chyliferous veflels ; they arc often diflended in a varicofe
manner to a confiderable fize • their trunks accomp.iny thofe
of the bloo(t-veflels in the cirlliilar fubftance on the furface
of the mucous membrane, anaftomcfe very frequently with

Phylioiogilh iiave diftinguiflied three kinds of motion in
the inteiline ; the defcending or regular one, proceeding from
the ftomach to the large inteftine ; the afcending or inverted,
the reverfe of the former ; and the mixed, which partakes
of both thefe.

The following phenomena may be obferved in the motion

each other, and with the fup-^rficial ones, both here and in of the inteftine. Paris of the canal are alternately diftendcd-

the mefentery, fo as to form a complete net-work, and then
proceed to the glands. They are very numerous in the
duodenum and jejunum ; but are fewer in the reft of the
canal ; they foi-m a plexus in the mefentery, proceed from
gland to gland, becoming larger and larger, and (lill com-
municating together. Collefted into large trunks, they
arrive at the under and back furface of the pancreas, and
are united with the abforbing veflels of the ilorr.ach, fpleen,
and liver in the glands and plexufes fituated about this part.
They then bend downwards, forming new plexufcs, and
arrive at the glands placed about the aorta, uniting with all
the trunks fro.m the other abdominal vifcera, from the pelvis
and lower extremities : they then afcend again to term.inate
in the thoracic duft. .

The mefenteric glands, am.ountingin number to one hun-
dred or more, even to one hundred and fifty, are chi-jfly
placed on the fuperior mefenteric artery, either fcattered
and feparated, or in a more clofe arrangement. They are
fewer and fmaller towards the lower part and right portion
of the mefentery and inteftine, than on the upper and left
part. They are moftly flattened, with a rou^id or oval cir-
cumference : and the larger are placed irregularly amon^ the
fmall ones. They have a brownifli red colour, but are paler
and fmaller in adults than in infants. When full of chyle they
are whiter.

The nerves of the fmail inteftine are derived from the
cxliac ganglia; they form uct-works adhering very clofely
to the arteries. The animal fenfibihty of the inlefl;ines is
probably ver)' flight under ordinary circumftances ; the
funcUons of thefe parts are perforn-ed wilho-Jt our con-
fcioufnefs. Dif^iafe, however, develip-i a moft acute animal
fenlibility. Anin al contraftility is entirely deficient : no exer-
tion of the will can either accrlerate or retard the action of
the inte!line. But the moft I'riking phenomena of the iii-
teftinal funftions are derived from their orgar.ic fenlible con-

and contracted ; moVed in various diredlions ; rendered tenfe
and loofe to the touch ; diftended with air or chyme ; incur--
vated or extended ; appear longer or fhorter according as
the longitudinal or circular fibres act ; are filled or emptied ; •
in ftiort, they are alternately at reft: and in motion.

The longitudinal fibres fliorten the canal lengthwife : the
circular ones produce an oppofite efieft. The latter admit
of diflention, until the gut exceeds an inch in diameter;
they contract it again to half a hne, or evt-n clofe the canal
entirely.

The antiperiftaltic aftion feems juft fnfficient in degree,,
in a healthy animal, to retain the chyle for the action of the '.
abforbing veflels. In difeafes, or wheji an infuperable obfta-
cle exi'ls to the natural pa-fiage of the ahmcnt, this inverted
motion is carried to a great degree, to that the contents of
the f'nall and even large inteftine are conveyed- into the
ftomach, and expelled by vomiting.

The large- inU^ine is that portion of the alimentary canal,
which extends from the end of the fmall inteftine to the'
anus, and is fo named becaufe its diameter confiderably ex--
ceeds that of the fmall. It is diftinguilhed from the latter, not.
merely by its Jituation, connections, extern -.1 form and.
funftions, but alfo in its minute ilruclnre, fo that a very,
fmall portion of it might be difl^inguiThed from a fi-milar;
piece of the ftomach or fmall inteftine.

Its fituation is more defined and conftant than that of the
fmall intedine. Beginning in the right iliac region, it rifes
in front of fhe right kidney, goes backwards under the hver,i
and then turns forwards and towards the lefi (".he firft or.
hepatic flexure of the colon). It contimiesin a ti-anfwer.'c.
direction, from right to left, under the gall-blaudcr, the
ftomach, and the notch of the f-^jleen bflow and b- hind
which it turns again, and forms a large :ingle (the !t cond ofi
fplenic flexure) It defi-ends on tlv; left fide of tiie ibdo-.
men, in front of the left kidney, forms in the left iliac r.gioai

a large

INTESTINES.

« -large and loofe fold, rerembling in its form the letter S ;
paflcs over the left facro-iliac fyniphyfis into the pelvis, runs
alon J the concave furface of the facrum and os coccj-gis, and
ends a httle beyond the anterior extremity of that bone, at
the anus.

We may diftincruifh fix portions of the large inteftine :

1, the cacjf, which is cominonly named Cmply the caecum :

2, the vermiform, ordinarily called procefTiis or appendix
vermiformis cn?ci : 3, tlie r/'ffo part of the colon, or tlie
afcending portion : 4, the tranf-ucrfe part, or the arch :
5, the left part, including the dcfcending colon and the iig-
moid or iliac flexure of the gut : 6, the rcchim. Very com-
monly the tube is divided into the three parts, cxcum, colon,
and rcftum. Tliefe different names, as in the fniallintelUne,
have led to the employment of the phrafe large inlt/lines in
the plural, as if there were more than one tube.

We cannot adign any exaft limits to thefe divifions, as
the polition of the inteftine, on which they are founded,
varies in its different ftatcs of diftcntion or emptinefs. The
right colon defcends lower, and appears longer wlien it is
full than when empty. The tianfverfe portion, wlien filled,
may defcend, from tlie loofenefs of its attachmei^, to the
umbilicus or pelvis : if it be longer than ufual, it forms an
arch with the concavity upwards, or it may make one or
two turns. When removed from the body, all diilindion of
particular divilions is loft, and the gut forms a llraight unin-
terrupted tube. It is from three to five times (horter
than the fmall inteftine, and they are to each other nearly as
five to twenty-five. In individuals of good proportions it
meafures about feven feet. The connefiions of the inteftine
are more firm in fome fituations, and more loofe in others.
In many parts the peritoneum does not entirely furround the
tube, but covers its anterior portion only, leaving the pof-
terior part to be affixed by cellular fubftance to the conti-
guous organs. The term mefocolon is applied generally to
the peritoneum covering the large inteftine.

The mefocolon dextrum paffes from the under and back
part of the liver, from the apex of the laft rib, from the
right quadratus lumborum, and iliacus internus, in front of
the right colon and coecum. Thus thefe parts, which are
only covered on their anterior furface, are firmly bound to
the ihac mufcle, the kidney, liver, and duodenum, and con-
ftantly held in this fituation. The appendix has itspecuhar
fmall and falciform mefentery.

The tranfverfe mefocolon is a broad and loofe fold, by
■which the tranfverfe part of the inteftine is uniformly covered,
except jull at the feparation of its two lamina. The left
raefocoJon is infiefted towards the right, nearly at a right
angle, and is then continued behind and below the itomach
and hver, in a tranfverfe direction to the left kidney, under the
name of mefocolon tranfverfum. Together with the arch of
the colon, it forms a kind of tranfverfe partition or dia-
phragm, loofe at the anterior edge, and feparating the fto.
mach, duodenum, fpleen, and liver from the other abdominal
contents. It is generally horizantal, as its name denotes ;
hut it is fometirnes fo broad and long as to defcend with the
inteftine into the pelvis. It is made up of two lamince of
peritoneum, including between them, befides the blood-
v«ffels, the abforbents with their glands, and the nerves of
the inteftine, conncded and covered by more or lefs fat, the
.duodenum, and pancreas. The latter parts are placed quite
at tke root of the fold.

The upper lamina defcends from the fplenic fold of the
peritoneum, the pancreas, the upper lumbar vertebrx, the
external covering of the duodenum, and the neighbourhood
of the kidney and vena cava- The inferior lamina, which
it more iimple and ftrong, comes od the left from the fitua-
6

tion under the fpleen, where it furrounds the duodenum hj
a kind of femilunar fold ; then from the right kid:iey,
and from a fold placed between the liver and kidney.

The breadth of this mefocolon leaves the arch of the in-
teftine quite moveable, fo that its fituation is by no means
conftant ; the diftended ftomach pufties it downwards, and
the repletion of the fmall inteftine has the contrary effeCl.
The great omentum covers the front of the tranfverfe colon,
and paffes between this and the ftomach : but does not tend
at all to fix it.

The mefocolon finiftrum is continued over the inteftine,
from the iliac veffels and pfoas magnus to the left kidney :
covering only the anterior furface. The back of the intef-
tine is connecled by cellular fubftance to the diaphragm, the
pfoas, and the kidney, fo that its fituation is very fixed.
Sometimes, however, there is fometliing like a mefentery
belonging to this part of the tube.

The meforetlum is a dupllcature, varying in breadth, pro-
duced from the fide of the pelvis to the figmoid flexure of
the colon, and the commencement of the refhum. I: is
broadeft above, where it is continuous with the mefocolon
finiftrum, and ends in an acute point below. It is niade up,
like the mefentery, of two laminx of peritoneum, including
between them the blood-veffels, &c. of the inteftine, and fat,
and feparating to cover the reftum. It allows the inteftine a
conliderable liberty of motion. Below the termination of
the meforeftum, the gut has no peritoneal coat ; but is
united by cellular fubftance to the furrounding organs : that
is, to the facrum and os coccygis, to the vagina in the fe-
male, to the bladder and proibte in the male. Its extremity
is ftill furtlier fixed by the attachment of the mufcles of the
amis, and by its continuity with the common integuments.
The diameter of the tube, when moderately diftended, is
about two inches or two and a half.

The ileum defcends gently to the right iliacus internus
mufcle, and is inferted obhquely into the left and pofterior
fide of the large inteftine, between the cascuni and right
colon, having its mufcular and mucous coats continuous with
thofe of the large inteftine. This extremity of the fmall in-
teftine forms an acute angle with the cscum, and a right an-
gle with the colon : its upper half is placed tranfverfely, the
lower afcends. On opening the large inteftine, we find the
communication to be of a valvular nature, and compofed of
two folds (alit or labia), a fuperior and an inferior one : it is
prominent, foft, and of courfe moveable. Each of thefe
folds is compofed of a fmaller internal lamina, which is the
mucous lining of the fmall inteftine, and an external larger
one, compofed by the correfponding coat of the large. Thefe
laminx, connedled by cellular fubftance, and continuous with
each other at the fides of the opening, form the valvula coli
(valvula ilii, or ileo-collca, or lleo-caetahs). The fupericr
fold, placed nearly tranfverfely, is ftiorter and narrower thai4
the Inferior, which riles the higheft of the two. A kind
of flrldure or fold of the large inteftine bounds the valve
on each fide. Bctv.-een the two folds compofing this
valve, the orifice of the fmall inteftine opens tranfverfely ;
its figure is an oblong oval, and its dimenfions are much lefs
than the diameter of the ileum.. The length and breadth of
the folds, and confequently the fize of tlie interpofed aper-
ture, vary greatly. Sometimes the lower fold is very long and
broad, the upper Ihort and narrow, fo that the inteftine
opens obliquely by a very fmall aperture. This ftrufture
admits of the opening being very completely clofed. Some-
times botli folds are but fllghtly prominent, and their diftiuc-
tion not clearly marked. Here the opening is more nearly
circular, and cannot be fo perfecily fliut.

The external or peritoneal coa; puifcs over the communica-
tion

INTESTINES.

tJon between the two intedir.es, witJi a fnraolh furface,
making no fold, and coiifiiiiiig tlie parts ia tlieir relative
filiation to each other. The mufciilar and mucous coats,
and the cellular fubftance of the two mtellines, are conti-
nuous, and this continuity retains the folds of the valve in
their fttuation. Wiicn the pcritoueuin a»d mufcular parts
are cut througl), the mucous lining which for:ns the valve
is no longer retained ; the ileum may be withdrawn from the
colon, the two folds being dellroyed, the communication has
a circular appearance, and its dimenfious are equal to tliofe
of the fmuU inteftino.

The ftniclure of this part is mod advantageoufly obferved
ty directing it under water. When theintelUne is inflated
and dried, the general figure and dircftion of the two folds,
and of the aperture between them, can be clearly feen : but
they are rendered rigid, fmooth, and (horter than is natu-
ral, and their margins are too far feparated.

As the two folds, which compofe the valvula coli, rcpre-
fent two oblique planes, converging in fuch a manner as to
form a convexity towards the large, and a concavity towards
the fmall inteftine, whatever preffes againft them in the con-
cave furface will feparate them, and open more widely the
interval between them: whatever comes againd them on
their convex afpeA will approximate theni, and tend to de-
ftroy the opening. The contents of the ileum, palling in
their natural courfe, are in the former cafe ; and thofe of
the colon in the latter. Hence they prevent the admiffion
of feces into the fmall inteftine ; as we can generally prove
by diftending the large inteftine with air or water : thofe
fluids do not efcape by the ileum. Yet this experiment does
not always fucceed perfectly : and probably under particu-
lar circumftances in the living body, a retrograde paflfage
takes place : hence vomiting of feces and of matters thrown
up in clyfters. We muft recollecl, in arguing from the refult
of trials with air or water, tliat the feces, of which the
return is prevented, poftefs ufually confiderable confiftcnce.
The large inteftine is compofed of three coats or layers of
the fame nature, and diltinguiilied by the fame names as
thofe of the fmall.

The external, or ferous covering, according to what we
liave faid concerning the connections of the organs, is a par-
tial one ia fome diviljons of the tube. This is elevated at
iiitervals into fmall procefles, contaimng fat, and completely
rcfembling portions of omentum. For an account of thefe
parts, which are ciiUed appendices cpiploicje, and are pe-
culiar to the large inteftine, fee Epiploon'.

The mufcular covering of the inteftine is made up of two
orders of fibres : tliofe of the interior ftratuin are circular,
and uniformly extended over the mucous membrane, as in the
fmall inteftine : they are connetled to that coat by a limilar
copious cellular fubftance, defcribed often as a nervous coat.
The longitudinal fibres are collected into tlirce bands having
the appearance of ligaments, and placed at equal diilances
from each other on the furface of the tube. Thefe bands
are much Ihorter than the other coverings, which are there-
fore puckered up and form cells between them. The three
commence at one point about the appendix vermifonr.is,
diverge and grow broader as they afccnd over the caecum :
are continued through the whole length of the colon ; grow
broader and ftronger on the redlum, and are united into a
continuous mufcular (heath, including about the fix laft
niches of the gut. One band is on the unattached part of
the inteftine ; another is covered on the arch by the omen-
tum ; and the third is found at the attachment of ihe
mefocolon. The furface is level, tcnfe, and rather de-
prelfed in the fituations occupied by thefe bands ; in their
intervals th- furface confifts of a fcrics of elevations, fepa-
Voi,. XIX.

rated by tranfverfe fold,';, the cells being fo placed as to cut
the long axis of the gut at right angles : externally, there-
fore, the tube feems made up of a triple feiies of hcnii-
fpl'.crical elevations, internally of the fame number of rows
of cells. This appearance is peculiar to the large inteftine :
it exlrts no longer in the reftum, where the bands are united
into an uniform ftratnm.

The ferous and mucous coats with the circular f.bres are
fo plaitable in confequencc of the arrangement juft defcribed,
as to form on the infide very confiderable tranfverfe folds :
thefe are largeft at the beginning of the tube, become fmaller,
and are entirely loll in the rettum. The folds are of dif-
ferent fi/.es, and varioufly intermixed : between two of them
a cell is formed of an elliptical figure, narrower at its ob-
long oiilice, and larger about the middle. If the inteftine
be inflated, and the longitudinal bands cut through in feveral
parts, the whole inteftine may be extended into a much
greater length, the folds and cells diiappeai", and the tube
becomes nearly cylindrical.

The mucous coat forms various folds in the cells of the
inteftines when. in its contradled ftate, fimilar to the folds
occurring in the ftomach : they difappear on diftention.
Its foft and pulpy furfixc is covered with a tenacious mu-
cus. It differs from that of the fmall inteftine in poi'-
feffing no villi. Numerous fingle mucous glands are found
over the whole large inteftine : they lie on the outer furface
of the mucous coat, which is penetrated by their dufts.

The arteries of the large inteftine come from the fuperior
and interior niefenteric trui.ks ; the veins join the inferior
mefenteric branch of the vena portarum. The abforbents,
both fuperficial and deepfeated, pafs through glands which
lie clofe to the inteftine : thefe are fmaller than the mefen-
teric glands, and fewer in number, being reckoned from 2 J
to 50, and are nearer to tlie gut. After paffing through
feveral of tliem, the abforbents terminate, near the kidneys,
inferior mefenteric artery and pancreas, in the fame glands
at which the lacleal veftels of the fmall inteftine arrive.
They are, on the whole, m.uch fewer and fmaller than thofe
of the fmall inteftine.

The nerves come from the plexufes of the great fym-
pathctics, and from the feveral branches, and are connefted
to the arteries. The end of the large inteftine is a point
at which the organic and animal lives are united ; here we
have ver)' obvious animal fenfibihty, and tlie mufcular ac- ^|

tions are confiderably influenced by the will. Where the
fmall inteftine joins the large, the latter is produced, below
the opening of communication, into an obtufely conical pro-
cefs, two or three inches in length, having the fame unequal
furface as the reft of the tube, and terminating in a blind
extremity ; this is the part called the caecum. Ufually this
is larger in fize than the continuation of the tube, and has
been therefore called caput coli. It is covered almoft
entirely by peritoneum, but is connefted on its right fide,
for a fmall extent, to the ihacus internus, by ceUular fub-
Itance. It varies much in fize, form, and pofition ; fome-
times it is fcarcely one inch, fometimes nearly four in length.
It may be larger or fmaller, more or lefs irregular on the
furface, &c.

From ^fs pofterior part of the caecum, a fmall inteftine,
about the fize of a quill, cylindrical in its figure, and termi-
nating after one or two turns in a rounded and blind extremity,
is continued obliquely towards the left. This is the njipendi.-c
yermiformis. It is rather larger at its commencement than
ia its progrefs, and is held by a fmall fold of peritoneum,
like a mefentery. Its coats contain numerous mucous '
giands, and its cavity, which communicates freely with that
of the cxcum, is generally filled with a thickifli mucous
Q q fluid.

INTESTINES.

fluid. It fcldom contains feces in the adult. Its length,
lizc, figure, and direftiou vary greatly : it may be from one
to fix long, and from one to three lines broad. It very
frequently adiiircs to lli? furrounding parts.

The rcdtum defecnds in an arched courfe, of which the
convexity is turned downwards and backwards, from the
laft lumbar vertebra to the aims. Its curve is moll clearly
obferved when the part i^ conlidered in a lateral view. Iti
the infant, on account of the fmall fi/.c of the pelvis, it is
continued for the greatcil part in the abdomen. Its ex-
ternal furfacc is unitorm. The peritoneal covering is a par-
tial one, and belongs only to the fides and anterior part of
the inteftine : behind it is connected to the pelvis by cellular
fubftance. This membrane forms two lateral folds, con-
tinued, in the male fex, to the fides of the bladder ; in the
female to the vagina and the poilerior furface of the broad
ligaments of the uterus. From the anterior part of the
intelline the peritoneum pades in men to the pofterior and
inferior part of the bladder, and in women to the under fur-
face of the vagina. Beyond this point the intelline is con-
tinued, ftill in a curved courfe, with the gonvexity down-
wards, for an inch or more, united by cellular fubllanee in
the male fubjccl to the veliculje feminales, in-inarv bladder
and proftate, in the female to the vagina. The ferous coat
has appendices epiploicas.

The mufcular covering confifts of a thick and ftrong
layer of longitudinal fibres, and of a ilrong ftratum of cir-
cular ones : the latter form an oval tumid ring at the end of
the gut, called ihe fphinCler ani intcrnus.

The cellular fubilance is continued, at the end of the gut,
into the general fubcutaneous ilratum ; and the mucous
lining is gradually, and in the European imperceptibly, lotl
in the comraon integuments. But in the negro the bound-
ary is more clearly marked by the ceffation of the black
rete mucofuni.

The mucous coat is marked with longitudinal fcrpenline
folds, and covered with a copious vifcid mucus: the latter
is fecreted by glands, whofe duCts perforate the membrane,
and the large'l of which are near the termination of th.e
gut.

The extremity of the intelline is provided with certain
muiclcs concerned in the motions perforiricd for the expu!-
fion of the feces : thefe arc the levatores ani, fphindler ani,
# traufvcrfi perinei, and coccygei.

The le-valar aiii is a thin, broad, and fiat mufcular plane, of
an irregulaily quadrilateral figure, rather curved in its inner
furface, and forming a feptum, which clofes the pelvis
below, and completes the abdominal cavity. Its origin
extends from the pubes to the fpine of the ifchium : it
commences by (liort aponeurotic fibres, jnft behind the arch
of the former bone, and continues its origin from a broad
and thin aponeurofis which covers the obturator internus.
The anterior llefhy fibres pafs obliquely downwards, back-
wards, and inwards, and arc loll on the prollale and fides
of the redlum, where they are intermingled with the
fphintler. The larger portion, which is behind thefe, paifes
downwards in the lame direclion, is partly united to the
oppofite mufcle, by an aponeurotic expanfion, between the
reflum and coccyx, and partly fixed to the fide of thj;t
bone.. The external furface of the levator is in contact
with the obturator interiuis, the gluteus magnus, the tranf-
verfus perinei, and lower dovk-n with a large quantity of
cellular and adipous tiffue. The inner furface corrcfponds
to the proftate, bladder, and reclum. For the defcription
of the coccygeus, fee CocC¥G.=kus.

T\w fphinSer ani furrounds the termination of the intelline
juil under the integuments, and is comnwnly divided into

the fphinfter cutaneus, or externus, and the interr.us. The
latter, as we have already mentioned, is to be regarded ra-
ther as the termination of the circular mufcular fibres of
the put, than as a dillincl mufcle. It is a pretty thick
mufcular ring, about half an inch in breadth. Externally,
the longitudinal mufcular fibres of the rcftum cover it : on
the infide it covers the mucous membrane of the intelline.
The fuperior margin is continuous v.ith the circular fibres
of the gut : the inferior is placed betvvcen the opening of
the external fphindler and the membrane of the inteftinc.

The fphinfter externus, or cutancus, is placed more fuper-
ficially than the former, and extends from the apex of the
coccyx to the poilerior part of the pcnncum. It is flat-
tened, elliptical, with its long axis incUned from behind
forwards, and perforated in the middle. We diftinguilh in
it a fuperior and an inferior furface, a right and left edge,
and an anterior and pofterior extremity. The thin (kin fi'.r-
rounding the anus covers the under furface : the upper cor-
refponds to the levator ani, being at firll Icparated from it
by cellular tiffue, but having its fibres completely blended
with thofe of that mufcle on the reftum. The iront end
forms a fliarp point, extending more or lefs under the back
edge of the accelerator urinse, to which, as well as to the
tranfverfi perinei, it is clofely connetled. The pofterior
extremity is alfo pointed, and attached to the coccyx by a
denfe cellular matter approaching to the nature of liga-
ment. The margins are partly covered by the fltin, and
partly by a mafs of cellular and adipous fubilance.

The fphinCler confifts wholly of flclhy fibres, which de-
fcribe concentric arcs of circles : thofe of the two fides
are united at acute angles before and behind the anus.

The front end of the mufcle is lefs elongated and acute
in the female thun in the male fuhj -ft. In bctli its fibres
are intimately blended with tliofe of the internal fphincler.

The tranfivr/its pmitui is fituatcd towards the b^ck part
of the perineum, between the tuberofity and rami:s of the
ifchium, and the middle of the fpace comprifed between
the bulb of the urethra and the anus. It is thin, flat-
tened, and fomewhat triangular. The anterior furface is
inclined downward?, and correfponds to the eredor penis
and accelerator, and to the fat which fills the intervals be-
tween thefe. The pofterior, inclined upw.-.rds, lies againd
the levator ani : celltilar tiflue, and the deepfeatcd branch
of the internal pudic artery, fepnratc thcni. The outer edge
is attached to the inner furface of the tubcrcfity and ramu.i
of the ifchium, above the ercClor penis and the root of the
crus penis. The inner edge is united to that of the oppo-
fite mufcle, to the front of the fphinfter ani, and to the
back edge of the accelerator. The tranfverfus is feparated
from the flcin in front by a confidcrahle quantity of fat :
behind it is confounded with the reddifli cellular tiffue
found in the angle between the bulb of the urethra, and
the root of the corpus cavernofum. The origin is aponeu-
rotic ; and the termination is ufually in a tendinous line.

T\k Iranfiierfiis periiin alter is not conftantly found. It
is a flendcr elongated fafcicuhts, running parallel to the
ifchium, on the inner edge of the ereftor penis. The
origin is derived from the tuberofity of the bone, near to
that of the erector ; it terminates above in a thin apt neu-
rofis connefted to the bulb of the urethra, or corpus caver-
nofum.

Motions performed by thefe Mifks.— The mufcidar or-
gans juft defcribed have two principal offices : i They
move the whole pelvic vifcera together. 2. They aft on
the reftum in particular. The levator and coccygeus are
principally concerned in the former cafe. They rcprcfent
amufcular plane capable of elevation and deprelTion, and b{

mOviiiK

I N T

moving tie ©rgans wliich it fupports in various direAions.
This plane is oppofed in iituation and aftion to that of the
diaphragm : thus two Urata, concave in oppofite direftions,
and capable of contrafting or enlarging, at the will of the
animal, the perpendicular diameter of the abdomen, arc
placed at the ojipofite ends of this diameter. The moft
fignal contraction is obferved in the violent efforts employed
for expelling the feces, urine, &c. : and the muil marked
enlargement in ilrong cxfpirations, as in cougliing, fneezing,
&c. But thefe efFefts are produced mucli more by the
depreflion of the diaphragm contracting the abdomen from
above downwards, than by the elevation of the other niuf-
cles. The latter fiipport the parts, and enable them to
refill the efforts of tlie former : the impulfe may be felt
very plainly by placing the hand on the perineum during
a!iy Ilrong exertion of the abdominal parietes. The power
of refillaiice is much lefs in thefe parts than in the fides of
the abdomen, becaufe the bony fides of the pelvis, and the
contained vlfcera, fupport great part of the effort.

The aclion of the fphinder ani has the effecl of con-
trading the opening of the reftum : it is conilantly ex-
erted for the purpole of maintaining the aperture perma-
nently clofcd. Other openings furninied with fphinflers,
fuch as thofc of the mouth and eyelids, are often open for
a confidcrable time, becaufe there are various mufcles which
antagonife the fphinfters ; no fiich mufcles exill about the
anus. The only antagonift power is in the longitudinal
fibres of the reftum, and in the coiitradlion of the abdo-
minal parietes ; and thefe are only exerted when the ffces
are evacuated. An obvious advantage arifes from the per-
manent conllriclion of the reclum, in preventing the efcape
of its contents : they are retained in the large intelline until
their quantity produces irritation. When the fphincter is
paralyfed, they efcape involuntarily as they arrive in tlie
reftum. This permanent aftion of the fphiniler refembles
that of parts belonging to the organic life, as it is com-
pletely independent of the will : yet we have the power, by
means of volition, of conftringing the opening more com-
pletely. The feces are evacuated in oppoii:ion to the re-
finance of the fphinfter, whish is overcome by an exertion
of the abdominal parietes. The harder they are, the greater
dilatation is required, and the greater diflicuity is confe-
quently experienced ; and -vies verfa. When they are very
fiuid, they may efcape in a flight degree by the longitudinal
plaits into which their coatraftion collefts the fkni of the
anus.

The aAion of the longitudinal fibres of the reftum, and
the preiTure of the abdominal vifcera, urged downwards by
the refpiralory mufcles, occafion the inteftine to defcend
(lightly when the feces are voided. The levatores ani, coccy-
gei, and tranfverfi pcrinei, fupport the parts under this
eifort, limit the defcent, and then reitore them to their
former .fituation. The levatores probaoly may be con-
cerned in the funftions of the generative organs by co:n-
prcfling the veficulx feminales and proitalc ; and the tranf-
verfi, by fixing the pofierior end of the accelerator, may
concur with that mufcle in the expulfion of the femen.

The large intelline of the foetus is rounder and fmaller
than in the adult, hardly marked by any cells in young
embryos, and njot exceeding the fmall in diameter. The
C2cum is gradually diminilhed isto the appendix verrai-
formis, which is confiderably larger than in the adult, and
difpofed by its mefentcry into a fpecial arrangement. It
is much more confidcrable in fize compared to the cecum.
This is the appearance of the part at birth, when it ufually
contains fecal matter. Soon after, the dilUnftion between
the cscum and appendix is more Ilrongly maikeJ : the

I N T

latter, inftead of coming from the middle of the former,
is produced from its left fide ; and as it is not injreafed
while the crecum is growing in fixe, the proportions of the
adult are gradually ellablifhed.

After what we have obferved concerning the aftion of
the fmall intelline, the reader will immediately perceive how
the mufcular fibres of the large mull aft.

Intestines, Infammalion of. See Enteriti.s.

Ikteatines, Piotrufwns of See Heiikia.

Intestines, IFounds of. See Wounds.

Intestines of Birds. See Anatomy of Birds.

Intestines of Fifl!. See Fisii.

INTIRE Tenancy. See Tenancy.

INTONARE, to touch in the cathedral fcrvice a fingle
key on the organ, to pitch for the priell, tl;c choir, and the
congregation, the rcfponfcs.

INTONATION, in canto ferino, implies an ecclefiallical
tone or mode.

INTONAZIONE, ltd. intonation, a found or tone.
A vocal perfor.mer who lings in tune, is faid to have a good
intonation, the firll of all vocal virtues. Sinking out of
tune, falfc intonations, the ludians call intonation} perfdi.

INTOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindoollan, in the
circar of Cuddapa ; <;j mih-s N W. of Gandicotta.

INTOXICATION. See Drunkenness.

INTRADA, Intkata, or Entrata, Ital. an entry,
introduftion, preJude. In the 17th century, an overture in
France was termed entree.

INTRANSITIVE Verbs, in Grammar, fuch whofe
aftion does not [tranfire) pals on an objeft, or fubjeft. See
Verb Neuter.

INTRENCHMENT, in the Art of ll'ar, all forts of
works made to fortify a poll agninlt an enemy. See Ru-

TRE.VCHMENT.

They ufually confiil only of a bank of earth and a
ditch, and are of two foits ; fuch as the trenches carrie4
on in a fiegv, vrliere the bank is between the ditch and thp
enemy or town ; and where the earth is thrown up againft
the town ; and fuch as ferve to inclofe a town or camp,
fccure a pafs, cover the entrance into a country or other
places, &c. In thefe the ditch is between the bank zik\
the enemy. The firfl fort are ufually cdled trencies or
approaches ; and the fecond are generally called lines.

It was a maxim amongll the Romans, that even in their
moil hafty marches they intrenched everv night.

INTRESSIN, in Geo^^raphy, a town of the duchy pf
Warlaw ; 40 miles S. of Polcn.

INTRIGUE, or lNTREA<iUE, an afTcmblage of events,
or circumilances occurring in an afiair, and perplexing the
perfons concerned in it.

The word is Frencli, Intrigue,

ed fr<

the Latin

wiiicii, according to Nonius, comes from trJca,
entang/ements ; and that from the Greek t,-i'> sir, hairs; quod
pullos gallinaceos involveint et impediant ctipilli. Which con-
jefture is adopted by TripauJ, who will have the word
intrigue to be primarily and properly underllood of chickens,
which have the feet entangled in hair ; and to be derived frotn
the Greek c, and SfiJ, hair.

iNTHicJur. is more particularly ufed to fignify the plot of
a play, or romance ; or that point wherein tlie jjrincipal cha-
rafters are the moll embarralled, through the artifice and
oppoCtion of certain perlons, or the unfortunate, falling out
of certain accideuts and circumftances.

In a tragedy, comedy, or epic poem, there are always twa
deligns ; the firll and principal is that of the hero of the
piece ; the fecond contains the defigns of all thofe who
oppofe liim. Thefe oppolite caufcs produce oppofite cifeftr.,

Q <l i V.

INT

to wit, tilt efforts of the hero for the execution of his de-
fign, and the efforts of thofe who thwart it. As thofe
caufes and defigns are the beginning of the adlion, fo thofe
.efforts are in the middle, and there form a knot or difSculty,
which we call an intrigue, that ir.akes the greateft part of
the poem. It lafts as long as the mind of the reader or
hearer is fufpended about the event of thofe oppofite efforts :
the folution or cataflrophe commences when the knot begins
to unravel, and the difficulties and doubts begin to clear
up.

The intrigue or plot of the Iliad is two-fold ; the iird
comprehends the three days fighting in Achilles's abfence,
and confifts, on the one fide, in the refiftance of Agamemnon
and the Greeks, and on the other, in the inexorable temper
of Achilles. The deatli of Patroclus unravels this intrigue,
and makes the beginning of a fecond. Achilles refolves to
be revenged, but Heftor oppcfes his defign ; and this forms
the fecond intrigue, which is the laft day's battle. See
Iliad.

In the , jEneid there are alfo two intrigues : the firft is
taken up in the voyage and landing of iEneas in Italy ; the
fecond in his eftablifhment there. The oppofition he met
•with from Juno, in both thofe undertakings, forms the in-
trigue. SeeiExEiD.

As to the choice of the intrigue and the manner of unra-
velling it, it is certain they ought both to fpring naturally
from the ground and fubjeft of the pbem. Boffu gives us
three manners of forming the intrigue of a poem ; the firft
is that already mentioned ; the fecond is taken from the fable,
and defign of the poet ; in the third, the intrigue is fo laid,
as that the folution follows from it of courfe.

Intrigue, in common language, is ufcd to denote a plot ;
a private tranfaftion in which feveral parties are engaged,
and ufually an affair of love. .Tohnfon.

INTRINSIC, a term applied to the inner, real, and ge-
nuine values, properties, &c. of any thing ; in oppofition
to their extrinfic, apparent, or popular values, &c. See
Extrinsic.

INTROBIO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Montagna ; 7 miles N. of Lecco.

INTRODUCTION, in Rhetoric, is the firft part of an
oration or difcourfe, defigned to prepare the minds of the
hearers for the fuitable reception of the fucceeding parts :
and for th.is purpofe it is neceffary that the orator gain the
. good opinion of his hearers, fecure their attention, and give
them fome general notion of his fubjeft. In order to gain
the good opinion of his hearers, the orator, when he intro-
duces the difcourfe with his own perfon, will be careful to
do it with modefty, and feem rather to extenuate his virtues
and abilities, than to magnify them : when he fets out with
the perfors of thofe to whom the difcourfe is addrefTed, it
is not uuufual to commend them for their x'irtues, and thofe
efpccially which have a more immediate relation to the pre-
fent fubjeft. The other topics which are to be infilled upon
for gaining efteem, are principally taken from the fubjecl, as
itsjuftice, importance, advantage, or pleafure. In fpeaking
of gaining the attention of the hearers, Cicero fays, we fhall
be heard attentively by one of thefe three things ; if we
propofe what is great, neceffary, or for the interelt of thofe
to whom the difcourfe is addrefTcd. Some account of the
fvibjeft fhould always make a part of the introduftion. As
to the compofition of this part of a difcourfe, it fhould ap-
pear eafy and natural, and connefted with the reft of the
difcourfe: it (hould be fuited toils length: the language of
it fhould be jnft, eafy, and pleafant : it ought neither to be
• wholly without pafiions, nor too violent and impetuous. It
ought not to be too general, the iatroduftion, however, is
3

I N T

not an cfTential part of a difcourfe, and is fometimes omitted
by the bell orators. Ward's Or. vol. i. left. 12.

INTRODUCTOR, in Antiquity, was particularly ufed
for an officer, who introduced the atUetiE to the ftadium, or
place where tliey were to contend.

INTROITUS, in the Roman Ritual, as fettled by St.
Gregory, is an introduftion to high mafs on great feftivals,
preceding the ufual pfalms.

INTROMISSION, m Natural Hipry, is a term relat-
ing to the petrifaftion of organic fubltances, in which mi-
neral fubflitution takes place, during the removal of the or-
ganic particles, (the mineral being giaduaUy introduced into
the animal or vegetable body,) fupplying the place, and
taking the form of the matter loft. By this mode of petri-
faftion the internal fabric, as well as the external figure of
the original is preferved. Petrified wood has ufually par-
taken of this kind of change. See W. Martin's Outlines,
p. jj. Petrifaftions formed by intromiffion, are fometimes
faid to he ingenerate. Outl. p. 67.

INTRONATI, the name of an academy at Sienna, in
Italy.

The members of this academy contented themfelves, at
their firft inftitution, with eftablifhing the following fix fhort
laws: I. To pray. 2. To ftudy. 3. To be merry. 4. To
offend nobody. 5. Not to credit too lightly. 6. To let the
world talk.

INTRO SUSCEPTION, in Surgery. See Intussus-
ception.

INTRUSION, in the Canoti La-w, fignifies the enjoy-
ment of a benefice, or exercife of an office, without a good
title to it.

The word is derived from intrudere, to thnijl in, or enter
byfnree.

Iiitrufion difqualifies the partj from ever holding the be-
nefice.

Intritsion, Information of, in Law, is a method of fuit,
by information on behalf of the crown, filed in the exche-
quer by the king's attorney-general, for any trefpafs com-
mitted on the lands of the crown, as by entering thereon
without title, holding over after a leafe is determined, taking
the profits, cutting down timber, or the like. See Ini-ou-

MATION.

Intrusion a'fo denotes the entry of a ftranger, after a
particular eftate of freehold is determined, before him in re-
mainder or n-verfion. This entry and interpofition of the
ftranger differ from an abatement in this; that an abatement
is always to the prejudice of the heir, or immediate devifee ;
an intrufion is always to the prejudice of him in remainder
or reverfion. An intrufion is always immediately cmfequent
upon the determination of a particular eftate; an abatement
is always confequent upon the defcent or devife of an eftate
in fee-fimi)le. And in either cafe the injury is equally great
to him whofe poffeffion is defeated by this urdawful occu-
pancy. See Ous-TEa.

INTRUSIONE, a writ brought againft an intruder, by
him that hath fee-fimple, &c. See IVril of Entry.

INTUI riON, among Logicians, the acl whereby the
mind perceives the agreement or difagreement of two ideas,
immediately by themfelves, without the intervention of any
other : in which cafe the mind perceives the truth, as the
eye doth the light, only by being dircfted toward it. Thus
the mind perceives that white is not black, that three are
more than two, and equal to one aivd two. See luE.v.

This part of knowledge, fays Mr. Locke, is irrefiftible,
and, like the funfh'ne, forces itfelf immediately to be per-
ceived, as foon as the mind turns its view that way. It is
on this intuition that all the certainty and evidence of our

other

I N T

otlicr knowleJgc dtipends : this certainty every one finds to
bo fo great, tliat he cannot imagine, and therefore cannot re-
quire, a greater. See Judgment, Knowledge, Demos-

STKATION, &c.

INTUITIVE EvinENTE, is that which rcfults from in-
tuition. Dr. Campbell cliftingiiinies different forts of in-
tuitive evidence : one refulting purely from intellcdiion, or
that faculty whicli others have called intuition ; another
kind arifmg from confcioufnefs ; and a third fort from that
Dcvv-named faculty common fcnfi, which this ingenious. writer,
as well as fevcral others, contend to be a diiUnft original
fourcc of knowled^ ; whilll others refer its fuppofcd office
to the intuitive power of the underflanding. Campbell's
Rhetoric, vol. i. book i. chap. 5.

INTURKI, in Gcngraphy, a town of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of \Vilna ; 18 miles N. of Wilna.

IN TUIIN, among Wn-flhrs, is when one puts his thigh
between thofe of his adverfary, and lifts up his thigh.

INrUSSUPCEPTION, or Introscsception, a terra
in Surgery, exprelTive of a very dangerous difeafe, which
arifes from the pafl'age of one portion of an intcftinc into an-
other." The word is derived from intus, within, and/ufcipio,
to receive. The diforder is alfo frequently named a vohu-
lus. It happens moft commonly in tlie liril fifteen years of
life, older perfons not being nearly fo fubjecl to the afflic-
tion.

When the upper part of an inteKine pafled into the lower,
that is to fay, when the introfiifception was downwards (as
generally happens), Mr. Hunter called the cn{e prcgrr/Jive ;
bat when the difeafe arofe from the paflage of a lower por-
tion of bowel into an upper one, he named this example
rctrograJs.

Introfufceptions are proibably far more frequent cafes than
many fuppofe, and numerous infants and young fui5Jccls, no
doubt, are viftims to the difeafe, without its e.xiilence being
in the leall fufpeded. The affeftion may indeed be lefs fe-
vere ; and we are informed, that the greateft part of three
' hundred children who died, either of worms, or during den-
tition, at the Kopital de la Salpetiiene, and were examined
by M. Louis, had two, three, four, and even more volvuii,
without any inflammation of the parrs, or any circumllances
leading to a fufpieion that thefe affections had been injurious
during lit?. M. Louis thought fuch cafes proved tliat an
introfufception might be formed, and deftroyed again, by the
mere action of the bowels ; an opinion whicli is confirmed
by the obfervation of Dr. Baillie, that " in opening bodies,
particularly of infants, an intus-fufceptio is not unfrequently
foupd, which had been attended with nomifchief ; the parts
appear perftftly free from inflammation ; and they would
probably have been eafily difentangled from each other by
their natiiralpenllaltic motion." See Mem. de I'/^cad. de
Chiriirgie, 4to. edit, torn iv. p. 22g, and Baiilie's Morbid
Anatomy, ad edit. p. 162.

Mr. Hunter thought that the manner in which an intro-
fufception may be formed, is, by one portion of a loofe in-
teilme being contradled, and the part immediately below re-
laxed and dilated ; under wliich circumftanccs the contrafted
portion (lips a little way into that which is dilated. He
fuppofed alfo, that this change was not the effeft of any ac-
tion- in either portion of intcftine, but might be the con-
. fequence of fome additional weight in the upper part of the
bowel. How far the periitaltic motiori, by pufliing the con-
tents on to the contradkd parts, might force thefe into the
relaxed ones, Mr. Hunter was unable to determine,
though he was inclined to think that nothing of the kind
could happen.

Suppoling the foregoing explanation to be true, an acci-

I N T

dental introfufception rray take' place eitiicr upwards or
downwards ; but if a continuance or an increafe of the dif-
eafe really arifes from the aftion of the inteftine, it can
only be when the cafe is downwards. Yet this does not ex-
plain thofe inftanccs in which a confidcrable portion of intef-
tine is carried into the gut below. In order £0 underlland
thefe, the different parts which form the introf'.:fception muft
be confidcrcd. We mud rccollcft that every introfufception
is compofed of three folds of inteftine ; ^>^^. the inrer, which
paffes down, and being reflecled upwards, forms the/econe/,
or jBiK-rte.' portion, which, being refiefted down again, makes
the Mrei, or containing jiart. ■ This latter is the outermoft,
and is always in its natural pofition.

According to Mr. Hunter, the outward fold is the only
one which is active, the inverted portion being perfectly
paffive, and fqueczed down by the outer, which inverts more
of itlclf, fo that tJ;e angle of inverfion, in the cafe, is always
at the angle of refleftion of the cuter into the middle, or
inverted fold, while the innermoft is drawn in. Hence we
may fee how an introfufception, once begun, may have any
length of gut drawn into it.

Theexttrnal portion ading upon the other folds in the fame
way as upon any extraneous matter, will, by its perillaltic
motion, urge thcin furtlier ; and if any extraneous fiibftance
is detained in the cavity of the inner portion, that part will
become a fixed point for the outer, or containing inteftine to
act upon. Thus it will be fqueezed on, till at laft the me-
fentery, preventing more of the innermoft part from being
drawn in, will aft as a kind of flay ; yet, without entirely
hindering the inverted outer fold from going ftill further.
For fince it is the middle fold which is :.ded upon by the
outer, and this aftion continues after the inner portion be-
comes fixed, the gut is thrown into folds upon iti'elf ; fo that
a foot of inteftine may not form an introfufception more tli;in
three inches long.

The outer portion of inteftine is alone aftive in increafing;
the difeafe when once begun'; but if the inner one were
capable of equal adion in its natural divedion, the effect
would be the fame, w-z^ that of endeavouring to invert itfelf,
as, indeed, happens in a prolapfus ani. The outer and inner
portions v.ould then tend to draw in more of the gut, v>hile
the intermediate part only would, by its aclion, have a eon- '
trary tendency.

Although capable of producing a prolapfus ani, the ac-
tion of the abdominal mufcles cannot aflift, either, in forming
or continuing this difeafe, fince the effeft of it muft. be to
make equal comprefiion both above and below.

The manner in which the inteftines are conneded with the
m.efentery, would lead one to confider it impoiuble for any
portion of the bowels to pafs far v^ithin anotlier, particularly
as the incrcafing quantity of mefentery, that is drawn into
the introfufcepted part, muft render the further paffage of
inteftine more and more difficult. The large inteilines, being
alfo more clofely confined in their natural fituations, would
fecm to be far lefs liable to the difeafe. One of the largeft
introfufceptions ever known, however, was in the colon,, as
related by Mr. Whately in the I'hil. Traiif. vol. kxYi.
p. 305. The introfufception appeared to have begun at the
infertion of the ileum into the colon,, and to have carried in
the caecum with its appendix. The ileum pafled on into the
colon, till the whole of the afcending colon, the. tranfverfe
arch, and defcending colon, were carried into the figmoid.
flexure and. rcdum. The valve of the colon being the lead-
ing part, it at lail got as low as the anus ; and when the per-
fon went to llool, ne only ci!i,-;ried the ileum, for one-half of
the large inteftines being filku up by the other, the ileum
alone, which pafled through the centre, difcharged its con-
tents..

I N T

tents. The difeafe, when it thus begins at the termiftation
of the fmallinteftines in the large, is particularly apt to pro-
ceed to a confiderable extent, and inoftly proves fatal.
Many inftances of this kind are upon record. In the Edin-
burgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. iii. p. 263, Mr.
Langftaff has publifhcd an interelling example. The cafe is
that of a child three months old, where, upon examinaticn
after death, there was an extcnfive introfufception in the ufual
direftioji, together with a fmaller one of the retrograde
defcription, fimilar to what occurred in the inllance related
by Mr. Spry in the Med. and Phyfical .Journal, No. 11.

Retrograde introfufceptions are mucli lefs common than
fuch as are named progroffive. In the Medical and Chirur-
gical Tranfaclions, vol. i. Mr. Home has infertcd the ac-
count of a retrograde introfufception, which happened in a
cabin boy, who had previoufly fwallowed arfcnic. The
cafe was alfo rendered remarkable by a fmall worm, which
was found coiled up round the introfufccpted portion of
the intcftines.

A prolapfus ani is, in fome rcfpcfts, fimilar to an introfuf-
ception, and may pofli'..ly begin in the fame way ; but it is
always continued by the aftion of the abdominal mufcles,
and never by that cf the bowel itfelf. It differs from an in-
trofufception in not being included in an inteftine ; for in-
ftead of having a containing bowel, inverting itfelf by it'=
own aftion, there is an incljfcd intefline protruded by the
afticn of the abdominal mufcles, while the paffage of the
feces through it, and the point of inverfion, are at the ex-
tremity of the protrufion ; and as it becomes inverted, it
projefts out of the body. Med. and Chir. Tranf. vol. i.
p. IT 2.

With regard to the fymptoms of introfufception, they
very much refemble thole attendant on inflammation of the
intellines, hernia, and any obli:ruaion in the alimentary
canal. In feveral of the cafes upon record, the feat of the
difeafe was plainly indicated by a hard timiour upon the left
fide of the abdomen. Sometimes it has been found im-
polTible to injedl more than a trivial quantity of fluid as a
clyfter ; a circumflance which would flrengthen the fufpicion
of what the diforder really is. If, alfo, (obferves Mr.
Langftaff,) the invaginated portion defcended fo low as to
form a protrufion at the anus, and we could afcertain, that
it was not an inverfion of the redum itfelf, the cafe might be
confidered as clear, and we fhould have no hefitation in de-
livering a prognofls, which, by preparing the friends for the
fatal termination, would exonerate us from all blame on its
occurrence.

Introfufception, like mofl other difeafes, which are furtheft
from the reach of medical and furgical affiftance, has been
treated in a great number of different vi-ays.

Former practitioners very commonly exhibited for its re-
lief, a large quantity of crude mercury ; a plan which cer-
tainly could never have accomplifhed the defirable objeft of
difentangling the affefted part of the bowels.

It has even been propofcd to perform gaftrotomy, and M.
Hevin, in his " Recherches Hilloriques fur la Gallrotomie
dans le Cas dn Volvulus," has examined, with nnich ability,
the queflion concerning the prudence and propriety of fuch
a proceeding. After many intcreding obfervations, he ex-
prefTes his decided condemnation of the propofal. The ope-
ration, indeed, is rendered quite unwarrantable by the great
uncertainty and obfcurity which almoft conftantly prevail
in regard to the aclual nature of the cafe ; but even were the
exiflence of the difeafe pofitivcly known, the project would
not be allowable. In the firft place, cutting into the abdo-
men, with a view of difentangling a portion of the bowels,
would be of itfelf a fource of the moll dangerous and pro-

I N V

bably fatal confeqtiences. And in the fccond place, the
fchemeof difentangling the bowels would generally be alto-
gether impraclicablc, by reafon of th.s different folds of the
intefline having become infeparably agglutinated to each
other. This conneftion, in faft, is fo ilrong, that the con-
tained parts can hardly be withdrawn after death. In other
inflances, the ftrifture on the introfufcepted part caufes it to
inflame and even mortify, in either of which ftates gaftrotomy
would be quite inadmifiible.

I'he forcible injeftion of cly tiers was tried by Dr. Monro,
without any beneficial efieft.

Others liave fuggeflcd the introduftion of long bougies
and pieces of whalebone vi'ithin the anus, for the purpofe of
mechanically pufhing back the introfufcepted portion of the
bowels. But after it is known that adhcfions are formed iti
the manner already defcribcd, what fuccefs can be expected
from any plans of this kind ? And what inftrument could
be invented, which would follow the windings of the
bowels, a confiderable way . without piercing their coats,
and doing the mofh fatal mifchief i

The manner in which the parts are agglutinated, explains
why none of the mctliods hitherto deviled for the relief of an in-
trofufception, can be of any material fervice. Were a cafe
to be fubmittcd to fome kind of treatment, before adhefiorjs
had taken place, perhaps the forcible injeftion of glyfter.i,
and theexhibition of vtmits to invert the periftaltic action cf
the containing bowel, as propofcd by Mr Hunter, would be
as rational flops as any which could be purfued.

We mud reluftantly acknowledge, however, with Mr.
LangflafF, that, in general, a'l the modes of treatment,
hitherto propofed, will be found utterly ineiBcient. " Yet
here, as in many other inflances, the refources of nature are
exhibited in a moll wonderful and aftonifliing manner, while
thofe of art completely fail. The invaginated portion of in-
tefline fometimes floughs, and is difchar^ed^f,- anum, whila
the agglutination of tiie parts preferves the continuity of the
inteflmal canal. The annals of medicine furnifh numerous
inflances, where long pieces of gut have been difcharged in
this manner, and the patient has quite recovered. At the
fame time that we recognize the inefftcacy of art, thefe
cafes will teach us to repofe a jufl confidence in the powers
of nature, and to retain fome hope of a favourable event,
under the moll unpromiling circumftances." Lingftaff in
Edin. Med. and Surgical Journal, vol iii. p. 267, 268.

This gentleman has greatly enriched his paper by numerous
references which will be deemed exceedingly valuable by any
perfon deiirous of being more particularly acquainted with
the preceding fubjeft,

INVADlATtJS, in our Oi'J Wnlers, a perfon accufed
cf any crime, which not being fully proved, he was putyiii
(kbitajidejuffwr.;, and called invadiatus.

INVALID, a perfon wounded, maimed, or difabled for
aftionbyage.

.^ t Chelfea and Greenwich are magnificent hofpitals, or ra-
ther colleges, built for the reception and accommodation of
invalids, or foldiers and feamen worn out in the fervice. See
Hospital.

We have alfo feveral independent companies of invalids,
difperfed in the feveral fiorls and garrifons.

Of thefe the 4ifi: regiment was compofed in 1719, but it
has fince been put upon the fame footing with the other regi-
ments of the line. In 1782 there were likewife 36 indepen-
dent companies, forming the garrifons of Jcrfev, Guernfev,
Scilly, Portfmouth, Plymouth, Chefler, Hull, and othi-r
forts and callles ; and there were alfo ten independent com-
panies of invalids in Ireland. Invalids have been known in
this kingdom ever iince the rcfloration of Charles II. The

invalids

I N V

invalids are anncd like other regiments of infantry ; their
uniform red, faced with blue, and plain button holes.

At Paris is a collejfe of the fame kind, called les inva-
Rdet, which is accounted one of tlie fincft buildings in that
city.

INVASION, in War, the entrance or attack of an
esomv ill the dominions of another fovcitign.

INVECTED, in Heraldry, denotes a thing fluted, or
furrowed.

I:ivc(£lcd is jud the reverfe of c-H-r.z .•;'•./, in which the
points are turned outward to the field : whereas in inveficd
they are turned inward to the ordinary.

INVECTIVE, in Rh.lork, differs from reproof, as the
latter proceeds from a friend, and is intended for the good
of the perfon reproved.; \vhereas invedtive is the work of an
enemy, and entirely defigned to vex and give uneafmefs to
the perfons agai' ft whom it is directed.

INVENTION denotes the aft of finding any thing
new ; or even the thing thu.^ found.

Thus we fav, the invention of gunpowder, of print-
ing, &c. The alcove is a modern invention owing to
the Moors.

The Doric, Ir.nic, and Corinthian orders are of Greek
invention ; the Tufcan and Compofite of Latin invention.

Janfon ab Alme'oveen has written an Onomafticon of in-
ventions, wherein are (hewn, in an alphabetical order, the
names of the inventors, and the time, place, Stc. where they
are made. Pancirollus lias a treatife of old inventions that
are loft, and new ones that have been made ; Poly dore Virgil
has alfo publifhed eight books of the inventors of things.
(De Inventoribus Rerum.) Beckman has alfo pubhfhed a
•♦ Hiftoryof Inventions and Difcoveries."

I.s'VENTioy is alfo ufed for the difcovcry of anv thing
hidden.

The Romilh church celebrates a feaft on the fourth of
May, under the title of " Invention of the Holy Crofs."

Invention' is alfo ufed for fubtilty of mind, or fomewhat
peculiar to a man's genius, which leads him to a difcovery of
things new.

In which fenfe we fay a man of invention : Wolfius has
made fom.e eftays towards an art of invention.

Invention, in the Jrts of Def^r.,\i thdX peculiar quality,
which, being of all others the moit rare, is alfo the niotl
•ertimable in an artift Withor.t it the painter or fculptor
rifes not abave t!ie ordinary hbonring mechanic, nor are his
produftions fo ufefu! to mankind.

Whether the power of invention be an immediate gift
of God, or the cfvspfSng of cultivation, has been queih'oned
by philofophers ; and while fome have traced its origin, or
fancied they could, to a continued feries of acquirements,
begun at an early age, and carefully ftored in the m.ind,
others have regarded it as not attainable by any e.^ertions
of man, and no other than a direcl impulfe imparted by
the omnipotent Creator to his more favoured children.

Whichfoever of thefe abftrufe opinions be correfl, one
thing none will be inclined to difpute, viz.. that, be the
power of imagination, which is the bafis of invention, as
vivid as poflible in the mird of an artift, it muft have ma-
terials to work upon ; and if the power of combining ideas
be originally givei:, ihey muft firft be collefted : that power
can never operate if the poffefTor does not lay by a ftore
of obfervations upon the nature of things as they pafs be-
fore his eyes. Invention is not creation, except as far as
relates to the fenfes and perceptions of man. To him
new combinations effeftively create new objcfts ; but in
fart, it is only the power of combining, in new and pre-
vioufly unknown forir.s, things known individually before.

I N V

It grafps within its range whatever is poflible, probable,
or aheady certain ; and the artift is ar libeity to apply and
combine whatever appertains- to either of thefe qualities
in any manner, which, producing novelty, ftill bears the
appearance of truth, and docs not wound the common per-
ception of propriety j that is, the propriety which belongs
to the nature of the fubjett treated of.

The excrcife of invention will be more or lefs produftive
accordingly as the native vigour of fancy or imagination
be accompanied by a conihmt and lively obfervation ot
nature, and a ftrong remembrance of her various produc-
tions under all the difterent circumftances in which they are
found. A vivid imagination, being tlius ftored with images,
rcquii-es but the llighteft hint to call forth the moft bril-
liant effefts, and by contraft or combination produce new
images. Sir Joftiua Reynolds, in his 6th difcourfe, lir.s
obfcrved, that " there can be no doubt, but that he wiio
has the moft materials has the grcateft means of invention ;
and if he has not the power of ufing them, it mvft proceed
from a feeblenefs of intelleft, or from the confufed manner
in vvhich they have been laid up in his mind ;" and again,
" it is vain for painters or poets to endeavour to invent
without materials on which the mind may work, and from
which inventions muft originate. Nothing can come of
nothing."

In the fame lefture he remarks, that " the mind or genius
has been compared to a fpark of fire, which is fmothered
by a heap of fuel, and prevented from blazing into a flame.
This fimile, which is made ufe of by the younger Pliny,
may be eafily miftaken for argument or proof ; but there
is no danger of the mind"s being over-bunhened with know-
ledge, or the genius extinguidved, by any addition of images.
On the contrary, thefe acquiutions may as well, perhaps
better, be compared, if comparifons fignitied any thing in
reafoning, to the fupply of living embers, which will con-
tribute to ftrengtlicn the fpark, that, without the aflbciation
of more fuel, "would have died. The truth is, he whofe
feeblenefs is fuch as to make other men's thoughts an in-
cumbrance to him, can have no very great ftrength of mind
cu- genius of his own to be deilroycd."

Thefe excellent remarks are made by fir Jofliua when
treating of imitation ; of the afiiftance an artift may acquire
in his progrefs by ftudying the produtlions of other men ;
and to prove, that no fource of information, either in nature
or art, ihould be neglected by him who covets the title of
a great inventor, or, as it is ufually called, an original
genius. He will find it requifite to be a conftant obferver
of nature in all her Heps, whether of the grand, the beauti-
ful, the dreadful, cxpreflive and interelting, or common-
place ; the varieties of charadler among men, their modes
of action, the powers of their paftions, and the various ways
in which they exhibit the impulfe derived from them. In
flnrt, no objeft whatever ftiould efcape his eye without
notice ; no moral fentiment or feeling, his mind ; and he
v.\\\ thus be beft qualified to embody and illuftrate what-
ever fubjeft he m.ay be called upon to reprefent.

This doctrine holds equally true of poetry, and indeed of
all purfuits by which men are led, in which their neeeffities or
their pleafures call for the exertion of their talents. But each
art or fcience, having its peculiar end to anfvvcr, requires the
obfervance of peculiar objefts.. Iti painting, invention requires
the mind of the aniit to be occupied in calling forth recollec-
tions of thofe circumftances he may have fcen in nature, or
in works of art, of a character confonant with that of the
fubjeft undertaken to be reprefentcd, and endeavouring to
infpire every part of the compofition with an unifon ot ef-
feft. If, for inftance, the fubjeft be pathetic, the paintt-r

will

INVENTION.

■ctUI recal to his memory tlicfe fcenes and vaiied anions impoffibility. Mr. Opie, in his Difcourfe on Invention deli-
and combinations of heads and figures, and that diftribution vered in the Royal Academy, fays upon the fame point,
and degree of light and fh-idc which he may have obferved " that in the exercife of invention in the imitative arts, all
IB nature to be moa afftding ; and, placing them in fitiiations pofiible licence may be granted, and any degree of the ex-
proper for his purpofe, he will endeavour to carry their efFed traordinary be indulged, which does not incur the cenfure of
to the highefl pomt of perfeftion. His principal difficulty beirg extravagant : provided that the trains of ideas be
•will be, as far as relates to the invention, to clear his work pcrfeClly connetted, and the whole confident with itfelf :
of whatever is not neccflaiy to difplay its charat\er effec- that there be nothing fufFered to intermix which checks the
lively; to feizc upon the mod juft and powerfully defcriptive progrefs of the imagination, expofes the contrivance or il-
moment in the occurrence, and, collecling together only lufions, and recals a different fet of principles to the mind."
what julUy belongs to it, impart to thofe materials he felects To the verge of this limit the artiil may indulge his fancy,
the utmoft degree of intereit pofllble within the boundary and exert his powers. When he goes beyond it, and
of his art. launches forth into a world of mere fanciful imagery, he

He who tells his ftory in the moft natural, and at the may flatter himfeif that he is working wonders, but in fad
fame time, dignified method ; v.ho brings forth im.agcs at he will be regarded as a dealer in legerdemain, as one falfifying
once intelligent and corred ; and, combining them in an his intelledual powers ; and will only excite ridicule and
aijreeable manner, impreffes the mind of an obferver v.ith mere furprife, infteadof that adm.iration which men of found
the full fcope of his intention, without evidently exhibiting fcnfe can alone enjoy. The true inventor will feek only for
the art he has employed, is certainly entitled to the praife the moft natural and dired means of difclofing his ideas, of
ef the greatcll inventor : not lie, who, to be ftriking and imparting that information he wifties to convey, "be it of
impofing, compofes attitudes for paflion<i,inilead of allowing what nature it may. Thus Hogarth ranks with the very
feehng and nature to govern him ; and fancies, when he has firll among the pofleffors of this almolt god-like quality ;
furprifed by ftrong contrail or brilliant colouring, that he notwithilanding his fubjeds were of a low and frequently
has effeded the purpofes of art. vulgar call. How admirably fimple, and yet how com.

Sometimes, indeed, the painter is called upon, like the pletely efFedive, is his figure of a Woman fetting fire to the
poet, to tread in fairy ground, and illullrate his fubjed by Map of the World in the Bagnio Scene in the Rake's Pro-
images of beings found only in the regions of imagination; grefs ! He evidently meant to convey tlie idea of the mif-
but he is not at liberty to indulge his fancy fo freely as the chievous power of female beauty when the pofTefTor of it is
poet. Forms defcribed do not -make fo ftrong imprelTions fordid, felfiih, treacherous, and bafe ! Can words convey it
on the fenfe as thofe prefented lo the eye by lines and colours; more explicitly J It would be almoft endlefs, and certainly
and many a high-flown indulgence of the inventive faculty needlefs, to point out the numerous inilances with which his
■which paifes current, nay, is even allowable in poetry, wou'd works abound of the fame efFedive fimphcity and truth of
dwindle into pure grotefque if laid upon canvas, or wrought imagery, which render them fo admirably attrai\ive and
in fculpture ; and would more difgutt and difappoint, than ufeful. Sir Jofhua Reynolds, in his pidure of the death of
gratify a fcnilble mind. Such is Milton's defcription of cardinal Beaufort, has been equally fuccefsful. Shiikfpeare
Deatli. The obfcurity of the language in which this de- informs us that he died in the utmoft agonies of confcience
fcription of the all-fubduing fon and paramour of Sin is without any truil in God, any hope of falvation ; the tor-
enveloped, alone renders it efFedive in the poem. In painting, tures of his mind convulfing him more than the agonies of
it is idle wafte of time to attempt it. body. The painter would only reprefent a man writhing

« The other fliape, with violent pain ; and therefore, to give another charader

If fhape it might be called that fliape had none ^"^ ^^"""'"^"V % '^' reprefentat.on, having effeded the ap-

T^a- -n, ui ■ u • • » V u pearance of lufterinET, he introduced the fiend, "grnininiT

Diftinr;ui(hable m member, |Oint or limb, f .,, , ,,, r *?,.,>., . . r , S_r ''

/-, r 1 (\ • I ^ i_ 11 J .1 . fl I r J hornblva ffhaltlv imile, which at once iniorms the obtervcrs

Or fubllance might be called, that fliadowfeemed, r , ' " ' j u- i .u j • j

T? u r J -.u » of the agency under which the dyin^ man is tortured,

r or each teemed either," iir-.i ^Ti ■ i- i i, i u r i ji i ii

\V ithout this hgure, which has been io louGiy reprobated by

is language fublimely efFedive of the intention of the poet, many who probably regarded beauty rather than fentimcnt,

and conveys in its no meaning (when ftrictly examined) an the work would have been merely a reprofentation of a fick

indiftind and vague idea of the nature of the monfter, juft man dying in pain, and an aflembla^ of beautiful colour-;,

as the defcription itfelf is cQntradidory and indiilind. Still The fiend decidedly ftanips its charader with his own ; and

the mint! of the reader is filled with figure and idea fufficient perhaps by a fimilar figure alone, can we be informed of the

for the poet's purpofe, and the degree of intereft excited by nature of the torments the cardinal endured, without refort-

the appalhng tremendous circumilances of the moment and ing to the original Gothic mode, of introducing a label from

in fuccelFion, draws off his attention from dwelling long the mouth or over the head of the figure,
enough to difcover the illufion. But once embody the idea In every branch of the art inveiition is demanded, and

it is made to convey in a pidure, where every image remains without it, tamenefs and inlipidity will be the refult of

for examination, and meets the eye, not vaguely, for then it the artift's labours. In drawing, in colouring, and in chiaro-

would be no image, but apart and diftind, and it becomes fcuro, feledion, or that ideal beauty of form, force and

abfurd ; the (hadow, fubilantial, or fublimity'is overpowered effed on which all lovers of the arts alone delight to dwell,

by obfcurity. is entirely an effort of invention. To it we owe the bcauti-

The inventor is at liberty to combine all that is pofiible or ful and fubhme forms of the llatues of the heathen gods,

probable with all that is real ; or dwell in poffibilities or and the grand ilyle of defign of which Michae! Angclo and

probabilities alone. There is a limit, however, to his ex- Lionardo daVinci are the parents : the rich, deep, and harmo-

ertions, which is, that whatever be the nature of liis fubjed, nious ilyle of colouring of Titian, Giorgione, and Rubens;

it (hould have fiich a degree of unifon with our ideas of ex- the magic fweetnefs of efFed, or chiaro-fcuro, in Correggio,

iftence, convey fuch an air of real femblance, or be fo com- and the force and brilhancy of it in Rembrandt. To Ra-

pounded in its parts, as not to Ihock us with an apparent phael, however, it is that the art is indebted for the noblcll

violation of the laws of nature, or the appearance of Lct»l ufe of invention. His objed always aj'pears to have been tbe

iliullration

I N V

illuftration of his fubject, not the exhibition of his art. Of
this none ever appear to have been fo capable, none faw fo
fully the whole force of it, entered fo iinmediately into the
very heart, and throwing all trifling or indifferent occurrences
afide, applied his force to ftrengthen what was fo ufcful, or
feeling what was wanting, was fertile in expedients to fupply
its deficiency. We have mentioned one inllance under the
article ENEitcY, in Painting, which exliibits ilroiigly the na-
tive vigour of the mind of Raphael, t'l-z. the Cartoon of
Ananias Ihuck dead : wherein we have fliewn his invention
not only to have been capable of delineating the fact, but alfo of
informing us in feme ii.eafure of the preceding and fubfequent
circumilances conneiled with it. The fame power may be
pointed out in othe>-s of his works, particularly in llie cartoon
of Ihe facrifice to St. Paul and Barnabas at Lyftra. The
great perfeftion of the inventive faculty in the mind of this
extraordinary man is exhibited in the purity, fimplicity,
and truth of the images he felefts. It is very feldom indeed
that his ideas require explanation, he never appears to have
wandered from the fubjeft of his work in fearch of fome-
thing abftrufe or rare, but trulls to the growth of ideas
whicli appear naturally to have fprung up in his mind
upon confideration of the nature and objett of it. Yet
fo well ftored was he with nature and art, that he is rarely
infipid or defuient of illuftration, either as relates to beau-
ty, elegance, and grace of compofnion, or expreflion and
fentiment.

Invention in the works of Michael Angclo Buonavotti is
exhibited in a very different mode. Inllcad of treading in
the beaten path of common life, or adopting the labours of
others, he, breathing the fpirit of the epic poet, invents his
fubjcft ; and clothes it with the ideal grandeur which breadth
of form, flowing lines, and bold and difficult aftionscan give it.
Taking his own conception of the generic charafter of the
human body for his model, he pei feAed, if not invented, a
ilyle of defign entirely new, of a fublime and dignified nature,
though bordering upon the extravagant, and rendered truly
fo by moll of his imitators. Of this ftyle Lionardo da Vinci
is perhaps properly the parent, but he had not the full force
of M. Angelo, and his invention in art was engaged in a
middle way between thofe of the two great men we have
mentioned.

In Titian we find the fame faculty operating in a manner
totally different. To him it was mod grateful to feek after
and develope the power of colours in brilliancy, depth, and
clearnefs : and maintaining their full powers, to unite them
by arrangement or contraft, in ?. manner harmonious and
agreeable to the eye. Add to this application of his inven-
tion, a very extraordinary degree of perception of grandeur
and dignity in delign and effect, and he will be found to
have extended the boundaries of art in no inferior degree.

To this talent inCorrcggio andParmegiano we are indebted
for whatever is grateful, iuft, and amiablein the art of paint-
ing ; and to Rembrandt for bold vivid effects of the chiaro-
fcuro : whilft Rubens, endowed by providence with almolt
fuper-huraan powers, revelled in the utmoll lux\iry of imagi-
nation, and produced works reprefentative of almoil all the
varied objects of creation, with a gaiety of aftion and a fplen-
dour of colouring and cffeft unknown, in fo extenfive a com-
bination, to any artiil before or after him.

It is only by a contlant fludy of the works of nature and
of art that a mind poffeffed with the power of invention can
ever be enabled to exert itfelf either cxtenfirely or ufefully.
The imprcffions made upon it by the common intercourfe of
life, witliout a precife direftion of ftudy, would be foon ex-
haufted ; and one poorly gifted by nature with the fire of
jmagioation, but anKioufiy aid fteadily purfuinj the ftudi?^
. Vol, XIX.

I N V

recommended, would foon furpnfs the former, be he never fo
richly endowed if he negleded the neceffary cultivation.

Inventiok, in Alii/ic. Having no objcds, melody, or
harmony in nature to copy, except the common chord arif-
ing from the divifions of a firing or founding body into its
harmonics, a mufician has more to invent than the profeffor
of any other art. Every paffage, every combination, every
motivo or fubject, tliat lias not been ufed before, is invention.
There is fo ht le invention in forae compofitions, that who-
ever has heard or feen much mufic, could point out the pro-
totype of every bar. There is, on ll;e contrary, fuch an
ambition in fome authors of being new, that the car is tea-ed
and dii'appcinted by the conllant llruggle and labour to be
unnatural. Haydn's invention, which is fo unbounded, is
never pufhed to fuch excefs. There is in his nioft origins!
and capricious movements and paffages, a mixture of natu-
ral, graceful, ingenious or fpirited connefting traits, which
reheve the hand of the player, and the attention of the
hearer.

There is no infallible receipt for invention ; all a mafter
can do is to recommend to his difciples to avoid exceffes of
every kind : too eafy and common, too hard and uncommon ;
complaints of pieces being too long are more frequently
made than of their being too fhort, which would be more
flattering to a compof'er. When fertility is wanting, pafi'ages
are frequently repeated alia tanta Rofalia, to a degree which
now cannot efcape remark and cenfure. A inafter cannot,
nor ought if he could, tell his pupil in compoliticn what tw
adopt; he can only tell him what to avoid. SeeCoMPO.si-
Tiex, and Cou.xTERroiXT, to which this article n-.ay ferve
as a fupplcnient.

iNVEXTroN, in Poetry, is applied to whatever tl;e poet
adds to the hillor)- of the fubjcil he has chofen ; as well as
to the new turn he gives it.

IxvEXTiox, in Rhetoric, fignifics the finding out, and
choofing of certain arguments which the orator is to ufe for
the proving or illuftrating his point, moving the paffions,
or conciliating the minds of his hearers.

Invention, according to Cicero, is the principal part of
oratory : he wrote four books De Invcntione, of which we
have but two remaining.

This invention of the orators cannot, according to lord
Bacon, be properly called invention : to invent, is to dif-
cover things not yet known, not to recolleft thofe that are ;
whereas the ufe and office of this rhetorical ir.vcntion are
only, out of the Kock of knowledge laid up in the mind, tu
feleifl fuch articles as make for the purpofe.

The fame author divides this faculty of invention int«
two parts, the one topical, the other prompiuar\ : the firff
points out the way in which we are to purfue the argument;
the latter only lays up and difpofes things, for w hich we have
frequent occafion, in die mind.

Invention furnilhes the orator with thofe different kindt
of arguments and motives which are adapted to the various
purpofes he has in view. The helps of invention are a lively
imagination and readinefs of thought, great learning and ex-
tenfive knowledge, previous confideration, and clear enlarged
Rppreh'-nrtoris of the fubjeft. See AugUMK.nt.s, CoMMp**
Pi..tCKs, and Topjcs, &c.

INVENTORy, in La'zu, a catalogue, or fche.-'ule or-
derly made of all a dcceafed perfon's goods and chattels, at
the time of his death, with their value appraifcd by indiffer-
ent perCons, which every executor or adnuiiillrator is obliged
to exhibit to the ordinary upon oath, if thereunto lawfully
required.

By 21 Hen. VIII. c. j, executors and admin^(^r.^tc'r-. are

to deliver in upon oath to the ordinary, iiitendeii ir.vcnloriet,'

R r onf

I N V

one part of whicli is to remain with tlie ordinary, and the
other part with tiie executor or admiiiiilrator : this is re-
quired for the benefit of the creditors and legatees, that
the executor or adminillrator may not conce;,l any part of
the perfonal eilate from them. The ftatute ordains that
the inventory fliall be exhibited within three months after tlie
perfon's deceafe ; yet it may be done afterwards, for the
ordinary may difpenfe with tlie time, and even with its being
ever exliibited, as in eafes where the creditors are paid, and
the will is executed.

The life of the inventory is borrowed from the civil law :
for whereas by the law of the ancient Romans the heir was
obliged to anfwer all the teftator's debts ; by which means,
inheritance foraetimes became rather prejudicial than profit-
able ; to obviate this iaconvenience, Juftinian ordained, that
if the heir -Aould firll exhibit a true inventory of all the tel-
tator's effeds, he fhoiild be no farther charged than to the
value of the inventory.

In the Britifh army, when any commifTioned officer hap-
pens to die, or is killed on fervice, it is directed by the ar-
ticles of war, that the major of the regiment, or the officer
doing tlie major's duty in his abfence, fnall immediately
£ecure all his effects or equipage then in camp or quarters ;
and (hall before the next regimental court-martial make an
inventory thereof, and forthwith tranfmit the fame to the
office of our fecretary at war, to the end, that the execu-
tors of luch officer may, after payment of his regimental
debts and quarters, and the expences attending his inter-
ment, receive the overplus, if any be, to his or their ufe.

When any non-commiffioned officer, or private foldier,
happens to die, or is killed on fervice, the then conimand-
ing officer of the troop or company, ihall, in the prefence
of two other commillioned officers, take an account of
whatever eftccls he dies poffi-'lFed of, above his regimental
cloathing, arms and accoutrements, and tranfmit the fame
to the office of the fecretary at war. Thele tffecls are to
be accounted for and paid to the reprefentative of fuch de-
ceafed non-commiffioned officer or loldier ; and in cafe any
bf the officers, fo authorized to take care of tlic efFe:is of
dead officers and foldiers, (hould, before they have ac-
counted to their reprefentatives for the fame, have occafion
to leave the regiment by preferment or otlicrwile, they are
ordered, before they be permitted to quit the fame, to depofit
in the hands of the commanding officer, or of the agent of
the regiment, all tlie efleifts ot fuch deceafed non-commif-
fioned officers and foldiers, in order that the fame may be fe-
c ured for, and paid to, tlieir refpective reprefentatives. See
Articles ofWar,feaion XIX.

In'VES'TOUY, in Trutle, is a lift, or particular valuation of
goods, &c. See Value, Ai'hkaiskme.nt, &c.

INVER, in Geography, a fmall river of tlie county of
Donegal, Ireland, which is difcharged into a fmall bay, to
which it gives name. Inver bay may be confidered as a
part of Donegal bay, and has good anchorage. The
paridi is alfo called Inver, and there was formerly an abbey
there. There is alfo a village called Inver in tke county
of Mayo, on the eaft fide of Broadhaven, and in the
wild barony of Erris.

INVERARY, a royal borougli, and the county town of
Argylefiiire, Scotland, is fituated on the fouthern bank of
I..och Fync, where the river Aray, or Aooridh, falls into the
fea. It confills chielly of one row of commodious houfes,
built with great uniformity, and covered with Hate. The
old town was fituated on the north fide of the bay. It
feems probable, that, prior to tlie fourteentii century, In-
▼crary was little more tiian a fmall village for fi(lierm-n,
who fubfilled by their occupation, and erected their huts

1 N V

here. About that period, the family of Argyle fixed on
this fcite as their place of refidence ; and as the hereditary
jurifdiclions of julliciary and (herifF were veiled in them,
Inverary became the leat of the courts and the county
town. The circuit court of juHiciary is held here twice a
y«ar for the trial of offences in the counties of Argyle and
Bute, and the minor courts are thofe of the fheriff,
magiftrates, and jullices of the peace. It was created a
royal borough by charter from king Charles I., and i*
governed bv a provoft, two bailiifs, and a council, nominated
by the duke of Argyle. Its only revenue, about 3c/. fter-
ling annually, arifes from the petty culloms and the rent
of a common, which, on the erection of the borough, was
bellowed on it by tlie Argyle family. About the middle
of the laft century, Arcltibald, duke of Argyk-, feeing
how inadequate this revenue was to the occa'ions of the
borough, added to it a perpetual annuity of 20/. fecured
on his ellate.

Inverary is fo fituated in the Highlands, that as many
of the inhabitants fpeak Englifli as Gaelic, aiid two rrii-
nillers officiate in thele dialects. For wliich purpofe,
two new churches, under one roof, have been recently
built, from a defign by Mr. Milne. Inverary feems to-
lerably well fituated for manufaftsres, yet none are can-ied
on to any great extent. About the year i 748, duke Ar-
chibald introduced the linen manufafturc, which has been
attended witii beneficial confequences. The late duko eila-
bliihed a woollen manufatlure ; and ereded proper build-
ings and machinery, which he gave to the town ; but the
bufinefs has not been conducted with any adequate ad-
vantage.

Inverary derives its chief fource of profit from the lier-
ring filhery in Loch Fyne. This lake, which extends more
than 30 miles from the Weftern ocean into tlie country, has
been, from time immemorial, noted for its iicrrings, which
are laid to be fnperior in quality to any found in the Wef-
tern feas. The filhery generally commences in July, and
fometimes continues till the end of the year. During tliis
fenfon, the lake is tVeqiunttd by innumerable fhoats. Tlie
country people exprels the quantities of herrings .-.bounding
here, in very llrong language : " At thefe feafons," fay
they, " the lake contains one j)art of water and two parts
of filh." In this fir.gle bay (w^ or fix hundred boats are
fometimes employed m the fifiitry ; and it is ellimated,
that in fonie feafons, upwards of 20,000 barrels of her-
rings have been caught and cured ; each barrel containing,
at a medium, feven luindred liih. Part of each boat is co-
vered with a kind of fail-cI tli, to (lielter the four men who
compofe the crew, and who fcldom quit their boat during the
whole feafon. The inhabitants of Inverary, and of the
banks of the loch, do indeed fpend Sunday at home ; but as
many cf tlie boats come from more dillant parts, the crews
take up their abode entirely in them, fubfilting chiefly on
lierrings. The night is the time of fiffiing ; the day is em-
ployed in gutting the fifli, in lleep, or in finging Celtic
fongs to the found of the bagpipe. Each boat clears, on
an average, from 40 to jo/., and, in very prcduftive feafons,
100/. Tlie parifli of Inverary extends about 18 miles in
length, and about three in breadth, on an average. The
nimber of houfes in the late return to parhament was 275, of
inhabitants 2045.

At a fmall diftance from the town, is the houfe, or
callle, of Inverary, the principal feat of the duke of Ar-
gyle, and the chief ornament of the Weftern Highlands. It
is fituated on a gentle rife, on the weftern fide of Loch
Fyne ; and is furrounded by an amphitheatre of mountains,
fonie of which are rugged and broken, ar.d others entirely
8 covered

I N V

covered with wcocl. The loch from this placf appears Kkc
a large bay, round which are ranged plantations, covering
the ground to a vaft extent, from the lake to the fummit
of the highell mountains. Tlie caftle, rearing its towers
aSove the woods, has a very jiiflurefijue cffeCl ; to the
fouth-ealt of which, clofc to'th.- bay, appears the town of
Ir.verary in its luiifonn tine of handfonie buildings. On, the
flight is a fine view of Dunicoich., a llecp hill, 700 feet in
height, covered with wood alnioft to the fummit. Inveravy
Houfe, though by no means an old ftrudure, is built in the
form n[ a calUe, upon the plan of the manfions of fome of
the Geriiiiin nobility. The hall, which is very fpacious,
is hung round with arms and other ornaments adapted to the
ftylc of a Highland caille. In the eleftion of a reprefen-
tative to parliament, Invtniry is clafTcd with Ayr, Irvine,
Ro- hfav, and Campbeltown.' Sinclair's Statillical Account
of Scotland, vol. v,

INVERlvEITlIING, a royal borough and fea-port
town in Fifelhire, Scotland, is fituatcd on an eminence at the
head of the bay which bears its name on the north coaft of
the Frith of Forth. It confifts of one principal llreet of
confiderable length, with a fmaller one branching from the
middle of the former, and a few lanes. The houfes have an
ancient appearance, and almoft every one has a piece of gar-
den ground annexed to it. The return to parliament in the
year i8oi, ftated the number of houfes to be 3 jo ; of inha-
bitants 222S. The borough received its firit charter from
king William, furnamed the Lion ; fmcc whofe time feveral
kings of Scotland have granted other charters, all which
were ratified and confirmed by king James \T. in a writ
bearing date May 4th 1598. The civil government is
veiled in a provoll, two bailiff's, a dean of guild, and a
treafurer, all of whom are annually elected by the counfellors
and deacons of trades. The latter, five in number, are alfo
elecled yearly : but the counfellors hold their office during
life and refidence ; thefe mull not be fewer than twenty, but
are not limited to any number. The town-houfe, a neat
ftruAure, built in 1770, contains a prifon, and rooms for
the town-clerk, and forpubhc meetings and entertainments.
The bay of Inverkcithing is large and fafe, and affords an-
chorage to veffels of any burthen in all winds. Here fliips
of war fro!n the Leith roads feek (helter from tlie winter
ftorms, a]id merchant fnips from the Mediterranean ufed to
perform quarantine. The harbour itfelf is a fmall bay ; at
the mouth of which, on the well fide, lies a large Dutch
built vcflel as a lazaretto ; where, inftead of detaining (hips
from, foreign parts, the particular goods fuppofed to be in-
fecfed are immediately received, aired under the infpeftion
of a proper officer, and dehvered within a limited time to the
owners. At the head of the bay is the quay, the place for
landing and receiving goods ; the depth of water at fpring-
tides is tliirteen and fometimes fifteen feet. The chief em-
ployment of the veifels arifes from the exportation of coal
and fait. The coal is brought to the fhore by a waggon
r*)ad three miles in length; and 25,000 tons are anraially
Ihipped on an average : the dem.and is greater than can be
anfwercd; aad vefiTeis, to the number of forty or fifty, are
fometimes obliged to wait feveral weeks for their cargo.
The quantity of fait annually made is from twelve to fifteen
thoufand bufiiels. Inverkcithing was a royal refidence in the
time of king David I. ; velHges of his houfe were vifiblc
within the !a(l fifty years. This borough joins with thofe
of Culrofs, Queensferr^', Stirhng, and Dumfcrlinc, in fend-
ing a member to parliament.

On the top of Lethen-hill, near the town, are feveral up-
right rtones, placed in a circular form, faid to have been a
sjruidica! temple : and in the northern part of the pari(h is a

I N V

flone ten feet high, called the Standing (lone, on which are
baffo relievos of feveral rude figures of men and horfes.
Within the parifli is alfo the calUe of Rofyth, a ruinous
edifice, built upon a rock, and at high water entirely fur-
rounded by the fea ; it was one of the feats of the Stuart
family, and is now the property of the carl of Hopetoun.
Tlie celebrated admiral Greig, commander in chief of the
Ruffian navy, was a native of tiiis parilh. Sinclair's Sta-
tillical Account of Scotland, vol. x.

INVERNESS, a royal borough, and the county town
of Invernefsfhire, Scotland, is fituated on the fliore of
Moray-Frith, and is divided into tv.o unequal parts by the
river Nefs, over which is a Hone bridge of feven arches. It
is a borough of great antiquity ; and according to the bell
authority obtained its firil charter from king Malcolm Can-
more. In ancient times the townfmen maintained many
defperate conflicls with the neighbouring rebellious chief-
tains and their clans. Traces of this fta-te of hoftility are
fliU extant, on the well fide, where irruptions were com-
monly made. At a fmall diftance from the town, is a place
called Pallfaire, that is, " the Watch-Town ;'' alfo a hill,
■n-dvned Tomniifaiie, " the Watcli-Hill;" and a large ftonc,
called ClachimjVire, " the Watch-Stone." The lail charter
in favour of the borough was granted by king James VI.
From that period to the revolution, the inhabitants were
an indullrious and thriving people ; carried on a confider-
able commerce in corn and Ikins ; and brought the malt-
ing trade to great extent ; a confiderable part of the town
confining of kilns and granaries. From the revolution to
the year 1746, the borough fuffered a gradual decline; fo
that, at that period, and for feveral years after, the town
appeared little better than the ruins of its former Hate. In
the rebellion in 1 74J, which commenced among the chiefs
in the weltern part of this county, Inverneis became the
centre of all the military operations, and other works carried
on by government. Hence it began to revive, and com-
merce was gradually reftored. The principal manufactures
now are thofe of hemp and flax; The firft has been
eftabliflied about forty years ; and at prefenc employs above
a thoufand perfons in fpinning, dreffing, and weaving. The
raw material is imported from the Baltic, and manufactured
into fail-cloth and facking ; which are fent to various parts
of Britain, and the Eaft and Weil Indies. A white thread
manufaftory has been eftablilhed nearly twenty years ; and
employs in its various branches of heckling, fpinning, twifl-
ing, bleaching, and dyeing, not lefs than ten tlioufand indi-
viduals in the town and furrounding country. The com-
pany have, in this and the neighbouring countries, feveral
agents for the management of the fpinning departments.
The flax is alfo chiefly imported from the Baltic, and the
greatcd part of tlie thread fent to London, whence it is
difperfed to different parts of the world. The cotton manu-
facture has been introduced here with fuccefs. Invernefs
pofi'eGes peculiar advantages for manufaclures ; the raw ma-
terial being eaiily imported, and the manufailured goods
readily exported. Dearncfs of fuel is the grcateft obllacle,
coal being imported from England. The fituation of the
town is highly favourable. Ships of four or five hundred
tons can ride at anchor within a mile of it ; and at fpring
tides vciTels of half that burthen can come up to the quay
clofe to the town. The principal part of the vefTels belong-
ing to iHveriiefs, is employed in conveying to London the
pri)duce of the manufadture, alfo the filli caught in the river
Nefs, and the iliins of otters, rabbits, hares, foxes, goats,
rocs, &c. In return, materials are brought back both for
ufe and luxury ; particularly hardware and habcrdafliery ;
with V, liich the traders of this town fupply the cxtenfive fur-
R r 2 rounding

INVERNESS.

rounding diilrift. A fpaciouii harbour er bafin has been
conftrutted here for vefTels faUing acrofs the iiland by tlie
Caledonian canal. ^

Invcrnefs is a large and well-built town ; many of tlie
honfcs are lofty, and alTume an elegant appearance. It may
be confulered as the capital of the Highlands ; being the only
town of any importance north of Aberdeen. It was re-
turned, under the aft of 1801, as containing 1431 houfes,
and 87JJ2 inhabitants. Nearly in the centre of the town
ftands the Court-houfc, conncAcd with the Tolbooth, a
handfomc modern building, with a tower terminated by a
fpire. An academy, on a very liberal and extenfivc plan,
was etlablifhed here in the year 1790, and is fupported by
voluntary fubfcription. A piece of ground, containing
about three acres, was purchafed, and an appropriate build-
ing erefted, conlifting of a large public hall and fix fpacious
apartments, for the accommodation of the different claffes,
for a library, and for philofophical apparatus. The feminary
is condufted by a redor and four tutors ; the number of
Undents is generally between two and three hundred ; who
are divided into five clafTes. In the firft, the Englifh lan-
guage is taught ; in the fecond, Latin and Greek; in the
third, arithmetic and book-keeping ; in the fourth, geo-
metry, trigonometry, menfuration of planes and folids ;
geography, navigation, and praftical aftronomy ; naval,
civil, and military architefture ; gunnery, perfpeftive and
drawing ; in the tifth, or higheft, under the immediate care
of the rector, are taught civil and natural hiftory, experi-
mental philofophy, and chemillry. The reftor has a fmall
houfe and a fmall falary ; the tutors have ftill lefs falaries ;
fo that their chief dependence is on the fees of their feveral
cLifTes, vvliich is an incitement to attention and induftry.

The civil government of the town is veiled inaprovoft, four
bailiffs, and a dean of guild, affilled by a council of twenty-
one members, called the town council. The members of the
new council are eledlcd every year by the old previous to
their fecelTion from office : and the former eleft from among
themfelves the provoil, baihffs, dean of guild, and a treafurcr.
There are fix corporations of craftfmen, beiides feveral crafts
not incorporated. Tlie edifices for public worfliip are,
three national or Prefbyterian churches, and one of Epif-
copalians, vi-ith chapels for diffenting congregations.

About half a mile from the town, on the weflern fide, is
Tmona-heurich, the " Hill of Fairies," a beautiful infulated
hill covered with trees. It is of a fuigular form, nearly
refenibling a fhip with the keel uppermoft : its bafe is a
parallelogram, in length 1984 feet, in breadth 176; from
which it rifes above 250 feet above the level of the river.
About a mile farther from the town is another hill, called
Crai_; Phatric, rugged and fleep, and much higher than the
former; the elevation of its higheft part being 1150 feet
above the bed of the river : tlie fummit is flat, and has been
furrounded by a wall eighty yards long by thirty broad.
The moil remarkable circumilance attending it is, that the
ftones are all firmly cemented together by a vitrified matter
■ like lava, or rcfembling the flag or fcorire of an iron foun-
dery ; and even the flones, in many places, feem to have been
foftened and vitrified. The circuit court of jufticinry for
the northern diflrift, comprehending the counties of Invcr-
nefs, Rofs, Caithhefs, Orkney, and Sutherland, is held at
this place. Sinclair's Statiflical Account of Scotland,
vol. ix.

lNvr:.tNE.ss, New, a town of America, in the flate of
Georgia, fituated on the river Alatamaha, and built by a
company of emigrants from the Highlands of Scotland, 130
of whom were taken oven by Gon. Oglethorpe in 1734. It
irs about 20 miles from Fiedcrica.

I.VVERNESS and Fort William Canal, was the parliamen-
tary name firfl given, in the aft of 1793, to an important
line of canal for the paffage of large fhips acrofs Scotland,
principally in Invernefsfhire, of the deiigns for whxh wc
"•ave a full account, under tliat head, in our article Canal,
and have fince added, under the topographical articles
Clachn-aciiarry andCoiiPACH, villages at the extremities
of the hne, fuch particulars as had occurrtd to the time of
putting thefe articles to the prefs, refpefting the progrefs of
the works : in the prefent article we fhall have the pleafure
of flating the further and fuccefsful progrefs, to the prefent
time, of this very lai-ge and important undertaking, now
more commonly known by the name of the Caledonian
Canal. Seven annual reports have now been made by the
commiflioners appointed to manage this great national work,
and printed by order of the houfe of commons ; which re-
ports contain the greatell body of minute information, fatis-
faftorily arranged, by ,Iohn Rickman, efq. the fLcretary to
the commiflioners, which has, perhaps, ever been given to
the public, and fhew flrongly the merit which is due lo
Meffrs. William Jeffop and^Thonias Telford the engineers,
for the correftnefs of their original deiigns and cftimates,
and to the latter gentleman in particular, for carrying the
whole into eflVft by himfelf and liis refijent affiihuiU. From
the lafl of thefe reports (ordered to be printed the Jifl of
May 1810), it appears, that about fix miles in length at the
Clachnacharry, north-callern, or Invcrnefs end of the line,
were in hand or finifhcd ; and about the fame length, at the
Corpach, weflern or Fort-William end, were alfo in progreft,
except fome particular parts, pvcfenting no material difficul-
ties. We fhall firfl mention thofe important and expenfive
works, the entrance fea-locks in Loch Bcaidcy, and in Loch
Ell.

At Clachnacharry two fea-mounds, or parallel banks for
inclofing the canal, have been extended more than 360 yards
into the fea beyond high water-mark, and have been fecured
by a wall of puddled earth carried up from the bottom :
and as the fhore here is found to confill of wet muddy fands,
capable of confiderable comprefiion by the weight of thefe
artificial banks, the fame have been extended higher than
would otherwife have been neceffary, and at the further ex-
tremity they have been joined into a folid mafs, by fdling
up the fpace in which the fea-lock is to be conflrufted, and
allowing time for this great weight of earth to aet, in com-
prefTing the foft bottom, before tlie digging therein for the
lock is commeneed ; by which the great cxpence and riik
of a coffer-dam is to be avoided. The fea-mounds of earth,
three hundredand fifty yards beyond high-water mark, andthe
coffer-dam for the fea-lock at Corpach, iiad been fome months
made and erefted and flood firm, and at the time of making
the 7th report tlie fleam-engine and drains thereto from the
fcite of the lock were completed ready for commencing the
excavation. The fecond lock at the fouth-c.ifl end of
Clachnacharry village had been completed, except the gates,
ever fince 1S06; the mafonry of the four connefted locks
(Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6,) at Muirtown, N of Invcrntfs, were alfo
completed, and their joints pointed with Parker's cement,
prepared from the Ludus helmontia, or clay-balls of the
London clay flrata. The two locks at the N.W. end of
Corpach village were lono finiflicd, all but their gates, and
the mafonry of the fix Towefl of the principal chain of
eight locks near Corpach-mofs were about completed. In
the next moll important head, that of aqueduft bridges,
road arches, and culverts under the canal, one, only a fmidl
culvert, had been found neceffary in the CLichnachari-y dif-
trift, and was finiflied in the lands of Kinmylics : in the Cor-
pach dillrift, five confiderable aqucduftshadbeea complcteda
7 Lng

INVERNESS.

long time, via, at Lower B<inavie, Upper Banavie, Shangan,
Muirfhearlich, and Loy, all of which had their arches en-
larged and paved at the bottom, or fide arches conftruAcd,
in order to terve as road arches under the canal, and fupcr-
fede the expeiice and great inconvenience of a« many com-
munication fning bridges over the canal : for which they
have been found very complete fubllitutcs. A large job of
mafon's work had alfo been completed in walling the in-
tended wharfs, 1 1^:; yards in length, at the fouth-eall end of
the large bafin intended for holding the fliips which trade to
Invernefs, fuch vvharfo being lituale within lefs than a mile of
the town. In the Clachnaeharry diihicl the malonry of
tlie road brid-^e at Muirtown had been completed, and a
temporary timber bridge laid upon it ; the mafonry of Bught
bridge was very nearly completed, and a temporary wooden
bridge had been laid over the middle of the eight Cor-
pach-mofs locks, for the road to Lochie-ferry and Fort-
William, where the mafonry for a fwing bridge had been
prepared.

Of the earth works, the ftupendous embankments for the
lea-locks at the extremities of the canal have been men-
tioned : in Kinmylies lands, W. of Invernefs, a conliderable
embankment, acrofs fome low ground, had been very nearly
completed : a more confiderable and dilTicult embankment
along the whole courfe of the Nefs river, extends near half a
mile in length, under the deep bank of Torvaine ; a new
cliannel for the river being formed fouth of this, and the
new canal bank effcdually faced with loofe rubble llonc to
proteift it from tlie floods : at Molindour a finiilar embank-
ment along the bed of the old Nefs, and the making of a
new channel for it for a quarter of a mile in length, has
been completed, under Torremore, a lleep bank. In the
lands of Doughgarroch, near the Smithy, another embank-
ment for the canal acrofs a loop of the river, and enlarging
its channel on the further fide of a gravel ifland were in hand.
In the Corpach diltrict, embankments of earth have been
completed over each of I he five aqueduft bridges mentioned
above, and many fmaller o!.es, particularly in the rugged
tratt between Upper Banavie and Shangan aqueducts. The
principal extra cutting, or removing of earth, has been on
the S.E. of Clachnaeharry, wliere a bafon of ic acres
extent, being more than one-third of a mile lon^r, has been
completed ; the principal deep-cuttings partly executed in
this diflricl, being nine feet deep, for -about half a mile in
length, through the lands of Doughgarroch. The principal
work of extra cutting in the Corpach divilion, has be(n the
bafin next the fea-lock, great p.irt of which is hard i-ock-
cutting, and was partly completed, waiting for the fteam--
engine to drain it : confiderable deep cuttings occur on each
fide of the rivulet of Moy, and near feveral others of the
aqueducts for ftraighteningthe courfe of the canal, and finding
fluff for adjacent embankments,. all of which were completed.
Having thus enumerated all the principal works which had
been entered on or completed, we ihall prefent an account
of the total expenditure from the commencement on the
20th of October 1803, to the third of May 1810, -mz.

£. . J. ./.
Purchafe of lands and building?, and 1

payments on account of damage for ,- 16.442 8 6

the canal-wovks, roads, quarries, Sic. )
Labour and workmanfliip paid by mea-"]

fi!rement,orperjob,inexcavating,pud- '. ^^, ^^^ ^^ ^^s

dling.banking, formingtemporaryrail- f -"' '^ "*

roads, fawjng, and carpenters' work J

Carry over 141,629 5 4i

Brought over 141,629 5

Labour and workmanfhip paid by tlie")
day or tide, fetting out and trying the '
groimd, whifivcy for the men working [
in the water, SiC. - - - J

Quarries and mafonry work, and for^
bricks, lime, and cement - - -J

Timber, viz. foreign fir 7
and carnage - - j

Native timber, purchafed ^

the neisrhbourhood, > 11, 795 15 s\

5.71

70.971

feUing, carriage, &:c. J

21,106 8

811

Machinery, including four deam-engines,")
a fuw-mill, dredging-machine, iron rails |
forall the temperary rail-ways, various }> 29,869 19
tools and utenfils, and repairing of the |
fame, carriage, &c. ... J

Shipping; building and rigging four")
(loops and barges, repairs, Ihorcs, fea- j
mens' wages, fhore dues, &c. in fetch- y S'Sli '^
ing part of the itone from the diilant |
quarries to the works . . -J

Purchafe and hire of horfes andprovender, 1
farriery, &c. for extra and irregular \
works, the fuperintendant's nag, S:c. J

Houfcs, compting-houfes, fheds, llables,";
and other temporary buildings for the '
ufe of the fuperintendants,. and the j
work - - - - -J

Stationery, portage, .carriage of pai'cels, ")
feeds for the canal banks, &c. - J

Expences of management, i;/"z. expences^
of furveys and obtaining the adt, fur-
veys and valuations of land, juries, and |
conveyancing : the fecretary's, engi- ! q

iicor's, and fuperintendant's falaries, [ '^"
keeping and copyingaccounts, reports, I
&.C., reducing and engraving maps, &c.. |
and travelling expences . - J

2.345 3

434 !■

Tota

289,452 18 si

The Britifh p'.iblic are b'.it little ufed, we are perfuaded,
to fee fuch efTcftual checks eJtabliflied on the expenditure
of their money, more real economy exercifed, or more minute
and fatisfadtory accounts produced, than the feries of valuable
reports furnifh, from which we have principally extradted
our accounts of this truly great national undertaking. From
a careful reellimate of what remained to be done by Mr.
Jefibp and Mr. Telford, a well-grounded hope is held out
that the whole undertaking will be entirely completed,
when the fum of ^yjiOOO.'. is expended, except, perhaps,
fome purchafcs of land in the middle dillridi, where no works
had yet been commenced. Our inquiries further enable us
to flate, that at the prefent time (April, 181 1) the excava-
tion in hard rock for the Corpach fea-lock has been com-
pleted to 20 feet beneath high-water of neap tides, and a
great proportion of the mafonry of tlie tide-loek completed ;
ih? mafonry of tlie great chain of eight locks near Corpach-
mofs is completed, and the regulating lock near loch Lochie
began : that plan, adopted for avoiding a coffer-dam to the
tide lock at Clachnaeharry has fucceeded, a part of the fpace
for it had. been excavated, and the water which fprang in,
eafily commanded by a fix-horfe engine ; and the regulating
lock near loch Nefs is Ln hand ; the number of men at pre-

fetit

INVERNESS-SIIIRE,

font employed exceeding 1200. Mr. Jolin Telford, the
brother of the engineer, refided and fuperintendcd the works
with great ability and integrity until his death, in June
J 804 ; fince wliich the works have been fuperiutended by
Mr. Matthew Davidfon.

INVERNESS-SHIRE, one of the large ft counties of
Scotland, is lituated on the wellern fide of that part of the
kingdom, having numerous bays of the Atlantic ocean to
the weft, the counties of Pertli and Argyle on the fouth,
Rofsrtiire and part of Moray Frilh on t!ie north, and the
fliires of Moray, Elgin, and AbL-rdecn on the eaft. The
area thus inclofed comprizes a variety of diltrifts, refpeftively
named Eadenocii, Lochabar, Glenclg, Glengary, Glcn-
Morrifon, Glenfhiel, &c. Thcfe are again divided into :;i
parifhes, and compi-ehended, in the year 1801, a population
of 74,292 perfons. A confiderable proportion of the He-
brides or Weilern ifles is alfo annexed to it ; particularly the
ides of Sky, Harris, North and South Uift, Benbecula,
Barrft, and Eigg, and the fmaller ifiels which are fituated on
its coafts. The mainland, excluding the ides, extends in
length, from the point of Arifaig on the weft to that of
Arderfeer on the eait, where Fort George is built, about
ninety-two miles, and its greateit breadth is nearly fifty.
The county is divided into two almoft equal parts by a valley
running from fouth-weft to north-eaft, parallel to the Gram-
.pians. This valley is called Glen-more-na-h'Alabin, or the
" Great Glen of Albion ;" and appears to be a deep fiffurc
between the chains of enormous mountains which run in the
fame direction. The glen is, in the greater part of its
length, filled with water ; or is rather a long chain of lakes
fucceeding each other, and rifing but little above the level of
the fea ; a circumftance which has fuggelled the propriety of
taking advantage of this valley to form the canal which is
jiow executing acrofs the ifland, viz. the Caledonian canal.
The frefli water lakes which form the chain from Invcrnefs
on the Moray Frith to the Sound of Mnll below Fort Wil-
liam, are Loch Nefs, Loch Oicli, and Loch Lochie. The
<iiftance, in a direft line, is little more than fifty miles, of
which nearly thirty-fix are occupied liy thefe three lakes.
The falt-watcr lochs, or arms of the fea, which occupy the
two extremities of the valley, are the Linnhe Loch, which
iidvar.ces from the found of Mull, on tlie weft, to Fort
William at tlie mouth of the Lochie, and the Moray Frith
on the eart. The dimenlions of the canal are, in depth 20 feet,
in width, at the bottom, 50 feet, at the top 1 10 ; the locks
are 20 feet deep, 170 long, and 40 broad ; frigates of 32
guns may be admitted.

Loch Lochie, the moft weftei-n of the fredi water lakes,
is a fine piece of water, in length about fourteen miles, and
from one to two in breadth. The mountains on each lide are
very ileep, and in fome parts covered with wood. The
waters of this loch are chiefly derived from another to the
•northward, called Loch Arciiaig, wliich runs in a northern
direftion, fixteen miles in len;jth, and one in breadth. From it
flows the river Archaig, wliich, al'ter running about a mile, falls
into the northern iide of Loch Lochie. Tiie river Lochie,
which takes its rife from thir, loch, rvms weihvard, and falls
into the lea at Fort ^Vii]iam ; its kngth being about ten
miles, and its medium breadth about two hundred feet. It
is navigable by fmall boats. Next to Loch Lochie, on the
eailward, is Loch Oich, in lengtli about three miles ; its
banks form a number of fmall bays, and include fome beau-
tiful little iiland*. It gives rife to the river Oich, which
flows eallvvard, and foon falls into Loch Nef?. This lake
is twenty-two miles long, and from one to two and a half
broad ; it; depth in the middle being from fixty to one hun-
di-ed and thirty five fathoms. It fomctime'f, efpecially after

long-continued rains, rifes eight or ten feet perpendicular!;
above low-water mark. The water poflclfes a peculiar qua-
lity ; it never freezes in the feverefl winter, and in froil \
weather is covered with a thick mift, which has the appearance
of fmoke. At the time of the great earthquake at Lilinjii.
Nov. I, 1755, *^'^ water of Loch Nefs was agitated in an 1
extraordinary manner. It rofe rapidly, and flowed up the
lake from eall to well with amazing impetuofity ; the waves
being carried more than two hundred yards up the river
Oich, breaking on its banks five feet above the. level of the
river. It continued ebbing and flowing fur about an hour ;
when a wave, much greater th;m the preceding, ter.rinatcd
the commotion, overflowing the north hank ot the lake to
the extent of thirty feet. From the caftern extremity of
Loch NcTj. lir-. i'l'.e nver of that up.me, which, running in
an eaftf.-l- i-:: milrs. fil',- into the Moray Frith

at the u> lit v.hi li i:^ ciluary forms the har-

bour. T' ■ •■•■ . • iS vwd lal'.. ; uas made the track of

a feries of I •.i.^ wh.n tlie Enghlh government was endea-
vouring to fubdue the ariftocrncy of the Highlands, and to
reduce this mountainous territory under the dominion of law.
The waters wliicli fdl into the eaftern part of the chain of
lakes, thar i~, b.!n;s thr head of L-ch Oieh, come chiefly
from the fuii'ili ; th. TailF, the Errick, and the Foyers, and
a variety of otiier lorrenta, v.hich dei'cend from the mour.-
tains, wliere great numbers of lakes are found. The Foyers
is remarkable for its celebrated falls This river takes its
rife among the lofty mountains of Pjolelkine and Abertarft",
and pouring through the vale of Floyers, falls into Loeli
Nefs nearly mid-way between the eaftern and wellern extre-
mities of that lake. The falls of Floyers are accurately
defcrlbcd by Dr. Garnet in his Tour through Scotland.
Rcfpecling tlic upper fall, he iktes that " from tlie arch of
the bridge to the lurface of tin- water, after the lovvell part
of the fall, is 200 feet. Height of the fall 70 feet." Of
the lower fall, dillant from the former nearly half a mile, he
fays, " its heiglit, in one continued llream, is 207 feet.
Down tliis precijjlce the river rulhes, v.Ith a noife like thun-
der, into tlic abyfs below, forming an utibroken ftream as
white as fnow. Lurns has given a beautiiul defcription of
this fall. It is undoubtedly our of tl ■ ir -I. '^ in the world,
and the quantity of water is fniVii ■ i; confequencc.

The fcene is awfully grand ; ih'- 1 : 1 :.: ide of Nia-

gara in North America is not inacli m.^ic thaii Lalf the height
of this." The waters which fall into the eaftern part of the
lakes from the north, are chiefly the Garry, the Morrifton,
the Enneric, and Coiltie. The lakes may be conhdered as
two rivers, which receive the waters of the greatell part of
Invernefsfhire, and convey them to the eallern and weilern
oceans. It is faid that pikes are' not found in tliofe lochs in
the Highlands whofe waters defcend into the Atlantic ;
whereas they are found in thofe lakes v.-hofe waters flow
eaftwardinto the German ocean. The other principal rivers
in this county are the Beaulie on the north, and the Spey 011
the fouth. The firft, which is chiefly eompofcd of three
lefler ilreanii, runs about eight miles before it enters the
Frith of Beaulie. The river Spey rifes towards the foutli-
weilern part of the county out of a fmall lake of the
fame name. It receives in its courfe a great variety of
mountain torrents ; and pafles through the great fir-woods
of Glenmorc and Strathfpey ; the trees of which are con-
veyed to the ocean by means of its waters. To the fouth
of Lech Spey is Loch Laggan, which is fifteen niile.s in
lengtli, and, with its environs, forms a large dillritl in Bade-
noch. On the fouth fide is the Coill More, or Great Wood,
the moft confiderable remnant of the great Caledonian forefl.
Several arms of the fea advance into the wcftern ftiore (,f In-
vcnicfsftiiie :

INVERNESS-SIIIRE.

vcrnefsdiirc; fuch as the roand of Sky, on which are the bar-
racks of Bernera ; I.ochHonrn, Loch Nevidi, Loch Mor-
veii. Loch Aylcrt, Loch Shcil, and Loch Eil ; the two lail
form part of the boiirnlary between this county and Argyle-
Ihire. Our limits wi'l not admit a particular defcription of
the fcenery to be met with in this cxtenfive county ; confift-
ing, as the whole furface of it does, of lofty monntains,
vhich, efpecially towards the well, are piled above each
other in towering magnificence ; and between which are
deep glens of a boundlefs variety of fornid, each of which
has its llream and its lake, and many of which abound ia
woods. In this county Hands the celebrated Ben Nevis,
the highell mo-.intain in the ifland of Great Britain ; the al-
titude being no Icfs than 4370 feet. The fummit of this
mountain affards a wide extent of view, from the horizon of
the feaat the Moray Frith on the north-ea'.l to the iiland of
Colonfa on the fo'nth-weft. (See Bkk-Nkvi.s.) In the
eaftern part of theparifhof Kilmanavaig a fingular curiofity
appears, -viz. the remarkable parallel roads of Glenroy,
which are to be feen on the declivities of lofty mountains ex-
tending for feven or eight miles on each fide of the water of
Roy. Dr. Anderfon, in his View of the Agriculture of
Aberdeen, fays, " thefe roads are carried forward along
the fides of the hills in a direftion every where perfectly
horizontal. Wherever they come to a vacuity in the hill,
there they bend inwards till they find the natural level ; and
where they come to a river, inllead of finkinj; down to the
level of its bottom, or requiring to have a bridge direftly
acrofs it, to raife the ground to its proper level, they turn
up the bank of the river, keeping ftill their horizontal di-
reftion, till they thus gradually reach the bottom of the
ilreani, when, croffing it, and altering their direftion once
more, they purfue the courfe of the Itream on the oppofite
bank till they reach the llrath, when they proceed forward
in the fame horizontal direction as before." Thefe parallel
terraces, however, are not works of art, but natural pheno-
mena, as fuggelled by Mr. .lamiefon, profeflbr of natural
hiftory in the univerfitv of Edinburgh, in his Account of
the Mineralogy of Dumfriesfhlre. Glenroy mull, at a former
period, have been a lake, the furface of whofe waters flood
fome fathoms above the higheft of the parallel roads. When
the river was in flood, great quantities of mud came down into
the lake, but chiefly at the fides, where the current was flower
than in the middle. At the lower part of the glen, however,
the lake, after a lapfe of ages, muil have burtl its barriers,
fo as to reduce the furface of the waters to the level of fome
fathoms above the fecond terrace. The mud formerly de-
pofited would now become the uppermo.1 terrace. This
operation muft have been thrice repeated, to produce the
three parallel roads or terraces ; and at laft the river has
buril for itfelf the channel which it now occupies, and has
converted this ancient lake into a glen or deep valley. About
eight miles from the mouth of the river Nevis is a remark-
able cavern, known by the name of Haigh-t'-Hovile, or
" Samuel's Cave ;' that being the patronymic of the fa-
mily of Glenevis. This cave is in the heart of a rock, which
appears to be about 70 feet high, and nearly as broad, lean-
ing to the fide of a mount fouth of the river, and not far
dillant from it. The cave appears to have been formi d
by one part of the rock inclining towards the other,
and forming between them an arc'.ied, irregular, fhapelefs
kind of grotto, from fix to twelve or fouvtet n feet in height,
thirty in length, and eleven in breadth. Oppofite the rock
in which the cave is formed, on 'he other tide of the river,
is a beautiful cafcade, falling by a gradual flope from Ben-
Nevis, upwards of half a mik before it reaches the bottom of

the valley, where it unites its ftr

with thofe of the

Nevis. About two miles farther up the Nevis, on the cave
fide, is another cafcade, which, after forcing its way througli
hills and rocks, has a fall 500 feet perpendicular. The
whole vicinity, as may be expcfted from the number of
monntains, abounds with cafcades, which produce variety
of pirtnrefqne fcenery.

Such is the rude wildnefs of the mountains, rocks, anif
glens, that it is not wonderful the mountain chiefs and in-
habitants of this country fo long retained their independence.
Not more than twenty years ago, a formidable banditti in-
felled Invernefs-fliirc. I'hey confilled of deferters and rob-
bers, leagued to;tether for the annoyance of the country i
but the military from the forts on the lakes being fent againft
them, the leaders were taken, the affociation was broken,
and tranquillity rellored.

The north-eallern corner of this county, adjacent to the
Moray frith, is to be confidered as a part of the Lowlands
of Scotland ; but all the reft of the county belongs to tlu;
Highlands. The low country contiguous to Invernefs is,
upon the whole, well cuhivated. The reft of the eaftern
coail enjoys a drier climate than is to be found in the weft.
Coiifiderable quantities of wheat are fown here, together
with barley, oats, and peas. Potatoes are railed in great
abundance, and conftitute the principal food of the poorer
clafs of inhabitants. Some rye is fown, generally mixed
with oats, which gives a foflnefs to the oat-bread of this
country. In the upper parts, and in every quarter where
pofTenions remain on the anciei,t fmall fcale, agriculture is
in a miferable ftate. In the remoteft diftrifts, the harnefs of
a horfe ftill confifts of a bridle made of the twiiled twigs of
birch ; with a ftick put under the horfe's tail, and tied with
twigs, for a crupper : the laddie is a pad made of coarle
facking, faftened with twilled birch twigs, or hair ropes.
The mountains and forell.; are inhabited by immenfe herds
of red and roe deer, which roam in fafety, in recelTes alinoil
impenetrable to man : the alpine and common hare, and other
game, are alfo abundant. The fir woods in Glenmore and
Strathlpey, the property of the duke of Gordon and fir
James Grant, are fuppofed to be more extenfive than all the
other natural woods in Scotland together. Indeed, in every
quarter are confiderable foreils ; and there are natural plant-
ations of great extent near the feats of the different pro-
prietors, on the fea-coaft or hikes. In the parilh of Kil-
malie alone, near Fort William, the wood-lands are ellimated
at about 14,000 acres The trees that grow naturally are
oak, fir, birch, a(li, moniitain-alh, holly, elm, wild geen,
hnzle, and the Scottilli foplar: thofe planted are l.irix,
fpruee, fiUer fir, beech, plane, and fruit trees. Lime-
ftone, approaching to the nature of marble, is found in every
dillrift of the county. In Lochaber, near the farm-houfes
of Ballachulilh, is a lime-ftone or marble rock of an athcn-
grey colour, and of a fine regular grain or texture, capable
of being raifed in blocks or flabs of any fize, and fufceptible
of a fine polilh. This fingular rock is fprinkled throughout
with grains and fpecks of bright mundic or pyrites, and of
lead-ore of a fine texture, v.'hich appears to be rich in filver.
In the farm of Blarmacfuildach, belonging to the duke of
Gordon, about three miles to the fouth of Fort William, iji
the bed of a river, is a very peculiar kind of marble, con-
fifting of a black ground, flowered with white. This ftone
is of a fine clofe grain, but not very hard ; the flowering is
light and elegant, like fine needle-work. Many of the
mountains are compofed of reddilTt granite. In the parifh
of Kingurie a rich vein of filver was difcovered, but could
never be fuccefcfuUy wrought ; snd ia other place*, veins of

kaJ,

I N V

l-.^ad, with filver intermixed, have been found. Iron ore has
alfo been difcovered, hut not in fufficient quantity to make
it ail obje£l of manufafture.

This county contains many veftiges of antiquity. In
various parts are to be feen remains of Druidical temples.
At Corymoiiy, in the northern part of the county, is one
in which the middle of the circle is occupied by a cairn of
Joofe ftones, on the funimit of which is one very large ftone.
.Such temples are alfo found in the fouthern parts. Some-
times each great Handing Hone is fupported by two other
.large ftones buried under ground ; fo that where there is a
fiiigle circle above, there is a double one beneath.

In the parifh of Kilmanavaig is the ruined callle of Inver-
lochy. Tljere was, at one time, a thriving borough of the
.fame name adjacent to this building, which fonie of the old
Seottifh hillorians call the emporium of the well of Scot-
land ; but of this borough there are no other indications than
xfome pavement in different places, which were probably the
ftreets of it. The caftle has furvived the borough, and now
ftands alone, a monument of ancient magnificence. It is a
.quadrangular building, with round towers at the angles,
meafuriiig thirty yards every way within the walls. The
towers and ramparts are built of ftone and lime, nine feet
thick at the bottom, and eight feet above. It was fur-
rounded by a ditch, from thirty to forty feet in breadth,
which was fupplied with water from the river. The wiiole
building, including the towers, covers about 1600 fqiiare
yards ; and within the outfide of the ditch are contained
nearly 7000 fquare yards. At the great gate, between the
fouth and eaft towers, are fome remains of a draw-bridge.
This gate is nine feet wide, and arched to the fame height,
with abutments of fourteen feet at each fide. Direftly op-
pofite was another gate, of nearly the fame fize, w hich pro-
bably was defigned as a water gate. Befides thefe two
.principal entries, three of the towers were provided with
fally ports ; one from each, well contrived, and clofe to the
arrow-holes, which alfo flanked and defended them. There
is a tradition that this caftle was once a royal rcfidence ; and
■that the league betwixt Charles the Great of France and
Achaius king of the Scots was figned there on the part of
-the Seottifh monarch, about the end of the eighth century.
Within fight of Inverlochy caftle Rood that of Dund-
Jiairdghall, on the fummit of a hill about 400 yards in
height. The traces of the building are ftill vifible; and the
part now remaining runs round the whole top of the hill, tlie
x:ompafs of which is 150 yards. The part of the hall that
now remains is no more than from two to four feet high, and
is vitrified all round. On the northern banks of the river
Xochie are the remains of an ancient caftle, which, before
the invention of fire-arms, was certainly a very ftrong place.
It ftands on the brink of a frightful precipice, at the bot-
tom of wliich the river forces its paflage through rocks, and
Jias been fecured on tlie land-fide by a ditch and draw-bridgc.
I'he traces of the ditch are ftill vifible. The caftie of Ur-
quhart, now fallen to decay, ftands on a rocky promontory,
on the weft fide of Loch Nefs, of which it commands a
view from one end to the other. The loch wafties the eaft
fide of the building, and the other three fides were fortified
with a ftrong rampart, a ditch, and a draw-bridge. With-
in the walls were accommodations for five or fix hundred
men. This caftle was a royal fort, and was granted
fcy king James IV. in 1509, witli the ellate and lord-
ihip ol Ut-quhart, to the laird of Grant, in whofe family
they ftill continue. Along the chain of lochs are three
forts, or military ftations, defigned to keep the Highlanders
>n fubjeftion, Fort George, Fort Auguftus, and Fort

I N V

William. The firft is placed at the eaftern e>rtremity of the
lakes, and prevents all entrance up the Moray frith : it is a
regular fortification, and covers ten Scottifti acres. Fort
Auguftus is fituated in the middle of the chain : it has four
baftions, and barracks for the accommodation of four
hundred foldiers, with proper lodgings for the officers. On
the weft, to check any attempts from that quarter, ftands
Fort William, which is of a triangular form, with two
baftions : this has fifteen twelve-pounders, feme mortars,
and a confiderable armoui-y. It was built during the ufurp-
ation of Cromwell, under the direction of general Monk ;
and was then more extenfive than at prefent, as it contained
two thoufand eff'eCtive troops.

The remains of old watch-towers, or very fmall fortreffes,
are to be feen on the fummits of many of the mountains.
In the parifli of Laggan is a rock, upwards of an hundred
yards perpendicular height, and of very difficult accefs ; yet
on the very fummit are confiderable remains of a fortifica-
tion. The area is about 500 feet by 253 ; the wall is up-
wards of fifteen feet in thicknefs. In the i^iddle of Coil-
More, the great wood on the fouth fide of Loch Erich, is a
place called Aift-Merigie, or "the height on which a ftan-
dard was wont to be creeled." It appears to have been held
facred from the moft remote antiquity, and is faid to be the
burial-place of feven kings of the ancient Caledonians. On a
moor in Badenoch, are the remains of a fquare encamp-
ment ; which has fuggefted the idea that tlie Romans ad-
vanced into this mountainous diftricl : in clearing fome ad-
jacent ground iome years ago, an urn was found full of
alhes ; alfo a Roman tripod.

In the parifti of Kilmorack, are the ruins of the an-
cient priory of Beauly, which was founded in the year 1230,
by James Biftet, of Lovat. In the parifti of Petty are two
circular earthen mounds; one clofe by the church-yard, the
other about 200 yards weft from it. Thefe are evidently ar-
tificial, the outfide being fod or turf, inclofing fand or light
earth. The tradition concerning them is, that they were
plaees for the adminiftration of jaftice, as their name imports,
being called Tora-inhe'it, '■ The Court-Hill." In the fame
pariih are the ruins of the Callle Stewart, a large old houfe,
belonging to the carl of Moray. In the eaftern corner of
the county, near the Moray Frith, is CuUoden-Moor, the
fcene of the memorable battle which terminated the rebellion
in 1-4;.

The modern buildings of this county worthy of obfervation
are but few, and chiefly to be found in the north-eafterii
corner- The moft diftinguilhcd refidence in the county is
Caftle Grant, the feat of lir James Grant, bart. It is fitu-
ated on an eminence in the parifti of Cromdale, on the nortli
llde of the Spey : the apartments contain a great variety of
portraits and other paintings.

The iflands of Barray, Bcnbecula, Egg, Harris, St.
Kilda, Sky, North and South Uift, which are annexed to,
or connedled with, this county, will be found dcfcribed under
their refpective names. Beauties of Scotland.

INVERSE, is applied to a manner of working the rule
of three, or proportion, wliich feems to go backward, or
contrarily to the order of the common and direcl rule.

In the rule of three direct, the firft term is to the fecond
as the third is to the fourth ; that is, if the fecond be
greater than the third, or lefs tlian the firft, in any propor-
tion, the fourth is lefs than tke third in the fame propor-
tion. But in the inverfe rule the fourth term is as much
greater than the third, as tlie fecond is lefs than the firft.

In the inverfe rule, therefore, the proportion is not as the
firft is to the fecond ib is the third to the fourth ; but as the

fourth

1 N 7

fourtK is to the fu-ft, fo is the fecond to the tnird. For in-
ftance, in the direft rule \vc fay, if three yards i>f tapeftry
•coft twenty pounds, how much will fix co!l ? The anfwer
if, forty. In the inverfe rule we fay, if twenty working
•men make ten yards in four days, in how many days will
forty d« it ? The anfwerto this, is in two'days. See RuLi;
oj Thre:.

IsYV^RSE Method of F/u.viont. See l^LuxioNS.
Inverse Planting. See Planting.
Iwp.nsE Proporiion. See PROPORTio.f .
INVERSION, the ad whereby any thing is inverted,
or tnrr.ed backwards.

Problems in geometry and arithmetic are often proved by
uiverfion : tLy.t is, by a contrary rule, or operation.

Inversion, in Grammar, is where the words of a phrafe
-ere ranged in a manner not fo natural as they might be. For
rn inllance : " Of all vices, the moft abominable, and
that which L*a(l becomes a man, is impurity." Here is
an inverhon ; the natural order being this : impurity is
tlie molt abominable of all vices, and that which Icaft be-
comes a man.

An inveriion is not always difagreeable, but fometimcs
has a good effeft.

Inversion, in Mufic, is often applied to the complements
or fupplemeiits of intervals to the major eighth or oftave ;
thus the ma'jor fixth is the inverfion of the minor third, the
-minor fixth the inverfion of the major third, &c. Intervals
-which are the inverfion of each other, always have one term
of tJicii ratios common to each, and the other terms, are
one the double of the other: thus ^ and 5, | and -f, are
inverfions of each other.

Inversion, in RLtoric, is a method of confutation, by
which the orator (hews that the reafons offered by the oppofite
party make for him. So when Cascilius urged that the pro-
vince of accufing Verres ought to be granted to him, and
I ot to Cicero, becaufe he had been his treafurer in Sicily,
at the time when thofe crimes were committed with which
he was charged, and confequently knew moll of that affair ;
Cicero turns tlie argument upon him, and fiiews, that for
•that very reafon, he was the molt unfit of any man to be
intruftcd with his profecution ; fince having been concerned
with him in his crimes, he would certainly do a)l in his
power to conceul or L'lren them (See Cxcil. c. l8.) Again,,
ibmetimes the charge is acknowledged, but the crime fhifted
off to another. Thus when Sextius was accufed of fedition,
becaufe he had got together a body of gladiators, and
brought them into the forum, where a warm engagement
"happened between them and Clodius's faftion ; Cicero
owns the faft, but charges the crime of fedition upon Clo-
dius's party in being the aggrelTurs. (Pao Sext. c. 36 )
Another method made ufe of for the fame purpofe is to
alleviate the charge, and take off the force of it by fliew-
ing, that the thing was not done with that intention, which
the adverfary infinuates. Thu> Cicero in his defence of king
Dejotarus (cap 8.) owns that he had raifed fome forces,
though not to invade the Roman territories, as had been
alleged, but only to defend his own borders, and fend aid
to the Roman generals. See Conflt.^tiom.

Ixv^RsinsV^^f Uterus. See Pnoi..M'.si,s Uteri.
INVERTED Arch, in Engineery, is an arch of (tone or
\rick, with the crown downwards, turned in the bottoms of
the locks of canals, and in the bottoms of tunnels, and of
aqueducts and other bridges wlienever tlie bottom is foft or
liable to give way or tear up, for fecuriiig the fide walls ;
in locks and tunnels, the inverted arcli (hoiild never be omit-
ted. See the account of contracting tliefe iu our ariick
Canal.
Vol. XIX.

I N V

Inverted Crefieni, Point. Foil. See the fubftantiv?!.
Invkhted, in Natural Hi/lory, is a term applied to fuch
rehquia or extraneous fofli'is as have a nucleus of ftony
matter inverted or covered by the reliquiura.

INVERURY, in Geography, an ancient royal borough
in Aberdeen fhire, Scotland, is iituated on the point of land
formed by the confluence of the rivers Don and Ury. It
is faid to have been made a royal borough by king Robc-.t
Bruce, on occafion of a viftory obtained by liim, in tliis vi-
cinity, over the Englilh forces under Comyn, earlof Buchar.
The oldell charter, however, extant, \i one granted by queer,
Mary ; the preamble of which Hates, that " Inveriir)- had
been a royal borough time immemorial, but the charter of
its erection had been loll d«ring the civil wars." The town
is fmnll, and its increafe and improvement have been re-
tarded by the peculiarity of its fituation ; it being inaccef-
fible, excepting one fide, with boats, and even that mode
not aKvays prafticable. The fpirited exertions of the earl
of Kintore and the provoft. Dr. Thom, have, in a great
meafurc, removed this obflacle, by promoting a public !"ub-
fcription for building an elegant bridge over the Don, at the
expenceof 2000/ : this was completed in 1791. The bo-
rough is governed by a provoft, three bailiffs, a dean cf
guild, a treafurer, and thirteen counfellors. Tlie return
to parliament in the year 1801, ftated the numbefof houfes
to be 194, inhabited by 783 perfons, of whom 641 were em-
ployed in agriculture. Inverury does not appear ever to have
been a place of trade.

INVESTIGATION properly denotes the fearching or
finding any thing out, by the tracts, or prints of the feet.

Hence, mathematicians, fchoolmen, and grammarians,
carr.e to ufe them in their refpeftive refearches.

Inve<tigation nf a ZVjfmf, is the art, method, or man-
ner of finding the themes of verbs, that is, the primitive
tenfe, mood, and perfon, of any verb, far removed from its
fource. To underlland a Greek author, it is abfolutely ne-
ceffary to be well acquainted with the method of invelligat-
ing a theme. This theme, in the Greek tongue, is the
prefent tenfe of the indicative mood.

Clenard was the firft who introduced this term into gram-
mar : he gives the title in-ve/Iigatio thematis to that part
where he teaches the manner of finding whence any perfon,
or tenfe, or verb, proceeds, and of reducing it to its primi-
tive word, or finding its indicative.

INVESTING, the aa of conferring on any wie the
right or property of a fee, dignity, or office, or of ratifying
and confirming what has been obtained elfjwhere.

The emperors pretend to a right of invcfling feveral
princes both in Germany and Italy. There was formerly a
particular ceremony for the invefting of bilhops. After
the election of a knight of the Garter, he is invetted by the
fovereign with two principal cnfigns of the order, the Gar-
ter and George. Before Lis inltallation he is alfo invellei
with the habit of the order.

Invi;stixc, in rhe Military ^rl, fignifies tlie opening a
fiegc, and the encamping of an army round the place ; to
block up its avenues, and prevent all ingrtfs and egrefs. In
order to do tliis effeaually, the general in chief of t!ie ap-
proaching army mull detach a large body of cavalry, to-
gether with the different corps of dragoons, under the com-
mand_ of a lieutenant-general, for the purpofe of regu-
larly iuvelling the place. Sometimes a place is partially
invellcd, for tlie fole purpofe of diverting the eneniyS at-
lention from the real objeft, and of inducing him to w^dcca
the garrlfon by dctacliing it to different quarters.

lyvESTKNC, rn Common La'X', Cgnifis* tLe putilng ia
S I (lolT aiiKjn

I N V

pofTeflion. A tenant is inverted by giving him a verge, or
rod, into his hands, and adminiftering an oath.

Others define it thus : inve/lire ejl in fuum jus aliquem iii-
trotlucere, to give livery of feifin, or pofTeflion. See LlVEUY
and Seisin-. See alfo Feoffment.

INVESTITURE, is ufed both for the right, and the
aft, of inverting a tenant, or vartal ; that is, of receiving
the faith and liomage by wliich a vartal becomes feifed,
and pofTerted of a fee, by his lord. See Fee.

Invejl'itures, in their original rife, were probably in-
tended to demonrtrate in conquered countries the aftual pof-
fefiion of the lord ; and that he did not grant a bare liti-
gious right, which the foldier was ill qualified to profecute,
but a peaceable and firm pofTeflion. And at a time, when
writing was fildom praftifed, a mere oral gift, at a dif-
tance from the fpot that was given, was not likely to be
either long cr accurately retained in the memory of by-
ftandcrs, who were very little interefted in the grant. Af-
terwards they were retained as a public and notorious aft,
that the country m.ight take notice of and teftify the tranf-
fer of tlie eftate, and that fuch as claimed title by other
means, might know againft whom to bring their aftions.

Inveftiture was anciently performed by rehearling a for-
mula of words ; afterwards by the delivery of fuch things
as had the neareft refemblance to what was transferred. Thus,
land parted by the delivery of a turf : and to fliew the trees
were transfen-ed at the fame time, a bough was cut and de-
livered along with it.

In after-times, the things by which inveftitures were made
■were not fo ftriftly obferved. Many were inverted by the
delivery of a ftaff^, a glove, a knife, a piece of a cloak, of
a itrap, and a girdle : or by pricking the thumb, by giving
the keys, a fpit, a blow, a ring, a turf, a bough, a ftraw,
&c. The inveftiture of a kingdom or lordflilp, was per-
formed by a ftandard, a banner, a cap, a fword, a bow,
arrows, fpurs, &c.

The fymbols were fometimes prefervcd in the repofitories
of the houfes, and were annexed to the titles.

Investiture.s were alfo ufed with refpeft to fpiritual be-
nefices. Thefe were frequently performed by delivering the
crofier and paftoral ring.

The kings of England and France, the emperor of
Germany, &c. had formerly this right ; fo that on the death
of a prelate, his clergy fent the crofier, &c. to their fove-
reign, to be ufed at the ceremony of inverting his fnccertbr.
It is not certain when this cuilom began ; Cardinal Hum-
bert places the commencement of it in the reign of Otho
the Great : and it appears, that in the ninth century, the
greater part of the European princes made no oppofition to
the right of elefting the bifhops, which was both claimed
and exercifed by the clergy and the people. The firft who
difputed this privilege with the emperors and fovereign
princes, was Gregory VII.; he excommunicated the empe-
ror Henry IV. and forbade all ecclefiartics, under pain of
excommunication, to receive inveftiture at the hands of fecu-
lar princes. This occafioned a long and bloody war ; 'the
civil and ecclefiartical powers being divided into tv.o great
faftions, of 'which one maintained the rights of the emperor,
while the other feconded the ambitions views of the pontiff.
The laws of Gregory for the abolition of inveftitures were
confirmed and renewed by Viftor III. and Urban TI. the
laft of whom not only confirmed the laws and anathemas of
Gregory, in a council aflemblcd at Placentia in the year
J 095; but publirtied alfo a prohibitory law in the council
of Clermont, forbidding the biflwps and the refi; of the
clergy to take the oath of allegiance to their refpeftive fove-
reijjiis. Pafcal II. in a councU afiembled at Rome, A.D.

I N U

1 102, renewed the decrees of his predeceflbrs againft ihredj-
tures and the excommunications they had thundered out
againft Henry IV. Pafcal, however, was obliged, in I n l,
to confirm Henry V. in the right of giving inveftitures ; but
repenting what he had done, he artembled a council in the
church at Lateran, in 11 12, which folemnly annulled l.is
treaty with the emperor, who was excommunicated in many
fynods and councils, both in France and Germany. At length,
however, Calixtus II. engaged him to renounce inveftiture on
certain conditions, and peace was concluded between the
emperor and the pope's legates, at a general diet held at
Worms, A.D. 1122. Tliis convention was confirmed tiit
following year in the general council of Lateran, and re-
mains ftill in force.

INVISCATIO, a fticking of the eye-lids together.
INULA, in Botany, fo named by Pliny. This appella-
tion is contrafted or corrupted, fays proftflbr Martyn, from
Helemum, Dift. '.\inot ; fabled to have fprung from tiie tears
of Helen. Linn. Gen. 426. Schreb. 5^7. WiUd. Sb. PI.
V. 3. 2089. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 2. Sm. Fl. Brir." S90.
Ait. Hort. Kew. V. 3. 222. Jufl". 181. Lamarck Dift.
V. 3. 2J3. Illuftr. t. 680. Ga:rtn. t. 170. (Enula ; Cfffalp.
and Magnol. — Helenitnn ; Gerard, em. 793. Vaill. Mem.
Acad. Paris. 1720.) Clafs and or&er, Syngen-fia Poiygemia
Siiperfua. Nat. Ord. Compo/ila D'lfcoidex, Linn. Corymbi-
fcr£, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cnmmon talyx imbricated ; fcales loofe, fpread-
ing, the exterior ones larger, of equal length. Cor. com-
pound, radiated, broad ; fords of the dilk all perfeft, equal,
very numerous, funnel-ihaped, with a five cleft ftraiglitifti
limb : thofe of the radius female, ligulate, r.umerous, crowded
together, linear, entire. Slam, (in the tubular florets) Fila-
ments five, thread-rtiaped, ftiort ; anthers oyiindrical, com-
pofed of five fmaller, hnear, conjoined ones ; each ending
below in two ftraight briftles, the length of the filaments.
P'ljl. (in the tubular florets) Germen long; ftyle_ thread-
fliaped, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma bifid, fomewhat
ereft. The female or ligulate florets difl'er in having the
ftyle cloven but half way down, and the fiigma quite ereft.
Perk, none, except the Hnchangcd calyx. Seeds in the
florets of the difl< as well as the radius, folirary, linear,
quadrangular. Down capillary, the length of the feeds.
Recept- Rlmoft naked, flat.

Efl". Ch. Receptacle nearly naked. Down fimple. Calyx
imbricated. Florets of the radius very numerous, linear,
anthers with two briftles at the bafe.

Obf This genus differs not only from /IJ!er, but from
mort others, in having the anthers terminated below by ten
briftles, tiiough this charafter is r;Ot apparent in all the fpe-
cies. Inula is an extenfive genus, Willdcnow having enume-
rated thirty -five fpccies, from which number we feleft for dc-
fcription the only four which are natives of tliis country :
thefe arc,

I. I. Hehnium, Elecampane. Linn. Sp. PI. 1236. Engl-
Bot. t. 1546. Woodv. Med, Bot. v. 2. t. io8.-t-
" Leaves claiping the ftem, ovate, rugged, downy beneath.
Scales of the calyx ovate.'' — Found in moift rich paftures.
and meadows in various parts of Britain, but not common,
flowering in July and Auguft. Stems about four feet high,
leafy, downy, branched in the upper part. Leatics ovate,
Uiglitly ferrated, veiny, downy beneath. Floiven large,
termiilal, of a fuie golden yellow.

The ancients entertained a very high opinion of the virtues
of this plant, and " in gardens it is fiill cultivated occa-
fionally, for the fake of its root, which is perennial, large
aud ficrtiy, abounding with mucilage, combined with an aro-

I N U

matic, bitter flavour, and fome acrimony. Thefe qualities
render it uleful to promote expeiSoration.

Horace was acquainted with its fane, for we find it cele-
brated by tlut poet in two of the fatires in his fecond

book.

rapiila plenus

Sat. 2. V. 44.

Atque acidas mavult inuliis
And alfo in fat. 8. v. 5 1 .

Eriicas virides, inulas ego primus amaras
Moullravi incoquere.

2. \ dyfentcr'ua. Common Fleabane. Linn. Sp. PI. 1257.
Engl. Bot. t. 1 1 15. Curt. Lond. fafc. 3. t. 56.—" Leaves
oblong, clafpi.ig the (lera with their heart-fhaped bafe,
downy. Stem woolly, panicled. Calyx-fcales brilUe-fl-.aped,
hairy." — Native of clear ditches and moid places, flower,
ing in Auguft. — Root creeping and perennial. Siem branch-
ed in a panicled or corymbofe manner. Leaves waved and
(lightly toothed at their mnrgin ; their under lide denfely
clothed with hoary down. Floivers numerous, terminal, of
a full bright yellow. The herb is vifcid to the toucli, exhal-
ing a peculiai fliarpifh aromatic fcent, not unlike that of a
peach.

Mr. Relhan mentions a variety of this fpecies with very
Ihort rays, and Linnxus, in the Flora Suecica, obferves that
the Ruffians were cured of the bloody flux by this plant,
in their expedition againft the Perfians, whence its fpecific
name.

3. \. pul'tcar'ia. Small Fleabane. Linn. Sp. PI. 1238.
Engl. Bot. t. 1 196. Curt. Lond. fafc. 3. t. 57. — " Leaves
chifping the ilem, waved. Stem much branched, hairy.
Flowers hemifpherical, with a very fhort radius.'' — Found
on moift fandy heaths and commons, where water has ftag-
oated, and flowering late in autumn — i?oo< annual, tapering
and branched. Stem generally eredt, fometimes fpreading or
decumbent, zigzag, angular. Leaves lanceolate or oblong,
hairy on both fides. Floivers folitary, of a pale dull yellow.
There is a variety of this which his fcarcely any flowers of
the radius.

4-. I. critlmioirks. Samphire-leaved Fleabane. Linn Sp.
PI. 1240. Engl. Bot. t. 68. — " Leaves linear, flefhy, gene-
rally three-pomred. Calyx fmooth." — This is a maritime
plant, which tlirives in a muddy ioil, and is rather icarce.
It flowers in Auguft. — Root perennial, fibrous. Leaves
alternate, fmooth and fuccuient, lalt to the taile, thofe about
the centre of the Jhni generally furniflied with a tooth on
each- lide of the tip. Flower fslitary, very handfome,
having yel'ow rays and an orange dilk. Down rough, blufh-
col.'>ured.

The remaining fpecies are /. oilora, Oculus ChriJIi, br'itan-
nica, Ind'tca, arabka, fpirj:ifoHa, japonica, fquarrofa, vifcofa,
fiilklaa, grandiflora, glandulofa, buhonium, htrta, fuavcoleits,
fai'lan.'ii, mariana, dubia, oriciilalis, germanica, enjlfolia,
provincialis, montana, cejluans, bifroiis, cerulea, aromatica,
falurejoidet, piiii/o/ia, fmlida.

Inul.-v, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the herba-
ceous and (hrubby kinds ; of which the fpecies principally
cultivated are the common inula or elecampane (Lhelenium) ;
the creeping-rooted inula (L britannica) ; the willow-leaved
inula (L falicina); the canary inula (L canarienfis) ; the
favory -leaved inula (L fatureioi<Jes) ; and the Ihrubby
inula (L fruticofa. )

There are fome other forts that may likewife be culti-
Tatcd.

Method of Culture.— The frft of thtfe fo.ts m?y b.- pro-
pagated by feeds fown in autumn, foon aft^-r they ;.re

I N V

ripe, on a warm, loamy, rather moift border. The plants
fljould be tranfplanted to the places where they are to grow
in the following autumn.

But the common praftice is to increafe it by offsets,
which, v/hen taken from the old roots carefully, with a bud
or eye to each, take root eafily : the bcft feafon is the au-
tumn, as foon as the leaves begin to decay ; planting them in
rows about a, foot alundcr, and nine or ten inches dillaiicc
in the rows. The following fpring the ground fliould be kept
clean from veeds, and be (lightly dug over in the autumn
following. The roots will be lit for ufe after two years
growth, but will abide many years if permitted to Hand.

Tiie two following forts may be incrcafed by jiarting the
roots, and planting them in the autumn, in the borders or
other places where they are to remain. Tliey ftiould not be
removed oftener than every three years.

Tiie fourth and fifth forts may be raifed by planting cut-
tings of the branches, in the fummer feafon, in pots of light
earth, in fhady borders. They mull be removed into (belter
in autumn, but fhiould have as much free air as poflible at all
times, when the weather is mild. In cold weather the firll
(liould have but very little water, as the ftalks and leaves,
being fuccuient, are very apt to rot. In fummer they
fhould be placed abroad with other hardy exotic plants, in
a flieltered lituation.

The laft Ibrt is propagated by feeds procured from places
where it grows naturally. Thefe murt be fown in pots, or upon
a hot-bed, and when the plants are lit to remove, be each put
into a fmall pot filled with light earth, and plunged into a
frefli hot-bed ; treating them in the fame manner as other
fimilar tender plants. It requires to be kept conftantly ia
the ftove.

The firft fort may be cultivated for the medicinal ufe of
the roots, or tor ornament, in large borders.

The two following forts may have places in the fame
way.

The fourth and fifth kinds afford variety among other
potted green-houfe plants, and the laft among ftove -plants.

Inula Heleniim, in the Materia Medlca. See ELECA.^il

PANE.

INVOCATION, in Theology, an aft whereby we adore
God, and call on him for his allillance.

The Romanifts alfo prattife invocation of faints, begging
them to intercede with God in their behalf. This is one of
the grand articles of difpute between the Romanifts and the
Reformed.

Invocation, in Poetry, an addrefs at the beginning of
a poem, wherein the poet calls for the alTiftance of fome
god, particularly of his Mufe, or the deity of poetry. See

MUSK.S.

Tlvis part is abfolutely neceffary in an epic poem, becaufe
the poet relates things which he could not he fiippofed to
know, unlefs fome deity infpired him. Befides, ihis ferves
his readers as an example of piety and devotion, which
ought to be the foundation of this whole work. To thefe
it may be added, that the gods thetnfeives are to have a part
in the adtion ; and it is not decent he Ihould fet them to
work, without firil aflcing them leave.

Indeed, in the courfe of an epic poem, there are ufually
feveral invocations ; particularly where any thino extra-
ordina. y, or miraculous, comes to be related ; as that when
Virgil defcribes the metamorphofis of jEneas's fleet into
lea nymphs : but the firft invocation is always the moft eon-
fiderable.

In the invocation Boffu confiders two things : tlie firft is

what the poet requefts ; the fecond, to what deity he ad--

drefTes his rcqueft. As to the firft, Homer has joined the

S 1 i mvocatioii

I N V

invocation fo clofely to tlie propofition, tTiat he ftems to- in-
voke }iis Mufe for the whole work. But Virgil, on the con-
trary, only requclls his Mufe to furnilh liini with a part of
his fubJL'Cl ; and even mentions wliat particular pan it i* he
dofircs. After propofing his nuittcr in all its extent, lie begs
the Mufe to acquaint him witii the caufe of it. Sec VnQ-

P0.SIT10K.

As to the deity invoked, the fame author obferve?, that
it mufl always be, either the divinity that prefidea over
poetry^ in general, or that whicli prefidcs over the parti-
cular fubject of the work. Ovid's invocation, in the Me-
tamorphofcs, is of the latter kind ; and fo is that of Lu-
cretius ; thole of Homer and Virgil are of the former
kind ; they only invoke the Mufes ; and thus they ditlin-
guifh between the divinities who prefide over poetry, and
thole who prefide over the aftions of the p .em, and have
parts in it.

By t!ie way, it may be obferved, that the deities invoked
are not looked on, even by the poets themfelves, as divine
perfor.agts from whom tiiey expect any real affiftance.
Under the name of Mtife they wilh for the genius of poetry,
and for all the qualities necefiary for the execution of their
defign. Thefe are mere allegories, or manners of expreflliig
themfelves poetically ; juft as when they perfonify and make
gods of fleep, of reft, fame, and other natural and moral
things. And thus the iVIiifes come to be of all ages, coun-
tries, and religions ; tUere are Pagan, Chriftian, Greek, La-

ics, ana religions ; ti*e
1, and Enghih Mufcs.

INVOICE, or I.svoYCE, a lift, or account of commo-
dities, with their value, culloms, provillon, charges, &c.
fent by a merchant to his faftor, or correfpondent, in another
country.

IsvoiCE, Book of. See Book.

INVOLUCELLUM, in Botmy. See the foUowing
article.

INVOLUCRUM, a term adopted by Linnius, at the
fuggeftion of Artedi, for the row of fmall leaves found
at the bafe of the umbels in moft umbelliferous plants.
That of the general umbel is termed the General Involu-
irum ; that of each partial one a Partial Jiive/ucrum, in
I..atiu Liva/uc:llum. The fame word is ufed for what might
he more properly called Brafteas in Euphorbia and other
j^encra, and Linnxus has probably erred in reckoning the
invo'.ucrum a fpecies of caly.^ in any inflance. In ferns,
however, we retain this appellation for the membranous
covering of their fructification, in preference to a newly in-
vented terra indufium.

INVOLUNTARY Blfckarge of Urlnt. See IscoN-
■iIM;NtE of Urine.

IsvoLUVTAJiY jlTotlon. See Motion.

INVOLUTE Cliive, in the Jil-itr Geometry. See

EVOLUTE.

INVC-LUTION, in jllgelra, the raifiug any quantity
from its root to any height, or power, afligned. See
Power.

Any quantity multiplied by itfclf, the product \& the
fquare of that quantity ; the fqnare being again multi-
plied by the quantity, produces its cube. See Sulare and

ClBE.

Thus ]£ a + b were to be raifed to its fecond power, it
will produce a a -r z a b -r b b.

And if it be involved again, or if that fqiiare be multiplied
by the root, the cube or third power will be produced ; •i>;'z.
c a a -i-^aab-'riabb + bbb, &c. fo tliat the invo-
lution of any compound quantity is performed by a con-
smnal multiplication of it by itf- If : if the powers oi a — b
aj-e r-quired, th?^- will be found the lame as thofe <ji a + b,

J O A

N;cept that ttie terms in which the exponent of b is an o63
number will be negative, becaufe an odd number of multii
plications of a negative produce a negative ; or, in general,
tlic terms of any power of a — b are pofitiw and negative
by turns. See Biso^l \L 'lieorfni.

If a quantity, confiiling of three or more terms, is to be
involved, it may be diftirguilhed into two parts, whicli
are to be raifed to any power in the fame manner as a bi-
nomial : and then by the fame rules, the value of thofe
compound parts may be fubftituted in their ilead : thus,

<r+TT"fl' = a + b + (■]'- = a + I:* + 2 c X a -t b + ,'
= a'- -^ 2 a b + b- + 2 a e -^ 2 b c + c'.
ArAa -i- b -r e\' = a + b^ + 3 <^ X a + bY + ,? "t" X ~aT b
+ ;:' = «"■ + 5 ,r J + 3 a *- -(- i' + 3 a' c + 6a be +
3^'^ + 3"^^ + 3> b c- + c''. The reverfe of invo-
lution is called evolution. See E.\.rK.\criON of Rota-s, rjsd
Root.

INAVARD Flanking Angle, in Fcrujaallon. See AxGi.E.

.TOACHIM, in Biography, a celebrated Italian monk,,
was born at Celioo, near Coienza, in the beginning of tin?
I2t}i century. After he had received a common education,
hi? fatlier obtained for him a pod at the court of Naples,, in
which he ferved fome time. After- this he took the refo-
liition of viliting the holy places in PalelHne, left Naples,
without communicating his dciign to his father, and reached
Conllantinople, where he made a fhort ftay. While in this-
city he was fo alarmed at the extraordinary mortality pro-
duced by a pcililential diforder, that he made a vow to
renounce the world, and, having aflumcd the habit of a her-
mit, proceeded barefoot on his journey. On his return h^
entered into the order of Cillercians, and founded feveral
monafteiies, which he governed with great difcretion. Ha
was regarded by many of his contemporaries as a prophet,
and feveral of his predictions were printed, in a book en-
titled " The Everlalling Gofpel.'' He was author of other
works, particularly of " A Harmony of the Old and New
Tellament." He died in the year 12C2, at the age of go.
His followers wilhed to perfuade the world that miracles
were wrought at his tomb, and applied to the pope to ca-
nomz.e him, but this was rejetted on account of the numev
rous errors contained in his works. Moreri. See Joaciiit

iUTES.

Jo.vciu.M, GsoRGE, a Celebrated mathematician and aftro-
nomer in the lOth century, was born, in 1514, at Feldkirk,
in the Tyrol. He was educated at Zurich, where he foon
difcovered a tlrong inclination fc^r mathematical purfuits, in
the elements of which he was initiated at that place. After-
wards he went to Wittcmburg, where he profecuted his
ftudies with ardour and fuccefs. In the year 1^55 he was
admitted to the degree of M. A., and in two years after-
wards he was appointed joint profefior of the mathematics
with Reinhold. He was a zealous and able defender of the
Cbpernican fyllem of the world ; went into Priiffia, where
he placed himfelf under the tuition of Copernicus himfeif,
and became the editor of his great work, entitled " De
RevoUitionibus." While .loachim continued in Pruifia, to
render ailronomical calculations more ready and accurate,
he began an ekborate canon of fines, tangent.s, and fccants,
to llfteen places of figures, and to ever)- ten feconds of the
quadrant. He did not live to accoaiplifh this great work,
but the canon of fines for every ten feconds, and for every
fingle fecond in the firft and lad degree of the quadrant,
computed by him, was publifhcd at Frankfort in 1613, by
Pitifcus; the larger work was perfcfted and publiftied' alter
his death in J5<>6, by his difcipie Valentine Otho. Joachim

retuiacvl

J O A

returned from Prufiia in i)4_?, anj was again acTmitted" t<J
his profefl'orftiip ot" mathematics at Wittciiiburg ; he after-
wards was elected to fill the matliematical chair at Leipfic.
He died in 1576, in the fixty-fecond year of liis age, leaving
behind liim " Narratiode Li'oris Revolutionum Copernici ;•'
iirii puidilhed at Dant/.ic in 1540. He alfo eompofed and
pnbhflied " Ephemerides," according to the doctrine of Co*
pcmicus, till the year ifjr. Moreri. Hutton.

Joachim, 5/., in Geography, a town of South America,
in the kingdom of Granada, im the Mata ; 240 miles E. of
Santa Fe de Bogota. — Alfo, a town of South America,
in the province of Moxes ; 1 50 miles N.N.E. of Trinidad.
— Alfo, a town of Canada, on the river St. Lawrence.
N. lat. 47 j'. W. long. 70' 45'.

Joachim dt Omaguas, St., a town of South America,
in the audience of Quito, on the river Amazons ; 400 miles
S. E. of Quito. S. ht. 4 ■ 40'. W. long. 72 ' 50'.

JOACHIMITES, in Ecclefiajlical H.JIory, the name of
a feft, the followers of one Joachim, abbot of Flora, in
Calabria, who was ofleemed a prophet while he lived, and
left, at his death, ftverai books of prophecies, contained in
his Everlafting Gofpel, commonly called the book of Joa-
chim, befides other works ; wliich were condemned, in 1 2 15,
by the council of Lateran ; and by the council of Arks, in
1260.

One of the fpiritual friars, named Gerhard, belonging
to the order of Francifcans, undertook to explain the
Everlalling Gofpel of Joachim, in a book publiflied in

1 2 JO, entitled " The Introduilion to the Everlalling Gof-
pel." In this work St. Francis is declared to be the
angel mentioned in the Revelation, xiv, 6. who had pro-
mu'gated the true and everlalling gofpel of God : it is
alfo alTerted, that the gofpel of Clirill was to be abrogated
in 1260, and this new gofpel to be publifhed in its room ;
and that the miniilers of tliis lignal reformation were to be
humble and barefooted friars, dellitute of all worldly emolu-
ment. This abfurd book was fupprelfed by order of pope
Alexander IV. in 125J, and at length publicly committed
to the flames.

The Joachimites were particularly fond of certain terna-
ries : the Father, faid they, operated from the beginning till
the com.ing of tiie Sou ; the Son from that time to theirs,
T/'z. the year 1260; and the Holy Spirit then took it up,
and was to operate in his turn. Hence they divided every
thing that related to men, time, doftrine, and manner of
living, into three claffes, or ftates, according to the three
perfcns in the Trinity ; every one of which Hates either had
already, or was hereafter to fucceed in its turn ; and hence
they called tlie divifions lernaiies.

The explication given by Joachim, of the Trinity, in op-
pofition to Peter I^ombard, which was confidered by many
as differing little from the Arian fyflem, procured the dam-
natory fentence of his doctrine by Innocent III. in the
council of Lateran ; but notwithtlanding this papal fentence
Joachim has Hill a coniiderablc number of adherents and
defenders, more efpccially among thofe of the Francifcans,
who are called Obfervants, or Friars obfervziit.

JOACHINLSTHAL, in Geogniphy, ?iiovin of Bohemia,
in the circle of Ebibragen, celebrated for its filver mines,
which were difcovered in the year 1516, and which yielded
from the year 15H6, to the year 1601, 305,790 marks of
fdver; 52 miles S.S.E. of Drefden. N. lat. 50' 20'. E.
long. 12' 5 J> — Alfo, a town of Brandenburg, in the Ucker
Mark; 31 miles N.N.E. of Berhn. N. lat. 53- 5'. E..long.

13 )j'.

JO AG, a town of Africa, in the country of K^jaaga ;
which .Mr. Park fuppofcs to have contained about 2C00 iii-
fe2bit;.i;ts. It i-. furroundcd by a liiij.h wall, iu whith is a

J O A

tmmber of port holes, from which mulkets may tie fired ir»
cafe of an attack ; and every man'.> pofieflion is likewife
furrounded by a- wall. To the wcllward of the town is a
fmall river, on the banks of which are cultivated confiderabls
quantities of tobacco and onions. N. lat. 14' 25'. W. long,
9 5^'-

.lOAL, a town of Airica, in the kingdom of Sin, fituated
on the fea-eoail, with a good road and anchorage ; where
the French had a factory for flavcs, fliins, ivory, nnd v.ax.

JOAN I., in Biography, queen of Nuples, eldilt daughter
of Charles duke of Calabria, fon of Robert king of Naples,
was born about the year 1326. Her father died whiL- (he
was very young, and Robert immediately betrollicd her to
Andrew, fecond fon of Charles king of Hungary, who was
her coufin, and who was then lent to Naples to be educated.
On the death jf Robert in 1643, J"^" ^^''^ proclaimed
queen. She had already conceived a great averiion from her
luiiband, which was increafed by tlie idle tales of licr attend-
ants, and was now determined to hold all power in her own
hands; but the pope, who was in his intereft, granted a bull
for the coronation of Andrew, as king in hi* own right.
Joan was fufpedtcd of harbouring an attachment for Lewi.s,
prince of Tarento ; and ftie was accufcd of being privy to
the murder of Andrew, who was taken off at the in (ligation
of the princes of the blood, to prevent, as they thouglit,
the kingdom from falling into the hands of the Hungarian?. •
The king of Hungary determined to revenge himfelf upon ^
the perpetrators of his brother's afTafrmation, and advanced-
with a large army into Naples ; the queen, who had already
married the prince of Tarento, fled into Provence, and all
Naples fell under the dominion of Lewis the Hungarian
monarch. Joan went to Avignon, and was received wilii
great refpect by pope Clement VT. and the cardinals,
before whom Ihe underwent a formal trial on account of her
hufbaiid's death. She pleaded her caufe with eloquence,
aad was declared not only innocent, but free from all fuf-
picion. With this deciiion tiie king of Hungary feems to
have been fatisfied, and immediately returned to his own do-
minions. Joan was now invited by the Neapolitan barons
to refume her crown ; fhe accordingly fitted out a fleet, and
re-entei-ed Naples with general acclamations in ijaS. She
was next engaged in a contefl with the king of Hungary,
which proved fo much againit her, that fhe was obliged to
feek a ceflatiou of arms, which was granted by the king, on
the condition that (lie (hould abide the event of another trial
before the papal court. Upon the iff.ie of this was to be
determined the polfeffion of the kingdom of Naples. Joan
now had recourfe to a different kind of defence, and (he
pleaded in excufe that (lie svas under the influence of witch-
craft at the time, v.hich rendered her averfe from her hul-
band, and encouraged others to confpire againft him. This
plea ierved her purpofe, and fhe was declared blamelefs of
all actions committed fubfequent to the fuppofed fafcination.
She was left in the peaceable pofTeffion of her throne, uiid
was again crowned, with her hufband Lewis, in the city of
Naples. Lewis died in 1362, and in the courfe of a (1:^.'
months fhe married James of Arragon, called the Infant of
Majorca, whom fhe did not allow to aflume a higher title
than duke of Calabria. This prince died in 1375, and in
the following year fhe took a fourth hufband, vi^.- Otho, uf
the houfe of Brunfwick, an ascomplifhed foldier and haiid-
foir.e man, on whom fhe conferred the title of duke of
Tarento, wvth a large eftate. Having no children, the one
by Andrew b.mg dead, fhe adopted as a fuccellbr her rela-
tion Charles de JJuras, whe revolted againll her at the ialh-
gation of the king of Hung;ry. She then adopted tor her
heir Lewis of France, du.kc of Ar.jo.i, which produced a
bloody war. Ciiarlcs, howcve.-, was a uative pniice, and

J O A

being more n^^ceableto the wilhes of the Noopolitans than
a foreigner, he tnarchcd to Naplf's, and being joined by the
b:'-ons, he found little or no difficulty in geuing poffeffion
of th? kingdom. The queen was obliged to capitulate, (he
was imprifoncd, and after a few months was put to death.
This event occurred in 13S2, in the thirty-ninth year of her
reign. She was a woman of threat accomplidiments, and
pollened many good quahties, though fuUied by early dif-
fohitenefs. She was the friend and patron of men of learn-
ing. Univer. Hift. Bayle.

.To AN of Arc. See Ai;c.

JoAX, Pop: : a fiiort notice muft be taken of this charac-
ter, as being frequently referred to, though it is now gene-
rally regarded as merely fiditious. It is faid, that about the
n-iddle of tlie ninth century, a woman named Joan, born at
Mentz, and who had received an excellent education,^ con-
ceiving a \ioknt padion for a young monk named Fulda,
refolved to defert her family and friends to afTume the male
habit, i'nd gain admittance into the monaftery. The plan
fncceeced, and having long indulged in their amours un-
difturbed and uiifiifpeaed ; they eloped together, and tra-
velled into moft of the countries of Europe, avaihng them-
felves of every opportunity for increafing their knowledge,
by engaging the afliftance of tlie bcft mailers in the different
cities through which they pafTed. On the death of her
lover, Jean repaired to Rome, ftill in the drefs of a man ;
her addiefs, and engaging manners raifed her into notice ;
flie commenced the duties of profefTor, and perfons of the
liigheft rank and moil conliderable talents enlilled in the
mnmber of her difciples. At length, on the death of pope
Leo.X. in 8j5. fhe was unanimoufly elefted his fucceffor to
the ponufical throne. So prudently did (lie conduft herfelf,
and with fo much ability did (he perform the duties of her
llation, that the people had reafon to congratulate themfelves
on their choice. At length (he confided her fecret to a
domeftic whom Ihe took to her bed, the confequence of
which was her pregnancy, and fhe was taken in labour at
one of the moft folemn proceiTions, delivered of a child in
the ftreet, and died on the fpot. It is likewife faid, that to
perpetuate the memory of fuch an extraordmary adventure,
a ftatue was ereCled on the place where it happened; that
iu abhorrence of the crime, the pope and clergy in their
fubfequent annual proceflions from the Vatican to the La-
teran have turned off from that ftreet ; and that to prevent a
'fimilar impofition, a cuflom v. as introduced of examining each
pope previoufly to his confecration, in order to afcertain his
fex. Such are the particulars of a ttory that feems not to
kav^' been called in queftion till the time of Luther, but
which the beft informed hiftorians ufually abandon as ficti-
tious. " Till the reformation," fays Gibbon, " the tale
•was repeated and believed witiiout offence, and Joan's female
ftatue long occupied her place among the popes in the cathe-
dral of Sienna. She has been annihilated by two learned
Prote.lants, Blondel and Bayle, but their brethren were
fcandalized by this equitab.e and generous criticifm. Span-
heim and L' Enfant attempted to fave this poor engine of
controverfyj and even Mofhcim condefcends to cherifh fome
doubt and fufpicion."

Joan d'Albeut, queen of Navarre, daughter of Henry
d'Al-;ert, and Margaret of Valois, was born in 1528. In
1548, file married Antony of Bourbon, duke of Vendome,
by whom fhe had, as a third fon, the afterwards celebrated
Henry IV. of France. At the deceafe of her father, in
I J5J, (he became queen of Navarre, and her hufhand took
the title of king. Tliey were both favourable to the prin-
ciples of the reformation, and would probably have openly
profeff.d it had they not feared the refentment of the king
of France, but after bis death tJiey declared their converfion

J O A

to Calvinifm, of which Joan was ever after the zea'ous pro
tedor. An tony, on the other hand, was fickle and weak,
renounced his new faith, and uas a principal commander in
the civil war againll the Proteilants, in which he loil his life
at the iiege of Rouen, in 1562. Joan rot only ellablifhed
tlie Proti'ilant religion in her ftates, but abolillied popery,
and feized the property of the eccleliallxs, which (lie ap-
plied to the maintenance of the reformed clergv and the
fcliools. In lj6S, fhe quitted her ftates to join the chiefs
of the French Proteftans, and at Cognac had an interview
with the prince of Conde, to whom (he prefented her fon,
then of the age of fifteen, with her jewels, as devoted to
the fervice of the caufe. She next withdrew to Rochelle,
whence fhe wrote a pathetic letter to queen E'izabetli of
England, defcnbing the calamities and oppreffions which
had induced the Proteftants to take up arms. She died iii
1572, at Paris, whither file had come to m.ake preparations
for the marriage of her fon with the lifter of Char'es IX.
Her death was not without fufpicion of poifon, though the
fatl was never afcertained.

JO AN A, in Geography, a town on the north coafl of the
ifland of Java, fltualed on a river of the fame name, wliich
is the largetl and mofl navigable along this coaft. It is
here more than 20 feet deep, and about 200 feet broad. It
flows out of a large inland lake, into which fevcral fmall
flreams difcharge themfelves, and falls into the fea about four
leagues to the weftward of Rembang. The town coniiiU
of two rows of houfes built along the river, about a quarter
of a Dutch mile in length. The fort of Joana is a redoubt,
with four demi-baftions, in vi'hich are the rice warehoufes,
the barracks for tlie foldiery, and fome buildings wliich ferve
for a kitchen and other offices for the relident. The emolu-
ments of this relidency amount to i6,ocxD nx-doUars, or
about 3500/. fterling. Tliis town yields rice and timber, a
little indigo and cotton.

JOANNA, Johanna, or Hin^iian, one of the Comora
iflands, about 30 miles, long and 15 broad. The Abbe
Raynal defcribes this ifland in terms of high commendation.
Hills, he fays, that are ever green, and valiics that are al-
ways gay, every where prefent a variety of delightful land-
fcapes. Thirty thoufand inhabitants, diftnbuted into 73
villages, fliare its productions. They fpeak a corrupt dialect
of the Arabic language, and their rehgion is a corrupt kind
of Mahometanifm : their moral principles are more refined
than they ufually are in this part of the ghibe. Accuftomed to
the plain diet of milk and vegetables, they are averfe from la-
bour. Among perfons of diitinftion, who indulge themfelves
in eafe and indolence, the nails of the fingers are fufi'crc-d to
grow to an immoderate length, and in order to give this cf-
fetl of negligence the appearance of beauty, ihey tiutC
their naiU with a yellow red, which they obtain fromafhrub
called j^lcaiiim, wiiicli fee. Sir Willliam Jones, who touched
at this ifland, in his voyage to India, was much pleated with
the beautiful fcenery which its verdant hills and mountains,
covered with elegant palms and other trees, prefented to his
view. He particularly mentions the town of Matlamudo,
diftinguifhcd at a diftance by the tower of the principal
mofque, and another fmall town called Baiitani. For an ac-
count of his rambles through part of the ifland, and his in-
tercourfe with fome of the principal inhabitants, vi'e mull
refer to his " Remarks'' on this ifland, in the fecond volume
of the Afiatic Refearches Other voyagers who have
vifitcd this ifland, fay, that the hiUs are tteep, covered with
wood, and difficult of accefs, and that the vallies exhibit a few
irregular plantations of cocoa-nuts. The original natives,
ftated at about 7000 in number, occupy the hills in the in-
terior of the ifland; and they are generally at war with the
Arabian interlopers, who have ellablifhed themfelves by cod-

quelt

J O A

fjueft on tlie fca-coaft, and are faid to be in number about 3000.
Thcfe latter are defcribed as poor miferable beings, who,
not being able to carry on any cxtenlive cultivation, on
account of being cxpofed to tlie depredations of the moun-
taineer natives, fubfiil chiefly by I'upplying the Indian (hips
which toucli there for refrelbment, with a few cattle and
tropical fruits. Of their ability to accommodate ftrangers
on Ihore, thoiV who have touched at the ifland fpcak in very
degrading terms, as their huts or hovels are tilthy and badly
conftructed. The hu:s of the poorer people are formed of
twigs, interwoven with and covered by a llrong coat of
grafs, and the rouf is protettedby a kind of mat, made of
the leaves of the cocoa trees. People of fuperiorrank have
houfes built of ilon;-, cemented with tempered clay. The
king, as he is called, or chief of the iiland, refides about
nine miles from the town of Joanna, which contains about
200 houfes, many of which are built of ftor.e and occupied
by perfons of principal dilHndlion in the idand : but they
are low and incommodious : the palace of the king excepted,
which is high and fpaciou^. This chief poflefles an unlimited
power over his fubjecls, in all concerns, religious as well as
temporal : he feldom vifits the town except on the arrival of
European vefTels, when he is accompanied by a numerous
equipage, and received with great attention and refpetl by the
commanders of the (hips. Every captain finds it his ir.tereft
to treat him in this manner, as his permifiicii muft be ob-
tained before any traffic can be opened with the inhabitants ;
and with this view he receives a fmali prefent of European
manufaftures. The principal domellic animals in the iilar.d
are cattle, theep, and hogs ; there are feveral fpecies of
fowl, and different kinds of game. The fea abounds with
a variety of excellent fi(h ; and particularly with a fort of
eleftrical fi(h, feven inches long, 2h inches broad, with a
long projefting mouth, a head of a dark brown colour, the
belly of " fea-green, the fides yellow, and the fins and tail of
a faiidy -green ; the body interfperfed with red, green, and
white fpots ; the eyes large, and the iris red, having its
outer edges tinged with yellow. The fea-coaft is wholly
compofed of cora! rocks, which are in many places hollowed
by the fea ; and in thofe caviries feveral of the eleftrical
fifties were found. See a deicriplion and drawing in the Phil.
Tranf. voL Ixxvi. p. 7^2. The natives of the ifland are, in
general, tall, robuft, and wcll-m^fde ; the women are inferior
to the men ; they have all long black hair, piercing eyes, and
colour between olive and black. People of lower rank have no
other covering befides a piece of cloth tied round their loins,
and on their heads a cap of ar.y fluff which they can pro-
cure. ' Thofe of higher rank wear a (hirt with large fleeves,
hanging down upon a pair of drawers and covering a ftuff
waittcoat ; thofe of Itill higher orders wear turbans ; and
they generally have large knives attached to a belt, which
paffes round their middle. The women are clothed in a kind
of jacket and petticoat, with a loofe robe, and when they
go abroad, they cover the face w ith a veil : they are very
atteritive to ornaments for their legs, arms, and ears. Their
children, both male and female, are fuffcred to be naked
till the age of feven or eight years. The inhabitants in
general are commended for their fimplicity, obliging dif-
pofition, and hnfpitality. Polygamy is allowed; fo tliat
each perfon has two or three wives, and as many concubines
as he can maintain. S. lat. 12° 13'. E. long. 44° ij'.

JOAO, ST.,afmall ifland near the coaft of Brazil. S.lat.
0 23'. W. long. 46 26'.
.'. JoAO FiifldtJo, a town of Brazil, in the ifland of Marajo ;
ao miles S S.W. of Engcnho-real.

- JoAO </<• Fun/io, St., a town of Portugal, in Eftremadura ;
32 miles N.E. of Thomar.

J O A

JoAO Je Furtado, St., a town of Brazil, in the government
of Para, on the Guanapu ; 75 miles S.W. of Para.

JoAO Marlino, a fmall ifland in the Indian fea. S. lat 10^
8'. W. long 42' J4'-

JoAO </c- Monte, St., a town of Portugal, in the province of
Be-ra ; 1 2 miles W.S.W. of St. Vifeu.

.loAO de Nova, a fmall ifland in the channel of Mozam-
bique. S.lat. 16^ 58'. E. long. 40 34'. — Alfo, two fmall
iflands in the Indian fea. S. lat. 9 30'. E. long. 49 14'.

Jo.\o de Pcfqticira, St , a town of Portugal, in the province
of Bcira, on the Duero ; containing two pari.'h churches,
and about 600 inhabitants ; near it is a cataraft: on the Du-
ero, which prevents the navigation of this river; 21 miles
E.S.E. of Lamego. N. lat. 41' l'. W. long. 7 1'.

JoAO de Po, St., a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira ; levcn miles N.E. of Braganza Nova.

JoAO de/ Rey, St. a town of Brazil, in the government-
of Menas Geraes ; 80 miles S.W. of Villarica.

JOAR, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Burfali,
furrounded with palifades as a defence from wild beafts ; 1 o
miles S of Kower.

JOARTAM, a town and kingdom of the ifland of Java,,
in the N.E. part of the ifland.

JOARYA, a town of Bengal ; J5 miles S. of Iflamabad.

JOB, or i/^e Bod of Job, a canonical book of the Old
Teilament, containing the narrative of a feries of misfortunes'^
which happened to a man, whofe name was Job, an inhabit-
ant of the land of Uz, fuppofed to be that part of Arabia^
Petrasa which is called Idumsea, as a triylof his virtue and
patience ; together with the conferences he had with his
cruel friends on the fubjeft of his misfo: tunes ; and the man-
ner in which he was reftored to eafe and happinefs. This
book is filled with thofe noble, bold, and figurative expref-
fions, which conftitute the very foul of poetry.

Many of the Jewifh rabbins pretend that this relation is
altogether a fiftion ; others think it a Ample narrative of
a matter of fact, jull as it happened ; while a third clafs of
critics own the ground-work of the ftory to be true, but
that it is wrote in a poetical ftrain, and decorated with pe-
culiar circumftances, to render the narration m.ore profitable
and entertaining. Others, again, fnppofe that, like fome of
our Saviour's parables, it is a fabulous narration defigned to
convey important and ufeful fentiments refpefting the fuper-
intending providence of God, in a manner more forcible and
impreffive than in the form of abflraft rules and precepts.

See an exprefs differtation on the book of Job, in the
bifhop of Glouceller's " Divine Legation of Mofes," vol. ii.
The bifhop is of opinion that this book is a dramatic poem
written by Ezra, fome time between the return of the Jews
from the captivity of Babylon, and their thorough fettle-
raent in their own country, and adapted to the circumftances
of thefe times, by being made allegorical as well as dramatic :
thus, Job, who is fuppofed to have been a real perfon, that
lived a generation or two before Mofes, is defigned to per-
fonate the Jewifli people ; his three friends the three great
enemies of the .lews, Sanballat, T<ibiah, and Gclhem, who
upon their return from captivity, vexed i:nd obflrufted them
in rebuilding their city and temple ; Job's wife was intended
by the poet to reprefent the idolatrous wives which many of
the Jews had taken, contrary to the bw, and for which they
are reproved by the prophet Nehemiah.

In order to prove the compofilion of this book to be dra-
matic, tl'.e learned bifliop alleges its flyle, which, excepting
the introdutlion andconclulion, is in meafnre ; its fentiments,
which are delivered not only in verfe but in a kind of poetry,
animated by all the fubhmity of figure? and fioridnefs of
defcription, whence he concludes the whtle to be a work of
imagination ; and the whole form of its compofilion. The
2 bifhop'a

JOB.

l,-i(Tiop's pi-oof that the book of Job is no cider than the time
of Ezra, rells chiefly upon thcfe two points, vix. his notion
v( an equal providence under the Molaic difpeiifation, and
tliat of the book's being an allegorical dramatic poem. The
"former point, which he conceives to have been the grand
qucftion difciilTed in this book, could be no queiUon, in his
upiniun, any where out of the land of .ludea ; nor there
neither, in any period of the Jewiih nation, either before
or after that in which he places it. The qucllion he fuppofes
to be this, whether GoJ adminiilers his government over
men here with an equal providence, fo as that the good are
always profperous, and tlie bad unhappy ; or whether, on
the contrary, there be not fuch apparent inequalities, as that
profperity and adverfity iiiten happen indifferently to good
and bad. Job, fays our author, maintiiins the latter part of
the queftion, and his three friends the former. They argue
.thefe points through the whole difpute, and each pany firmly
adheres to his firit opinion. After giving fome account of
/he diftrefTed condition of tlie Jews upon their return from
the captivity, he thus proceeds : " Could any thing be con-
ceived more feafonable and necelFary at this time than fuch a
work as the book of Job ? In whi'cli, on a traditional ftory
of great fame and reputation all aver tlie Eall, a -good man
was reprefented as afflifted for the trial of his virtue, and re-
warded for his afflielions-; and in which their doubts about
God's providence were pioufly refolved into his almighty
power. jFor to quiet all their anxieties, and to comfort
them under their prefent diftreffes was, I fuppofe, thereafon
•of one of their prophets compofing the book of Job at this
x-ery period. But if fnch was the end of writing th.is poetic
ilory, we cannot but fuppofe every thing in it would be
littcd to the circiimilances of thofe'times. But this could
not be done without making the poem aUcgorkal as well as
dramatic ; that is, reprefenting the real perfons of that age
imder the perfons of the drama." That this poem is wholly
allegorical the bifhop argues from the -divers circumftances
that are added to each charatler, which can, by no means,
belong to the perfons reprefenting ; and therefore others were
meant under thole charafters, as the perfons reprefented.
This ftatement he endeavours to juftify and confirm by ex-
amining each charatler, in its reference to the perfon rcpre-
Jcntcd, beginning with Job, who reprefents the Jewifli
people ; and proceeding to fiiew how his wife pourtrayed the
jdolatrous wives of the Jews, and how his three friends re-
prefented the three capital enemies of the Jews, above-men-
lioiK-d.

The next perfon in this allegorical drama is the devil him-
i'elf, or Satan, the author and contriver of aJl the mifdiief.
This alfault of Satan upon Job, fays the bilhop, was that
which, as the prophet Zachai-iah tells us, (chap. ii. ver. 13.
«jhap. iii. ver. j, &c.) he made, at this time, on the people ;
•• The only difference is, that, in the prophecy, Jolhua the
high prifelt Hands for the people, and in this poem. Job ; in
all the reft, the identity is fo flrongjy fupported, that this
Single circumltance is alone fufficieiit to confirm the truth of
x)ur whole reprefentation." — " The finding of Satan in the
fcene is a certain proof (fays our author) that the work
was compofed in the age we affign to it. This evil being
was little known to the people till about this time." The
lall perfon iu this allegorical drama is Elihu ; and Elihu, ac-
cording to the bifliop's ibatement, was Ezra, or the facred
writer himfeif Sucii are the general outlines of the learned
bidiop's hypothefis, in which, it muft be allowed, he has
manifelled a coniiderable degree of ingenuity, and, as we
conceive, no fmall difplay of fancy. This liypothefis has
been examined, and in our judgment, fatisfactorily refuted
ju Mr. Peters' "Critical Dili'erlation on tlie Bcok of
Jub."

Le Clcrc fuppofes tliattTie Ijook of Job, which, in >,!*
opinion, was aliiftory treated in a poetical manner, or a hil
tory treated in the form of a parable, was written after tlir
Jews were carried into Babylon, and urges, in proof of thi ,
the frequent chnldaifms that occur iufit.

The learned Grotius Apprehends that this book contain!
a true hillory, treated in a poetical manner ; and he was pro-
bablyledto adopt this opinion from adverting to the fuper-
naturaland furprifing incidents that occur in it:; fnch as that
of the fons of God prefenting themfe]vL-s before Jehovah,
and the divine inteipcifition at the conchifion. But as he
fuppofed the book to be written at tlie dillance of about
a thoufand years from the date of the fubjcft of which
it treats, he could fcarcely imagine that there was much
oi true hiftory in it. Would not a confiderable difficulty
in fettlir.g the time, when this book was written, be ob-
viated, by fuppofing that the introduftory part in the two
firilx-hapters, in which ^ataii makes fo confpicuous a figure,
(and perhaps the conclufion,) were written aftei- the Baby-
loitiih captivity, by fome writer, Ezra or another perfon' j
for, as bilhop Warburton allows, Satan became more known
among the Jew's after their return from Babylon ? Grotius
farther iuppofcs, that the events reicorded in this poetical
hiftory happened in Arabia, whilft the Hebrews wandered
in the defert ; and tliat the writer, who was a Hebrew,
lived before the time of EzekieJ, as he infers from that
paffage in Ins prophecy, where .lob is mentioned ; but after
David and Solomon, from whofe writings, as he conceives,
fome fentences and forms of fpecch are transferred hither;
and that it w-as written for the ufe of the Edomites, tran-
fpor'ed to Babylon, to confirm them in the worfhip of the
true God, and to teach them patience in adverfity.

The learned writer whofe fentiments we are now detailing,
acknowledges that there is no mention in this book of aiiy
law but fuch as was traditional ; nor of any point of hiftory,
befides thofe of the more ancient times, viz. before the
giving of the Mofaic law ; that the length of Job's life
w hich extended to , 200 years, agrees with thofe times ;
and that though the writer is unknown, it appears credi-
ble from a paffage in Ezekiel, that he lived before the
time of that prophet. David and Solomon might have bor-
rowed forms of fpeech from the book of Job ; which is no
lefs probable than the fuppolition of Grotius already men-
tioned ; and if the book was written before the time of Eze-
kiel, the author could not have borrowed from Daniel, Ezra,
and the Chaldee paraphrafts, as Grotius feeras to intimate.

SchiUteiis afcribes the poetical, or dialogue part of this
book, the llyle of which, he fays, has all the marks of the
moft venerable and remote antiquity, to Job liimfclf ; the
reft he fuppofes to be the work of fome Hebrew colleftor.
As for Le Clerc's chaldaifms, fuch as the termination in for
im, in the plural, he fays they are true Hebrew and Arabic,
of the moll ancient ftamp. See alfo Grey's Job, p. 12. of
the preface. Moft of the Jewifti doftors believe that Mofes
was the writer of this book ; and M. Huet, with whom
profeffor MichaeHs concurs, fuppofes that it was written
by Mofes in his exile in the land of Midian ; where he re-
fided 40 years. Some have fuppofed that it was either
written by him, or tranflated by him fr.)m the original Sy.
riac, or Arabic, and that it was defigned to prepare the
liiaelites for their exodus from Egypt, and the hardfliips
of their future peregrination. Alt thofe learned men, who
fuppofe this book to have been written bv Mofes, or Elihu,
as Lightfoot imagines, or fome perfon near the time of Job,
mu(t ot courfe be perfuadcd that there is nothing in the
ftyle, which is not very confillent with this remote antiquity ;
and that the phrafes which others take for imitations of paf-
fages in the Pfalms or Prorerbs, Danisl or Esra, are rather
4 originalj

J O B.

•riffinals to then.", and that thePe laft are really the imitations.
It is cer-a-n, wl-.oever was the author of this book, that the
fty'c has a mixture of th? Ari'i-c. And thofe who have
made the happie'.l conjeflires for the folution of difficul ies
and the explication of oarticnlar pa'''a^es, have been more
indebted to the Arabic than to the Chaldep ; fo that the
langmire in which it wa« written mip;ht have b>?en fpoken in
Arsbia in the days of Job. And this is the more probable,
if the fons of Abraham by Keturah (from whom Job him-
fclf is funpoffd to be defcended) were thofe who peopled
this part oFthe world ; for then, without doubt, they carried
the language of Abraham along with them.

Mr. Peters concur? in opinion with thofe who believe this
book to be the olded in the world ; that it was written, pro-
bably, by Job himfelf ; and that it contains, in the main, a
true hiftory.

The eminently learned and ingenious critic, bifhop
Lowth, has devoted three lectures of his " Pr^leftiones,
&c." to the examination of the book of Job. The
fcene of this book is laid in Idumasa ; the hiftory of an in-
habitant of that country is the bafis of the narrative ; the
charafters who fpeak are Idumseans, or at leaft Arabians of
the adjacent country, all originally of the race of Abra-
ham. The language is pure Hebrew, although the author
appears to be an Idumcran ; for it is not improbable that
.all the pofterity of Abraham, Ifraehtes, Idumxans, and
Arabians, wliether of the fa-nily of Kettirah or Ifhmacl,
fpoke for a coniid-rable time one common language. Our
learned author, difcarding the feiitiments of thofe who afcribe
this book to l^Iihu, proceeds to examine the claims of
Mofes, to whom it has been more generally afcribed. This
hypothefis he reprefents 36 very futile, fince it is impolTible
to trace, throughout the whole book, the flighted allufion
to the manners, cufto-ns, ceremonies, or hiftory of the
Ifr-ielites. The ftyle of Job appears, alfo, to be materially
different from the poetical ftyle of Mofes ; being much more
compacV, concife, or condenfed, more accurate in the poeti-
cal conformation of the fentcnces. He therefore avows
himfelf inclined to favo ir the opinion of thofe, who fuppofe
Job himfelf, or fome contemporary, to be the author of this
poem, which is tiie moft ancient of all the facred books, as
is manifeft from ihe fubjeil, tlie language, the general cha-
racter, and even from the obfcuvity of the work. The
ftyle of the poem favours fo much of the antique, that in
the judgment of the learned prelate, whoever would fuppofe
it wrilti n after the Baby'oniih captivity would fall little
ftiort of the error of Hardouin, who afcribed the golden
verfes ' of Virgil, Horace, Sec. to the " iron age" of
monkilh pedantry and ignorance.

As to the time in which Job lived, the length of his life
evinces. that he was before Mofes, and probably contem-
porary with the patriarchs. That he hved at a period prior
to the promulgation of the law is very probable, from the
nature of the facrifice which he inftitutcs, conformably to
the command of God, namely, feven oxen and fcven rams ;
a refpecl being paid in thefe countries, and at that period,
to that numb'T, from the traditional accounts which were
ftill prefervcd among them of the feven days of creation.
The poem, is founded in fact, as far as concern » the general
fubjecl of the narratire : though the whole dialogue, and
probably fome other parts, have partaken largely of the em-
bellifhments of poetry : but this has not by any means ■-■>;-
tended fo far as to convert the whole into an allegory. The
exordium and conclufion, indeed, are diftinct from the poem
iiielf, and ftand in the place of an argument or illuftration ;
but our author conceives, that they are coefval with tlio
poetical part, aud the work of the fame author, becaufo
Vui.. XIX.

they are indifpenfibly necefTary to the unravelling of the
plot, which is not developed in the body of the pccm. Mi-
chaelis, who copfiders the fubjcft of the poem as altogether
fabulous, ar.d who appr^'hends that, it is more inftructive as
a fable than it poflibly could be if it were a true iiillory,
cannot but regard the exordium, in which Satan appears as
the accufer of Job, rather in the light of a fable than of a
true narrative. It is furely incredible that fuch a converfa-
tion ever took place between the Almighty and Satan, who
is fuppofed to return w ith ne'Uis from the terrellrial regions.
There are, it is true, fays the learned prelate, phrafes ex-
tant in the exordium, in which iome critics have pretended
to difcover the hand of a later writer ; but he is not con-
vmced by the arguments which they produce. The prin-
cipal objeft he'd forth to our contemplation in this pro-
duction is the example of a good man, eminent for his piety,
and of approved integrity, fuddenly precipitated from tiic
very fummit of profperity into the loweft depths of mifery
and ruin : who having been firft bereaved of his wealth, hii
poiTefuons, and his children, is afterwards afflicted with t!:j
moft excruciating anguifli of a loathfome difeafe, which en-
tirely covers his body. He faftains all, ho\vever, with the
milde!t fubmifiion, and the moft complete refignation to the
will of Providence. " In all this," fays the hillorian, " Job
finned not, nor charged God fooliftily." And after the
ferond trial, " In all this did not Job fin with his lips.'
The author of the hiftory remarks upon this circumftancc a
fecond time, in order to excite the obfervation of the reader,
and to render him more attentive to what follows, which
properly conftitutes the true fubject of the poem : namely,
the conduct of Job with refpett to his reverence for the Al-
mighty, and the changes which accumulating mifery might
produce in his temper and behaviour. Accordingly we find
that another ftill more exquilite trial" of his patience yet
awaits him, and which indeed, as the writer feems to inti-
mate, he fcarcely appears to have fiftained with equal firm-
nefs, namely, the unjuft fuf;:icions, the bitter reproaches,
and the violent altercations of his friends, v.ho had vifited
him on the pretence of affording confolation. Here com-
mences the plot or aftion of the poem : for when, after a
long iilence of all parties, the grief of Job breaks forth into
pafTionate exclamations, and a vehement execration on the
day of his birth ; the minds of his friends are fuddenly exaf-
perated, their intentions are changed, and thi ir confolation,
if indeed they originally intended any, is converted into con-
tumely and reproaches. The firil of thefe three fingular
comforters reproves his impatience ; calls in queftion his in-
tegrity, by indircdly infinuating .that God does not inflift.
fuch punithments upon the righteous ; and finally adrao-
niflies him, that the chaftifement .of G9d is not to be defpifed.
The next of them, not Icfs intemperale in his reproofs, takes
it for granted, that the children of Job had only. »eceivcd
the reward due to their offences ; and with regard to him-
felf, intimates, that if he be innocent, and will apply with
proper humility to the divine mercy, he may be reftored.
The third upbraids him with arrogance, with vanity, and
even with falfehood, bccaufe he has prefumed to defend him-
felf againft the unjuft accufafions of his companions; and
exhorts him to a founder mod« ofccafoning and a more holy
life. They all, with a manifeft, though indircft allufion to
Job, difeourfe veiy copioufly concerning the divine judg-
ments which are always openly difplaycd againft ih.e wicked,
and of the certain deflruction of hypocritical pretenders to
virtue and religion. In reply to this, Job enumerates his
fufTcring^ and complains bitterly of the inhumanity of his
friends, and of the levcrity which he has experienced from
the hand of God ; he calls to wituefs both God and man,
T t that

J O B.

t<iat he is unjulliy opprelTecl ; tie intiiaates, tliat he is weak
in comiiarifon with God, that the contention is confequently
nneq«al, and that be his caufe ever fo righteous he cannot
hope to prevail. He cxpoflu'ates with God himfelf ftill
more vciicmcntly, and with gi-eater freedom, afHrming, that
I'e docs not difciimihatc charaftcrs, but eqiuil'.y afflids the
juft and the unjufl. The expoflulations of Job ierve only
to irritate ftill more the refenlmcnt of his pretended friends ;
they reproach him in feverer terms with pride, impiety,
paffion, and macjncfs : they repeat the fame arguments re-
Tpedting the juflice of Gxid, the puniflimcnt of the wicked,
and their certain deilructicn after a fl-.orc period of apparent
profperity. This fentiment they confidently pronounce to
be confirmed both by their experience and by that of their
fathers; and they malicioudy exaggerate the ungrateful
topic, by the moll fpleiidid imagery and the mod forcible

When Job's three friesds have ceafed to difpute with
Job, " bocaufe he feemeth juft in his own eyes," that i^,
becaufe he has uniformly contcnde<!, that there was no
wickednefs in himfelf which could call down the heavy ven-
geance of God ; Ehhu comes forward jiifily offended with
both parties ; with Jcb, becaufe " lie jiiltilied himfelf in
preference to God," that is, becaufe he defended fo vehe-
mently the juflice of his own caiifc, that he fecmed in fome
meafure to arraign the juflice of God ; againft the three
friends, becaufe, " though they were unable to anfwer Job,-
they ceafed not to condemn him," ll'.at is, they coicluded
in their own minds that Job was impious and wicked, while,
ncverthelefs, they had nothing fpecific to object againll his
atiertions of liis own innocence, or upon which tliey might
fafelv ground their accufalion.

The cor.ducl of Elihu evidently correfponds with this Hate

lancua'^e. On the part of Job, the general fcope of the ar- of the controverfy : he profeffes, after a flight prefatory

gumcnt is much the fame as before, but the expreffion is -■■' -' ' -'■ '^ --- -^-'- '■•- •-'-^■■'^^■-^ "--"■•

conliderably heightened ; it confids of appeals to the Al-
mighty, aflevcrations of his own innocence, earneft expof-
lulations, complaints of the cruelty of his friends, melan-
choly rcfleiStions on tlie vanity of human life, and upon his
own fevere misfortunes, ending in grief and defperation : he
affirms, however, that he places his ultimate hope and con-
fidence in God ; and the more vehemently his adverfaries
urge, that the wicked only are objedls of the divine wrath,
and obnoxious to puniflimcnt, fo much the more refolutcly
does Job aflert their perpetual impunity, profperity, and
happincfs even to the end of their exillence. The iirll of

his opponents, Eliphaz, incenfed by this alfertion, defccnds obduracy. He next rebukes Job, becaufe he had pro-
direftly to open crimination and contumely ; he accufes the nounccd himfelf upright, and affirmed that God had aiied
moll upright of men of the moll atrocious crimes, of injuf- inimically, if not u:ij'jftly towards him, wliich he proves to
tice, rapine, and oppreffion ; inveighs againft him as an im- be no lefs improper than indecent. In the third place, he
pious pretender to virtue and religion, and with a kind of objefts to Job, that from the miferics of the good, and the
larcaflic benevolence exhorts him to penitence. Vehemently profperity of the wicked, he has falfely and perverfely con

mention of himfelf, to reafnn with Job, unbiaffed equally
by favour or refentnient. He therefore reproves Job from
his own mouth, becaufe he had attributed too much to him-
felf; becaufe he had affirmed himfelf to be altogether free
from guilt and depravity ; becaufe he had prefiimcd to con-
tend with God, and had not fcrupled to iniinuate that the
Deity was hoflilc to him. He aflerts, that it is not necef-
fary for God to explain and develope his counfels to men ;
tliat he neverthelefs takes many occafions of adm.onifliing
them, not only by vilions and revelations, but even by the
vifitations of his Providence, by fending calamities and dif-
eafes upon them, to reprefs their arrogance and reform their

affefted with this reproof. Job, in a ftill mere animated and
confident ftrain, appeals to the tribunal of All-feeing Juf-
tice ; and wifhes it were only permitted him to plead his
caufe in the prefcnce of God himfelf. He complains ftill
more intcmperately of the unequal treatm.cnt of Providence ;
extdts in his own integrity, and then more tenacioufly main-
tains his former opinion concerning the impunity of the
wicked. To this another of the triumvirate, Bildad, replies,
tjy a mafterly, though concife, difTertation on the majeily
and fanftity of the Divine Being, indireaiy rebuking the
prefiimption of Job, who has dared to queftion his decrees.
In reply to Bildad, Job demonttrates himfelf no lefs expert
;it wielding the weapons of fatire and ridicule, than thofe of
reafon and argument ; and reverting to a more ferious tone,
he jdifplays the infinite power and wifdom of God more
copioafly, and more poetically than the former fpeaker.
Tke tlkd of the friends making no return, and the others
i-cmaining

eluded that tliere was no advantage to be derived from the
pradlice of virtue. On the contrary he affirms, that when
the afili£lions of the juil continue, it is becaufe they do not
place a proper confidence in God, afii relief at his hands,
patient'y expeft it, nor demean themfelvcs before him wiik
becoming humihty and fubmifiion. This obfervation alone,
he adds very properly, is at once a fulficient reproof of the
contiiniacy of Job, and a full refutation of the iinjuft flif-
picions of his friends. LaiUy, he explains the purpofes of
the Deityin chaftening men, which are in general to prove
and to amend them, to reprefs their arrogance, to afford
him an opportunity of exemplifying his inftice upon the ob-
ftinate and rebellions, and of fnewing favour to the humble
and obedient. He fuppofes God to have adted in this m.ai;-
ncr towards Job ; on tiiat account he exhorts him to humble
himfelf before his righteous Judge, to beware of appearing
obftinate or contumacious in his fight, and of relapfing into
filent. Job at length opens the true fentiments of a repetition of his fin. He intreats him, from the contem-

Iiis heart'conccrning the fate of the wicked ; he allows that
their profperity is unftable, and that they and tl.eir de-
fcendants (hall at lall experience on a fudden, that God is
the avenger of iniquity. In all this, however, he contends
that tlie divine coufifcis dn not admii of human invcliigaiion ;
but that the chief wifdom of man coufifts in the fear of God.
He beautifully defcants upon his former profperity; and
exhibits a ftriking contrafl between it and his prefent afflic-
tion and debafenient. LalUy, in anfwer to the crimination
of E'iphaz, and the implications of the others, he relates the
principal Ir.infaainns of his pall hie ; he afferts his integrity
as difplaycd in all the dutie.^ of life, and in the fii^«it of God
aad man ; and %ain appeals to the jultice and ommfcicnce
©f God in uttellalicii of his veracity.

plution of the divine power and majeily, to endeavour to re-
tain a proper reverence for the Almighty. To thefe fre-
quently intermitted and often repeated admonitions of Elihn,
Job makes no return.

The fpecch of Elihu is followed by the addrefs of God
himfelf: at the clofe of which. Job humbly fubmits to the
will of Providence, acknowledges his own ignorance and
imbecility, and " repents in dull and afhes."

On a due confidcralion of all thefe circumflances, the
principal objedt of the poem feems to be this third and laft
tri 4 of Job, from the injultice and unkindnefs of his ac.
cufing friends. The confequencc of which is, in the firft
place, the anger, indignation, and contumacy of Job, and
afterwards lus compofure,. fubraiffion, and jicnitence. 'I'tie
I Uefign

JOB

defigp. of the poem h, therefore, to teacli men, that having
a due rcfpctt to the corruption, infamity, and ignorance o}'
human niitiire, as well as to the inlliiite wifdom and majelly
of God, they are to rcjeft all conlidencc in their bwii
ftrength, in their own righteoiifncfs, and to prcferre on all
occalions an unwavering and unfiiUieJ faith, and to fubmit
with becoming reverence to his decrees.

The wholeliiftory detailed in the book of Job, taken to-
gether, contains nn example of patience, together with its
reward.

Our author next proceeds to inquire whether the poem of
Job be poflefTcd of the peculiar properties of the Greek
drama : and after confidering a variety of circumftances, he
affirms without hefitation, that the poem of Job contains no
plot or aftion whatever, not even of the moft fimple kind :
it uniformly exhibits one conftant ftate of things, v.-ithcut
the fmallell chanjn: of feature from the hegiiir.ing to the end ;
and contains nearly a reprefentation of thofe manners, paf-
iions, and fentiments, which mig'it aftually be expedted in
fuch a lituation. The very nature of the fiibjeft excludes
even the poffibility of a plot or aftion. Upon tlie whole,
pur author concludes, that the poem of Job cannot pro-
perly be brought into comparilon with any of the Greek
tragedies. But though it has no claim to the merit of a
perfetl drama, o.ir author does not widi to derogate from
its merits. That cenfure will rather apply to thofe who,
by criticiiing it according to foreign and improper rules,
would make that compofition appear lame and impcrfeft,
which, on the contrary, is in its kind moft beautiful and
perfect. If indeed the extreme antiquity of this poem, the
obfcurity asd the difficulty that neceflarily cnfue trom that
circumllauce be confidered ; and if allowance be made for
the total want of plot and action, we fliali have caufe to
v,(onder at the c!?garce and interell which we find in its
form, conduct, and economy. The arrangement is perfeftly
regular, and every part is admirably adapted to its end and
deiign. The antiquary or the critic, who has been at the
pains to trace the hiftory of the Grecian drama from its firll
weak and iraperfeft efforts, and has carefully obferved
its tardy progrefs to perfeftion, will fcarcely, without
allonilhment, contemplate a poem produced fo many ages
before, fo elegant in its defign, fo regular in its ftrutture,
fo animated, fo affefting, fo near to the true dramatic
model : while, on the contrary, the united wifdom of
Greece, after ages of ftudy, was not able to produce any
thing approaching to perfedion in this walk of poetry be-
fore the time of ^Efchylus. But liov.-ever this be — whatever
rank may be affigned to Job, in a comparifon with the
poets of Greece, to whom we mud at leall; allow the merit
of art and m.elhod ; amongff the Hebrews, it muft ccrtairdy
be allowed, in this refpeft, to be unrivalled. It is of little
confequence whether it be efteemed a didactic or an ethic, a
pathetic cr dramatic poem ; only let it be affigned a diftinft and
confpicuous ftation in the higheil rank of the Hebrew poetry.
The moft fplendid examples, fays our author, of every
beauty and elegance of fentiment, of imagery, and of dic-
tion, meet the eye of the attentive reader in every part of
the poem. Let it fufficc to fay, that the dignity of the
ftyle is anfwerable to that of tlie fubje^l ; its force and
energy to the greatnefs of thofe paffions which it defcribes :
and as this production excels all the other remains of the
Hebrew poetry in economy and arrangement, fo it yields to
Done in fublimity of llylc, and in every grace and excellence
of compofition. Among the principal of thefe may be ac-
counted the accurate and perfectly poetical conformation of
the fentences, which ii indeed generally moft obfervable in
the moil ancient of the poetical coBijtoAtions of the He-

J O B

brews. Here, Iiowsver, ns is natural and proper in a poem
of fo great length and fublimity, the vvn'ter's frcill is dif-
playcd in the proper adjuftment of the period, and in the
accurate diilribution of the members, rather than in the
antitheils of words, or in any laboured adaptation of the pa-
rallelifms.

" The'poetry of the book of Job," fays Dr. Blair, " is
rjot only equal to that of any other of the facred writings,
but is fuperior to them all, except thofe of Haiah alone.
As Ifaiah is the moft fublime, David the moft pleaiing and
tender, fo Job is the moft defcriptive of all the infpired
poets. A peculiar glow of fancy, and ftrength of defcrip-
tion, characterize this author. No writer whatever abounds
fo much in metaphors. He may be faid, not to defcrlbe,
but to render vifible, whatever he treats of. Inftances every
where occur ; particularly in the l8th and 20th chapters,
in which he paints the condition of the wicked." Schultens
and Le Clerc's Prsf. ad Con-ment. in Job. Lowih de
Sac. Poef. Prseleclioncs 32 — 34. Gregory's Tranf. with
Michaelis's Notes. Peter's Ciit. Differt. Dupin. Heath,
Scott, and Grey on Job. Blair's Left. vol. iii. Dr. Stock,
bifliop of Killala, in his trauflation and notes, concurs with
thofe who refer this bcok- to a late period ; not earlier than
the B^ibylonidi captivity.

JoB's'7':-<irj, in Botuny. See CoiX.

Job, St., in Geography, a town of Hungary, near which
are a celebrated abbey, and au old caftle ; 24 miles S.E. of
Debreczin.

JOBAK, a town of Hindooftan, in the Gurry Mun-
delah ; 30 miles S. of Gurrah.

JOBBER, a perfon who undertakes jobs, or fmall piecef
of work.

In fome ftatutes, jobber is ufed for a perfon v.ho buys and
fells cattle for others. See Broker.

JOBBING, Stock, denotes the praftlce of trafficking
in the public funds, or of buying and felling ftock, with a
view to its rife or fall. The term is commonly apphed to
the illegal praftice of buying and felling ftock for tim.e, or
of accounting for the differences in the rife or fali of any par-
ticular ftock for a ftipulated time ; whether the buyer or feller
be poffeffed of any fuch ftock or not. See Sioch Brokers.

.I0BBING, in Rural Economy, a terra ufed by farmers for a
petty kind of buying and felling, or dealing in cattle, or any
other fort of farming-ftock. Men of this kind are alfo fre-
quently employed by the larger dealers. It has been ob-
ferved, that " if a midland Varmer goes to a fair, he is
a:1iamed to return without having ' dofie fome bufinefs :' he
niuft cither buy or fell, or he lofes his credit as a market
man. Hence, probably, the quantity of bufinefs done at
the midland fairs, compared with thofe of other diftrift?,
wiiere one-third, or perhaps half, the fleck is frequently
unfold, is very confiderable, while here, the whole aiir may
be faid to be generally transferred."

JO BENT Nails. See N.ails.

JO BERT, Lewi.s, in Biography, a Frecph Jefuit, diftin-
guiflied as well by his antiquarian kaowledgc, as by his
pulpit talents and eloquence, was born at Paris in the year
1637. He was a teacher of the feveral branches of polite
literature, and performed the duties of his ftation with diftin-
guilhed ability. He died in 1719, leaving behind him many
works, but the moft imporT.ant was an elaborate treatife on.
" Medals," which was jfchliftied in two volumes, izmo., in
the year 1692. This work poffeffes great merit, and met
with a very favourv.bie reception. It has gone through
many editions at Pv'S> Amftcrdam, Leipfic, and Nurem-
burg. The mf/'^uorreft is faid to be that of Paris in 1 739,
witUi>.dditior.::Vv'M. Jofcph Bimard de la Baftie. Moreri'.
" ^ T t i JOBIE^,

J O D

JOBIE, in Geography, an iflaiiJ in the Pacific ocean, at
the entrance of a great bay on the coall of New Guinea ; I lo
miles long from E.to W., and from 6 to iO broad. S. lat.
i" 36' to 3 . E. lone;. 135 s°' ^" '37 3^'-

JOC ALLA, a town of Peru, in the dioccfe of La Paz ;
9 miles N. of Potcfi.

.TOCHER, CiiR)'TiAN Gottlieb, in Biography, doSor
of theology, public profefTor of hillory at Leipllc, and libra-
rian to the academy, vvnsborn in that city in 1694. Having
received the elements of an excellent education at different
fchools, he devoted himfelf to the lludy of theology, and ob^
tained liis degrees at Leipfic. He fooii became a difciple
of Leibnitz and Wolf, and was the firll perfon who gave
leftures on the fyftem of Wolf. He foon attrafted a r.ume-
rous concourfe of pupils, and was mofi; afTiduous in his inftruc-
doDS. To render his leclures as ufeful as poiuble, he ihidied
inceflantly, fo as to injure his health. In 1720 his fat her
died in diilreffed circumllanccs, which obhged the Ion to
exert all his powers far his fupport : he became the editor
of the German " Aifta Eruditorum," which he conducted
with great fpirit till the year 1739. ^'^ ^73° '■'^ ^^'^^ ^?"
pointed profeflor of philofophy, then of hillory, and in
1742 he obtained the office of librarian to the univerfity.
He died in 1758. much efteen-.ed as a man of letters and a
good teacher. He pofleffed an extenfive knowledge in the
various branches of literature and fcience, and was acquainted
■with the beit writers on the feveral fubje<fts. His principal
work was " A Compendious Diftionary of learned Men,"
arranged alphabetically. This went through four editions
in the author's life time, cf which the lafl was extended to
four volumes quarto. Tv.-o fupplementary volumes, which
go as far as 1, have been fmce publifhed by Adelung, enti-
tled " A Continuation of, and Supplement to Jocher's Ge-
neral Dictionary of ^earned Men." Gen. Biog.

JOCKEY, in the management of horfes; the perfon who
trims up, and rides about horfes for fa!e.

JOC KG RIM, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Rhin?,' fituated on an eminence
near the Rhine ; 9 miles S.E. of Landau.

JCCKLET, or YocKLET, a term ufed in fome parts of
Kent for a little farm which requires but one yoke of oxen
to till it.

JOCKMOCKI, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
lapmark of Lulea ; 90 miles N.N.W. of Lulea.

JOCKO, in ZooHgy. See SiMlA Satyrus.

JOCRONS, in Geography, a town of HindooRan, in
Myfore ; 20 miles N.N.E. of Chitteldroog.

JODELLE, Stephen, in jBw'ra/ij, an early French poet,
was born at Paris in 1532,0* a family of fome rank. He was
» man of various Jplents, ftilled in the ancient languages,
and converfant in the arts of painting, fculpture, and archi-
teflure, as well as dextrous in the ufe of arms ; but his
ehief excellence was in poetry. He is faid to have made
Ave hundred Latin verfes in one night. He was the iirft
perfon who introduced tragedy and comedy in the ancient
form into French poetry. His Cleopatra is the earlicft of
French tragedies, and was aded with great applaufe before
Henry II. and all the great men of France. It is fimple in
Its plan, and provided with a perpetual chorus in imitation
of the ancient ilyl<-. The comedies of this writer are faid
to be fuperior to his tragedies ; he was undoubtedly po-
pular in his day, but was, nolwitliRanding, fuffered to fall
into indigence, to which his carelefsncfs and love of pleafure
contributed. He died in 1573, at the age of 41, a::d upon
his death-bed he dictated a lonnet to Charles IX., containing
levcre reproaches for deferting him in neceflity. His works
have been puljlilhed coUeftively at Paris and Lyons.

JOG

JODO, in Geography, a town of Japan, in tlie iilanj of
Niplion ; 5 miles S. of Meaco.

JODOIGNE, a town of France, in the department of
Dylc, and chief place of a can-.on, in the diftrift of Nevelles :
the place contains 2012, and the canton 14,434, inhabitants,
on a territory of 165 kiltjmetres, in 28 communes.

JOEL, or ihe Prophecy of Joel, a canonical book of the
Old Teftainent. Joel was the fon cf Petliuel, and the fecond
of the twelve lefler prophets. The llyle of this prophet is
elegant, perfpicuous, copious, and fiiient ; he is alio fub-
lime, animated, and energetic. In the ill and 3d chapters
he difplays the full force of the prophetic poetry, and (htwg
how naturally it inclines to the ufe of metaphors, aiiegories,
and companions. Nor is the conneciion of the matter lefs
clear and eminent than the complexion of tiie ttylc. But
after allowing him perfpicuity botli in language and arrange-
ment, it cannot be denied, that there is fometimes great
obfcurity in his fubjecl, and particularly in the latter part
of his prophecy. Aboi:t the beginning of the la!l century,
Plerraan Von der Handt, the Hardouin of Germany, at-
tempted to reduce Joel's allegories, as he calls them, to
Iambic verfe. Joel upbraids the Ifraelites for their idolatry,
and foretels the calamities they fnould fuffer as the punilh-
ment of that fin : but he endeavours to fupport them with
the comfort that their miferies fiiouldhave an end upon their
reformation and repentance. Some writers, inferring the
order of time in which the minor prophets lived from the
order in which tliey are placed in the Hebrew cooies, con-
elude that Joel prophefied before Amos, who was contem-
porary with XjKziah, king of Judah. Archbifhop U(he^
makes this inference from JoeFs foretelUng that drought,
chap. i. which Amos mentions as having happened, chap. iv.
7, 8, 9. If we conlider the main deijgn of Joel's prophecv,
we ftiall be apt to conclude, that it was uttered after the
captivity of the ten tribes ; for he directs his difcourfe only
to Judah, and fpeaks dilUnclly of the facriiices and obla-
tions that were daily made in the temple.

Biihop Newcome, adopting the conjecture of Drv.fius,
fuppofcs that he lived under the long reign of Maraffrh,
and before his converfion ; that is, fome time from 697 to
660 B. C. Lowth's Com. Lowth's PrsEl. xxi. New-
come's Attempt towards an improved VeVlion, Sec. of the
Twelve Minor Pruphetp.

JOG HIS, a feet of heathen religious in the Eaft Indies,
who never m.arry, nor hold any thing in private property j
but hve on alms, and practife flrange feverities on them-
felves.

They are fubjeft to a general, who fends them from one
country to anotiier to preach : they are, properly, a kind
of penitent pilgrims ; and are fuppofed to be a branch of
the ancient Gymnofophills.

They frequent, principally, fuch places as are confecrated
by the devotion of the people, and pretend to live feveral
days together without eating or drinking. After having
gone through a courfe of difciphne for a certain time, they
look upon themfclves as impeccable, and privileged to do
any thing ; upon which they give a Iccfe to their pafilons,
and run into all manner of debauchery.

JOGHY-COOPA, in Geography, z^loven of Adam; 90
miles N.W. of Gerghonge.

JOGUES, or Yoous, certain ages, eras, or periods, of
extraordinary length, in tne chronology of the Hindoos.
Tiicy are four in number ; of wh ch the following is an ac-
count, extracted from Halhed's Preface to tlic Code of
Gentoo Laws, p. 36.

I. The Suitte Jogue (or age of purity), is faid to have

lafted three miliiou two hundred ihoufand

nd ihey
hold

JOG

told that the life of man was extended in tVat age to one
hundred thoufand years, and that his ftature was twenty-one
cubits.

2. Th(? T'lrlah Jogiie (in which one-third of mankind was
corrupted), they fiippofe to have confiflcd of two million
four hundred thutifand years, and that men lived to the age
of ten thoufand yL\\rs.

3. Tiv Dwapaar Jogttc (in which half of the human race
became d:-praved), endured one million fix hundred thouf;ind
years, and the life of man was then reduced to a thoufand
years.

. 4 The Colkf Jjgiie (in which all mankind are corrupted,
•r rather lefiencd, for that is the ln:e meaning of CoUee), is
the prcfent era, which they fuppofcd ordained to fubfift four
hundred thoufand yenrs, of which near five thoufand are
already caft ; and the life of man in that period is limited to
one hundred years. Sec Hindoos.

We (hall hereUibjcin Dr. Robcrtfon's obfervations on the
above period?, from the Notes to his Hillorical Difquifition
concerning India.

•= If (fays he, p. 363.) we fuppofe the computation of
time in the Indian chronology to be made by folar, or even
by lunar years, nothing can be more extravagant in itfel.f, or
more repugnant to our mode of calculating the duration of
the world, founded on facred and infallible authority. From
one circumftance, however, which merits attention, we may
conclude that the information which we have hitherto re-
ceived concerning the chronology of the Hindoos is very in-
correft. We have, as far as I know, only five original ac-
counts of the different jogues, or eras of the Hindoos. The
firfl is given by M. Rogers, who received it from the Brah-
mins on the Cfromandel coail. According to it, the Suttee
Jon"ue is a period of one million feven hundred and twenty-
eight thoufand years ; the Tirtah Jogue is one million two
hundred and ninety-fix thoufand years ; the D'.vapaar Jogue
is eight hundred and f:xty-four thoufand. The duration of
the Collee Jogue he does not fpecify. (Porte Oaverte,
p. 1 79-) The next is that of ^!. Bernier, who received it
from the Br.-'Jimins of Benares. According to him the du-
ration of the Suttee Jogue. wastwo million five hundred thou-
fand Tears ; that of the Tirtah Jogue, one million two hun-
dred thoufand year' ; that of the Dwapaar Jogue is eight
hundred and fixty-four th^-ufand years. Concerning the
period of the Colke Jogue, he likewife is filent. (Voyages,
torn, ii p. 160.) The third is that of colonel Dow ; ac-
cording to which the Suttee Jogne is a period of fourteen
million of years ; the Tirtah Jogue one million eighty thou-
fand ;■ the Dwapaar Jogue feventy-two thouiand ; and the
Co'lee Jogue thirty-fix thoufand years. (Hill, of Hindoll.
vol. i. p. 2.) The fourth account is that of M. le Gtntil,
who received it from the Brahmins of the Coromandel coaft ;
and as his information was acquired in the fame part of India,
and derived from the fair.e fonrce with that of M. Rogers, it
agrees with his in every particular. (Mem. de I'Academ.
des Sciences, pour 1772 torn. ii. parti, p. 176.) The
fifth is the •.■.ccount of Mr. Halhed, which has been already
given. From this difcre'-ancy, not only of the total numbers,
but of many of the articles in the different accounts, it is
rnanif-.il that our information concerning Indian chronology
is hitherto as uncertam as the whole fyftem of it is wild and
fabulous. To me it appears highly probable, that when we
usderlbnd more thoroughly the principles upon which the
faftitious eras or jogues of the Hindoos have been formed,
we m^y be more able to reconcile their chronology to
the true mode of computing time, founded on the authority
o the Old Teilament'j and may likewife find rcafon to con-
clude, that the account given by tlieir aLlronomers of the

J O H

fituation of the heavenly bodies at the beginning of the
Collce .logue, is not cftablifhed by aftcal obfervation, but
the refidt of a rctrofpettive calculation."

JOHADING', in Geography, a town of Bengal; 32
miles N.E. of Calcutta.

JO HAN, St.', a town of France, in the department of
the Sarre, on the Sarre, communicating by a bridge with
Saarbruck. — Alfo, threetowns in the duchy of Stiria. — Alfo,
a town of the archbilllopric of Salzburg ; 30 miles S.S.E.
of Salzburg.

JOHAN-GEORGEN-STADT, atown of Saxony, in
the circle of Er/.geburg, founded in l6j4 by the Protellant
miners, who were driven from Flatten in Bohemia, and fo
named after John George I. The corn, cultivated near the
town, is inconfiderable, but the breed of cattle is good. The
men are employed in mining, and the women in weaving lace.
Ores of tin and filver have been formerly found near this
place. Copi er ore, cobalt, emery, and other minerals are
now found; 24 miles S. of Chemnitz. N. lat. 50" 23'. E.
long. 12 40'.

.fOHANNES, a fmall ifland in the Pacific ocean, dif-
covered in 1767. N. lat. 6 50'. E. long. 132' 18'.

JOHANNESBERG, or Bichofsberg, a town of Ger-
many, famous for its wine ; 16 miles W. of Mentz.

JOH ANNESBUPvG, a town of Pruflia, in the province
of Natangen, near the Spirding lake ; 96 miles S.S.E. of
Konigffaerg. N.lat. 53^ 22'. E. long. 22^ 2'.

JOH ANNS, St., a town of Auftria ; 1 1 miles S.S.E. of
Glaggnitz Aifo, a town of Auftria ; 8 miles E. of Bava-
rian Waidhoven.

JOHANSTHAL, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Prerau, fituated in Silefia ; 1 2 miles N.N. W. of Jagcn-
dorf.

JOHN the B.\PTI.ST, in Scripture Biography, was the
fon of Zacharias, a prieil of the courfe of Abia, and of
Elizabeth, coufin to Mary, the mother of our Saviour. He
was announced before his birth to Zacharias, who received
inllruftions to call him Jolm, and who was apprized of the
high .md honourable character which he was to fuflain, as
the forerunner of the MefTiah. See the account of l;is birth
and ofHce in the fir-it chapter of St. Luke's Gofp-.l. Having
withdrawn himftlf from fociety, in order to prepare, by ex-
ercifesof devotion, and ftrictnefs of manners, for the duties
of the office which was alTigned him, he was called to com-
mence his miniftry when he was about thirty year« of age ;
and, like the ancient prophets, he quitted his folitude in a
garm.er.t of camel's hair, and diftinguilhed him.felf by ablli-
nence and felf-denial, and feverity of morals. His commif-
fion was to proclaim the approaching advent and kingdom of
the Mefuah, and to qualify n.en, by repeftitancc and reforma-
tion, for becoming partakers of the blefSngs which the great
teacher and faviour was empowered to bellow. The fuc-
cefs of liis preaching was fucb, that multitudes reforted to
hear him, and to be baptifed by him in the waters of Jor-
dan. Hi* reputation was fuch among the people, that many
beg.in to debate among th.Mi.felvcs, whether he was not the
Melfiah : and when the Jcnvifh Sanhedrim, hearing of his
fame, fent fcribes and phanfecs from Jerufalem to examine
his pretenfions, John thought it fufficient honour to be com-
mifTioned as the forerunner" of the Mefliah, and therefore ex-
plicitly declared that he was not the Mefliah himfelf At
tl»e appointed time Jelus came to him from Nazareth, and
after fome hcfitation, tirii from ignorance of his perfon and
character, and afterwards, fromhuniility and diffidence, John
performed for hici the religious rite of baptifm, according

JOHN.

{o liis requeft. As foon as tins fervice was concli'.ded, John
baJ ample evidfnce prefented to him of the diirnity and real
chnratlcrof Jefus ; for a lambent flame defceaded upon him
with a ki:;d of hovering dove-like motion, and a voice
from heaven accompanii>d it, proclaiming " Tiiis is my bi-
loved Son, in whom I am well pleafed."' John, being tho-
roughly fatislied that Jffiis \va^ the proniifed and c:;pefted
Mefliah, eagerly embraced every opportunity that occurred
of announcing him to the multitude, which attended his mi-
niih-y, v.ndcr this chnraclei-. The difciples of John became
jealous of the iricrendng fame of Jefus ; and fearful that the
reputation and influence of their mafter v^ould decline : but
John correded their milapprehenfions, acknowledged his infe-
riority to Jefus, and direded the people to transfer their views
and regard from him, who was merely the forerunner of the
Meffiih and Saviour, to the perfon who really fuftained this
high charafter, and to whom thefe honourable appellations
belonged. In the courfe of John's minilV.-y his fame com-
manded the attention of Herod, tetrarch of Galilee, and
induced him to fend for the preacher to his court ; for fome
time his inilruttion and counfel feemed to imprefs the te-
trarch's mind, and to give him pleafure. But the fidehty
of John would not permit Herod to form an inceftuous con-
nexion with Hcrodias, his brother's wife, without feafonable
animadvcrfion and fevere reproof. The tetrarch refented
the faithf il reproheniion of John, and committed him to
prifon. During the interval of his confinement, Herodias
was plotting his death : but Herod, for fome time, partly
from reverence for John, and partly from a dread of the
people, who believed him to be a prophet, refilled the ma-
chinations of Herodias. An opportunity at length occurred,
tipon the birth-day of Herod, for the execution of the cruel
purpofe which this wicked woman had formed againll John.
Her daughter, by her former hulhand, danced before the
aiTembly that w.is convened in honour of his nativity, fo
much to the fatisfaclion of Herod, that he promifed with an
oath to grant her whatfoever (lie requelled, even though it
fliould bJ to the value of half his kingdom. The princels, in-
llrufted by her mother, requelled that the head of John the
Baptilt Piiould be delivered to her in a charger, or'large difh.
Herod wa3 for fome time reluflant ; but upon her perfilf ing
in !i5r requelt, Herod complied, and ordered John to be be-
headed in the prifon. The death of John tlie Baptill is
mentioned by Jofephus in a paflage, the genuinenefs of which
is generally admitted by learned men. A difpute had arifen
betv/een Aretas, king of Petrsa, the father of his firft wife,
whom he had put away for the fake of Herodias, wliich was
partly owing to this conJuft, and partly to fome difference
tJiat took place between them about the limits of their re-
fpeftivj territories. In a contelt between them Herod's
whole army was defeated ; and this defeat, fays Jofephus,
■was conudered by fome of the Jews as a jull punifliment
providentially inflidled on Herod, for the death of John,-
called tiie Biptift. For Herod, continues the Jewifli writer,
had killed- him who was a jull man, and had called upon the
Jews to be baptifed, and to praAife vjrui?, oxcrcifi:ig both
juftice towards men, aad piety toward.s G-od : for fo would
bapiifm be acceptable to God, if they made ufe of it, not
for the expiation of their lins, but for the purity of the
bodv' ; the mind being firll puiilied by rightcoiifnefs. And
matiy coming to him, for they were wonderfully taken with
his difcourics, Herod w.ib fejzed with apprchcnfions, lefl:, by
his agthori.y, they fliould be led into f.'dition affainft him,
for they feemed capuble of undertaking any thing by his di-
veftioii, &.C. <Aniiq. 1. xviii c §■ § J, 3.) It, lias been faid
by fome perfons, that this paragraph contradicts oyr evange-
liils : for, acordiiii' to then:, it was at the folicitaticn of He-

rodias and her daughter that John was beheaded. But liere
it is faid, that Herod put John to death becaufe he feared
that he might be the caufe of a fedition. But the two ac-
counts are by no means inccnfiftent : for Herod tnight have
apprehenfions from John's popularity, and be difpofed, on
that account, to take him off. See Lardner's Works, vol. vii.
p. 117. The fellival of the nativity of John the Baptift was
appointed to be obferved in the Chriftian church on the 24th
of June : the date of the firil appointment is not known ;
but tliat it is to be placed before the end of the fourth cen-
tury, appears from the fermons of St. Augulline, adapted
to the day.

Joiis Bnptift, Hermits of. See Hermits.

John', Saint, an apsjlle and c-vangelifi, was the fon of Zc-
bedee, a fidierman.of the town of Bethfaida, on the fea of
Galilee, the younger brother of James the elder, (fee Jame.s,)
and commonly reckoned the youngeft of all Chrift.'s dif-
ciples. His mother's name was Salome. Zebedee, though
a fiflierman, was not poor, and therefore we have no reafon
to imagine that his children were altogether illiterate, which
fome have imagined to have been the cafe, from a mifinter-
pretation of A6ls, iv. 13, in which the terms .i-.pa;,ijUK>yi and
jJia-lxi denote perfoiis that were neither doftcrs nor magi-
ftrates, but men of private ilations, who had not been edu-
cated in the fchools of the Rabbies. (Grot, in loc.) See
Idiot. They were, without doubt, well acquainted with
the fcriptures of the Old Tellament ; having not only read
them, but having heard them pubhcly read and explained in
the fynagogues. In common with other Jews, they enter-
tained the cxpeSation of the Mefliah, and had heard Jolui
the Baptift preach, though they were not enlifted in the
number of his difciples. Before 7ohn was called to be an
apoftlo, it cannot be queflioncd that he had feen and heard
our bleffed Lord, and had been witnefs of fome of hi.<i mi.
racles, particularly that at the wcddi.ng of Cana in Galilee.
(See John, ii. i — 1 1.) His call to attend upon Jefus fiatedly
is related Matt. iv. 21, 22. Mark, i. 19, 20. Luke, v. 1 —
10. From this time he and his brother James were the con-
ftant attendants on Chrift ; they heard his difcourfes, and
faw his miracles j and after previous inftruclion, both public
and private, they were honoured with a feleftion and ap-
pointment to be of the number of the twelve apoftles. What
was his age at this time, his hillory does not precifely afccr-
tain. Some have fuppofed that he was then 22 years old :
others conjefture that he was about 25 or 26 ; and other*
again think, that he was about the fame age with our Sa-
viour. Dr. Lardner is of opinion, that none of the apollles
of Chrift were much under the age of 30, when they were
appointed to this important office. However it be, John
feems to have been the youngeft of the twelve, and to have
been diftir:guiflied by a temper Angularly mild, amiable, and
affeflionate. He was eminently the objedl of our Lord's
regard and confidence, and admitted, on various occafions,
to free and intimate intercourfe with him ; fo that he was
charadleiized as " the difciple whom Jefi'.s loved." The
evangelical hiftory recites many inllances which evince the
intimacy that fubfiftcd b'.tween him and his mailer, and tiic
high opini(m which our bleffed Lord entertained of his dif-
pofition and character. His faihngs, however, did not
efcape notice ; and he svas reprehendtd for them by our
Lord. Notwithftar.ding his atredlionate attachment to
Carill, and the numerous inftances of kind and condefcend-
ing attention with which he had been honoured, he, in com.
mon with the other apoftles, betrayed a culpable timidity \x\
forfaking him during his !all conflict ; tliough he afterwards
recovered his firmnefs, and attended the crucifixion : and,
indeed, he fecais to have been the only apoftle who thus ha.

z aided

JOHN.

Earded his own fafety. On this occafion he was diilingiiiflied
by the notice of his mafter, and by the recommendation of
his mother to the future proteftioii of tliis apoille. He
vas alfo a witnefs of the circumtlances that afcertaiiied our
Lords deatli and burial. After his refurreftion John w-as
the lirft who entertained the behef that he was really rifen
from tiiede.id. On fubfcqiient occafions, when Jefus mani-
fested himfelf to his difciples, and thus evinced the reahty of
his refurredion, John was one of the number. In one of
thefe interviewf, when Peter, having received information of
tiie manner of his own death, inquired with a rcpreher.fible
cnriolity concerning thj fate of John, our Lcrd replied,
" what if he tarry till I come," thus intimating either that
he would furvive the deftruction of Jerufalem, or that his
life woul^ be prolonged till it was terminated in the courfe
of nature. After the afcenfioa of Chrill, and the elFulion
of the Spirit on the day of pentecoll, John became one of
the chief apjftles of the circumcifion, and cxercifed his
miciftry at and about Jerufalem, in the manner and with the
fucccfs related in the book of Afts : he was prefent at
the council of this city held in the year 49 or 50. (See
Ads, XV.) Until this time he probably remained in the
land of Ifrael, and had not travelled into any foreign
countries. During his (lay in Judea, it appears that he
wrought many miracles. From the book of Revelation
(chap. i. 9.) we learn, that St. John was for fome time in
the iiland of Patmos, where he was favoured with vifions
and revelations. He is fuppofed to have been banithed
thither in the r th year of Domitian, and to have returned
in the beginning of the reign of Nerva ; fo that his exile
could not have laded more than two years, or perhaps not
above a year. From ecclefiaftical !ii!lory we learn that he
. lived to a great age, and that i:i the latter part of his hfe
he refided in Afia, particularly at Ephefus, tiie chief city
of that country. His fettiemont in Afia feems, from fe-
veral circumftances, to have taken place about the time
when the war broke out in Judea, in the y/ar 66, or a
ihort time before, when probably St. Peter and Paul had
been previoufly crowned with martyrdom. According to
Irenxus, this apoftle lived in Afia til! the time of Trajan,
who fuccceJed Nerva, AD. gS. From other accounts it
appears that he died at Ephefus, and was buried near that
city, about 68 years after otir Lord's paflion. Suppofing
our Lord to have been cruciSed in the year 32 of the vuU'ar
era, which feems to have been Jerox.'s opinion ; 68 years
wili extend to the year 100, or the third of Trt.jsin ; at
which year of that emperor the death of St. John is pL-.ced
by Jcrom in his chronicle. At tlie time of his death it
is not incredible, nor unlikely, that he was about 100
jears of age. Some other particulars have been recorded
concerning this apoille, which the mod impartial critics
have reckoned fabidous. It is related of him, that going
to bathe at Ephefus, and perceiving that Cerinthus, or, as
others fay, Ebion, was in the bath, he came out haftily
without bathing, faying to thofe that were with him,
" Let us flee hence, Ic.^t the bath (hould fall while Cerin-
thus the enemy of the truth is within." It is alfo faid,
that by order of the emperor Domitian, St. John was
call into a cauldron of boiling oil at Rome, and came out
agaih without being hurt. Tlie following account, given by
Jefom, of St. John's method of preaching when he was far
advanced in years, and not able to make a long difcourfe, is
more worthy of credit. " The blelled apoille John, living
at Ephefus to extreme old age, and being with difSculty
carried to church in the arms of tiie difciples, and being un-
able to make a tong difcourfe every time they a.Ttmbled, was
wcr.t to fay nothing but this : <• Little children, love one

another." At length the difciples and brethren who at-
tended, tired- with hearing fo often the fame thing, faid, " Sir,
wdiy do you always fay this i" who then made this anfwer,
wortl'.y of himfeif : " Becaufe," fays he, " it is the Lord's
command ; and if that alone be done, it is fulficient."

The writings which are generally afcribed to St. John, and
received as his, arc a gcfpel, three epilUes, and the book of
Revelation.

Tiie gofpcl of St. John has been univerfally received as
genuine ; -and, as it is generally allowed that he had fcen
tlie other three gofpels, it may be confidercd as a kind
of fupplenient to thefe, containing feveral things that occur
in them, and many others which they have omitted. In the
account of our Saviour's perfecution, death, and rcfurrec-
tion, all four gofpels coincide in many particulars ; though
here St. John has various things peculiar to himfelf. In
his gofpel many things recorded by the other evangclills
are omitted. He has given us no account of our Saviour's
nativity, nor of his baptifni by John. He takes no notice
of our Saviour's temptation in the wildernefo ; nor of the
call, or names of the 12 apolUes ; nor of their miffion in the
time of our Saviour's life ; nor of our Lord's parables, or
other di!'courfes of his, recorded by thein ; nor of our Sa-
viour's journies, of v.liich they give an account ; nor of any
of thofe predirtioiis relating to the dofolations of Jerufalem,
which are found in the gofpels of Matthew, Mark, and
Luke ; nor has he repeated any miracles recorded by them,
excepting only that of the multiplication of fmall provilion
for feeding 50CO, with the extraordinary circumllances of
the return to Capernaum from the country, where that
miracle liad been wrought. But he mentions feveral inci-
dents which the other evangelifts have not noticed. St.
John gives an account of our Lord's cleanfing the temple,
at his firit paflbvcr, when he went to Jerufalem ; but ?ll
the other evangelills give a like account of his cleanfing
the temple at the laft paflover. Thefe two ads are, hov.--
ever, different. He gives an account cf the efts of Chrift
before the imprifonment of John the Bant ill ; of the wedding
at Cana ; of Nicodemus; of the woman of Samaria; of the cure
of the man blind from his birth ; of the refurreclion ©f Laza-
rus; of the indignation of Judas at t!:e woman who anointed
the Lord with ointment ; of the Greeks th?.t came to Jefns ; of
Clirift wafliing the feet of his difciples; and of thecofifolatory
iaitiuition*, which he dehvered to his apoftles previoufly to
h-.s death, c'.c: St. John's gofpel contains alfo mere plain and
frequent afiiirances than thofe that occur in the other gofpels,
that Jefus is not only a prophet and mcffengcr of God, but the
Chrift, the Son of God, or that great prophtt, that fhoiild
come into the world ; referring, as many furpofe, by pecu-
liar expre.i;0!S, to his pre-exilleiit dignity, though otherfc
think thefe cxprtflions to be figurr.ii^ e.

Writers are not agreed as to the' time when this gofpel
was written. St. John, according to Mill, Fabiici\is, and
Le Cierc, v/rote his gofpel at Ephefus, after his return from
ti;e ifle of P.itnios, A.D' 9;, at the defire of the Cliritlians
of Afia. Wettcein thought that this gofpcl might be v.ritten
about the year 32 after our Lord's afcenfion. B fnage ar.d
Lampe fuppofed that it was written before the deilruftion
ot Jerufalcp : Dr. Lardncr adopts this opinion, and afilgra
the date of it to the year of Chrill 68. This period brings
it nearer to that of the three other gofpels, which was about
the year 64 or 6^, and the gofpel itfelf, the leading dcfign
of wtncli uas t(j !hew how inexcufable the Jews were in not
receiving Jelus oS the Chrift, and to vindicate the providence
of Cod in the calamities already befallen, or now coming
upon them, was fuitable to the circumllances of the Jews
at this period. It is obfervcd by Dr. Lardiierj as an tvi'-

JOHN.

dence that it was one great defign of St. Jolin, in writing
this gofpel, to fliew tlie unreafonablencfs and great guilt
of the Jeu-s in rejcfting Jefus, that in his gofpel aie inferted
more inllanccs of their attempts upon our Lord's life than
in the other gofpels. Chryf Horn was of opinion, that St.
John did not write his gofpel till after the deftruftion of
Jerafalem. John, he fays, writes not any of the things that
occur in Matt, xxiv., Icll it (hould be thought that he took
an advantage from the event : for he was livinsj a good while
after the deftrnftion of Jerufaleni. Bnt the other evan-
geliils, who died before the deftruc\ion of Jori.falem, and
faw none of thefe things, recora tlit;fe predictions. But
John, if he wrote at the time above fpecilied, wz. when the
event was near, might omit thefe prcdidlions, as they were
fufficiently recorded already, and as it is not his manner to
repeat what had been related before. He gives, however,
feveral intimations of the miferies that were coming upon
the Jewilh people. (Ch. iii. ^6 iii i8, 19. viii. 12. 21. 24.
ix. 39 — 41. xii. 3^, 36.) Mr. Whiiton, obferving that St.
John ufes the Roman or Julian beginning of the day in his
gofpel, and reckons the hours from midnight and noon,
urges this as an argument for the gofpel having been written
after the dellruttion of Jerufalem, and the period of the
Jewifh polity, at Ephefus, a place remote from Judea,
and under the Roman government. To this it is replied,
that St. John does not compute the hours of the day
after the Roman, but rather after the Jewifh manner ; and,
fuppofing St. John to have ufed the Roman method of
computation, it does not follow that he wrote after the de-
ilruction of Jerufdem, &c. As the gofpel was written at
Ephefus, at a dillance from Judea, he miglit, if he thought
fit, have ufed the Roman way of reckoning, efpecially when
the period of the Jewifli commonwealth was near, though
not quite accomplifhcd. The late date of the gofpel has
been alfo argued, from what foir.e have alleged, to have
been the object or end of the writer. Accordingly, many
ancient and fome modern writers fay, that this gofpel was
written with a defign to remove the errors of the Cerin-
thia.ns, Ebionites, and other fects, which cannot be fuppofed
to have ^appeared before the deftruflion of Jerufalem, and
the ovei*throvv of the Jewifii people. But Mr. Lainpe and
Dr. Lardner have urged feveral reafons to fliew that St.
John did not write againft Cerinthus, or any other heretics
in Iiis gofpel ; and that it was written before the rife of
thofeherefies, which are faid to be confuted by it. Lardner
• thinks that it would have been below an e\angelifl: to write
agaiuil heretics in the hiltory of his Lord and mailer ; and
that none of the evangelills have entered into a particular
account of things after our Lord's afcenfion. Nothing of
^his kind, fays this writer, occurs in the reft of St. John's
gofpel ; and, thercfoi-e, why (hould we imairine that there is
any fucli thing in the introduftion ; the defign of which is to
{hew, that Jefus came and atted by the autliority of God,
the Creator of the world, the God and fupreme Lawgiver
of the Jewilh people. Some have thought, and particularly
Grotius, that St. John concluded his gofpel with the
words, which are at the end of the 20th chapter ; and that
which is in the 2 1 (I chapter was added after St. John's
death by the church of Ephefus. But this opinion is con-
tradifted by the general, or even univerfal, confelit of maiiu-
fcripts and verfions : to which it may be added, that none
of the ancient Chriftian writers ever made a quellion, whe-
ther this chapter was compofed by St. John or another.
Moreover, the ftyle is St. John's. Lardncr's Suppl. to the
Credibihty, or Works, vol. vi. chap. 9.

Befides the gofpel, St. .John wrote three epiflles, which
are generally received in tiiefe parts of the world. The

geninnenefs of the fir.l epiille does not feera to have beeti
ever quet'ioned. It is refe.Ted to by Pclycarp, and the mar-
tyrs of Lyons, and quoted by Papias. The Srft and fecotid
epillles are ci.ed by Irenseus, and received by Clement of
Alexandria. Origen mentions three epillles, though he
fays that the fecond and third were not allowed by all to
be genuine. Dionyfius of Alexandria receives the fir.1
cpiil e, calling it the " Catholic cpillk-,'' and he inentions
the other two as afcribed to St'. John. The fir'.b epillle was
received by Cyprian, and probably the other two. The
fecoiid ei)iflle is quoted by Alexander, bifiiop of Alexan-
dria. Eufcbius fays, " that befides the gofpel, his nrJl
epillle is univerfally'ac>knowledgcd by thofe of the prefi.it _
time, and by the ancients ; but the other two are contra-
dicted," i.'c. doubted of by fome. AH the three epiUk*
were received by Athanafius, by Cynl of Je-.jfulem, by
the council of Laodicea, and by Epiplianius. Ail three
were received by Jerom : and the two lad were doubted of
by fome in his time. All three were^ccived by Ruiinus,
by the third council of Cartha^-e, by Auguiiine, and by
a'l thofe authors who received the fame canon of the Njw
Teilament with our's. All three are in the Alexandrian
MS. arid alfo in the catalogues of Gregory Nazianzen
and of Amphilochius. The Syrian churches, h:nvever,
received only one ; nor were any more received by Chryfuf-
tom. Upon the whole we may obferve, that one epidlc
was received by al! as certainly genuine ;. and it is not of
any importance to contend about the other two, as they
are fo very flioit, and refenible the f.rft in feutin.c.t, -jhrarc,
and manner of writing. Tiie fecond epilHc coniifts of only
thirteen of our verfcs ; and of thefe eight may lie found in
the firll, either in fenfe or exprcflion. See Caxon.

As to the time when thefe epillles were wri'.ten, critics and
commentators have entertained different opinions. Grotius,
Hnmm nd, and Whitby, fuppofe the fiv'A to have been writ-
ten before the deftrudion of Jerufalem, and the former thinks
the place of writing it was Patii.ns. Dr. Benfon inclines
to date it in the year of our Lord 68. Mill and Le
Clerc refer it to the year 91 or 92 ; B.ifnage to the year
98, and Baronius to 99. Beaufobre and Leiifant refer it to
the end of the firll centui;y,when the apoflle was far advanced
in age. Whillon thought that .this, ai.d the two other
epifUes of St. John, were written not long after each other,
about the year of Chrill 82 or 8j. Lampe fuppofes the
firll epillle to have been -.vritten after the Jewifh war, before
St. John's exile in Patmos, and, probably, fome confider-
abk time before it : fo that he nearly agrees about the time
of the epiflle v.ilh WhiWon. Dr. Lardner, f onfidering that
there are no expreffions in the epillle declaring the time of
it, or clearly referring to the calamities attending the down-
fal of the Jewifli Hate, thinks it probable, that it was not
written till a good while after that event, about the year
of Chrill 80, or later. Some have thought that the fir^
epillle was written to Jewifli believers in Parthia ; and
others are of opinion, that it was addicffcd to the Jewifh
Chrillians in Judea and Galilee. Others think it more pro-
bable, that it was directed to all believers. Gentiles as
well as Jews ; though Jewifh believers are efpecially re-
garded. The fecond cpiiUe isinfcribed " The cider to the
elett lady, and her children."' By the " tlefl lady" fome
have underllood the Chriftian church in general, and
others uiiderftand the appellation as dellgned to exprefs
fome particular church. Others again have fuppofed, that
it was addreffed to a female of the name of " Elefta,'' or
" Eclefta ;" and fome have rendered the infcription ■' to
the elect Kyria." Others again underftand the infcription
agreeably to our ov.n tranflation ; and this has been the

commoD

l^s

JOHN.

common opmion, fupported by the aiitliorliics of Bcza,
Mill. Wolfius, Wall, Le Clerc, and others.

The third cpilllc of St. Joliri is infcrihcd, « The elder to
the beloved Gains." There were two pcrfoiis of this name,
mentioned in the Afls (six. 29.), and in St. Paul's cpillles
(i Cor. i. 14. Rom. xvi. 2^5.) He foems to have been an
eminent ChriRian, who lived in feme city of Afia, not far
from^ Ephefus, where St. John chiefly refidcd, after his
leaving Jiidea. Concerning the cafe to which St. John re-
fers in this cpiftlc, there have been various fentiments of
learned men. Grotius fuppofed that the ilrangers here
fpoken of were believing Jews, whom Diotrephes, a gen-
tile, and bi(hop of Pergamos, would not receive, becaufe
they were Jews, or becaufe they were for blending the rites
of the law with Chriftianity. Others think, that Diotrephes
was a Jew, and zealous for the law, and that he would not
admit thefe ftrangers, converts from among the Gentiles,
becaufe they did not confent to the obfcrvauce of the rites
and ceremonies of the law of Mofes. Learned men have
lately been of opinion that St. John here fpeaks of fome,
particularly Jews, who had gone out into the world, to
propagate the Ciiriftian religion, without receiving any pe-
cuniary recompence from thofe whom they had converted to
fne Chriftian faith : and they think, that' Caius or Gains is
commended by St. John for encouraging fuch teachers,
whilil he blamed Diotrephes for not receiving and helping
them. But this opinion is rejected by Lardner as un-
founded, and he fees nothing that fhould lead us to think
preachers here fpoken of, but only ftrangers in want.
Some have fuppofed, that Diotrephes excommunicated, or
caft out of the church, the " brethren," members of it,
who were for receiving thefe Ilrangers. Others fuppofe
that the perfons, whom Diotrephes caft out of the
church were thefe ftrangers, not members of the church.
It is fuppofed, that Diotrephes had the difpofal of the re-
venues of the church ; and that he oppofed the diflribution
of the common ftock to thefe ftrangers, partly Jews and
partly Gentiles, who needed rehef, and difcouraged fuch
as were willing to affift them out of their own property.
Concerning the time of writing thefe two epiftlos, no-
thing can be faid with certainty. Mill places them about
the fame time with the lirft, in 91 or 92. Whifton fnp-
pofes, that all three were written about the year 82 or 83.
Dr. I.ardner conceives, that St. John was fomewhat ad-
vanced in age, and tliat he had rcfided a good while in
Afia, before he wrote any of thefe epiftles. Hence he con-
cludes, that thefe two were not written fooner than the lirft;
and if the firft was written about the year 80, thefe two
may be reckoned to have been written between the years
80 and 90. See Epistlb. Gardner's Works, vol. vi. chap.
20.

The book of Revelation has been alfo afcribed to St.
John. See REVEr..\TioN.

John-, St., Chrijlians of. See CniiiSTiAxs.

John, furnamed Mark. See Mauk.

John- I. emperor of the Eaft, furnamed Zimifces, was an
Armenian noble, who ferved with diftinclion in tlie armies of
Romanus the younger. After the death of that emperor,
he aftifted Niccphorus Phocas in Ins elevation to the empire
and his marriage of the imperial widow, Theophano. Zi-
mifces became an objeft of fufpieion to Nicephorus, who
deprived him of the poft of general of the Eaft, in which he
had been generally viclorious, and banifticd him from court.
The hero was refolved to be revenged for the indignities in-
flifted on him, and having infniuated himfelf into the good
graces of tlic emprefs, he contrived a plot to take away her
hufliand's liR-. The plan fucceeded, Nicephorus wat (lain,

Vor.. X.LX.

ami John was immediately declared emperor, AD. 9^9.
Before the patriarch would confecrate him he was told lie
muft, by public penance, expiate the crime of which he had
been guilty. .Tohn threw the blame of the deed on his com-
panions, and readily agreed to feparate himfelf from them.
I'heophano parted in a paroxyfm of rage, and was imme-
diately ftmt up in a monaftery of Armenia. The reign of
John was chiefly fpent in military tranfaCtions, in which hit
valour and good fortune were equally confpicuous. He ob-
tained many victories over the Ruffians, Bulgarians,, and Sa-.
raccns ; and is fuppofed to have fallen a facrilice to the eunuch
Balil, whom he had offended, after a reign of fix year.<^
John Zimifces, though arriving at the crown by an ad of
treafon, wore it with glory, and fcemed to merit it by his
public and private virtues. His piety is extolled by writers
of the time, and he is recorded as the firll emperor who
caufed the effigy of Chriil to be ftamped upon the coin, with
the legend, " Jefus Chrift, the King of Kings."

John II. emperor of the Eaft, was born in 1088, and fuc-
ceeded his father Alexius in 1118. Soon after his acceflion
a coiifpiraay was excited againft him by his filler, the ce-
lebrated Anna Comnena, to depofe him in favour of her
hufband TJryennius. The confpiracy was difcovered in time
to prevent the evils that would otherwife have refulted from
it. This was the only domeftic trouble by which his reign
was difturbed, and he had the happinefs of being able,
during an adminittration of twenty-five years, to banifli ca-
pital punilhments from the whole empire, not excepting the
cafe of thofe perfons who had engaged with his li.ler to
take away his life. Againft the public enemies of l-.is
country he was a&ive and fuccefsful, and he entertained
the ambitious projcft of extending the eaftern cmpiie to
its former limits, and recovering Antioch from the domi-
nion of the Latins. He not only planned the enterprize
but actually fet out on the bufmefs, accompanied by his two
fons. Thefe were carried oft' by a premature death, and he
himfelf died Ihortly after, in 1 143, of a wound from one of
his own poifoned arrows. He was called the " Handlpme,"
an appellation which has been thought to have been applied
ironically : but whatever the qualities of his body were,
his foul was formed in the mould of moral beauty, and few
pofteftbrs of a throne have graced it with purtr manners
and more humane principles.

John- III., Dlcas, {m-mmei. Vat aces, emperor of the
Eaft, was born in 1193, and fucceeded, by virtue of his
marriage with the daughter of Theodore Lnfcaris, to the
t1irone°at the death of that prince. Conilantinople, the ca-
pital of the empire, was, at this period, in the hands of
the-Latins, as was likewife a confiderable part of the em-
pire. John, however, was a prince of ^-..mc virtue, and
recovered all the other places which had been taken by the
Latins, and reduced under his dominion the European terri-
tories almoR to the gates o'f Conftantinople, .^Iid nearly the
whole of LcfTer Afia. He fought-and gained-many bat-
tles, defeating the Scvthians, Tartars, and Bulgarians, and
extended his empire on all fides. Whi.c he was thus dif-
tinguilhed in war, he was equally illuftrious in the internal
admimftration of his .aflfairs, by which he reftorcd profperity
to the har:;lfed fubjefts of the eaitern empire. He encou-
raged agriculture," and the ufeful arts, and promoted fim-
phcity and regularity of manners. He died in 1 258, after
a glorious reign of 3 ^ years.

.loirx I'V., La-scaris, fon of Theodore the younger,
whom he fucceeded in 1259, at the age of fix years, but
ere he had fat on the throne a fingle year, he wa.-, deprived
of his eyes, and ioiprifoncd for life, by the defpot Michael
Palxoloffus.

U u John

J O H N.

John V., Cantacuzexus, emperor of tlie Eaft, de-
fcended from the Paladins of France, was one of the prin-
cipal confidants of the younger Androniciis, at the time
of his revolt from his grandfather, and ailed with great
fidelity in the fervice of the young prince, in whofe reign
he held the office of great domeltic, by virtue of which he
ruled both t!ie emperor and the etnpire. At the death ot
Androniciis in \^^i, Cantacuzenus was left guardian to
the eldcll of his fons, then but nine years of age, and was
made regent of the empire. His adminiftration was dif-
turbed by the ambition of the great duke Apocaucus, who
encouraged the emprefs dowager to aflert a maternal right
to the tutelage of her fon, and by the patriarch John, who
laid claim himfelf to the office of guardian. In felf-
defence, therefore, Cantacuzenus caufed himfelf to be made
emperor in 1342, which produced a civil war, in which he
was, at firft, fu far unfuccefsful, that he was obliged to
quit his country and take refuge in Sersia. Alter a feries
of misfortunes he was at length, in 1347, received as a
conqueror into Conilantinoplc. He now aflbciated himfelf
with his ward in tlie empire, but the union was foon inter-
rupted by inteftine divifions, which, in 1355, he put an end
to by a voluntary abdication, when he took the religious
habit in a monailery of mount Athos. Here he employed
hinifelf in compoling a hillory of the tranfadions to wliich
he had been witncis ; and this work, comprifing a period
of forty years, from the revolt of the younger Androni-
cus to his own abdication, is one of the moil elegant pro-
duftions of the modern Greeks. He likewife engaged in a
religio iS controvefy, and compofed four books againit the
Jews and Mahometans. This work was publilhed at Bafil
in 1 543 ; and of his Hillory there is a Louvre edition in
three volumes, fol. 165?. He is faid to have died in 141 1 :
a letter to him from pope Gregoi-y XL, in 1375, is ftill
extant. Thefe are the only emperors of the name of John
that require any notice in this work. Gibbon. Univerfal
Hillory.

John, king of France, fucceeded his father, Philip
of Valois, ir. 1350, being, at the time, forty years of
age. One of his firil acts was to put to death, without the
form of trial, the conftable, count d'Eu, wiio was fuf-
pecled of being in the interell of Edward HI., king of
England. This arbitrary aCl occafioned much dilcontent
among his nobles, whom he attempted to appeafe by the
inllitution of the order of the ftar, in imitation of Ed-
ward's order of the Garter, but being too lavidi of the
new honour, it was brought into contempt. A war broke
out between England and France, and John fumm.oned the
ftates-general for the purpole of raifing the neceflary fup-
plies. In tlie alfembly of thefe dates it was agreed that
no propofition fliould be admitted without the unanimous
confent of the three orders, which gave to the third eftate
an authority and independence which affimilated them to the
commons of England. John made conliderabie conceffions,
and was enabled thereby to raife a powerful army. It was
ill this contell that the king of France was oppofed to the
Black Prince of England : at Maupertuis, near Poiftiers,
they met ; the former with an army of fixty thoufan<l men,
the latter could fcarcelyenumerate twelve thoufahd effedlive
foldiers. Edward, feeling the difadvant^geous ground on
which he flood, offered to rt-r ' ' , and the booty

which lie had already mad truce for feven

years, provided he might be ; nn to his own

country in fecurity, but John, v.,.,,,, ,^,,. ^,, ..iccefs. required
him to furrender himfelf a prifoner, with the principal offi-
cers of his army. This demand brought on the famous
battle of Poicliers, on tlie icjth of September, 1356, in

which John was made prifoner, and many of the French
nobility loft their lives. The captive monarch, though re-
fpedlfully treated, was brought to England to grace the
triumph of the conqueror ; the peace, in 1360, put an end
to his captivity, but to obtain his liberty he made over many
of the motl valuable provinces of his kingdom to the king
of England, and agreed to pay a ranfom of three m.illions
of gold crowns. The difallers to which he had already
been fubjetl, had fo little efFcd in teaching him pohtical
wii'dom, that at the perfiiafion of pope Urban V. he took
the crofs, and fcrioufly ivfolved upon an expedition into the
Holy Land. The e.^ecution of this project was prevented
by tiie dilhonourable efcape of his fon Lewis, count of
Anjou, from England, where he was detained as a hollage.
The kinn-'s fenfe of juftice and honour determined him in-
ftantly to return to England in the ftead of his fon. He
landed in 1364, and was received by Edward with great
magnificence ; but he was fhortly after attacked with a dif-
eafe, of which he died at the palace at the Savoy in April,
in the 56th year of his age, and the 14th of his reign. John
was poifefTed of many noble qualities, but he was not gifted
with very fuperior talents : he was author of the maxim,
" That if juliice and good faith were banifhed from the rell
of the world, they ought to find refuge in the hearts of
princes." Univer. Hid. Hume.

JOHK, king of England, born in 1 166, was theyoungeft
fon of Henry II. by queen Eleanor of Guienne. He was
his father's favourite, nevertlielefs he joined his brother
Richard in thofe projedls againfl Henry, whi' h induced the
unhappy king, on his dealh-bed, to pronounce a curfe upon
his children. He was left without any particular provifion,
which circumflance gave him the name of " Lack-land."
Richard, upon his accefTion to the throne, behaved with the
utmoft liberality to John, but his generofity could not at-
tach him to his interell. During his abfence in the Holy
Land, he formed fecret intrigues with Richard's rival and
inveterate foe, Philip king of France. Thefe broke out
into open rebellion, but being unfiiccefsfiil, he threw him-
felf upon )iis brother's mercy. With a knowledge of his
character, Richerd laid to his iiiterccffor, queen Eleanor,
" I forgive him, and hope I fliail as eafily forget his ingra-
titude and injuries, as he \vill my pardon." John, who
was utterly void of all fenfe of honour and generofity,
proved the bafenefs of his nature by the aft with which he
purchafed forgivenefs. He invited the officers of Philip's
garriion of Evreux to an entertainment, caufed them to be
all maffacred, put the foldiers to tlie fword, and delivered
up the town to his brother. He afcended the throne at the
death of Richard in 11 9, but he did not obtain an undif-
piited fuccefTion. War was excited in favour of Arthur
of Britanny, in which the young prince fell into the hand*
of his uncle John : he was at firil confined in the caflle of
Falaife, and his uncle in vain endeavoured to procure his
affafTuiation. At length he was condudted to the caftle of
Rouen, where John refided, and he was never after heard
of. The manner of his death was uncertain, but it is gene-
rally believed that the king ilabbed him with his own hands.
From this period John became the objeCl of univerfal detef-
tation, and all his foreign fubjeCls prepared to throw off
the yoke. The pope alfo excommunicated him, and ab-
folved his fubjefts from their allegiance. He for fome time
refilled the papal authority, but in 1 2 13 he made his fuh-
miilion. The pope, now regarding England as his owhi^
and jealous of the aggrandizement of Philip of France,
fent a metTage to that prince, acquainting him with John's
return to his duty towards the church, and requiring him
to defiil from hoilihties againft a country now under the
5 proteiftJOn

JOHN.

prote£lion of the holy fee. Philip had, however, made pre-
parations for war, and was not to be put off from his plans
by the mere order of the holy pontiff. A battle enfued, in
which the fleet of England triumphed over that of France,
and John even thought of regaining his former poffeflions ;
but the attempt was unfuccefsful, and he was obliged to
return in difgrace. His own barons, who had fuffered by
his controul, determined now to aflcrt their privileges, and
bid a ftatement of their grievances before the king, whicli
he attempted to elude. To fecond their efforts they chofe a
general, and immediately proceeded to warhke operations,
'i'hey were received into London with open arms, which
fo intimidated the king, that he was obliged to fubmit to
fuch articles of agreement as they thought fit to dictate.
At Runnymede, John figned the famous Magna Chartn,
the bafis of Englilh liberty, which not only protected the
nobles againlt the crown, but fecurcJ many important
rights and privileges to every order of freemen. It was
ftipiilated that London fliould remain in the hands of the
barons, and the Tower in the cullody of the primate, till
the articles of the charter were executed. The king made
another attempt to retrieve Lis affairs by inlifting under his
banners foreign troops, but moft of his projects failed, and
he died partly of difeai'c, and partly of chagrin, at Newark,
in October 1216. The character of this prince is tranf-
mitted to us in very black colours : perhaps his vices
have been exaggerated. Ingratitude, periidy, and cruelty
were certainly the ruling principles of his conduct. His
private life was ftained with licentioufncfs, and he feems to
have paid no regard to the forms of religion. The befl
part of his conduct as a fovereign, was the attention which
he paid to commerce 2nd maritime affairs. In his reign
London received the gift of its popular conftitution of the
corporation. Hume. Henry.

John- I., kin^ of Portugal, natural fon of Peter the Severe,
was born about the year l^^^jo, and raifed to the throne in
1383, to the prejudice of John of Cadile, who claimed in
nght of his wife Beatrix, daughter of Ferdinand. Soon
after his acceffion, the king of Caftile invaded Portugal
with a powerful army, but victory, which decided in favoiu-
of John, permanently fixed him on the throne. In 1387 he
married Philippa, daughter of John of Gaunt, duke of Lan-
caller. It was not till the year 1400, that a peace was
finally fettled between the two countries, which remained
inviolate during the reft of the reign. John employed the
feafon of public tranquillity in improving the police, and
promoting the profperity of his kingdom. Mindful of his
former colidit on, he behaved with great condefcenfion and
familiarity to his fubjects, and bellowed his favours liberally.
Though his bounty" kept him poor, he moderated his im-
pofls, and found refources in his frugality with refpcft to
the ordinary amufements of a court. He was accuflomed
to fay that converlation was the cheapefl of all pleafures, as
well as the molt improving, and he promoted a talle for
letters among the ncbility. He was, liowever, inflexible
in the punifiiment of crimes, and by his feverity in this
refpect, he rooted out the bands of bravoes kept by the
nobihty to execute private revenge. In 1414, he fitted out
a formidable expedition againlt the Moors, in which he was
fjccefsful, and he entnuted to his fon Henry, duke of Vi'eo,
the chief management of affairs in Africa, which gave occa-
fion to that courfe of maritime difcovery by which he became
fo much ditlinguiflied. (See Hexrv.) The concluding
cares of this fovereign were occupied in the fettlement of
his family, in which he was very fuccefsful. He died in
1433, after a long and profperous reijn, leaving behind
hiin the character of o.ne of the ableft and beft of tlie Portu-

gucfe fovereigns, under the title of " the father of his
country." He is regarded as the founder of a new royal

family.

John' II., king of Portugal, fon of Alphonfo V. was
born in the year 1455. In 1476, he was appointed regent,
and, in 1481, he airumrd the whole power of king on the
death of liis fatlier. Finding that the adniiniilration of
jullice was become exceedingly corrupt, he appointed a coni-
miffion to enquire into abufes, and to reform whatever was
wrong. He watched over tlie conduA of the judges, fore-
warning them of liis dilpleafure if they proved backw.-u-d in
the equitable difcharge of their duties. " Take care,"
faid he, to one of them, " I hear you keep your hands open
and your doors fliut :" this timely warning fiiffieed for his
reformation. A confpiracy was fliortly formed againll his
life, at the head of which was the duke of Vifco, a vcr,-
young man and the queen's brother. The king, on being
informed of it, fent for the duke to court, and taking liim
afide, charged him with his treafonable purpofe. What par-
ticularly palled on this occailon is not known, but the refult
was, that the king drew his dagger, and laid the duke dead
at his feet. Several of the other confpirators were appre-
hended, fome were executed, and others went into voluntary
exile. John, willing to ihew that he was not unr.eceflariiy
fevere, rellored the forfeited eftates of the duke of Vifeo t«
his brother, whom he likewifc railed to high dignity in the
Hate. It is to the honour of this prince that he was the
patron of commerce, particularly or that opene-J to the
Portuguefe by their fettlements on the coait of Guinea.
Being told by Cano, the difcoverer of Congo, that the
native? concealed their gold-mines, " Never look for them."
faid the king, " carry them what they want, and you will
get their gold without digging for it." He did muca-
towards the difcovery of the paffage by the Cape of Good
Hope ; but he had tlie mortification of reflecting, that by
his refufal of the propofals of Columbus, he miil'ed the op-
portunity of adding the wellern world to his dominions.
About the year 1490, he was grievoufly affctted by the
death of his only fon, who was killed by a fall from his
horfe at a race. ' He endeavoured, after this, to introduce
his natural fon George into the lu-ccfiion, but the great
oppofition whiL-h he met with in this fcheir.e induced him to
lay afide the pi-oject. He died in October 141)5. The chief
object of his reign feems to have been, to deprefs the nobi-
lity, to raife the inferior orders, and to promote the coin-
mercial profperity of his kingdom.

John III., king of PortU:;a!, was born in Ij02, and
fucceeded to the crown in 1J21. 'I'he events of this reiga
are in many refpetts important, ar.d attach to them very
ferious coulequences. In the time of this prince the execra-
ble inquiiition was introduced into Portugal, oi which it was
the curie nearly three hundred jear.s, and has only been abo-
liflied within thcfe few months,' at the fuggeilion or demand
of the Britilli court. John fent niillTf.naries into the Eall
Indies, of v.hom the celebrated Xavier was <nie. The new
fettlement ot Brazil was brought into a flourifhing ftate in-
this reign, and particular attention was paid to the convei -
fion of the natives. Tlie king was attentive to what he
believed would conduce to the happinefs of his.fubjcds; he-
was economical with regard to himfclf, and unwiihng to
burden his iubjefts with '.ew taxes. From his own re--
fources he founded hofpitais, conllructcd fortifications, hijh--
ways, and aqueducts, rellored the uuiverfily of Coimbra,
and executed other projects of utility and fplendour. John
died of an apoplexy in 1557, at the age of fifty-five, after,
a reign of thirty-live years. He was fucceeded by hit
grandfuu Sebaitiaii, a minor.

U U 2 JoRV

J O H N.

- John- IV., king of Portugal, born in March 1604, was
fon of TliooJofuis, tliike of Braganza, of the royal line. He
fucceedcd his fatlu-r in that dukedom in 1630, for, at that
time, the Spaniards had taken poffeffion of "the Portuguefe
government, and annexed the countr)' to the crown of Spain.
It was become, in the reign of Philip IV., a domain of
Caftile, intended for the enriching of favourites. The
oppreffion<: and indignities fuffercd by the Portuguefe had
inrtamed their difcontents to the highcll pitch, and they were
only waiting for a leader, to break forth into a general
revolt which they meditated. They fixed on the duke of
Braganza, and offered him the crown of Portugal, if he
would (land forth in their caufe, and merit the high honour
by his proxvefs. The Spanilli court, aware of their inten-
tions, pratlifed a variety of arts to get the duke into its
power. The higheft honours were offered him, in hopes of
ahcnating him from the Portuguefe caufe; when thefc
proved ineffertual, he was invited, or ratlier ordered, to come
to Madrid to confer on ftate affairs, and the impoffibihty of
excufing himfelf from this (lep, haftencd his final determina-
tion. The leaders of the confpiracy prcffed him again to
accept of the crown ; he hefitated, but on confulting tlie
duchefs, flie confirmed him, with this heroic addrefs, " My
lord, a violent death awaits you with certainty at Madrid,
perhaps at I.ifoon ; at the former place you niuft die as a
wretched prifoner ; here, covered with glory, and a king.
Let us confide in the love of the people, your juft claim,
and the proteftion of heaven." He accordingly acquiefced,
a revolution was effected in his favour in December 1C40,
and he was inftantly proclaimed .lohn IV. The new fove-
reign was acknowledged by all the powers of Europe, not
immediately under the influence of the houfe of Aullria, a
confpiracy was however formed againft his life and throne,
but it was difcovered and fupprciTed, and a treaty with
France and the United Provinces affiiled Portugal in foil-
ing the attempts of Spain to recover its fovereipjnty. The
reign, neverth'elefs, was paffed in pcrpet ual hollilities, though
carried on with little vigour on either fide. John died in
t656, leaving behind him two fons and two daughters. His
reign, though far from brilliant, was ufeful ; he was ever
defirous of promoting the good of his people, and very un-
willingly impofed any biu-thens on them. He recovered
from the Dutch, and feciu-cd the valua'.jle fettlement of the
Brazils, but Kid tlie iiland of Ceylon.

John V., king of Portugal, born in 1689, fucceeded his
father Peter II.,' in December 1706. The nation was at
this time engaged in the Spanifti fucceiUon war, as one of
the allies againll the houfe of Bourbon ; the new king was
faithful to the caufe, but little either of fuccefs or honour
attended his arms. The peace of Utrecht was favourable
to Portugal, and from that time the king's attention was
occupied in rendering his country flourifiiing. His goverti-
ment was wife and moderate, his charafter generous and
patriotic. He died in 1750. For farther particulars re-
lating to the k'ngs of Portugal, the reader is referred to the
Modern Univerfal Hiftory.

.John, king of Denmark, born in 1455, fucceeded his
father Chriftiern I. in 1481. He had been acknowledged
king of Denmark and Norway in his father's life-time.
He expeded to have been chofen king of Sweden, but
was ilif-ippointed by the intrigues of the adminillrator of
that kingdom, and it was not till 1497 that he was crowned
the king. At the coronation-fcall, one of the king's Ger-
man officers -hinting that it would be a politic aft to cut
ctf the heads of ihofe who had been leaders in the oppo-
fition to him, Jolm replied with a manly indignation, that
he would rather fee all his evil tounlellors ou a gibbit

than incur the fliame and infamy of (o favage a deed.
" God forbid,' faid the virtuous monarch, " that I fhould
cvi-r deny to any free people the right of chufing their
own governors." For fome time he afted conformably to
this fcntlment, and exhibited a mind intent upon tlie public
good, which produced a general fatisfaciion with his go-
vernment. John, however, did not always aA upon -the
principle of equity, which the maxim above quoted fliould
have inculcated. The people of Dithmarih accordingly
vindicated, at the point of the fword, their independence ;
and their fuccefs was the forerunner of an open revolt in
Sweden, where difcontents had been gradually accumulat-
ing againff the king's adminiftration, owing to tlie facihty
with which he had conferred offices and grants on his fa-
vourites, to the prejudice of the natives. The former re-
gent headed the malcontents, and renounced his allegiance to
John. The queen, Chriftina, who was left at Stockholm,
was obliged to capitulate ; and a revolution was effeftcd
in 1502. After this many changes in the government took
place, fevcral of wliich led John to hope for a reftoration
to the crown ; and a treaty ior that puqiofe was concluded.
a fiiort time before his death, wliich happened in I'ebruary
1513, in confequence of a fall from his horfe. He pof-
feffed many ellimable qualities, and would have been a
really good king, but that he fuffered himfsli to be fwayed
too much by his favourites.

John- III. king of Sweden, born in 1537, was fecond
fon of Gullavus Vafa, who fettled upon him the dukedom
of Finland. In 1560 he was fent to the court of Eng-
land to forward the propofed union between his elder bro-
ther Eric and queen Elizabeth. Not long after this Eric
fucceeded to the crown, and John became the objetl of
his fufpicion. He was arrefted, brought to trial, and con-
demned ; but his Hfe was {pared, and the fentence exchanged,
for perpetual imprifonmcnt. Several times it was determined
to deilroy him, but the tyrant as often relented, till at
length, finding it neceffary to Itrengthen his government, he
liberated John in 1567, to the great joy of the Swedilh na-
tion. In the following year he took up an.is againll Eric,
whom he depofed, and afcended the throne in his Head.
He found the nation involved in a war with Denmark and
Ruffir., and almoft ftruggling for its exiftcnee. He con-
cluded peace with the former power, but hollilities con-
tinued with the latter till they were fufpendcd by a truce
in 1573. Jiy the infliience of the queen, John abjured the
Proteilant religion, and embraced that of the church of
Rome. In confequence of this derelidlion of principle he
made many enemies ; and although numbers of the clergy
were gained over by views of ambition and emolument, yet
a formidable party, attached to the reformation, with the
king's brother, Charles, duke of Sudermania, at their head,,
made fuch an oppofition as nearly to involve the kingdont
in a civil war. By the death of the queen, John found it
expedient to leffen his zeal with regard to the cllablidi-
ment of the Roman religion, though he retairied the dcfire
of making it the religion of the itate. He accordingly
piiblifiied a liturgy conformable to it, the life of which he
enjoined to the clergy under the feverell penahies. The
flame of religious .difcord was hereby rc-kmdlcd ; and the
duke Charles ag/iin Hood forth as the defender of the Pro-
teilant church. In. 1590 John married Chriftina, daughter
of the duke.of Holffein. The war with Ruffia was renewed,
' and Sweden loll fevcral fortreffes. In this Hate of affairs
John died in 1592, after a reign of 24 year?. Mod. Univ.
Hill.

. John- Sobieskv, king of Poland, born in 1624, was fon

of a brave and able- ftatefraan of the fame name. He rc-

7 ceivcd

JOHN.

C>eivcd a very liberal education, and vifited the politeft;
courts in Europe. Ho afcended, through the feveral gra-
dations, to tlip highcft pofl: in the army, and fignali/.ed
himfeif in many important aftions. In the battle of Clioczim,
in 1673, 'f'^'' three days fighting-, he giive the Turks a total
and bloody defeat. In the foUowingyear, after many didi-
culties, and llniggling through much oppofition, he lucceeded
to the crown of Poland, and immediately applied his refources
in the profccution of the Turkifli war, and bv a ferics of
brilliant futcelTes foon induced the Porte to agree to a
treaty, which completely revoked the difhonourable terms
of a former one. His coronation followed the rdloration
of peace, and he employed the interval of tranquillity in the
re-ellablilhment of the finances of the kingdom, and inpre-
parations for a future war, which his own martial difpofitiou
rendered no dilhmt event. In i6!<^, he made an alliance,
offenfive and defenfive, with tlic court of Vienna, and with-
out hefifation expended the troafures which he had accumu-
lated in levying troops, and putting his army into the bed
pofTible (late. The 'I'urks having laid fiege to Vienna, and
reduced it to grL^at (Iraits, he marched to its relief, l-'orming
arjunftion with the imperial general, the duke of Lorraine,
they attacked the Turkifti camp on September nth, l68j,
entirely routed the Grand Vilir, took poflelVion of all his
cannon, warhke-ftores, &c. and broke up the fiege. The
people of Vienna regarded John as their faviour, afid all
Europe has rendered him the homage due to his heroifm
on this important occaiion ; but the pride of the emperor
Leopold produced from him a cold and ungracious acknow-
ledgment of the fervice. Between this a;id the year 1686
he performed many other noble deeds of valour ; but from
that period he paffed life witliout glory, in pro'iecls for the
advancement of his family by alliances, and efpecially for
fecuring the crown to his fon, by which he was involved in
many doineftic inquietudes, and civil diffentions. He died
in 1 696, lefs regretted than might have been expefted ;
but he had been accufed, in his latter years, of confulting
the interefts of his own power and ambition, rather than
"thofe of his country. It was, however, univerfaJiy admitted
that he was not only a brave warrior and coiifummate
commander, but poflefied ail the j.ccomphihments that are
fitted to adorn a throne. As a literary man, he was elo-
quent and well informed on moft fubjects. He was a good
Latin fcholar, converfant in feveral modern languages, and
acquainted with feience bevond moil of his countrymen-
Mod. Univ. Hill.

Joiiy of Gaunt, or Ghent, duke of Lancafler, was the
third fon of Edward III. king of England, and born at
Ghent in 1:540. He married Conlhince, a natural daughter
cf Peter the Cruel, king of Callile and Leon ; and on the
death of that monarch he laid claim to the throne in right
of his wife, in oppofition to Henry of Tranllamare, but
without fuccefs. He ferved with confiderable glory in
France with his brother the Black Prince, and on his death
the management of public affairs was committed to the care
cf John during the life of his father. On the accelfion of
Richard II. he retired ; but the envy of the courtiers,
particularly the ecclefiallics, who hated him for protecting
Wickliffe, followed him with falfe accufations of a defign
to ufurp the liirone, from which, however, he fatisfadlorily
vindicated himfeif. In 1386 his only daughter was married
to the heir apparent of the king of Callile, and John re-
nounced his claim to that crown in conlideration of a very
large fum of money and penfion. John took for his third
wite Catherine Swinford, filler to the wife of his friend
Chaucer the poet. He died in 1399, leaving a high charafter
for valour, prudence,, and geiierofity. Hia Ion afterwardsi

became king, under the title of Henry IV. See Hume's
Hia. and Godwin's Life of Chaucer.

Joii.v of Aujir'm, Don, the natural fon of the emperor
Charles V^. was born at Ratilbon in 1547. He firll ap-
peared as a public charafter in 1569, during the revolt of
the Moors of Granada, v\'iien he was appointed captain-
general of the Spanifli galleys, and was fent to Carthagena
to take the command. He aifilled in the operations of the
war, which was brought to a happy termination the following
year. The holy league againll the Turks for the protcdliou
of the Venetians, being formed between the king of Spain,
the pope, and the Italian Itates, don John was nominated,
in 1571, general in chief, and alfembled the united fleet at
Corfu. In October he engaged with the Turkifh fleet in
the gulph of Lepanto, and obtained that viclory whicli
Hands conlpicuous in the f.ries of adions between the
Chrillian and Miihonietan powers. Don John, in perfor,
fought with and took the Turkifli admiral's galley, and the
battle terminated in the lofs, on the part of the Turks, of
130 galleys taken, J^ dcftroyed, 25,000 men killed, and
X 0,000 made prifoners, befides achieving tlie liberty of
I), GOO Chriilian flaves. Divifions arofe as to the future
operations of the war: the advice of John was over-ruled,
and the advantages obtained by this fplendid viclory by
no means equalled the public expectation. In 1576 he \\m
appointed governor of the Low Countries. The Catliolic
provinces had united with Holland and Zealand againft the
Spaniards, and don John was direcled openly to concur in
this convention, and caufe the Spanifli troops to leave the
country. Shortly after this don John took poifeflion of
Namur, Charleiiiont, and Marienburg, contrary to the in-
tei-flls of the itates, who, in 1577, relumed their arms, de-
pofed don Jolm, and declared the archduke Matthias their
govi-rnor. A war commenced, and John gave the army
of the Netherlands a very fignal defeat, and made himfeif
mafter of many llrong places. He was proceeding iu his-
military career, when, in October 1578, lie was taken off,
after a fliort illnefs, in his camp at Namur, in the 3 2d year
of his age. He refembled his father in perfon, whom he
equalled in activity and enterprife, and whom he greatly
furpafled in generofity and humanity..

John I. pope, was a native of Tufcany,.and afcended the
papal chair on the death of Hormifdas, in the year 523.
His pontificate was ihort and wretched, owing to the in-
temperate zeal of the emperor Juflin for the extirpafion of
all the fefts who would not conform to the Catholic faith:
he even attempted to extirpate the Arians, of which party
Theodoric, king of the Gotlis, avowed himfeif a defender.
This prince wrote to the emperor moft preiTing letters in
favour of his perfecuted fal^jecls, and when he "found that
no regard w^ paid to thefe, knowing the influence which
the pope had'^at the imperial court, he ordered Jotui to at-
tend him at Ravenna : from thence he went- in qualitv of
ambaflador to Conilantinople, where he was very horiourably
received, but the main objedl of his embafly was condurted
in a way wliich gave his employer very little fatisfat'lion ;.
and on his return Theodorii. caufed him to be conducted
from the palace to a prifon. He died in confinement in the.
year 526,_ after a pontificate of little more than two years
and a half.

John. II. was elevated to the papal throne in 533, upon
the death of pope Boniface II. In the following year the
difpute, " whether one of the perfons of the Trinity fullered
iu the flefli," was carried on with great bitternefs. In this
difpute the emperor Jullinian took a part ; he not only
maintained the aflirmative fide of the qucftion, but declared,
ajl thofe who diilenied from him to be heretics. He alio.

. wrotel

J O H N.

^wroto to- John, fending him his own creed, afTurinr liim that
it was the faith of the whole eaftern church, and intreated
him' to pronounce a judgment in its favour. The emperor's
k-tler was accompanied with rich prefent«, and the pope,
without much hclilation, decided- in favour of .Tuftinian'j
confeHion. He died in 53^., after a pontificate of tno-ycars
and five months. Sis Ictlers bear his name in the Gollecl.
Concil. of which lhe^fin1 is generally rejefted as fpiirious.

JoTtN III. pope, furnamcd C.tlaJinf, a native of Rome,
vas foil of Anafl:aCi:s, a perfon of coufidcrable dilHnciion.
He was elevated to tlie popedom on the death of Pelagius
ill 560, and after holding it about thirteen years he died.

John IV. pope, furuamcd Schok^icus, was ele£tedtolhe
pontifical dignity upon the death of pope Severinos, in the
year 640. He engaged deeply in the controverfy of the
AIoNOTHELITrs (which fee), and involved himfclf in fome
difficnltic-3 on that acoou it. He employed the wealth of
the church in humanely redeeming vaii numbers of Chrif-
tlansv whom the Sclavi had carried off captives in their ir-
raptions into tlie empire during the reign of Heraclius.
I'he reign of this pontiff did not extend to a fmgle year.
Three of his letters are i.nferted in the fifth volume of the
Coiieft. Concil.

John V^. pope, a native of Antioch in Syria, was, while
oisiy a deacon in the church, appointed by pope Agatlio one
cf three legates, whom he chofe to be his reprefentatives
at the fixth general council, and it was by him that the Greek
copy of the letters of Honorius to Sergius, produced and
raad in the council, was compared, and found entirely to
Etrree with the Latin original, depofited in the library of the
patriarch. In 68j, upon the death of BenediA II., John
was eleded hii fucceffor, an honour which he retained fome-
thing more than a year. He died, after a long and tedious
iJlnefs, in the year 686.

Joil-V VI. pope, was elected to the papal throne in the
year 702 : the reigning emperor, Tiberius Apfimarus, ob-
jeited to the election, and ordered him to be driven from the
"aooftolic fee ; but the fo'dicrs took part with John, and efta-
blifhed him on his throne. He difplayed great generofity
by redeeming inany captives, whom the duke of Bcnevento
had taken in an irruption into the territories of the empire
of Italy, and at length prevailed upon that prince to put an
end to his hollilities againrt the fubjefts of the empire. He
held a council at Rome, in which Wiltrid, who had been
driefSi from the fee of York, and baniflied England, was de-
clliifed innocent of the crimes laid to his charge. John died
in 705, after a reign of little more than three years.

Joiix VII pope, was raifed to tie pontifical dignity on
the death of John VI. Immediately on his elevation to the
throne, the emperor Judinian demanded of him his opinion
with regard to certain canons ; biit John was too warv to be
thus drawn into a trap, and declined giving any judgment,
left, by fo doing, he might incur the emperor's difpleafure.
He died after a pontificate of two years and leven months,
in the year 707. A fmgle letter of this pope is to be
found in the fixth volume of the Colleft. Concil.

Jonx Vni. pope, was, on the death of Adrian II , clefled
♦o fill the papal fee. This was in the year 87 2 ; and in the
following year the emperor Lewis II. came to Rome, where
he held an aflembly of the ftates cf Italy fubjeft to his em-
pire, at whieh the pope atfilled. In that afiembly the pope
abfolved Lewis from an oath which he had taken not to in-
terfere with the govjrnnicnt of the dukedom of Benevento,
under the pretence that it had been extorted by force, and
alfo that it was inconfiltent with the welfare of the empire.
In 87J he crosvned the emperor Charles the Bald, and three
yeitre after went to France, where he held a council at Troyes.

In his pontificate Italy was gfreally nn-aged by the Saracens,
who obliged the pope to pay tribute. He correfponded with
Eilotius, patriarch of Conlfantinople, who had driven Igna-
tius from his feat, and ufurped for himfelf the dignity. At
firil tlic pope refufed to acknowledge him ; but Photius, by
rich prefents, rendered hi? holinefs propitious, who not only
confcnlcd to abfolve him from the excommunications which
had been repeatedly thundered out againft him, but readily
received him as his brother and colleague. In a council held
at Conitajitinoplc, in the year S79, at which the papal le-
gates and Photius conjointly prefided, the latter was declared
lawful patriarch of the imperial city, and the legates, won
over by his prefents, ventured fo far to depart from their in-
ftruCtions, that they pronounced an anathema againft all who
fliould receive any of the councils which had condemned
him. Upon their retiirn to Rome, confcious of having gone
beyond their inttructions, they endeavoured to conceal this
circumftance from the pope ; but he was foon apprifad of it,
and exafperated, as well at their treachery, as at the difinge-
nuity of Photius, declared all their proceedings null and
void, and alTemb'ed another council in 881, at which he
catifed the patriarch to be a fecond time condemned. After
this he made an offer of the imperial crown to Charles the
Grofs, and urged him by all means to come to Rome to re-
ceive it. As foon as the ftatc of his affairs would permit
him, Charles proceeded to that city, and was crowned by
the pope in St. Peter's church. John, however, could not
prevail with the new emperor to lend him any affillance
again li the Saracens ; he, therefore, endeavoured to gain over
filch of the Italian princes as had entered into an alliance
with them. He even went to Naples, to try whether he
could perfuade Athanafius to turn his arms agaiaft them.
That prelate promiffd to fupport the pope, and was fupplicd
with money to enable him to lew the requifite forces, but
with the cooleft treachery he turned thofe forces againft the
pope himfelf. Jolm inftantly excommunicated him, and re-
fufcd him abfolutioii but upon fuch conditions as he could
not comply with This pope died in the year 882, after a
pontificate of little more than ten years. More than three
hundred of his letters are to be found in the ninth volume of
the Collect. Concil. fome of which are faid to throw confider-
able light on the ecclcfiaftical and civil affairs of the time in
which he flouriihed. He left alfo a fermon pronounced in
council on the confirmation of the eleftion of Charles the
Bald.

Joiix IX. pope, a native and deacon of I'ivoli, was raifed
to the papal "dignity on the death of Theodore II. in 898.
At this period Italy was divided by the factions of different
pretenders to the empire : John at firft refuicd to take any
part in thefe contclts ; but owing to the violence of Bc-
rengcr, king of Lombardy, he was induced, apparently, to
efpoufe his caufe, and to crown him emperor. He had,
iiowover, no fooner left the city, than the pope aflembled a
council, in which he declared the coronation of Berenger
null and void, as having been extorted by force, and acknow-
ledged Lambert, who had alfo been crowned king of Italy,
as the only lawful emperor. In the fame year John convened
a council to meet at Ravenna, wliich confirmed the afts of
the council of Rome, and approved of the coronation of
Lambert, who v.as prefent in perfon. This pope died in
the year 900, after having filled the papal chair about two ■
years. Four of his letters are extant in the ninth volume of
the Colleft. Concil.

John X. pope, rofe in the church by degrees, from the-
rank of deacon to that of archbilhop of Ravenna. He was
indebted, for this laft promotion, to a celebrated prollitute
Theodora, with whom he had long been intimate notwith-

itanding

JOHN.

fianJing his elevated ftation in the cliUrch. In ■<>I4> Theo-
dora, by her iiUrigues and iiitercll, jjot her favourite ^nd
friend preferred to the poiililical chair. Under this pope,
Rome and Italy were indebted for delivoranL^ from the
barbarous and oppreffive Saracens In 916 he ero«ned
anew Beren^er, who readily affilted him in his ambitious
projed?. Tlie pope relolved to take the field liimfelf as
generaiiffinio of all the forc-s, and under him the Saracen
power was completely annihilated, which, during the fpaee
of forty years, had been the terror of the vvliole of Italy.
In the' following year the pope bejran to feel fome com-
punftions of conicience on accoimt of his former condutt,
and accordingly fent a legate, as his proxy, on a pilgrimage
to the tomb of St. James, of Compoftella, in the kingdom
of I.eon, lioping, at leall wilhing, others to believe, that
he (liouUi atone Yor his vices by oifering rich prefents at
the (hrine of a departed faint. In the year 925 John
fhe^ved how little regard he paid to the canons of the
chnrch by confirming the nomination of Hugh, a child
only five vears old, and fon of count Herbert, in the
archbilhopr'ic of Rheims. As John was ind^-bted for his
rank, and el.-vation in the church to the intrigues of one
infamous woman, io he loft his dignity and lite through
thofe of another. This was Marozia, the daughter of his
former miftrefs Theodora. Marozia, exafperated that Ihe
did not fucoeed her mother in th.e confidence of the pope,
refolved to dellroy him and his brother Peter, who at this
time was in habits of the ftriftoll intimacy with him. She
communicated the bloody delign to her hufband, and pre-
vailed on him not only to approve, but to be the inftru-
ftient of carrying it into execution. Accordingly this
•wretch, on a certain day, when the pope and his brother
were together in the Lateran palace, broke into it at the
head of a band of ruffians, killed Peter before hh bro-
ther's face, and then, fii/.ing the pope, dragged him to
prifon, where he foon afterwards died This tragical event
happened in the year 928, after John had been feated on the
papal throne more than fourteen years. Three of the
letters of this pope are to be found in the ninth volume of
the Collecl. Concil.

John- XL pope, was fuppofed to be the natural fon of
pope Sergius III. by the infamous Marozia, but according
to others he was the fon of Alberic, duke of Spoletta. It
is certain he attained the dignity of pope through the in-
flaence of Marozia, and her hufband Guy, marquis of Tuf-
cany, in the year 931, upon the death of Stephen VII.
Guy' did not long furvive the promotion of John, and im-
tnediately upon his death, Marozia fent word to his brother
Hugh, kingof Lombardy, that (he would make him mailer
of Rome, upon the condition of marrying her. To this
the prince readily acceded, and took poifeiTion of his bride,
and the caftle of St Angelo at the fame time. Hugh ren-
dered himfelf hateful to the Romans, and excited the re-
fentraent of Alberic, a fon of Marozia by her firfl hufband,
who put himfelf at the head of the difcontented, attacked
the caftle of St. Angclo, and made himfelf mafter of the
fonrefs. In the confiifion Hugh made his efcape, but Ma-
rozia and pope John fell into Alberic's hands, who kept
them both in clofe confinement during the remainder ot their
lives. John died in 936, after a pontificate of nearly five
years.

Joirx XH. pope, whofe origiHal name was Oftavitin, was
fon of the Alberic referred to in the laft article. On the
death of his father in 9J+, Octavian fucceeded te his dig-
nities, and not fatisfied with his temporal power, he alpired
to the papal throne when it became vacant in the year
956, and fecurtd tlie pofleffion of it to himfelf. On this

occafion he afTumed the name ef John XII. and thus iti-
troducod the cuftom which was afterwards adopted by his
fuccelFors of clianging tiieir ufual names for others, upon
their acceflion to the pontificate. At this time Bcrenger
tyrannized over Italy, and the pope implored the alTiftance of
Otho I., who delivered the country. John crowned Otho
at Rome, !\nd promifed him fidelity, whicli liowcver was of
very ihort duration, for he united with the fun of Berenger
againll his deliverer. Otho returned to Rome in 963, and
ca'led a council, in which the pope was accufed of adul-
terv, iaci-ili-^e, and other crimes, v.hich were fatisfaclorily
proved againft him, and he was depofed. When the fen-
tence of his depofitiou had been pronounced, the council,
cler>»-v, nobihtv, and people, unaninioudyeleiSed Leo VIII.
to fill his place. After this, John ieveral times confpircJ
againft the life of the new pope, and was as frequently par-
doned, till at length he contrived to fet himlcli again on
the papal throne. John inftantly aflembled a council of
prelates and cardinals, who condemned the council that
had depofed him, and paifed different fentences of con-
demnation on all thofe who had been acccflary to the ele-
vation of his rival. John did not long furvive the holding
of this council, for having engaged in a criminal connection
with a married woman, the injured huftsand who caught
him in the ad put an end to his hohncfs's life and debauch-
eries bv fome violent blows which he gave him on his tem-
ples. His death is fuppofed to have taken place in 964,
after he had filled the papal throne about eight years. A
fingle letter of his is inferted in the ninth vol. of the Golleft.
Concil.

JoiiN XIII. pope, was one of the principal accufers of
the pope vvhofe hillovy has been juft given. By the part
which he took on this occafion, he recommended himfelf
to the favour of the emperor Otho, who, after the death of
John, returned witli his army to Rome, and held a coun*
cil there, in which a decree was palled, confcrr.ng on the
emperor and his fucceflbrs for ever the power of nomi-
Dating the pope, and of granting inveftiture to biftiops*
After the death of Leo VIIL, in the year 965, John
was recommended by the emperor as his fucceflbr to the
holy fee, which wa.s' decidedly contrary to tjie inclination
of the Roman people, who confpired againft him and drove
him from his throne. The emperor determined to take am-
pl- revenge for this infult, and marching his army, he
reilorcd the pope, and fcvercly puniftied thofe who had
taken pnrt againft him. He next went to Ravenna, ac-
companied by the pope, where he held a council in the
year 967. Upon the breaking up of the council the pope
returned to Rom", where he fpent the remainder of his life
in the unhiolefted polTeilron of his high dignity. In 968 he
crowned, in St. Peter's church, the young Otho, king of
Germany, whom his father had taken for his partner in
the empire, and in the year 971 he crowned as cmprefs
Thecphania, daughter of the late eaftern emperor Rcmimus,
who was married to Otho tlie younger. John died at Rome
in 972, after having prefidcd in the Roman fee nearly fcvcn
years. In his pontificate the Poles were firft converted to
the Chriftian rehgion, ahd he is faid by fome writers to
have been the perfon who introduced the practice of blefling
or confecrating cliurch bells. Four letters of this pope
may be found in the ninth vol. of the Collect. Concil.

John- XIV. pope, fucceeded to the papal chair on the
death of Benedid VII. in the year 985, an honour whidi
he enjovcd but eight montlis. Bonif.Tcc VII. who is claficd
among the anti-popes, undertook the cxpuliion of .fohn.
He prevailed, feized his rival, confined him in the calUe
of St, Angclo, and there cither ftarvcd him to death, or

JOHN.

more humanely difpatched him with poifon. Boniface him-
lelf did not long furvive the viclim of his cruelty, beiitg
carried off in the fame year by a fudden death. Upon this
event, John, a native of Rome, and the fon of one Robert,
^vas elcfted pope, and governed tlie church during the fpacc
of about four months, but for fome caufe or other, not
fufficiently explained, he is not reckoned among the popes.

John" XV. was clefted to the papal dignity in the year
■98?, on the death of John, the fon of Robert, who has been
jult mentioned. Soon after the commencement of his puii-
tiiicate, Crcfcentius, a man of great power at Rome, af-
pired at the fovereignty of tiie city, feized the caillc of
St. Angelo, and affumed the title of confuL The pope,
.conceiving tliat he was in danger, implored the affillance of
the emperor Otho III., who promifedhim, that, if neccffary,
lie would come with his whole army, and fupport the apollolic
fee with the fame zeal which his father and grandfather had
difplayed. John informed Crefcentius of the imperial deter-
mination ; he fubmitted, and fent fome of the chiefs of his
.party to invite liis holinefs back to Rome, with the Itrongeii
affurances of fafety, and of that refpeCl which was due to
the fucceflor of St. Peter. John complied, and was per-
mitted to live unmolefted till towards the clofe of his ponti-
ficate. In the year 993, at a council held at the Lateran pa-
lace, file pope, after hearing read an account of the life and
fuppofed miracles of Ulderic, biHiop of Augulla, declared,
with the approbation of his biftiops, that from thenceforth
Ulderic might be worlhipped and invoked as a faint in
heaven reigning with Chrift. This is the firit inllance on re-
cord of the folemn canonization of a pretendedly meritorious
character, a practice which foon contributed to crowd the
Roman calendar with faints, and loaded the church with
\\ ealth, by die rich offerings with which the fuperftitious
multitude was encouraged to propitiate the favour of thofe
new mediators between God and man. About this period
the pope became engaged in a quarrel with the French
clergy, over whom he obtained a complete victory ; he had,
however, more trouble with Crefcentius who began to re-
fume his ambitious projefts at Rome. John applied again
for affillance to Otho, who marched an army to his aliill-
ance, but in the midil of thefe warlike preparations the pope
died in the year 996, and in the eleventh year of his poiitih-
cate. Three of his letters are extant m the ninth vol. of
the CoUea. Concil.

John XVI. pope, was a native of Roflano, in Calabria,
of mean extraction, but a perfon of confiderable abihties
and addrefs. Jie was employed by the emperors Otho il.
and III. in affairs of confiderable moment; from the latter
he obtained poflelEon of the fee of Placentia, and held it
till he heard that Gregory V. was driven from Rome by
Crefcentius in the year 99;, when he bargained for, and
purchafed the popedom cf that ufurper, and then adumed
the title of John XVI. He was excommunicated by feveral
councils held in Italy, France, and Germany, and at length
the emperor Otho brought againit him a powerful army.
Tlie pope, or, as he is fometimes caUed, the antipope, en-
deavoured to make liis efcape from the city, but falling into
the l^^nli^ fome of Gregory's friends, they barbaroudy
depriveSJI^ of his fight, and cut off his nofe and c:u-s.
To complete the climax of their cruelty, they mounted the
tinhappy wretch on an afs, led him through the llreets of
the city, and forced him to exclaim " Whoever fhall dare to
jJifpoffefs a ! ope, let him be ferved like me."

John XVII. pope, was elccled to the holy office on the
death of Silvtfter II. in the year 1003, in which year he
alfb died, after he had prefided over the church about five
wonths. It has b^n afferted, that from this time, tiie peo-

ple were deprived of -voting at elefl:ions of the fovereign pon- .
tiffs, which was afterward* confined to the clergy. He w^s
fucceeded by

John" XVIII. pope, who held theofRce to which he was-
elected in 1003, between five and fix years, but few of his
ac^shave come down to us, except his fending St, Bruno to
preach Chriftianity to the Ruffians, and his putting an end to
the fchilm which exiftcd between the eaftern and weftern
ciiurches.

John XIX. pope, \vas fon- of Gregory, count of Tuf-
culum, and brother of Lenedid VIII. Upon the death of
the latter in tlie year 1024, the influence and wealth of Gre-
gory procured the election of his other ion, who was then
a layman. It was at this moment that he thought it ad-
vifable to afTume the name of John XIX. Early in this
pontificate an attempt was made, by the emperor Baiilius, to
allow the patriarch of Comlantinople tlie title of Univerfal
bifliop of the Eail, but John fent back the ambaffadors with
a rcfufal, telling them that the title of univerfal bifhop be-
came none but the fucceffors of St. Peter in the apoftohc fee.
In the year J026, Conrad, king of Germany, having entered
Italy v.ith an army, and haviqg reduced ail the towns which
had iliaken off the imperial yoke, went to Rome, where the
pope crowned him emperor, and his queen emprefs, with
the ufual folemnitics. On this occafion, Rudolph, king of
Burgundy, and Canute, king of England, wlio were on a
pilgrimage to Rome, were prefent. John died in 103^^,
Three of his letters are inlerted in the ninth volume of the
Collect. Concil.

John XX. or XXI. pope, a Portuguefe, fon of one
Julian, a phyfician, became eminent for his acquaintance with
the fciences, particularly with that of medicine, the prafticc
of which he followed for fome time with great reputation.
He afterwards devoted himfelf to the church, and advanced
by degrees to high preferment. He was made cardinal by
Gregory X., and on the death of Adrian V., in 1276, he
was eletted to the pontiiic.d dignity, when he took the name
of John XX. or XXI. The firft'act of his pontificate wa«
to revoke the famous conllitiition of Gregory X. which
ordered that the cardinals fhould be fliut up in the conclave
during the vacancy of the papal fee. He did all in his power
to affill the Chriilians in the Eaft. He was ignorant of the
world, and became attached to the pretended principles of ju-
dicial allrology ; from thefe he thought he had many years to
live, and began to devife fchemes for the future. He was,
however, carried off in eight months after his elevation to
the holy fee. He was author of feveral tratls on logic, one
on phyfiognomy, and fome medical treatifes. One of his
letters to Edward I. king of England, is in the tenth volume
of the Colled. Concil. and fome others in the fccond volume
ofWiddingus' "Annal. Minor."

JoHX XXI. or XXII. pope, a Frenchman by nation,
and by defcent, according to different writers, the fon of a
noble, a tavern-keeper, or a cobler. In early life he was
appointed to fome confiderable offices in the ftate, the duties
of which he performed with fo much credit to himfelf, as
to manifell very fuperior talents for public bufinefs. On
the death of Clement V., in 1314, the moft violent difputes.
occurred in the eleftion of a fucceffor to the holy fee. Thefe
were carried on for two years, after which the cardinals unani-
moufly elected James de Offa, tlie fubjedl of this article,
who EiTumed the name of John XXI. or XXII. During
his pontificate he founded feveral abbeys and bifhoprics ;
but he was not only the witnefs to, but the perpetrator of,"
many cruelties with refpedl to the Francifcans ; fome of
whom were, bv his order, aftuaily (laved alive, as prepa-
ratory to their being bound to the Hake for burning, which

favasrc-

JOHN.

lavage fenfencs was carried into execution without mercy.
The cruelty of John was condemned by his warmed adhe-
rents, who did not fcruple to declare that by it lie had ren-
dered himfelf utterly unworthy of the papal dignity, and
thst his deeds proved him to be the predidled anti-chrift.
They even revtred thefe viftims as martyrs to the truth,
pavinjj religious veneration to their bones and allies. He
was next uuolved in the difpiite whether Clirill and his
apollles ever poflTelTed any property or dominion, either in
common or pcrfonally. Tlie diicuffions on this queilion
were violent and bitter, and thofe wlio maintained tlie ne-
gative fide of the queilion paid for their temerity by tlie
moH excruciating fuffcrings inflicled on them. John was
now engaged in a difpute with Lewis of Bavaria, who, as
the reward of his victory over Frederic of Audria, claimed
the Imperial crown as his right. John, alarmed at his
alTurance, inrtantly excommunicated him, and forbade all
the fubjefts of the empire, on pen;dty of the fame fentence,
to acknowledge him for king, or obey him as fuch. From
this fentence the monareh appealed to a general council, and
publifhed a manifefto againll his holinefs, defcribing him as
one who trampled on all laws, human and divine, to gratify
his ambition or avarice ; as a ravenous wolf, iieecing and
devouring the fiock committed to his care ; and, as an avowed
heretic, in condemning aS herefy the doftrine concerning tiie
poverty of Chrill. John died after a uiofl turbulent ponti-
ficate, in the year 1334, at the great age of ninety years.
Notwitii landing his various afts, which have been but merely
referi-ed to, he found biographers to praife his good deeds,
forgetting thofe which were of a contrary defcription.
They faid he was a innn of learning, and an cncourager of
the leariied. The liiitorian has held him up as ambitious,
arrogant, cruel, and avaricious. He is fuppofed to have
been the perfon who invented the " Annates," obliging
every clergyman, preferred to a benefice, to pay into the
apoltolic chanibt-i- one year's income before he took pofTeffion
of it. He died immer.fely rich, and was known in the lite-
rary world as author of feveral treatifes : one " On the
Contempt of the World :" one " On the Tranfmutation of
Metals," and twenty-two Conftitutions which he ordered to
te called " Extravagantes." Many of his bulls and letters
are likewife extant. He is faid alfo to have been author of
feveral treatifes on medicine, which led fome of his bio-
graphers to fay he was better fitted for a phyfician than a
pope. He is faid by Walther to have written, among other
things, a treatife on mufic, ffiiiic Sguticam ; but no fuch
trealife is enumerated in the lift of his works by Baronius or
Fabrieius. This pontiff, however, feems to have interelled
himfelf very much about ecclcfiallical mufic. The attempts
at difcant, or extemporaneous counterpoint, were thought
fo licentious in his time, that he prohibited tl.e ufe of it in
the church by a bull in 1322. There is, however, at the
end of it this favourable clauCe : " It is not our intention
wholly to prevent the ufe of concords in tlie facred fervice,
particularly on great feftivr/ls, provided the ecclefiaflical
chant or plain-fong be carefully preferved. The Abbe Le-
boeuf obferves, that thofe who drew up this bull, which is
inferted in the body of canon laws, erroneoufly confined
difcant to fourths, fifi.ins, and eighths, from the perufal of
ancient authors on tlic fubjeft of mufic, particularly CafTio-
dorus, where they had found the following definition ;
" Symphonia eft temperamentum fonitus gravis ad acutum,
Tcl acuti ad gravem, modulamen efficiens, five in voce, five
in percuflione, five in flatu. Symphonise funt fex : prima,
diatefiaron : fccunda, diapente : teriia, diapafon. Quarta,
diapafoQ et diatelFeron : quinta, diapafon et diapente ; fexta,
diaoafon et diapafon."—" Svmphony, or mufic in confo-
Voi.XlX.

nance, is the mixing graire founds with acute, or acute with
grave, either in finging or playing upon iliinged or wind
inftruments. Symphonic concords are fix ; the fourth, fiftli,
and eighth, witii their oftavcs. It is hardly poflib'e to read
this palTage, and not give up the contelt concerning ancient
counterpoint, or at leal! reduce it to the meagre kind of
which Padre Martini has framed an example in his Storia
Mufica.

John XXII. or XXIII. pope, formerly known by the
name of Bahhafar-Cofla, was a native of Naples, and bcing^
defcended from a noble and we.ilthy family, he enjoyed the
advantages of an excellent education at Bologna, where he
took his degrees, and from thence he fct out to Rome,
anticipating the honours that feemed to b" rcferved for him,
for on being allied by fome of kis friends whither he wa$
going, he rephed " to the popedom." Scarcely hnd he
arrived at this great city, when he was made chamberlain to
pope Boniface JX. who, in 1402, promoted him to the purple.
He took an aftive part in the depofition of Gregory XII.
and exerted all his talents, influence, and property to fecure
the cleclion of Alexander V. Soon after that pontiff'*
eleftion the plague obliged him to quit Pifa, and lie was pre-
vailed upon by cardinal Coffa to pay a vifit to Bologna.
Here he found means to detain the pope, under various
pretences, till his hulinefs fell dangcroullv ill, and his com-
plaints proved fatal to hiui. The fubjeft of our prefent article
has lain under the heavy charge of caufing him to be pni-
foned by iiis phyficians : he was, however, clcded his i'Oc-
ceflbr, and from the title of cardinal CofTa he affumed the
name of John XXIII. On the very day tliat lie was raifed
to this high dignity in the church, he wrote to all ChrilUan
princes, acquainting them of his promotion, and exhorting
them to fupport his claims agamft the prctenfions of thofe
wlio had been condemned and depofed by the church univcr-
fal. One of the earlicft objcfts of John's adminiftration
was to raife a fund to fupport the claims of his friend Lewis
of Anjou, in oppofitiou to thofe of his inveterate enemy,
Ladillaus, to the pofTeffion of the kingdom of Naples.
In his progrcfs he folemnly excommunicated Ladillaus, and
then ordered a crufade to be preached againll him all over
Clirillendom. By the bull iffued on this occafion, all were
exhorted to take the crofs and engage in this holy war ;
and to all who lliould embark in it, the fame indulgences
were granted as to thofe who went to the conqueif of the
Holy Land. In a fiiort time peace was reilorcd ; this was
effefted by John's taking off the excommunication from
Ladillaus, who, in return, agreed to abandon the caufe of
Gregory, whom he had hitherto vindicated as the true pope.
After the reftoration of tranquillity, John n;ade a promotion
of fourteen cardinals, and lummoned all tlie prelates of the
church to attend a general council at Rome. At this
council few bifhops were prefent, its proceedings were,
probably, unimportant, except in this, that it condemned
the doctrine of WickliiF, and ordered his works to be com-
mitted to the flames. Ladifiaus took the firll opportunity
of attacking pope John : the pontiff appealed to all Chriltian
princes, exhorting them to appoint a geneial council to put
a flop to the reigning evils, and to unite the whole church
under one head. The choice of the place was left to the
emperor, who fixed on Couflancc. Here the council wai
opened on the ill of November 1414. After many feflious
a lilt of accufations againll the pope was read, containing
fevenly articles, fome of which, however, were too fcanda-
loiis even to be gone into : the otheri related to the pope's
fimony and tyranny ; and to the means which he took of
amafCng immenfe riches. After thefe artiides, and the de-
pofitions ill fupport of them, were read and examined, the
X X council

JOHN.

council declared them to be fully proved, and then unani-
moudy paiTcd a fenteiice of fufpenfion againft the pope.
This fentence was coinmunicated to him by a deputation
from the counci'. After this, wz. on'the 29th of May
141 J, the council proceeded a ftep farther, and unanimoufly
palled the definitive fe;itence of John's dcpofition, and or-
dered his feals to be broken. He was then committed to
the care of Lewis, duke of Bav,ari;i, and count palatine of
the Rhine, who kept him prifoner, but treated him with
civility and i-efpe£l. At the expiration of about four years
he obtained his liberty, and made f.ich concefTions to the ex-
ifting pope Martin V. that he created him cardinal bilhop of
Tufculum, and dean of the facred college : he alfo ordained
that he Hioiild always lit next to the pope, and that his feat
fhould be elevated a little above thofc of the other cardinals.
He did not live many months to enjoy thefe honours. His
charaftcr has already been defcribed ; he was unqucftionably
vicious and dcftitute of good principles, and merited thnt
fall which he experienced. He was author of a poem " De
Varietate Fortunx," which is faid to be diftinguifhed by
genius and taile. His bull for alTembling the council of
Conllance ; the form of his refignation, and fome of his
letters, are ftiTl extant. ■ For farth-'r particulars relating to
the popes John, the reader is referred to Bower's Hiflory.

John- of Bayeux, known alfa by the name of John of
Avranches, an illurtrious Galiican prelate in the eleventh
century, the firlt of all the bifhops of Avranches, and af-
terwards promoted to the archiepifcopal fee of Rouen. He
held a provincial council in the year 1074, at which feveral
ftatutes were palTed for the regulation of ecclefiaftical dif-
cipline, which provoked the refentment of the lax and diffi-
pated clergy, who obliged him to feek for fafety in flight.
Other perfectitions obhged him to refign his preferment, and
retire to his country houfe : here he was attacked by the
monks of the abbey of St. Owen, who killed him on the
fpot. He was author of a work " On the Duties of Ec-
clcfiaftics," which was firfl puhlidied with notes, by John
le Prevor, canon of Rouen. Morori.

John D.-Smascevi-s, or St. John of Damafcus, who lived
in the eighth century, is celebrated by the writers of his
life, and by ecclefiaftical hiftorian?, as the compiler and re-
forn:er of chants is the Greek church, in the fame manner
as St. Gregory in the Roman. And Leo Allatius, under the
title of OUoechusy telis u= they were compofcd by John Da-
mafcenus. Zarlino goes flill farther, and informs us that in
the firll ages of Chr;lHanity the ancient Greek notation by
letters having been thrown aiide, John Damafcenus invested
new charafters, which he accommodated to the Greek eccle-
fiaftical tones ; and that thtfe charafiers did not, like our's,
merely e.\prels fingle founds, but all the intervals ufed in
melody : ,33 a femitone, tenc, third minor, third major, &c.
afcendingand defcending with their different duration.

This refembles, in many particulars, the notation in ancient
Romifh milTals, before the time-table and charaders m pre-
fent ufe were invented, or even the Gregorian uotss generally
received.

Joii\ DE M'jRis. See MuRis.

Jon.^J of Saiybury, a learned Englifhman of the 12th cen-
tury, was elected bifhop of Chartrcs in France in the year
1177, an oince which he held about four years when he
died. He wrote the life of Thomas a Becket and feveral
other works. This learned prelate feems to have been much
offended and fcandalized at the licentioufuefs of the lingers
in performing the facred rites. Wo fhoukl fuppofe, by his
cenfures, that the clioYal band vi-as outrageouHy addided to
flourifliing, aid. that many of thera fung in faliit. What

the cxmplaints of the good biiltop of Chartres were, the
following pafTage from his PoHcraticus will fhew.

" Mulica cultum rcligionis inceftat, quod ante confpettum
Domini, in iplspenetraiibus fanftuarii,lafciYientis vocisluxu,
quadam oftentatione fui, muhebribus modis nofularum arti-
culorumque cifuris, ilupentes animulas emolhre nituntur.
Cum praecinentium, et fuccinentium, canentium, et decinen-
tium, interciiientivm, et occinentium, praemoUes modula-
tiones audieris, Sirenarum concentus crcUas eile, non homi-
num, et de vocum facilitate miraberis, quibus philomela vel
pfittacus, aut fi quid fonorius eft, modos fuos requeunt cos-
quare. Ea fiquidem ell afcendendi defcendendique facilitas ;
ea feftio vel geminatio notularum, ea replicatio articulorum,
fingulorumque confolidatio ; fic acuta vel acutifTima, gravi-
bus et fubgravibus temperantur, ut auribiis fui indicii fere
fubtrahatur autoritas." Policraticus, live de Nugis Curia-
lium, lib. i. c. 6.

" The rites of religion," fays he, «* are now profaned by
mulic : and it feems as if no other ufe were made of it than
to corrupt the mind by wanton modulations, effeminate in-
flexions, and frittered notes and periods, even in the Pent'
tralia, or awful fanfluary itfelf. The llupid crowd, de-
lighted with all thefe vagaries, imagine they hear a concert
of iirens, in which the performers llrive to imitate the note*
of nightingales and parrots, not thofe of men ; fometimes
defcending to the bottom of the fcale, fometimes mounting
to the fummit ; now foftening and now enforcing the tones,
repeating paffages, mixing in fuch a manner the grave
founds with the more grave, and the acute with the mofl
acute, that the aftonilhed and bewildered ear is unable to dif-
tinguifh one voice from another."

JoiiN of Ragifa,a. learned Cathohc prelate, who flourilhed
in the fifteenth century, was born in the city whence he de-
rived his furname. While young he entered himlelf among
the preaching friars, and applied with fuch diligence to
his ftudies, that he became one of the moll learned mea
of his time. He was particularly celebrated for liis deep
acquaintance with the Oriental languages. In 1426 he was
appointed attorney-general of his order at tfie court of Rome,
and was nominated by pope Martin V. one of his divines at
the council of Bafil. At this afiembly he was the principal
difputant againft the doftrines promulgated by John Hnfs»
After this he was fent on different legations to Conllantiuo-
ple, with a defign of bringing about an union between the-
eaflern and wellern churches, but his exertions were not at-
tended with fuccefs. On his return to Italy he was nomi-
nated to the fee of Argos in the Peloponntfiis. It has been
afferted by fome authors that he was ni;ide a cardinal. His
works are "A Difcourfe agaiiifl the Huffites :" Adtsof hi»
Legation to Condantincple :" and "-An Account of his
Travels in the Eall. " Moreri,

JiHX, Pnfler. See Pre.ster.

St. John's Bread, in Bstany. See Cebatoni.I.

Jokn's S-zueet. See Pink.

St. John's Wort. See Hyi'ekiclm.

St. John's Wort, Hypericum perforatum, in the Materia
Medico, a fpecies of hypericum vhich gro-.- s, commonly to
the height of a foot and a half, in woods and uncultivated
grounds, and flowers in July. This plant has a bitterifh,
fub-aflringent talle, and a fweetifh ftnell. Amon;; the an-
cients it was in great repute ; and they prefcribed it m hyf-
teria, hypochondriafis, and mania : they alfo imagined that
it had the peculiar power of curing demoniacs, and it thence
obtained the name of " fuga dsmonum.'' It was alfo re-
commended intern<dly for wound--, bruifes, ulcers, hxniop-
tyf.s, miftus cruentus, gravel, dyfentery, agues, worms;
and outwardly as an anodyne, and as a difcutivnt and de-
5 tergcnt.

J O II

■tergent. However, it is now very rarely ufed. The flowerj
only are dircded for life, as containing the greateft propor-
tion of the refinous oily matter, in which the medical efficacy
of the plant is fnppofed to rcfidc. Tlie dark pnnfta of the
petals and the capfules afford this eiTcntial oil, which is con-
tained in minute veiicles, or glands, and gives a red colour
to redilied fpirit, and to exprefled oils : the latter has been
long known in tlie iliops by the name of " oleum hyperici."
The colouring matter is faid to give a good dve to wool.
"WoodviUe's Med. Bot.

John'.s, St., Co.'/c'ge, in America. See College.

Jonx Je Froiitsra, St., in Geography. See Juajj de la
Frontera.

John's Haven, a fmall feaport town in the parifh ftf
Benholme, and (hire of Kincardine, Scotland, was formerly
one of the molt confidcrable fifhing towns on the foutlyern
coait of Scotland. At prefent, however, it is much re-
duced, its trade declined, and population diminifhed. A
company of fail-cloth manufadlurers have eftablifncd v.orks
here, and thus given employment to the inhabitants. The
population of the parifh, in the year 1793, was calfjulated
at 1019. This place is 9 miles north of Montrofe.

John's Ifiands, iflanJs of America, near the coaft of
South Carolina, S \V. of Charleftown harbour, divided
from James's ifiand by the river Stono, which for.ns a con-
venient and fafe port.

John's Ifiand, an ifland in the bay of Quii/*a, Upper
Canada, oppolite the Mohawk fettlement, wi/Il of Ivich-
mond.

John', St., a town of the ifland of May, on/i of the cape
Verd ifiands. — Alfo, one of the Virgin ifiandf, in the Weft
Indies ; 12 leagues E. of Porto Rico ; about ftve miles long,
and one broad ; faid to be the bell watered of ai4 the Virgin
iil^s, though it has little good land, and its exportations are
triflmg. Its harbour, called " Crawl bay," is reckoned
better than that of St. Thomas, and is accounted the beft to
the leeward of Antigua. . N. lat. 18 ' 7'. VvT. long. 64 32'.
—Alfo, a fea-port town well built, on the well coaft of the
ifland of Antigua. It is fituated in a paj-ifti of the fame
name, ou Loblolly bay. It is the capital of the ifland, and
a port of entry. Its harbour is excellent and well fortified.
This town is the refidtnce of the governor-general of the
leeward Charaibe ifiands ; here the anembly is held ; and its
port carries on a great trade. This town was nearly
deftroycd by fire in Auguft 1 769; upwards of 260
houfes being confumed, befides wharfs, cranes, &c. N.
lat. 17' 4'. \V. long. 62 4'. — Alfo, an ifland, called alfo
P/-;nre. Edward's JJland (which fee), in the gulf of St.
Lawrence, fituated at a fmall diftance to the weft of the
illand of Cape Breton, and to the north of Nova Scotia, to
which it is attached. Its coalts on the north and fouth are
much interfecled with bays ; it is well watered by rivers,
and its foil is for the moft part rich and fertile. It formerly
belonged to the French, who improved it to fuch advantage,
that it was deemed the granary of Canada, which it fup-
plied with plenty of corn, as well as beef and pork. On
the conqucftof Cape Breton in 1745, the inhabitants quietly
fubmitted to the Britifh arms. Its capital is Charlotte's
town, which is the refidence of the lieutenant-governor, who
is the chief officer in the ifland : its other towi:S are George
town. Prince's town, Hillihorough town, Pownal town,
Maryborough town, &c. Its length from N.E. to S W.
is reckoned about 100 (Pinkerton fays 60) miles, and its
mean breadth is 30 miles. The whole ifland is divided into
three counties, vtz. King's, Queen's, and Prince's counties,
which are fubd:vided into 14 parifties, confiHing of 27 town-
fliips, and comprehending in all 1,363,400 acres. The

J O II

number of inhabitants is eftimated at about 5'000. N. lat.
46' 20'. W. long. 63'-'. — Alfo, a fmall ifland in the Pacific
ocean, eaft of New Ireland, fo called by Schouten, and ty
Bougainville Bournand. S. lat. 4. E. long, ij^ 50'.^
Alfo, a fmall ifland in the Red fca —Alfo, a fmall ifland in
the Weft Indies, north of St. Croix, and louth of Tortola ;
noted for its fine harbour, which, it is faid, is fufficient to
Contain the whole Britifli navy. — Alfo, a bay and ifland on
the welt coaft of Newfoundland, in the Ejulf of St. Law-
rence, at the S.W. end of tlie ftraits of Belleiile.— Alfo, a
town on the eaft coall of Newfoundland. N. lat. 47- 35'.
W. long. J2" 20'. — Alfo, a town of America, being the
north-wefternmoft in Suil'ex county, Delaware, fituated Et
the liead of Nanticoke river, about 22 miles S.V/. of Dover.
N. lat. 38' 48'. W. long. 75'' 40'. — Alfo, a town and fort
in Lower Canada, on the weft bank of Sorel river, at the
north end of lake Champlain, 2S miles fouth of Montreal.
This town has been eftabliftied as the fole port of entry and
clearance for all goods imported from the interior of the
United States into Canada, by the executive council of
Lower Canada, in July 1796. N. lat. 45 9'. W. long,

72° 18' Alfo, a fea-port on the S.E. coaft of the ifland

ofTinos. N. lat. 37 '32'. E. long. 25" ij'. — Alfo, a river
of America, in Eaft Florida, which riles in a fwamp in the
interior of the province, and purfues a northerri courfe, in a
broad navigable ftream, fpreading frequently into fpacious
bays or lakes, of which lake George is the chief. At its
mouth is a ftiifting bar ; I oi leagues north of St. Auguf-
tine. — Alfo, a river, called "Little St. John's, which rifes
in a fwamp called Ouaquephenogaw, and after a winding
courfe of about 200 miles, falls into Ap.-^lache bay, about
10 miles eaft of Apalache river. It is faid to be the purefl
and clearell of any in America, receiving, as the Indians
fay, no tributary Ifreams, but being fed by fprings which
gufli through its banks> Snd is about 200 yards broad, and

about ij or 20 feet d'Cep at the town of Talaliafochetc

Alfo, a river which is the largeft in the Britifh province of
New Brunfwick. From its mouth en the north fide of the
bay of Funchal to its main fource it is computed to be 350
miles ; tbf tide flows So or 00 miles up this river ; and it is
navigable for floops of 50 tons 60 miles, and for boats 200.
Its general courfe from its origin is E.S.E. It is the com-
mon route to Quebec. It furnifties the greateft plenty of
fdmon, bafs, and fturgeon. This river is fed by many tri-
butary ftreams, and in its various branches it waters and en-
riches a Ltrge traft of excellent country, which is fettled and
under improvement. The uplands are, in general, covered
with fine timber, fuch as pine and fpruce, hemlock and hard
wood, principally beech, birch, maple, and afli. The pines
on this river are the largeft in Britifh America, and afford a
confidcrable fupply of mafts for the Britifh navy. — Alfo, a
river of Africa, which runs into the Indian fea, S. lat.
31' 20'; and another of Africa, which runs into the At-
lantic, N. lat 19 2o'. — Alfo, a lake in Lower Canada,
which receives rivers almoft in every diredlion, and difcharges
its waters through Saguenai river into the St. Lawrence, at
Tadoufac. It is about 25 miles in diameter.

JOHNNY GnoAT's House, the moft northerly dwelling
of Scotland, in the county of Caithnefs ; one mile W. of
Duncanfby Head.

JOHNSBURY. a townftiip of America, in Ca'edonla
county, Vermont, bounded S.W. by Danville ; containing
663 inhabitants.

JOHNSON, JoH!J, in Biography, a learned divine of the

church of England, was born at Friendfbury, near Rochef«

ter, in Kent, in the year 1662. He received the elements"

of a good education at King's fchool, Cantertury, and from

X X 2 thense

JOHNSON.

iJience he vras fent, wlien lie was aboxTt 15 years of age, to
MagJalen college, Cambridge. Here he took hij degi-ees
and entered into deacon'i orders, and {hortly after obtained
a curacy near Canterbury. In i686, lie was ordained prie.'t,
and collated by archbifliop Sancroft to the vicaratjes o f
Boclon and Hcarne-Hill. After the revolution he complied
with the new order of things, and became an able advocate
in its defence, which gained him the friendfhip and patron-
age of archbifhop Tennilon, from whom he received feveral
inftances of church preferment, and in 1707, was collated to
the vicarage of Cranbrook. Here he feems to have com-
pletely abandoned his friends and his principles, and to have
advanced from Rep to ftep till he even denied the king's fu-
premacy, and refufed to read the prayers enjoined on the
acceflion of George I. Notwithllandnig this dereliftion of
principle, he was twice chofen proftor in convocation for the
diocefe of Canterbury. He died in 1725, having been feveral
times under profecution, from the effects of which he was
re'eafed by fubmiflion to the higher powers : had his forti-
tude been equal to his zeal, he would have fuffered in defence
of the moll arbitrary and indefenlible opinions, that can well
be broached by a man of fenfe. .lohnfon was unquellionably
a man of found learning ; his morals were exemplary and his
piety unaffected. He was diligent in the difcharge of the
feveral duties belonging to the paftoral office, but his temper
was bad, and during the latter years of his life, he fiievvcd
fo much bigotry and intolerance againft thofe who thought
as he himfelf had formerly thought, as detrafted from the
■value of his gocd qualities. His principal works are " The
Clergyman's Vade Mecum ;" " A CoIIedtion of Eccle-
fiaftical Laws, Canons, .Jcc. ;" " The unbloody Sacrifice
and Altar unveiled and fupported ;" and " A Paraphrafc on
the Pfalms in the Liturgy." After his death his furviving
daughter publilhed two volumes oi his pollhumous fermons
and difcourfes. Biog. Brit.

JoHNSox, Samuel, an Englifh divii.-, was born in the
year 1649, in the county of Stafford, thv-'ugh others have
named Warwickfhire as his birth-place. He was educated
at St. Paul's- fchool, London, whence he was r.emoved to
Trinity college, Cambridge. After he had taken orders,
he was prefented to the rectory of Corringham, in thf hun-
dreds of EfTex, but the place not agreeing with his heiilth,
he removed to London, and took an aftive part in the po'i-
tical difcufTions of the times. He was introdiiced to lord
RulTcU, who immediately made him his domeftic chaplain.
He now became a formidable writer in the caufe of liberty,
and was called on during the reign of Charles IL to bear his
telfimony to the truth by fevere imprifonment. But his
fiifferings were brought to the acme by a paper which he
drew up in the year 1686, when the army was encamped
upon Hounflow Heath, entitled, " An humble and hearty
Addrefs to all Englifh Proteftants in the prefent Army."
For lliis he was brought to trial, and condemned to If and in
the pillory at three places, to pay a tine of<oo marks, and
to be publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn. Before
they executed this favage fcntence they intended to degrade
and depriTe him of his orders, but fortunately for the fuf-
ferer, the prelates Crew, Sprat, and White, too eager, pro-
bably, to perform the commands of the tyrant, forgot to
Hrip off his caffock. This informality was fatal to their
plans, and they found it impofTible to take away his living.
Notwllhftandlng the laceration of his body, his heart was
unbrokei], and he continued to employ his pen in the fame
caufe, till the revolution changed his iituation. Parliament
now declared that the proceedings againlt him were illegal,
and tlie houfe of lords addrcfl'ed king William to confer
upon him fome preferment. Johnfou was ambitious of a

bifhopric, but he was ofFered a deanery ; this he did not ac-
cept, but received a pcnfion of 300/ /nr annum during his
own and bis fon's life, a prefent of looc/, and a place of
100/ per annum for his fon. A traft, which he afterward*
pubbdied, was the caufe of fo much perfonal violence as
nearly to have cod him his life : the piece was entitled " An
Argument proving tlial the Abrogation of King James by
the People of England from the Royal Throne, and the
Promotion of the Prince of Orange in his ftead, was accord-
ing to the Conllituiion of the Englifh Government, and pre-
scribed by it." It was, unquellionably, on account of thi»
p amphlet that feven ruffians broke into his houfe early in the
morning, affembled round his bed, gave lum a wound on
thf head with a fword, and otberwife ill-treated him. Tliey
thn^atened to take his life, but fhrinking from fo foul a
dced% they left him wounded, and did no injury to his houfe
or efvVcds. Notwithftanding his general attachment to the
new o'ovcrnment, he did not fpare its defefts; he complained
grievo.ufly of the duration of parliaments, which he main-
tained ouglit to be continued for one year each only. On
fome oi-cafuins his oppofition was carried fo far as to lead
his befl friends to fufpcft he was about to abandon his ori-
ginal prl»«:iplts. He died in 170^, and his works were col-
lefted and printed in one volume folio. Biog. Brit.

JoHN.soi">', Samuel, a celebrated Englifh writer, was
born at L.itchlield, in the year 1709, in which city>hi»
father carriied on the bookfelhng bufinefs on a very fmall
fcale. He wwas educated partly at the frec-fchool of his-
native city, itnd partly at Stourbridge, in Worcefterfhire;
He was proba bly intended for trade, but having acquired a
reputation for learning, his father very willingly complied
with the propol'nl of Sir. Corbet, of ni.iintainirg Samuel at
Oxford, as con.panion to his fon. He accordingly was
entered a commoner of Pembroke college, in the year 1728,.
when lie was io tlie nineteenth year of his age. Johnfon was^
carelefs of his cJiaraiPttr v\'uh relpeft to the difcipline and
the fludies of t\ic place, yet he obrained credit by fome of
his compofition>, of which the moft diltinguiljied was a
tranllation into Latin of Pope's MelTiah, written with great
fpirit and vigour. He remained at Oxford but three years,
during a part of wbkh he had to ftruggle with the griping
hand of penury. Scon after his return home, his father
died in very narrow Cij"curaftances, and about this time it
acpears, from his own account, that he was lirll led to
think in earned of religion, by the perufal of Law's " Strious
Call to the Unconverted '' He engaged himfelf as uflier
to the grammar fchool of Market Bofworth, Lel'.ederfiiire,
but the treatment which he met with at this place ill ac-
corded with his feelings, and he quitted the fchool, and
pafled fome time with a fjiend at Birmingham. Here he
wrote fome literary cfTays, aud tranflated and abridged from
the French the account of the voyage to AbyfUiiia, by
father Lobo. This was pubiJfhed without the tranflator's
name, at London, in 17^5. Returning to Litchfield, he
iffued propofals for publilhing by fubfcription, the Latin
poem of Politian, but they did not meet with encourage-
ment, and the defign was abandoned. He now made a bold
effort to improve fiis fituation, iriarried the widow of Mr.
Porter, a mercer of Birmingham, and opened a fchool. He
had received 800/. with his lady, and depending on his own
learning and powers, he took a large houfe, and advertifed
for fcholars to be boarded and indruifed in the Greek and
Latin languages. His plan did not fticceed ; not more than
three fcholars offered, among thefe wr.3 the ci-lebrated
David Garrick. After a year's trial he abandoned hi»
fchool, and refolved to become a literary adventurer in the
metropolis. He accordingly ftt out, taking his fcholar
8 Garnck,

JOHNSON.

Garrick as his companion, lieiiig farnifhed with recom-
mendatory letters by Mr Gilbert Wiilmney, a j^cntleman
y/ha had beca before the friend and benefartor of Johnfon.
.Tohnfon and his friend arrived in London in March i/jjy ;
his firft and principal cnjra<rement was with Cave, the pro-
prietor of the Gentleman's Magazine, and at the defire of
this gentleman he undertook a tranflation of Father Paul's
Hiftory of the Council of Trent, which was partly printed
and then the fcheme was given up. At this period Johnfon
became acquainted with Sarage, in whofe misfortunes he
fympathized, and in wliofe company he w^as a fpeflator of
the vicjs and diforders of the metropolis, and probably a
(barer in the hardlhips which he endured, and in the irregu-
larities which he committed, but whatever llaiii the morals
of johnfon might receive from this connedion, it was obli-
terated by the permanent influence of the principles of piety
and virtue. The literary piece which brought him into
public notice, was entitled " London, a Poem;" written
in imitation of Juvenal's Third Satire. For this he re-
ceived of Dodfley the fum of lo/. It was printed without
auy name, but it was faid by Pope, then in the height of
his popularity, that the author of fo good a fatire could
rot remain long concealed. Johnfon, at this period, wanted
fomething more fubllantial than mere praife, and offered
himfelf as a candidate for the mafterlhip of a free-fchool in
the country. This he was unable to attain, becaufe it was
neceflary that the mailer (hould hive taken his degree of
M. A. This he had negleded to do while he was at Ox-
ford, and now he had applied for the honour to the univerlity
of Dublin, through the medium of lord Gower, who, in
writing to his friend on the fubjeft, fays, " he is not afraid
of the ftricleft examination, though he is of fo long a
journey; and vet he will venture it, if the dean (Swift)
thinks it necefiary, chooling rather to die on the road, than
to be llarved to death in tranllating tor the bookfellers,
which has been his only fubliilence for fome time pall."
This application produced no eifett, and he was obliged to
content himfelf with the patronage of the London book-
fellers, particularly with the employment which he obtained
in the Gentleman's Magazine. In this work were given
the parliamentary debates, under the ficlion of " Debates
in the Senate of Liliput," and the fpeakers were difguifed
under feigned names. Guthrie, for a time, compofed thefe
fpeeches from fuch hints as he could bring away in his me-
mory. Johnfon liril afiiiled in this department, and then
entirely tilled it, and the public was highly gratified with the
eloquence difplayed in thefe compofitions. In i 739 he pub-
lilhc.d a humorous pamphlet, entitled "MarmorNariolcienfe,"
conlliling of a fuppofed ancient prophecy in Latin monkifh
rhymes, with an explanation. He compofed, about the
fame period, feveral biographical articles for the Gentleman's
Magazine, of which the principal was the life of Savage,
which was afterwards publilhed feparately, and has been
univerfally admired both as a mod interelling and curious
portrait, and as containing many admirable reflections on
life and manners In the year 1747 he publilhed the plan
of his Englith Dictionary, addrefi'ed to the earl of Chelter-
ficld, whom he would gladly have recognized as his patron
in this arduous tafli. But his lordlhip concerned himfelf
very little about the author or his work. No two men
could be more oppolite in their manners than Johnfon and
lord Chellerfield, and a very flight intercourfe on this occa-
fion terminated in their mutual averfion, fo that the author
in his prcfa;:e informed the pubUc, that " the Engli/h Dicii-
»nary was written with little allillance of the learned, and
■without any patronage of the great ; not in the foft obfcu-
lities of retirement, qr uiidcc the ihclter of academic

bowers, but amidft inconvenience and dif\ra£lion, in (Ick-
nefs and in forrow." From the bookfellers, Johnfon re-
ceived fifteen hundred guineas for his labour, which was
not completed till the year 17JJ. The intervals of this
compilation were fufficient to allow of various literary avo-
cations. In 1747 he wrote a prologue on the opening of
Drury-lane theatre. In 1749 he produced another imita-
tion of Juvenal, entitled "The Vanityof Human Wifhcs ;'
and his tragedy of " Irene.'" He next commenced hii
periodical work, entitled " The Rambler," which came out
in papers at the rate of two in a week, from the month of
March I75'0, till the fame month in 17J2. He was the
autiior of the whule of this work, with the exception of
about ten papers only, and in it he appears the warm and
ftedfaft friend of religion and morality. The ferious (lyli;
of the Rambler prevented it at tirll from attai!iing a very
extenlive circulation, but after it was collected iiilo \c-
lumes, it rofe in the public eiliination, and the author faw
the publication of the tenth edition. Soon after the clofe
of this paper he had the misfortune to lofe his wife, a cir-
cumllance which he never ceafcd to deplore. Not long
afterwards he took into his houfe, as an inmate, Mrs Anne
Williams, the daughter of a phylician in South Wales,
who had confumed his time and fortune in purfuit of the
longitude. Her deftitute condition, aggravated by blind-
iiefs, with her talents for writing and converfation, recom-
mended her to the benevolence of Mr. Johnfon. In the
" Adventurer," conducted by Dr. Hawkfworth, he inte-
relied himfelf, fupplicd it with feveral papers of his own,
and obtained for it tlie contributions of Mr. Warton. Pre-
vioufly to the publication of his diclionary, the degree uf
M. A. was conferred on him by the univerlity of Oxfori',
and about the fame time the earl of Cheilerfield wrote two
letters in its favour in " The World." Tliis civility was
regarded, by Johnfon, as an advance from that nobleman
for the purpofe of obtaining from him a dedication as pa-
tron of the work, but he now rejedled the patronage which
he would before have gladly accepted, and wrote a letter
to the noble lord, in which he employed all the force of
pointed farcafm and manly difdain to make him afhamed
of his former condutt. The dictionary was received by
the public with general applaufe, and its author was imme-
diately ranked among the greatell benefactors of his native
tongue. The publication of this great work did not relieve
him from his cmbarrafTments, for the price of the labour
had been confumed in the progrefs of its compilation. He
was Hill entirely dependent upon the exertions of the day
for its fupport, and fo low was he reduced, though now-
regarded as an honour to his country, that in the following
year he was put under an arretl for the trifling fum of live
or fix pounds. In 1758 he began " The Idler," a perio-
dical paper, which was pubhfhed in a weekly newfpaper.
On the death of his mother in 17J9. he wrote the romance
of " Raffelas," to defray the expences of her funeral, and
to pay her debts. This, though written in a very haily
manner, is reckoned one of l;is moll fplendid performances :
it is elegant in l.inguage, rich in imagery, and weighty in
fentiment. It has been tranflated into leveral modern Ian-
guages. Such, however, was the depreffed flate of hi*
finances, that he was obhged to break up houfe-keeping
and retire to chambers.. From this lif.iation he was
refcued by the grant of a penlion of 390/. pir annum, in
1762, without any (lipulation with rcf; ect to his literary
exertions. In 1 76 J ho h;id the honour of an interview with
his majelly in the rojal library, when the fovereign afl-;ed if
he intended to pubhlh any more works ? To this he re-
plied, that he thought he had wriiteii enoug^li, on which the

king

J O H

iing faid, *' I fliould have thought fo too, if you had not
written io well." In this year he pubhflied his edition of
Shakfpeare's Works, which was fent into the world with
a preface, written with all the powers of his maftcrly pen,
and which is reckoned amone the mo!l valuable of his cri-
tical difquifitions. About tliir period he inftituted a literary
club, confiftinsj of feveral of the moft celebrated men of tl;e
age, among whom were feme who occupied very elevated
fituations in fociety. In 1770 he appeared an advocate for
the meafures of government, and publifhed, firll, " The Falfe
Alarm," occafioned by the expulfion of Mr. Wilkes from
thehoufe of commons. Tliis was followed by " Thoughts
on the late Tranfaflions refpefting Falkland's Ifland,'' de-
figned to fiiew the unreafonablenefs of going to war on
account of the conduct of Spain relative to that barren
poirefiion. His next publication or. political fubjecls was
entitled " The Patriot," which was compofed on the eve of
a general eleclion in order to indlfpofe the people againll tlie
meafures of the oppofnion. In 1775 he publiflied, "Tax-
ation no Tyranny," which was written in defence of the
right of the mother country taxing the colonies at pleafure.
Thefe pamphlets, which were probably written on principle,
did but little fervice to the caufe which he vindicated. In
1773 ^^ "'^"' °" ^ '°"'' "'"^ '^^''- Bofwell to the weftern
iflands of Scotland, of which journey he pubhihed an ac-
count under the title of " A Journey to the WeHern Wands
of Scotland." In this he gave a mod decifive opinion
againft the authenticity of the poems afcnbed to Oflian,
which o cafioned a difference between him and the tranf-
lator, Mr. Macphc.fon. In 1773, the univerfity of Oxford
conferred on him, through the intereft of the niniller, the
degree of dodor of laws, which he highly valued. The
forae honour had been given hini fome years before by the
univerfity of Dublin, of which h» had made no ufe.
When the unhappy Dr. Dodd lay under fentence of death,
in Newgate, Johnfon, moved either by compafiion for the
man, or by a defire of refcuing the cloth from p'.ibhc dif-
grace, wrote two petitions to his majefty in his name, and
fopplied him with a fpeech at the bar, and a fermon to be
preached to his fellow convids. (See Dodd ) In the year
1779, Dr. Johnfon began his fed literary undertaking, •' The
Lives of the Englilh Poets," which, notwithftanding the
ftrong prejudices of the author, may be regarded as a moll va-
luable treafure of found criticifm, ^nd a model of htcrary
tiography. This work was completed in 17S1 : it is not only
attached to his edition of the Englidi poets, but has been
re-printed a great many times in a feparate form. The con-
cluding portion of Dr. Johnfon's life was clouded over by
the lofs of feveral highly refpccted friends, by a progrcffive
decline of health, and by the profpeft of approaching dif-
folution, which neither his religion nor his philofophy taught
him to bear with even decent compofure. At lad, however,
his mind became calm, compofed, and truly refigned : he
died December 13th, 1^85, in the 75th year of his age.
His remains, attended by a refpettable concourfe of friends,
■were inrerrcd in Wedminilcr abbey ; and a monumental
ftStue has been erefted to his memory in St. Paul's cathedral.
His works, with a life of the author, were publifhed col-
leaively in 11 volumes. 8vo. by lir John Hawkins, in 1787;
and in 1792, a new edition of them in 12 volumes, wi'h a
life by Mr. Murphy, was given to the public. Mr. Bofwell
and Mrs. Piozzi have likewife given ample accounts of their
friend : perhaps there is no inftance of a private man of let-
ters, in this country, whofe dcceafc was marked by the ap-
pearance of fo many laudatory and biographical tributes to
his pubhc reputation. As a writer. Dr. Johnfon did much
iernce to his country, by fixing its language and regulating

50 H

its Riovality. In his perfon he was large, rohud, and un-
wieldy ; in his drefs he was fingular and flovenly ; in con-
verfation he was pofitive. and impatient of all contradiction.
But with thefe deductions, he was an excellent cha-
rafter ; he had a heart full of tendernefs and compafiion,
and all his aftions were tlie refult of principle. He was a
zealous advocate for what he regarded as the truth. He
was high in his religious and political principles, and at one
period of his hfe he was friendly to the vie.vs of the honfe of
Stuart. He had a noble independeixe of mind, and would
never iloop to any man however exalted, nor dilguife his
fer.timents to flatter another. Plis judgment was uncom-
monly acute, his imagination quick, his memory tenacious,
and his converfation, though very dictatorial, was often
brilliant, and always initruttiv.'. For farther particulars,
the readiT is referred to the works above mentioned.

Johnson, in Geography, a county of America, in North
Carolina and Newbtrn diltrift, containing 6201 inhabitants,
of wliom 1763 are flaves. It is 30 miles fquare, and wa-
tered by feveral dreams. The greatell part of the county
is level, and its principal produce is corn. Its chief town is
Smith field.

JOHNSONIA, in Botany, fo named by Mr. R.
Brown in memory of Dr. Thomas Johnfon, author of fome
little botanical works, publiflied in the form ot travels be-
tween 1629 and 1641, and editor of the fecoiKl edition of
Gerarde's Herbal in 1633. Wood fays he was killed, while
fighting in the royal caufe, in September 1644. Brown.
Prodr. Ncv. HoU. v. i. 287. Clafs and order, Tru:nJria
/tj'onogynia. Nat Ord. AfpkadeTi, JufT.

Efl^ Ch. Perianth (rather corolla) in fi.x deep equal feg-
ments, withering, deciduous. Filaments dilated and united
at their bafe, inferted into the bafe of the inner fegments of
the corolla. Style thread-diaped. Stigma obtufe. Cap-
fule fuperior, of three cells and three valves, with partitioHS
from the middle of the valves. Seeds two in each cell, in-
ferted into the central column, one of them pendulous.
Scar crefted.

I. J. lupulwa. Native of the fouth coad of New Hol-
land. Root fibrous, perennial. Leaves two-ranked, twided,
linear, dilated, and half flieathing at the bafe. Stalk radi-
cal, fimple, bearing near its top a folitary, oblong, hop-
like fpike of fmali feffile foivers, with coloured imbricated
bradeas, the lowermoft of wliich are fmall and barren.

JOHNSTON, John, in Biography, an eminent na-
turalid, was born at Sambter, in Great Poland, in the year
1603: he received the greater part of his education in his
own country ; but in 1622, he came to England, and from
thence he went to Scotland, where he dudied with great
diligence in the univerfity of St. Andrews till the year 1625.
He afterwards dudied at Leyden and Cambridge. He un-
dertook the education of the two fons of the count de
Kurtzbacli, and arcompanied them to Holland. While he
rcfided with his pupils at Leyden, he took his degree as
doftor of phyfic ; and when he went a third time to Eng-
land, the lame honour was conferred on him by the uni-
verfity of Cambridge. He died in June 1675, in the 72d
year of his age. He is known in the literary world by a
number of works in the different departments of natural liif-
tory. Gen. Biog.

Johnston, in Geography, a towndiip of America, in
Providence county, Rhode illand, well of the town of Pro-
vidence ; containing 1364 inhabitants. — Alfo, a towndiip
in Franklin county, Vermont; having 13J inhabitants.

JOHNSTONE, George, in Biography, a naval com-
mander, fon of a Scotch baronet, devoted himfelf tothe fea
fervice at an early period of life. After paffing through the

fubordipatc

J O II

fulaordinate ttations, he was, in the year 1 76c, made mailer
and commander ; and in two years after, he was raifed to
the rank of pod c-.ptain. At the peace, he was appointed
governor of Welt Florida ; and on liis return to England,
he took an aftive part in the affairs of the Eall India com-
pany, particularly in oppcfition to Ir.rd Clivc. In 1771 he
wrote a work, entitled, " Thonghts on our Acquifitions in
the Eaft Indies, particularly refpeding Bengal. ' He fat
twice in parliament, firft for Cockermouth, and afterwards
for Appleby. He had a duel with lord George Germaine,
on account of fome refie-ftions which fell from him in the
houfe refpecling his lordlhip. He was one of the commif-
fioners fent to treat with the Americans. He died in
17S7.

Johnstone's Straits, in Geography, a channel of the
Pacific ocean, between the ifland of Quadre and Va'icouvcr,
and the well coail of North America. This channel
branches off from the northern part of the gulf of Georgia,
from point Chatham to the we!'-, bearinj; a little north for
about 60 miles in length, the breadth being from two to
four. N. lat. 50 20 1050 35'. E. long. 233 to 23+ 46'.

JOHNSTOWN, apoil-town of America, and capital
of Montgomery tounty, in the ftate of New York, fituated
en the north bank of Mohawk river, 24 miles weft of
SchLiiaftady. '* he town contains about 70 houfes, a Pref-
bytcrian and an Epifcopal church, a court -lioufe, and a gaol.
In the townfliip are 3932 inhabitans. — Alfo, a town in the
townfiiip of Edwardlhurgh, Upper Canada, fituated upon
the river St. Lawrence, above the uppermoft rapids, in
afeending to lake Ontario. From this town velTels may be
navigated with iafety to Q'.ieenSown, and at the ports of
lake Ontario.

Johnstown, New, a town in the townd.ip of Cornwall,
Upper Canada, fituated upon the river St Lawrence, below
the long Saalt, to the northward of Grand Ifle St. Regis ;
and is now called Cornwall

Johnstown-, the na.iie of feveral villages in Ireland.
One of thefe, in the county of Kilkenny, has been late'y
made a poll-town. It contains a number of neat houfes,
built for the accommodation of thofe who frequent the
neighbouring chalybeate Spa of Ballyfpellan It is on the
mail-coach road fronvDubiin to Coik, through Ca(hel, and
is 60 miles S W. from Dublin. Another Johnftovvn, in
the county of Kildare, is about 13 miles from Dublin, on
the Greiit Southern road ; and in confcqr.ence of a good
inn, is frequently made a ftage by thofe who travel poft.—
Two others, called St Johnitown, wt re formerly boroughs
reprefented in parliament : one of them in the county of
Donega , on the river Foyle, w.iich is here of confiderable
breadth, 87 miles N. by W. from Strabane, and io8, N.
by W. from Dublin ; the other in the county of Longfi-rd»
6 miles W. from Granard.- There is alfo a fmall town
called Johnrtown Bridge, in the coimty of Kildare, on the
borders of Meath, fituated on the river Bla kwater, 21 miles
from Dublin.

JOHOR, a town of the peninfu'a of Malacca, near the
fouth cotill, and capital of a kingdom of the fame name.
K. lat. I 40. E. long. 103 54'.

JOIGNY, a town or France, and principal place of a
diilrift, in the department of the Yonne, rear the river
Yonne. The place co tains 5219, and the cinton 13,137
inhabitants, on a territory of 3C7 kiliomttres, in 17 con..
munes; 14 miles N.W. of Auxerre. N. lat. 47-' 59'. E.

JOIN .GUR. See .Tyenaguk.

JOINDER, or Joxndek, is the coupling, or joining,

JOI

two perfons in one aclion, or fuit, againtl another. See
Demukrf.r.

JOINERY is S branch in Civil Ardhc^urc, and confitls
of the art of framing or joining wood together, for internal
and external linilhings of houfes ; as the coverings and linings
of rou 'h walls, or the coverings of rough timbers, and of
the cou'.lruclion of doors, windows, and Hairs.

Hence j.)inery requires much more accurate and nice
workmanfliip than carpentry, which confills only of rough
timbers, ufed in fupporling the various parts of an edifice :
joinery is therefore ufed by way of decoration only, and
being always near to the eye, and confequently liable to in-
fpection. requires that the joints fiiould be fitted together
with the utmoft care, and the furfaces made fmooth.

The wood ufed is called ftuff, and is previoufly formed
by the pit-faw into rectangular prifms, wh'ch are deno-
minated boards, battens, or planks, according to their
breadtli. Battens run from two to feven inches wide,
boards from feven to nine inches wide, and planks from
nine inches to any greater breadth that can be cut out of a
piece of wood.

The operations of joinery confift of forming furfaces of
various kinds, alfo of grooving, rt-bating, and moulding,
and of mortifing and tenoning, and laftly, of joining two-
or feveral pieces together, fo as to form a frame or folid
mafs.

Surfaces, in joinery, are either plane or curved, but moH
frequently plane.

All kinds of furfaces are firft formed in the rough, and
finally brought to exact forms by means of tools adapted
thereto.

Grooving confifls in taking away a part of a re£langular
fedtion from a piece of wood, fo as to form a channel of
equal breadth throughout, with three furfaces, one being-
parallel, and the other two perpendicular to the furface of
the wood from which the channel is receffed ;■ the channel
thus form.'d is called a groove.^

Rebating confills in taking away a part from a piece of
wood of a rcftangular fection, fo as to leave only two fides,
each of a parallel breadth, the one fide being perpendicular
to the furface of the wood, and the other parallel thereto ::
the cavity thus formed is called a rebate. From this de-
finition it is manifeil, that a rebate can only be formed by
redixing the piece of wood to be rebated at the angle it-
felf, and may therefore be looked upon as a half groove.

A mortife is a cavity receffed within the furface of a piece
of wood, with four fides perpendicular to that furface,
and likewife to each other v the aft of making a mortife is
called mortifing-

A tenon is a projeflion formed on the end of a piece
of wood with four plane fides, at right angles to each other,
and to a plane, from which it projects ; and this plane is
called the fhoulder of the tenon.

In the following, all pieces of wood whatever are fup-
pofed to be reftangular prifms, and the lengtli in a direc-
tion of the fibres ; two of the fides of every mortife to be
perpendicular, and the other two fides parallel to the fibres ;
the four fides of every tenon in the direftion of the fibres,,
unkfs other.vife afferted : likewife, if two of the furfaces
of a piece of wood be of greater breadth than the other
two, thefe are called the edges and thofe the 'i\&e'>, and
each line of concourfe, formed by two adjacent fides, is
called an arris.

Moulding confifts in forming the furface of a piece by
curve or plane furfaces, or by both, iu fuch a maiiper, that

JOINERY.

aH parallel feflions •will be fimilar figures, that U, their boun-
daries may be made all to coincide.

The firll thing to be done in joinery is to feleft the fluff
or boards, which ought to be well fcafoned for every pur-
pofc in joinery, and then line it out ; and if the Huff is
not already at the fize, as is mod frequently the cafe, it
mud be ripped out with the ripping faw, or crofs cut with
the hand faw, or both, as may be wanted. The next thing is
the planing of the fluff firil upon a fide, then the edge
fquared, and then gaged to a breadth and thicknefs; fhould
either or both be found neccffary.

Two or more pieces of Ituff may be faftened together in
various ways by pins of wood or by nails, but in work
prepared by the joiner for the ufe of building, pieces are
more frequently joined together by making their furfaces
coincide, and then pladering them over with a hot tenaiious
liquid called glue, then rubbing tlie furfaces until the glue
has been almoll rubbed out, and the one piece brought to
its fituation with relpeft to the other. The bcft work is
always joined by this method.

When boards are required of a greater breadth than com-
mon, feveral common boards mud be faftened together edge
to edge, either by nailing them to pieces extending acrofs
the breadth, or gluing them edge to edge, or by joining
pieces tranfverfely together with fmall boards, tongued and
grooved into the interllices.

Two pieces of !f uff are joined together at right or oblique
angles by mortife and tenon adapted to each other, and
fallened together with glue. When a frame, confilling of
feveral pieces, is required, the mortifes and tenons are fitted
together, and the joints glued all at one time, then entered
to their places, and forced together by niea'..s of an in-
llrnment called a cramp.

The operation of forming a given furface, by taking away
the fuperfluous wood, is called planing, and tWc tools them-
felves planes.

The firfl tools ufed by joiners are bench planes, which ge-
nerally confift of ajackpiane, for taking away the rough of
the faw and the fuperfluous wood, only leaving fo much as is
fufRcient to fmooth the furface ; the trying plane to fiwooth
or reduce the ridges left by the jack plane, and to ftraighten
or regulate the furface, whether it be plane or convex ; the
long plae.e when the furface is required to be very flraight ;

and the fmoolHi:

in fmoothing, as its name implies.

and giving the lall fiiiith to the work,

Befides the bench planes there are others for forming any
kind of prifmatic furfaces whatever, as rebating planes,
grooving planes, and moulding planes : but for a more
particular defcription , of thefe and the bench planes, we
ih^U refer to the article Plane.

The toolis eniplo)-ed in boring cylindric holes are a flock
with bits of various defcriptions and fizes, girablets and
brad awls of feveral diameters.

The tools ufed in paring the wood obliquely, or acrofs the
fibres, and for cutting rectangular prifmatic cavities, are in
general denominated chiffels : thnfe for paring the wood
acrofs the fibres are called firmer!!, or paring chiffels, and
thofe for cutting rectangular prifmatic cavities, are called
mortife chiffels, the refimgular cavities themfclves being
called mortifes when made to receive a projeAion of the fame
form and fr/.e, and by this mea^is to fallen two pieces of
wood togctlier at any angle. The fides of all chiffels, in a
direilioii of iheir length, are flraight, and the fide of a chiffel
which contains the cutting edge at the end is fteel. The befl
paring chiffels are made entirely of cafl fleel. Chiffels for
paring concave furfaces are denominated gougts.

Dividing wood, by cutting avray a very thin portion of
the material of equal thicknefs throughout, to any required
extent, by means of a thin plate of fteel with a toothed
edge, is called fawing, and the inftrumentj themfelves are
called faws, which are of feveral kinds, as the ripping faw,
for dividing boards into fcparate piecet in a direftion of the
fibres ; the hand faw, for crofs cutting and fawing thin
pieces in a direction of the grain ; the pannel faw, either for
crofs cutting or cutting wry thin boards longitudinally ; the
tenon faw, with a thick iron back, for making an incifion of
any depth below the furface of the wood, and for cutting
pieces entirely through, not exceeding the breadth of that part
of the plate without the iron back ; likewife a falh faw and
a dovetail faw, ufed much in the fame way as the tenon faw.
From the thinnefs of the plates of thefe three laft faws,
it is neceCary to ftiffen them by a ftrong piece of metal
caVed the back, wliich is grooved to receive the upper edge
of the plate that is fixed to the back, and which is there-
by fecured and prevented from buckling. When it is re-
quired to divide boa-ds into curved piece,", a very narrow faw
wihout a back, called a compafs faw, is ufed, and in cut-
ting a very fmall hob a faw of a fiirilar defcription, called
a key-hole faw, is employed. All thefe faws have tiieir
plates longer and thinner, and their teeth finer, as they fuc-
ceed eac^i other in the order here mentioned, excepting the
two lall, whxh h.'.ve thicker plates and coarfer teeth than
either the fafh or dovetail faw. The external and internal
angles of the teeth of all faws are generally formed at an
angle of 60 degrees, and the front edge teeth Hope back-
ward ill a fmall degree, but incline or recline from the flraight
line drawn from the interior ang'e perpendicular to the edge
in the pla.ne of the plate, as the faw may be employed in rip-
ping or in crofs cuttiTig,or cutting perpendicular to the tibres.
The teeth of all faws, except turning and key-hole faws,
are bent on contrary fides of the plate, each two teeth fuc-
ceeding each other, being alike bent on the d.fferent fides of
the plate ; w'a. the one as much to the one fide as the other
is to the other fide, and confequently all the teeth on the
fame fide alike bent throughout the length of the plate for
the purpofe of clearing the fides of the cut which it makes
in the wood.

Of all cutting tools whatever, the faw is the mofl ufe-
ful to the joiner, as the timber or wood which he em-
ploys can be divided into flips or bars of any fize, with no
m.ore wafte of iluff than a flice, the breadth of which is
equal to the depth of the piece to be cut through, and the
thicknefs equal to the diHance of the teeth between their
extreme points on the alternate fides of the faw meafured
on a lioe perpendicular to the faid fides : whereas, without
the ufe of the faw, cylindrical trees could only be reduced
to the intended fize by means of the axe ; in the ufe of
which there would not only be an immenfe confumption
of fluff, but alfo much greater labour would be required to
ftraighten it.

Joiners ufe a fmall axe, called a hatchet, for cutting off
the fuperfluous wood from the edge of a piece of a board,
when the walle is not of fuflicient confequeiice to be fawn.

All the above are wliat are commonly denominated edge
tools, but there are others required to regulate the forms.
All angles whatever are formed by ather reverfed angles of
the fame number of degrees as an exterior angle by an
interior one, and the contrary. The inttruraent for trying
right angles is called a fquare, and thofe for trying oblique
angles are called bevels. The two fides which form the
edge of a fquare are always llationary, but thofe of beveli
are generally moveable one leg upon the other round a joint.

In

JOINERY.

f n fomc cafes, vrhtte a grtat number of pieces are required
to be wrought to the fame angle, a llationary bevel, called a
joint hook, is ufed.

When it is required to reduce a piece of ftulF to a parallel
breadth, an inftrumeiit called a gage is ufcd for the purpofe.
The gage confills generally of a iqiiare piece with a fquare
mortifc, through which a bar at riglit angles thereto is Htted
and made to Hide. The bar, which is called the (Icm. lias
a (harp point, cutter, or tooth at one extremity, projecting a
little from the furface, fo that when the lidc of the gage,
next to the end which has the point, is applied upon the
vertical furface of tlie wood, with the flat tide of the ftem
which has the tooth upon the horizontal furface, and puftied
and drawn alternately by the workman from and towards
hira, the cutter will make an incilion from the furface into
the wood, at a parallel diftance from the upper edge of
the vertical fide on the right hand. This line, fo drawn,
will mark out with precifion, and (hew the fuperfluous (luff
to be taken away.

When a mortife is required to be cut in a piece of wood,

a gage with two teeth is ufed. The condruCtion of this

inftrument is the fame as the common gage ; but in addition

thereto, the ftcm has a longitudinal (lider with a tooth pro.

jecting from the end of the Aider, fo that tlie two teeth

, may be brought nearer, or to any remote diftance from

4 each other, at pleafure ; and alfo to any diftance, from the

j5 face of the head or guide within the reach of the ftem.

^ When wood has been planed, and required to he fawn

J. acrofs the fibres, and as it is necclTary to be kept ftationary

j while fawing, in order to prevent the fides or the edges

#/ from being bruifed, joiners ufe a flat piece of wood with

two projeeting knobs on the oppofite fides, one at each end,

called a fide hook. The vertical lide of the interior angle

of one of the knobs is placed clofc to the vertical fide, and

the under fide upon the top of the bench ; then the wood is

prefTed againft the knob which projeifts from the upper

furface while it is cutting with the faw ; but the ufe of

two fide hooks is better, as they keep the piece of wood to

be fawn more fteady.

When it is required to cut a piece of wood to a mitre
with one (idi ; that is, to half a right angle, joiners ufe a
trunk of wood with three fides, like a box without ends, or
a top, the fides and bottom being parallel pieces, and the
fides of equal heights : through each of the oppofite fides
is cut a kerf in a plane, perpendicular to the bottom, at
oblique angles of 45 and 1 35 degrees, with the planes of the
fides ; and another kerf is made in the fame manjier, fo as
to have its plane at right angles to the former. The trunk
thus ccmttructed is called a mitre-liox. When the wood is
to be cut, the mitre-box is fixed (leady againft two fide
hooks, and the piece, which is always lefs than the interior
breadth of the mitre-box, is laid within, and prefTed againft
the farther interior angle of the mitre-box with the fide
downwards, to which the faw-kerf is intended to be per-
pendicular, and in this pofition it is to be cut. Tlie two
kerfs ill the fides of the mitre-box are requifite, in order to
form the acute angle on the right or left-hand fide of the
piece, as may be required.

When it is required to make a piece of wood ftraight in
one direftion, joiners ufe a (lip of wood llraightened on one
edge, from which the flip of wood itfelf is called a (Iraight
^dge. Its ufe is obvious ; by its application it will be
feen whether there is a coincidence between the ftraight edge
and the furface.

When it is required to know whether the furface of a
piece of wood is in the fame plane, joiners ufe two flijis of
«-ood ftraiglitened each on one ed 'c with the oppofite edge
Vol XfX.

parallel, and both pieces of the fame breadth between the
parallel edges : each piece has therefore two ftraight edges.
Stippofe it wore required to know whether a board it
twilled or its furface in a plane, tlie workman lays one of
the Hips acrofs the one end, and the other acrofs the other
end of the board, with one of the ftraight edges of each
upon the furface ; then he looks in the longitudinal dircttion
of the board, over the upper edges of tlic two flips, until his
eye and the two upper edges of the (lips arc in one plane ;
orotherwife, the interfeftion of the plane, p-ifGng through
the eye and the upper edge of the neareft flip, interfeft the
upper edge of the farther (lip. If it happen as in the f rn er
cafe, the ends of the wood under the (lips are in the fame
plane; but (hould it happen as in the latter, they are net. In
this laft cafe the furface is faid to wind ; and when the fur-
face is fo reduced that every two lines are in one plane, it
is faid to be out of winding, which implies its being an en-
tire plane : from the ufe of thcfe (lips they are denominated
winding flicks.

Before we can proceed to the method of bringing a rough
furface to a plane, it will Grft be neceffary to (hew how to
make a ftraight edge or ruller.

Here the joiner nuift not lofe fight of the definition of
a (Iraight line, viz.. a ftraight line is that which will always
coincide with another (Iraight line, however applied to-
gether.

The operation of making the edge of a board ftraight is
called by joiners (hooting, and the edge fo made is faid to
be (hot.

Straight edges may be thus formed ^ plane the edges of
two boards and apply them togetlier, fo that the fuperficie*
or faces of the boards be in the fame plane, and if there
be no cavity between the joint the edges will be ftraight ;
but it not, the faces mutt be applied to each other, the
edges brought together, and planed and tried as before, until
they are found to coincide.

Another mode it by having a plane furface given ; plane
the edges of a board as llraight as the eye will admit of,
and apply the face of it to tiiat of the plane, and by the
edge of the board draw a line, turn the board over with
the other fide upon the plane, and bring the planed edge
to the line drawn before, and the extremities of the edg-«
to their former places, and draw another line ; then if all
the parts of this line coincide with the former line, the edge
it already (Iraight, but if not, repeat the operation at oftea
as may be found neceflary-

Another mode is to plane the edge of a board as ftraight
as the eye will admit of; then plane the edge of another
board until it ii made to coincide with the former ; take a
third board and plane the edge of thii in like manner, by-
making it coincide with the edge of the firft board ; apply
the edges of the two lall boards together, tlieri if they
coincide the operation ii at an end, but if not, repeat it at
often as may be found nece(rary.

By any of the methods now (hewn, the fuperficies of the
boards, to be fliot, are fuppofed to be parallel planes not
very- diftant from each other ; for if the faces be not parallel,
or if the thicknefs be confiderable, the operation wiU be the
more liable to error.

To reduce the rough Jvrface (f a body to o plane. — TIii«
will not be very diflicult, when it is known that a plane it
that which will every where coincide with a ftraight line.

The moft practical metliods are the following : Let the
workman provide two winding (licks, and apply them at
before dircdled, making the cods out of winding if they
are not found to be fo ; then if all the parts of the furfice
are ftraight on which the edges of the windiinj ^^'<^^' "■^''''
V J- placed,

JOINERY.

placed, it is evident that the whole furface mud be plane.
If the furface it hollow between the faid lines, one of the
ends or both mud bo planed lower, until the furface acquires
1 fmall convexity in the length, and then,' if ftraightened be-
tween the Ilraight linei at the ends, it will be a perfeft
plane.

Another mode of forming a plane of the furface is of a
quadrilateral form : apply a ruler along the diagonals, then
if they are (Iraight they are in a plane, but if they are both
hollow, or both round, the furface to be reduced is either
concave or convex, and mull be ftraightened in thefe di-
rettions accordingly ; and, laftly, if by trying acrofs the
diagonals with the ilraight edge it be found that the one
be hollow and the other round, the furface of the board
winds. In this caie bring down the protuberant part of
the convex diagonal, fo as to be ilraight with the two ex-
tremities ; then ftraighten the concave diagonal, by planing
either of the two ends or both of them, according as the
thicknefs of the board will require. Both diagonals being
now ftraight, traverfe the wood, that is, plane it acrofs the
fibres, until all the protuberant parts between the diagonals
are removed ; then the workman may proceed to fmooth it
by working it in the direction of the fibres.

To join any number of planks togelhtr,fo as to form a board of
a dtlerminate breadth, the fbret of each running longitudinal to
thofe of any other. — Shoot the two edges that are to be joined ;
turn the fides of the boards towards each other, fo that the
edges that are Ihot may be both uppermoft ; fpread thefe
edges over with llrong glue of a proper confidence, made very
hot ; one of the boards being fixed, turn the other upon
it, fo that the two edges may coincide, and that the faces
may be both in the fame plane ; rub the upper one to and
fro in tlie direftion of the fibres till the glue is almod out
of the joint ; let thefe dry for a few hour» ; then proceed
to make another joint ; continue to join as many boards
or planks in the fame manner, till the whole intended
breadth be made out. If the boards or planks of which the
board is to be compofed are very long, the edges that
are to be united would require to be warmed before a fire ;
and, for rubbing and keeping the joints fair to each other,
three men would be found neceflary, one at each extremity,
and one at the middle. Boards, glued together with this
kind of cement, will ftand as long as the fubdance of the
deals or planks compofiiig tiicm, if not expofed to rain or
intenfe heat, provided that the wood has been well feafoned
beforehand, and that the grain be free and draight, uninter-
rupted with few or no knots. When a board which is to
be expofed to the weather is to be made of feveral boards
or plnnks, the cement to be ufed for uniting them /hould
not be of (liin gU;c, but of white lead ground up with lin-
fced-oil, fo thin that the colour may be fenfibly changed into
■A whilidi caft : this kind of glue will require a much greater
time to dry than fkin glue. Boards to be expofed to the
weatlier, when tleir thickr.cfs will admit, are frequency
tongued togethei ; that is, the edges of both boards are
grooved to an equal diftance from the faces, and to an
equal depth; and a flip of wood is made to fit the cavity
made in both : this flip fhould be made to fill the grooves,
but ought not to be fo tight as to prevent the joint from
being rubbed \<ith proper cement.

To glue any tt-vo boards together forming a gii'en angle

This may either be accomplidicd by fhooting the edge of
the one board to the whole of the given angle, and the
face of the other ftraight ; then, by applying thefe two
furfaces together, and rubbing as before, they will form the
angle required ; or, if the two edges are /hot to half the
given angle, and the edges applied together and rubbed and

fet as before, the faces of the boards will form the angle
required. In both thefe methods, when only one fide of the
board is to be expofed to fight, which is moil commonly
the cafe, pieces of w'ood called bUicks are fitted to the
angle, and the fides glued acrofs the joint or legs of the
angle, being previoufly planed for that purpofe.

To form wooden architraves for apertures by gluing longi-
tudinal pieces together Architraves may be formed out of

the folid pieces ; but as their formation in this way is at-
tended with a wade of both ftuff and time, the mod eligible
method is to glue the parts longitudinally together, as is
bed adapted to the nature of the mouldings. Architraves
of the Grecian form, for doors and windows, generally
conlld of one or two faces in parallel planes, the one of
which recedes only in a fmall degree from the other, while
the outer edge is terminated with one or feveral mouldings
which have a very prominent projeftion. In this cafe make
a board of fufficieiit thicknefs, and in breadth equal to the
breadth of the architrave : prepare a dip of wood of a fuf-
ficient thicknefs and breadth for the mouldings on the outei
termination of the architrave ; glue this flip upon the face
clofe to the edge of the board, with the outer edge flufb
therewith. In the operation two men will be at lead re-
quired to rub the flip to a joint with the board ; and as it
often happens that the fide of the flip, which is to comply
with the furface of the board, is confiderably bent, the flip •
is nailed down to the board ; but, previoufly, fmall Iquare
pieces of wood, called buttons, are bored with holes, one in
each, and a nail is put through the hole to the head ; then
the flip is alfo bored with a brad-awl ; and the nails, with
the pieces thus defcribed, are entered and driven home as J
far as the buttons will permit. The buttons may be about
three quarters of an inch thick, and the other two dimen-
fions each equal to, cr fomething more than, the breadth
of the flip. The flip is fometimes grooved ; and the edge
of the board is tongued, glued, and inferted in the groove,
indead of the above method. Sometimes, alfo, the two
faces are made of diflFerent boards tongued together at
their joining ; then the whole is afterwards duck into
mouldings.

To form the furface of a cyFinder -with wood, luhofe f.bres
are in planes perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, fuch as
may be ufed in circular dado, or the /offits if windoivs.

Method 1. — When the dimenilon of^ the cylindric fur-
face, parallel to the axis, is not broader than a plank or
board: this may be done by bending and gluing feveral
veneers together ; and the firil upon a mouM or brackets,
the edges of which are in the furface of the propofed cy-
linder parallel to its axis.

This may be accomplidied by means of two fets of
brackets fixed upon a board with hollow cylindric fpace
between them, of fufficlent thicknefs for taking in the
veneers, and double wedges for confining them. If this
operation is carefully done, and the glue properly dried,
the wedges may be flackcned, and the ryJindric part fo
glued up will be found to dand very well ; but it mud be
obferved, that, as the wood has a natural tendency to unbend
itfelf, the curve furface, upon which it is glued, fliould be
fomewhat quicker than that intended to be made.

Some workmen take another method by forming a hol-
low cradle, and bending the vene^rj :ntc ir, and confining
their ends with wedges, which comprefs them together;
and by a very fmall degree of rubbing, with a hammer
made for this purpofe, the glue will be forced out of the
joint.

Another method is to form a cradle or templet to the
intended fgrlace, and lay a veneer upon it ; then glue blocks

JOINERY.

of wood upon the back of it, clofely fitted to its furface, and
the other joints to each ocher, the fibres of the blocks cor-
rcfponding with thofe of the veneer.

A tliird method is to make a cradle and place the
veneers upon it, confining one end of them i'pread in the glue
between the veneers with a brudi, and fix a bridle acrofs, con-
fining the ends of this bridle either by nsils or by fcrews ;
open the veeners again, and put in glue a fecond time be-
tween eacli two, and fix another bridle acrofs them : pro-
ceed in this manner to the other extremity.

A fourth method is to run a number of equi-diftant
grooves acrofs the back of the board at right angles to its
edges, leaving only a fmall thicknefs towards the face, let
this be bent round a craddle or templet made oh purpofe ;
and let the grooves be filled with flips of wood, which,
after the glue is quite dry, are to be planed down to the
furface of the cylindric board, which may be lliffened with
canvas glued acrofs the back.

Inilead of ufing a grooving plane, workmen frequently
make kerfs with the faw ; but this is not fo ftrong when
finifhed, as it is very difficult to infert the flips, and very
uncertain as to the depth of each of the kerfs, which will
occafion a very unequal bending of the board, if not to a
regular depth.

To knd a board, fo as to form the fruftum of a (one, or
ant fgmental portion of the frujlum of a cone, fuch as the fofjit
of the head of an aperture. — Find the form of the covering
according to the geometrical principles of carpentry ;
cut out a board to this form, and run a number of equi-
dillant grooves acrofs it tending to the centre : this being
fixed to a templet made to the furface of a cone, proceed
and fini(h it in the fame manner as in the lad method fliewn
fcr a cylinder.

To lend hoards fo as to form a fpheric furface.'—yid.'ke a
mould to the covering of a given portion of the fphere
in piano, according to the geometrical principles of car-
pentry ; complete the number of ftaves by this mould ;
make a templet or mould to a great circle of the fpher; j
groove each of the ftaves acrofs at right__ angles to a
line paffing through the middle, a^^l tend it round the
templet ; put flips in the groir.cj; kftly, ihoot the edges of
the ftaves, fo as to be in ^(affes tending to the centre of the
fphere : thefe ftavc; being glued together will form a fpheric
furface.

To glue vp the fiaft of a column. — Defcribe two circles of
diameters, equal to tlioie of the fuperior and inferior ends of
the fliaft.

Circumfcribe thefe by polygons, confifting of the fame
number of regular fides as the column is to confift of ftaves.
From the angles draw lines to the centre, which will give
the bevels for working the edges of the ftaves. In this pro-
cefs, after two pieces are glued together, and dried, pro-
ceed to glue a third piece in the fame manner and fo on to
the laft but one. The laft, previous to being glued, the
blocks fliould be fixed upon it, and then the whole may be
clofed in. N. B. The number of ftaves fliould be eight or
twelve, otherwife the joint will fall in the middle of the
ilutes, which fliould not be in the cafe. It is a very good
method to diminilh the ftaves, previous to their being glued
together, as otherwife the wafte of ftiiff^ v.ould be very
great.

To glue up the bafe of a column in f-oeral horizontal courfes,
or rings, in order to be turned in a lathe. — Confider the num-
ber of horizontal or bevel joints, which are belt made at the
internal angles of mouldings ; prepare a board, fo as to have
a plain furiace ; let a circle be dcfcribed on the plane of a

diameter, equal to the diameter of the greateft circle in the
heiglit of the courfc, and circumfcribe an equilateral poly-
gon about the circle, with as many fides as there are to be
pieces in a courfe, and from the angles draw lines towards
the centre: then any radial line, and one of the adjoining
fides of the polygon, will form the angle by which the ends
of every two pieces that are to form the courfe will meet, fo
as to make their planes coincide. The geometrical part
being thus finiflied, prepare the pieces each in length equal
to the fide of the polygon, with an acute angle at each end
from the outer fide, equal to the aforefaid angle on the
board, fo that each piece will thus have a longer and a
fliortcr fide : apply the longer fide of each piece to the poly-
gon, the fliorter lide being next ts the centre, fo that one
of the ends may coincide with a radial ; then the other end
«ill alfo coincide, and thus the whole will meet together, if
the work be true. But as this is difScult, it is common to
allow the pieces to be a fmall matter longer, in order ti>
plane them, fo as to make clofe work : for thou^ih the
methods be true, the workman, though ever fo careful, can-
not work to geometrical exactnefs ; even the thicknefs of
fliaving, or the fmallell degree of twift in the board, will
fpoil the work. Suppofe the courfe completely jointed,
take the wliole to pieces, and glue the furfaces which are to
meet each other, and rub each two adjacent pieces to
a-joint, until the whole ring or courfe is firmly clofed.
When the glue is dry, plane the upper fide truly ; take the
radius of the greateft projeding member in the next courfe,
and defcribe a circle upon the top of the courfe, on the fame
axis with the centre of the lower circle ; and with the centre
of this circle, in the plane of the top of the courfe, bifeft
any one of the arcs comprehended between two adjacent
joints ; and from the point of bifedtion, divide the circum-
ference into as many equal parts as there arc pieces in the
under rourle, and draw radiating lines towards the centre :
join every two neareft points in the circumference, and thus
an infcribed polygon will be formed: draw Ji;;^:' io.Uui-U
the circurrf::^-,,^^ pnr-irel to the fides of the infcribed poly-
gon, and thus a polygon will be made to circumfcribe the
circle : produce the radiating lines, until they meet the
angles of the circumfcribing polygon ; then the fides of the
circumlcribing polygon will be the fituations of the bottom
edge of the vertical outer fides of the fecond courfe, and the
radiations the fituations of the joints. Proceed, as in the
firft courfe, to adapt the pieces to their refpeitive fituations,
making clofe work : glue each piece to its place on the
lower courfe, and likewife the joints ; and when the glue of
this courfe is dry, its upper fide may be planed true. Pro-
ceed with the uppermoft courfe in the like manner, making
the joints fall in the middle of the lengths of the pieces of
the lower courfc ; and when finiftied, the work may be fent
to the turner.

To glut up the Ionic and Corinthian capitals for carving —
The abacus muft be glued in parts, fuch that their joints
may be in vertical planes. The leaves and caulicoles of the
Corinthian capital may be firft made of rettangular blocks,
and fixed to the vans.

To make a cornice round a cylindric body out of the leaji
quantity of wood, wlicn the body is greater than a half cylinder,
and concave, and -when the members -will nearly touch a right
line applied tranfverfiy. — Draw a fcftion of the cylinder
through its axis, and let the fedlion of the cornice be reprc-
fented upon the cylindric leflion. Draw a tranfverle line
touching the two extreme members of the cornice : parallel
to this line draw another hue within, at fuch a diftance from
the former as may be found necefTary for lliicknefs of ftufi";
produce this laft line, until it meet the line reprcfeiiting the
Y y 2 axis

JOINERY.

ails of the cylinder. The jimAion will either be above or
below, according as 0\e cornice is applied to the convex or
concave Tides of the cylinder. This meeting is the centre of
two concentric circles, whofe rsdii are the diftaiices between
the neareil and farthell extremes of the feftion of the cor-
nice. T!iis is evidently an application of the method of
finding the covering of a cone. When mouldings are got
out in this manner, ws. by a piece wliich does not occupy
the fpace, when fct to tiie phce reprefented by the height
and breadth, they are faid to be fjiriing.

When a cornice is to have much projeftion, the corona
or middle part is got out of a folid piece, and the parts
above and below, or one of them, as may be found necef-
fary, only fet to the fpring, and fupported by brackets.

7 9 defcrlbe tht various kinds of jaimngs in the praaice of
yinery. — Fi^. I. /"/rt.vXXII. is a fcclion (hewing the moll
llmple method of joining boards, or any kind of framed work
together at the angles ; this kind of joining is much ufed
in coarfc work ; it is called lap-joining.

Fig. 1. the method of joining troughs together.

Fig. 3. the method of joining dado together at an internal
angle.

Fig. 4. the manner of fixing two pieces of framing toge-
ther at the angle of their meeting with a returned bead, in
order that the joint ihould be concealed. This is only ufed in
common finiftjings ; in good finiihings a bead of ^ths qI an
inch broad is genera!!)' ruu tlafc to the joint, and tlic angle is
left entire.

Fig. 5. fliews the common method of mitring. This form
is always ufed in mouldings at an external angle, and fome-
times alfo in internal angles : but for internal angles, fcribing
is to be preferred, when it can be applied, wliich may always
be the cafe, when there are no quirked mouldings ; that is,
when mouldings are fuch that a perpendicular line to the
plane of the wall may fall upon any part of them without
"oing through the folid of the moulding.

Fig. 6. is another meu.G^ Cf r^''"ug. This may be ufed
ill all platie furfaces, at an external angle, hut is 110?"*^'"^^.
ble to mouldings. This manner of mitring is much more
preferable in point of llrength to that of Jig. j, in cafes
where the two can be applied.

Dove-tailing is another mode of joining two plane furfaces
together at an angle, by cutting pins of a prifmatic form
and trapezoidal fection on the end of one piece, and notching
the eni of the other in the fame manner, fo that the exterior
parts of the one is adapted to the indentations of the other,
without leaving any cavity when the two fides are brought
home to their places. This is the ilrongell method of join-
ing plane boards ; it ihould always be ufed in work which
may be required to be moved from place to place. There
are three forts of dove-tailing. One kind, called common
dove-taihng, {hews the ends of trie joints : another kind, called
lap-dove-taihng, conceals the joints of the dove-tails, but
ftiews a ibraight joint, not at the angle, but at a fmall dillance
parallel to it.. The third fort is called mitre dove-tailing,
which (hews no joint but in the angle. This method is very
neat, it is ftronger than the ftraight joint fliewn by the fec-
tiun Jig. 6, and where both ilrength and beauty is required
it mud be preferred to any other. Fig. 7, N^ I, is a feCtion
cf common dcve-tiiiling ; N" i, the fide of one of the pieces
fliewing tiie pins ; N 3, (hews the ends of the pins ; N 4.
the fide of the other piece, (hewing the indentations for re-
ceiving the phis.

Fig^. N' I, 2, 3, 4, and 5, different parts of mitre
dove- tailing.

'jTojoin two pieces of -woe J together, thejiirts of the me run-

ning tninfverfely to the Jilres of the other by morlife and tenotf
or dove-tailing. — One method is by cu'.ting a morlife to a
very fmall depth in the one piece, and a tenon of the fame
length in the other, and by bolting them together with one
or two bolts : where the breadth of the piece hiving the
tenon is confiderable, the nuts are to be let in from iluit fide
of the tenoned piece which is not expofcd to fight ; the heads
of the bolts upon the mortifed piece may be funk i.ito the
wood entirely below the furface, and the cavity may be filled
up with a piece of the fame kind of wood, neatly fitted in.

Dejinitiont. — I. A frame, in joinery, is the connection of
feveral pieces of timber of an equal thicknefs, 'pin-id tranf-
Terfely to cacli other, made faft by means of mortifes and
tenons, leaving reftangular fpaces between for other pieces of
timber, called pannels, each of which is inferted into each
edge of the former by means of a groove.

i. Thofe parts of the frame which terminate the two ver-
tical extremes are culled tlyles.

3. The horizontal parts, which are mortifed into the
ftyles, are called rails.

4. If there bj any intermediate pieces mortifed into the
rails, parallel to the if yLs, fuch pieces are called muntons.

In framed-work, rails have feversl epithets, according to
their fituations ; that bordering the framing at the lower ex-
tremity is called the bottom rail, tliat bordering the framing,
ai ilic other extremity, is called the top mil. The names of
intermediate raits vary according to their number and fitua-
tion. In doors, that in which the lock is inferted is called
the middle, or lock rail ; the intermediate rail next to the
top rail, is called the frieze rail.

Doors. — A door, in joinery, is a framed piece of timber-
work, or boai-ds nailed together, for the purpofe of (hutting
up at pleafure any aperture in a wall or partition, in order to
give or prevent pafTage from one apartment to another.

i^/((/f XXIII. ^^. I, is a four equal-pannelled door : the
form is only ufed in very common work, and is frequently
without mouldings.

Fig. 2 is a nine-pannelled door, with fquare pannels at the
l^"- Tliis form is frequently ufed in ftreet-doors, of wliiib
tiic back IS r*^ten lined with boards, in the manner of^. 3,
flulh with the ilyles ^."^d top rail ; the other rails and niun-
toiis muft therefore be recef^d "po" ""e fide to receive the
boarding.

Fig 4. is a fix cqual-pannelled pair ot'ft>lding-doors, hav-
ing two pannels in the breadth.

Fig. 5. is a double margin, or a pair of folding-doors,-
with four pannels in height, a id two in breadth, haviig
lying pannels below the top-rail, and above the lock-rail.

/"(;,'. 6. is a ten-panncUed pair of folding-doors, five in
heiglit, and two in breadth, having lying pannels at the top,
bottom, and in the middle, with long pannels between them.
Of tliis form is the ancient duor of the Pantheon at Rome.

/7^ 7. a fa(h-door : this form., if not (hut witii ar.other
feparate door, (hould have fliifting-lhutters, to cover the
glafs parts, fixed with bolts and nuts. For this purpo-l', it
Ihould at leall be one inch and a quarter thicker than a pan-
nelled door in the fame place ■ this gives room for the outfide
of tlie Ihutter to be flulh with the Itjles of the door ; but if
otherwife, an ugly frame muil be patched round the glazed
parts, in order to contain the (hulter.

door, of which fo:

the windo

and door of the temple of Ve(la at Rome, and alfo tliofe of
the temple of Eretheus at Athens.

Figs. 9 and t o. are doors of communication, or fuch at,
when open, will not encumber the floor, as other kinds of
receffed doors, by jetting into the room, but may either be

concealed

JOI

concealed entirely within the partition, or folded cloCe to it ;
they are ufed for the pilrpofe of making a free commnnica-
tion between one foom and another, at great meetings or
balls, when any one of the rooms would be infufficient
though large enough for common ufe.

/"/> 9. tlic elevation of a door to be folded clofe to the
partition, by means of a hanging ftyle, or pilader. on each
Jide which 1? firft hung to tiie jamb, then a folding door to
each pilafter.

Fig. 10. is a door confiding of four parts : each middle
part is hinged to each extreme part ; each two parts, on
each fide, in time of company, may be removed entirely
out of the way into hollows on each iide of the partition,
and guided by grooves at the top and bottom, and made to
Hide freely upon rollers.

F;». II. is a jib-door, that is, fuch a door as, when (lint,
may be as much concealed as pofllble from having the ap-
pearance of a door. Jib-doors are ufed, when only one
aperture at the end of the fide of a room is necelFary ; and
when it is required to keep the fymmetry of that fide, witliout
having the appearance of a door ; the bale, fuibafe, and
paper are, therefore, continued o'er it ae in the other parts
of the room, the joint being only feen at the top, and upon
the edge oppofitc the hinge.

JOINING of Is&iE. See Issue.

JOINT, the juncture, articiJation, or affemblage, of
two or more things. See Articul.\tiox.

JoiVT, in Anatomy, the connection of two or more hones
to each other : thefe parts are generally fo organized as to
admit of motion, but in fonie intlances tliis is not the cafe.

The joints or articulations are generally referred to three
clalfes : the immoveable, or J'ynarlhrojis ; the half moveable,
or amphiarihrcji; ; and the completely moveable, or tllar-
tbrsfi.

The firft of thefe includes the various kinds of future ;
for the defcription of which, fee Cr.wilm.

The amphiarthrofis, or joint admi;ting of flight motion, is
made up either of cartilaginous Hgaments {fynipL'yJii), or
of true cartilage {fynchomlrofs). The union of the bodies
of the vertebrae to eacti oth^-T) and the articulations of the
pelvis, are examples of the former : tile connection of the
firll pair of ribs to the fternuni, and of the different bones
of the ilernum to each other, cxempHfy the latter.

For the account of the third fpecies, or moveable articu-
lation, fee Di.'VRTuno.sis.

A general defcription of the compofition of a joint will
be found under the article Exthe.mities, near tlie begin-
ning ; and in the fame article the particular joints of the
limbs are defcribed. The account of tlie articulation of the
lower jaw is given under Deglvtition" ; that of the con-
nection of the head to the vertebral column under Hi;.-iD.
The articulations of the vertebrs are confidered in the
article Spine ; thofeof the ribs, in Ribs ; and of the pelvis,
in Pelvls.

.To.'NTS, Difeafes of. Under this head we intend to notice
a few cafes which belong to the department of Surgery, and
are not elfewhere treated of in this publication.

Inflammat'wn of Joinls. — Idiopathic cafes of this kind are
not common. The complaint ordinarily originates in con-
fequence of a contufion, fpr.iin, wound, or other kind of in-
jury d-me to the part affefted. Phlegmonous inflammation,
wlierefoever lituated, is uniformly attended with certain local
fymptoms, by whicli both its prefence and degree may be
afccrtaincd. Pl-eternaturdl rednefs, Incrcafed heat, a throb-
bing pain, and a tenfe fwelling, affcv'-^ing the feat of its
attack, are the common marks which denote its exillence
in all fituatiuns. WHicn a joint is inflamed, thtx fame Ijcal

jOf

phenomena ai'e pivfent, and the conditutio!) is dillurbed by
the ufual fymptoms of inflammatory fever ; but in thefe
Cafes they are apt to be exceedingly fevere. The inflam-
mation attacks the capfular ligaments, and not remaining
confined to any particular portion of them, it very quickly
diffufes itlelf univerfally over their whole extent, as is com-
monly the cafe in all inflammations of fmooth membranes.
That there is this peculiarity in inflammation of membranes,
is often ihlkingly proved in the inllance of peritonitis,
arihng after the operation of lithotomy. Here, we know,
that the inflammation commences in the bladder, is communi-
cated to the portion of the peritoneum which covers the fun-
dus and pollerior furface of this vifcus, and thence rapidly
fpivads over the v.'hule extent of the abdomen.

The capfules of the joints are naturally endued with little
fenfibllity ; but, like the gums, and feveral other parts in a
fimllar iiate, tliev l>ecome acutely painful when inflamed.
The complaint is accompanied by an increafed fccretion of
the fynovia, which becomes of a more aqueous, and of a lefs
albuminous quality than it is In a healthy (late. Hence
this fluid is not fo well calculated for lubricating the arti-
cular furfaces and preventing the effects of friclion, as it is
in the natural condition of the joint. This circumilance
may explain why a grating fenfation is often perceived on
moving the patella when the knee is inflamed.

The capfules of the joints may, as well as other mem-
branes, be thickened by inflammation. At other times an
exudation of coagulating lymph may take place upon their
internal furfaces ; and as, by a general law of the animal
economy, the contiguous veffels are always prone to Ihoot
into lymph thus L-ff"ufed upon an inflamed furface, the con-
fequence frequently is, that organized fubllancr,--, fuch as
pieces of cartilage and bone, are produced in the interior of
the joint. The inconveniences of thefe extraneous bodies,
and the mode of relief, will be a fubjeft v.hicli we Ihall pre-
fently have to confider.

Wlien the Inflammation is more vehement, fuppnration
may liappen within the capfidar ligament. Unfortimately,
this is by no means an unfrequcnt occurrence. At lengtli
the capfular ligament ulcerates, and purulent matter is ef-
fufed beneath tlie integuments. Tlie flcin may next ulce-
rate, fo that the abfcefs is difcharged, and the cafe fecms to
be fomewhat benefited. The openings through which fuch
collections of matter are difcharged, will be found, upon
examination with a probe, to be the terminations of finufes
leading into the cavity of the joint.

A large joint feldom fidls into a flatc of fuppnration, in
confequence of acute inflammation, Without th.e conllitution
being at the fame time fo dllhirhid. that life itfelf is greatly
endangered. In the moll violent ilate of the inflammation,
or that which is the immediate forerunner of fuppuration,
the pulfe Is CAceedlngly frequent ; but not quite fo full and
(Irong as it would be if the part aflfefted were of a ilruduro
better adapted to refill the ravages of dlfeafe. The patient's
flcln is dry and hot ; he is refllefs and vigilant ; and, in very
bad cafes, delirium and coma may cnfue, and end fatally.

But the rapidity with which the common inflammatory
fever afl'umes in fuch cafes the hettic type is a circumilance
which muil not be pafled over in fdenc'e. When an abfcefs
has formed in a large joint, in confequence of a fevere at-
tack of common inflammation, the patient immediately be-
gins to be affccled with hectic fymptoms, and tlse flror.g
aClion attendant on the inflammatory fever fuddenly ceafes.

Local confcquences, even worfe than ihofc above defcribed,
may follow inflammation of a joint. As the layer of the
capfular ligament reflefted over the cartilages of the arti-
culation is often inflamed, the cartilages themfelveJ are very

hablc

JOINTS.

liable to have the inflammation communicated to them.
Part8 partaking of a cartilaginous ftrufture being very in-
capable of bearing the irritation of difeafe, are often ab-
forbed, fo that, in the inllance before us, a portion, or the
whole of the articular furface of the bones, may be left com-
pletely denuded of its natural cov-ering. At length the
heads of the bones entering into the formation of the af-
feded joint inflame, and become carious.

Sometimes only fuch parts as are exterior to the capfular
ligament of the joint are inflamed, and in this cafe the fymp-
toms are never fo fevcre, nor fo obllinate, as when the com-
plaint is more deeply fituated. Even when fuppuration
takes place on the outfide of the capfule, the cafe is not
dangerous, provided the cavity of the joint be not involved
in the inflammatory attacks. Every inflammation of a large
joint may generally be cor.fidered as a cafe of confiderable
importance ; yet certainly there are inftances where the in-
flammation being mild in degree, and fimple in its nature,
the danger is not urgent. However, every furgeon ought
to be well imprefled with the faft, that though the inflam-
mation be originally of a healthy fort, it is always very
likely to be converted into on? of a fpecific nature, whenever
there is a tendency in the conilitution to fcrofulous difeafe.
A perfon, whofe habit is fcrofulous, may fometimes con-
tinue, during life, exempt from any local difeafes of this
fpecifie nature, provided he be fortunate enough to avoid
all irritation of parts on which fcrofula is moil particularly
difpofed to make its attack. Among fuch parts we mull
clafs the joints, efpccially tJie knee, hip, elbow, and ankle.
Hence, when a joint is inflamed, how mild foever the affec-
tions may be, we ought never to forget, that when there is
a tendency to fcrofula in the fyilem, the original cafe of
fimple inflammation is very apt to be the exciting caufe of
the white fwelling, one of tlie mofl; fevere and intractable
difeafes which increafe the catalogue of human miferies.
Hence the prudence of adopting with exaclnefs whatever
method of treatment may be uidicated. In the following
obfervations, we (hall fuppofe the cafe to be that of an in-
flamed knee. The means bell calculated for the relief of an
inflamed joint are, generally fpeaking, thofe which are called
antiphlogifl;ic. There are few cafes in which j^eneral and
topical bleeding is more neceflary and ufeful. The violence
of the inflammation, and the llrength, age, and pulfe of the
patient, mufl; determine with what freedom the lancet Ihould
be employed. Leeches, however, may always be applied,
and their application be repeated feveral times with advan-
tage. When the leeches have fallen off, the bleeding is to
be promoted by fomenting the part. The furgeon (hould
daily perfiil in this method, until the acute ftage of the rn-
flarrmation has entirely fubfided. In conjuniflion with this
■treati';;!.:; lie (hould take care to keep the joint continually
furro'.inded with linen wet with the faturnine lotion. In no
cafe of inflammation are the application of cold lotions, and
the maintenance of a confl:ant evaporation from the furface of
the part a.Tefted, more fl:rikingly advantageous.

Fomentations and emollient poultices, however, fometimes
afford moll eafe to the patient, in which circumftance they
.ought to have the preference.

Together with the foregoing means, laxative and febri-
fuge medicines are to be exliibited, and in a cafe of fevoie
pain and lofs of flcep, opiates.

When the acute ftage of the inflammation has abated,
-the plan of treatment may be a little altered. The grand
objeil is now to remove the elTetls which have been left by the
preceding afTeftion. Thefe are a thirkened ftate of the cap-
fular ligament, and parts furrounding the articulation ; a
itiffnefs of the joint, and pain whea it is moved ; a colicclioii

of fluid in the capfule, &c. This ftate of the complaint,
when neglected, and there is a tendency to fcrofula, may
prove exceedingly obllinate, and even terminate in an irre-
mediable ipecific dilk-mper of the joint. When, therefore,
the local rednefs, tenfion, and throbbing, and the fymptoms
of inflammatorj" fr"«'r fiibfide, the aClivily of the praftitioner
ought not to be relaxed, 'i ne application of a bUder to
the joint will now be found particularly efficaciO'J", *ad the
difcharge (hould be kept up for a few days with the favin
cerate. Very large collections of fluid in the capfular liga-
ment of the knee, great thickening about the joint, and
other remaining effefts of inflammation, may often, under
fuch treatment, be quite got rid of in a week or ten days.

In other cafes, in which the inflammation and its effecls
are flighter, lotions compofed of fpirit of v.-ine, vinegar, and
fal ammoniac, fuffice for the removal of any chronic com-
plaints which may continue after the acute inflammation is at
an end.

When the inflammation of a large joint like the knee is in-
duced by a wound, the flomach is often much affedled, and
the lymptoms may be very violent and even fatal.

Of Preternatural Cartilaginous Sub/lances in Joints. — The
ancients have either negledted to notice this difeafe in their
writings, or they have not been at all acquainted with it.
Ambrofe Pare is the firfl author who mentions it : he had
made an incifion, in order to difcharge fome fluid from the
cavity of the knee-joint, when a hard, pohlhed, white body,
about as large as an almond, was difcharged from the wound.
(Livre 35. chap. 15.) Since the time of Pare, the com-
plaint has been defcribed by numerous furgical authors ; but
the moil valuable information on the fubjeft may be found in
the works of Reimarus, Morgagni, Bromiield, Ford,
Default, Home, Hey, and Abernethy.

The external part of the extraneous fubilances, to which
allufion has been made, is in general of a cartilaginous con-
fluence, while their central part is frequently ofl'eous. Their
figure is fubjedl to great variety ; but they ufually have one
concave fide, and another which is convex. They are, for the
moil part, formed in the knee, and have been fuppofed by
Reimarus, and a few other writers, to be met with in no
other articulation. Morgagni, however, has feen oflilied
bodies of this kind in the ankle-joint. Haller, alfo, dif-
covered a great number of cartilaginous bodies in the arti-
culation of the jaw, where the natural cartilages had been
deftroyed. Mr. Hey, of Leeds, mentions a cafe, in which
there were two bodies of this defcription in the elbow-joint.
The largeft; preternatural cartilage perhaps ever met with is
mentioned by Mr. Home, as being nearly equal in fize to
the knee-pan itfelf, end litualed in the knee-joint of a fol-
dier, belonging to the juth regiment. The greatefl: num-
ber ever known to be contained in one articulation is twenty-
five. In mod inftances, we only find one.

Tl'.cfe preternatural cartilaginous fubilances are either at-
tached to fome part of the infide of the joint, or they are
quite unconneftcd, loofe, and moveable. It is only when
they become fo iituated, as to intcrpofe themfelves between
two articular furfaces, which ghde over each other in the
motion of a limb, that much inconvenience commonly re-
iults from their prefence. Wiiile they continue by the fide
of the patella they caufe but iittle trouble ; but when they
flip under the ligament of that bene, or between the fame
bone and the condyles of the femur, or between the latter
bone and the head of the tibia, then they impede progref-
fion, caufe confiderable pain, and often excite inflam-
mation.

Much light was thrown upon the formation of loofe cartil?-
ginous tumours in ii.e joiiitf, by the penetrating genius cf

the

JOINTS.

t' ;.itc Mr. Hunter. It was his belief, that a coagiilum of
t ■.i-.i.af.ited blood might, under certain circumllaiices, be
11 v.. r.erted into an organized vai'cular fubltancc, by the vef-
I'els growing into it from the neighbouring living furface.
No one doubts tiiat the coagulatiuj^- lymph has conllantly a
tendency to become vafciilar, when efTufed on the furface of
an inflamed membrane. Now, if we take the trouble of
peruling the cafes which are related by different authors, we
fhall find, that the formation of loofe cartilaginous fubllances
in the joints, has generally been preceded by violence done
to the part, and by fymptoms of inflammation. Of this de-
fcription are the examples publiihed by Mr. Ford, M.
Brocbjerin Default's Journal, Mr. Abernethy, and Mr. Hey.
Latta mentions four inllances which were preceded by
rheumatifm. In this ftate, we conceive that the capfular liga-
ment, or its delicate layer, reflected over the articular car-
tilages, effufes coagulating lymph upon a part of its furface j
that fuch lymph foon becomes vafcular and organized ; and
that it gradually aflumes a ftructure more or lefs like that of
cartilage.

Loofe preternatural cartilages are moilly attached to feme
part of the articular cavity, which does not fuffer attrition
when the joint is moved. Dr. Alexander Monro, in dilfeft-
ing the knee of a malefactor, found in the joint an ofTeous
tumour, which was connected by a ligamentous pedicle
with the exterior edge of the cartilage covering the ex-
ternal cavity of the tibia. (Edin. Eflays, vol.iv. p. 245.)
Perfeft quietude is effential to the growth of new veffels into
coagulating lymph, and in the cafe juft now quoted, if the
exudation had taken place, where it would foon have been
diilurbed in the motion of the limb, its organization could
Icarcely have happened. Alfo, if fuch cartilaginous bodies
were to be commonly formed on a part of the articular ca-
vity, necelTarily expofed to friciion in walking, &c. then
patients would experience pain from the iirft. But, as they
do not feel inconvenience till the tumour has become very
moveable by the gradual elongation, or fudden rupture of
its pedicle, and only then when the tumour glides into a fitu-
atioM where it is pinched between the articular furfaces,
we have a right to conclude, that moll cartilaginous bodies
of this kind grow originally in a fituation, where they are
not particularly expoled to dillurbance in the motion of the
joint. In moll inllances, the communication of vafculanty
muft alfo happen, during the tendernefs of the joint, at which
period the patient naturally keeps his limb in a quiet ftate, in
order to avoid pain. Aiter all inflammation has fubfided,
the limb is again moved with freedom ; the organized coa-
gulum is gradually loofened by the motion, and at length it
only remains connefted with the joint to which it was ori-
ginally attached, by means of a long flender pedicle, through
which its nutrient veifcls proceed. At la(l the pedicle
breaks, and the cartilaginous fubllance is left quite loofe,
like an extraneous body, in the cavity of the joint.

The irritation of loofe cartilages in the knee often occa-
fions an increafed quantity of flaid in the capfular ligament,
but this is not invariably the cafe. When the irritation is
fuch as to induce a degree of heat and tendernL-fs in the joint,
there is ufually a preternatural quantity of the fynovia fe-
creted : when pain and inconvenience have not lately been felt,
this flaid is generally not more abundant, than in the natural
flate of the joint.

With lefpecl to the treatment of thefe cafes, we are not
acquainted with any certain means of freeing the patient
from the inconveniences of the difeafe, if we except making
an incilion into the joint, for the purpofc of ixtracling the
cartilaginous f«bftance. To this plan, the danger attendant
on ali wounds of fo large an articulation as the knee is a very

ferious objection. Hence, Middkton and Gooch tried
anoiliL'r method, which was to conduft the extraneous body
into a fituation where it produced no pain, and to retain it
in that poliiion a long time, by means of bandages, under
the idea, that the cartilaginous fubllance would adhere to
the contiguous parts, and occafion no future trouble. Thcfc
furgeons appear at lead to have thus afforded temporary
relief.

Mr. Hey, imprefled witli a juft fenfe of the dangerous
fymptom.s, which have occafionally rcfulted from the moll
limple wounds penetrating the knee-joint, tried the efficacy
of a laced knee-cap, and the cafes which he has adduced
clearly demonllrate, that the benefit thus obtained is not
tranlient, at leall as long as the patient continues to wear the
bandage. In one cafe, the method had been tried, for ten
years, with all the fuccefs which the patient could dcfire.

•All things confidered, it is our decided opinion, that the
effect of a knee-cap, or of a comprofs and roller, ought
generally to be tried before having recourfe to the knife, fup-
pofiiig the cartilaginous fubftance can be placed in a fituatiorr
where it gives no pain, and admits of being compreifed.
But doubtlefs there are inllances, in which it is the duty of
the furgeon to operate. If a man be deprived of his liveli-
hood by not being able to ufe his knee ; if he canHOt, or will
not, take the trouble of wearing a bandage ; if he be urgently
defirous of running the rifle ot the operation, after ciicum-
ftances have been impartially explained to him ; if a band-
age fail in affording fuSicient relief; and laflly, if cxcefiive
pain, fevere inflammation of the joint, and lamenefs, be
frequently brought on by the difeafe ; the employment of
the knife leems juftiliable and proper. It is very certain,
that fuccefs has generally attended the operation ; but fmall
as the hazard may be of lofing the limb, and even life, in
the attempt to get rid of the complaint ; yet, fince the in-
conveniences of the difeafe are in moil cafes very bearable,
and are alfo capable of palliation by means of a bandage,
endangering the limb and life in any degree mull appear to
many perfons contrary to the diclates of prudence.

We have no inftance recorded, where there was a necclTity
for removing a cartilaginous tumour from any joint but the
knee.

The difeafe being often attended with a degree of heat and
tendernefs about the joint, there can exift no doubt ot the
propriety of keeping the patient in bed a day or two before
he fubmits to the operation, the danger of which is in a
great meafure proportioned to the fubfequent inflammation.
When the attempt to heal the wound by the firtl intention
fucceeds, much of the hazard is alfo paft. Therefore, the
joint Ihould be brought into as quiet a Itate as poflible before
the incifion is pradtifed, andbefides a little confinement, the
furgeon fliould direcl leeches and cold faturnine lotions to be
applied to the knee, and an opening draught or two to be
taken.

As the loofe piece of cartilage may, in general, be moved
round the joint, the furgeon frequently has it in his power
to choofe the place where he will make the incifion. Ford,
Latta, and others lu-ive made the wound on the outiide of
the joint. Default ufed to bring the loofe cartilage to the-
inner fide of the articulation, againlt the attachment of the
capfular ligament, and then make the cut in that fituation.
Mr. Aberuethy has recommended bringing the extraneous
fubftance to the outhde of the inter.nal condyle of the os
femoris, and dividing the capfular ligament at that part.
Mr. Ruflell adviles us to pufli the moveable body upwards,
on the infide of the thigh, in order that the i jcifion may he
as ditlant as pofliblc from the moving furface of the joint,
Mr. Hunter alfo preferred removing ihcfcloofe bodice at the
6 upper

JOINTS.

upper part of the joint, becaufe there the bag, which con-
tains the fyiiovia, has lefs of the nature of a capfular hga-
nieiit.

T5ut whatever place may be chofen for the incifion, it is
of great confequence that an afiillant prevent the lool'e car-
tilage from flipping away, left it flioiild not cafily be found
again, and the piirpofe of the operation be frulirated. It
is clear, thut if the capfular ligament were wounded when
an accident of this kind occurred, the patient would be ex-
puled to all the danger of the operation, witliout any chance
of being benefited by it.

All operators have followed the plan of drawing the integu-
ments to one fide before making the incifion, fo that as foon
as the excilion of the cartilage is accomplidied, the wound
in the capfular ligament may become immediately covered
with (kill. TIius the bad effefts of the cavity of' the joint
being expofed, are materially prevented. The piece of car-
tilage, when brought into view, is to be direitly extratled
by means of a tenaculum.

The (Icin is then to be brought over the opening in the
capfular ligament ; the external wound is to be clofed with
ilicking plafter ; cold lotions are to be applied to the knee ;
and every antiplilogillic meafure adopted, which luay i'eeni
prudent and nectflary.

E.Kperience has further proved, that the patient is not
completely out of danger as foou as the wound is united ;
and that he ought, fer fome time longer, to keep the limb
■at relt. See Bromiield's Chirurgical Cafes and Obfervations,
vol. i. p. 3.;5,3j6.

Of Hydrops Arfuuli, or Drnpfy of the ,/o('n/j.— This dif-
eafe confiils of an accumulation of water in the capfular li-
gament of a joint, and is very analogous to the hydrocele,
or colleftion of an aqueous fluid in the tunica vaginalis
tellis. Both thcfe complaints, indeed, are alike, in not arif-
ing from a general dropfical afl'edion of the conllitution,
the patient being frequently in other refpedls quite foiuid.
There are, it is true, a few exceptions to the latter part of
tins obfervation. The knee is, of all joints, the molt liable
to the difcafe, perhaps on account of the largenefs and
loofenefs of its capfular ligament.

The precife caufes of hydrops articuli are often beyond
tlie reach of invelligation. The diforder, however, is fre-
<iuently preceded by fevere rheumatic affedlions, fevers, and
local violence. lu moft cafes a fluctuation is very dillin-
^uilhable, unlefs the joint be uncommonly diltended. When
the hmb, alfo, is extended, fo as to relax the extenfor
niufcles of the leg, the knee-pan may be made to rife up,
by prefling tlie tumour, and a fulnefs may then be difccrned
on each fide of that bone. The complaint is in general un-
attended with ferious pain, though fome uneailnefs, aitd a
fenfe of fliflhefs are experienced.

In confidering the treatment of this, as well as of moil
other difeafes, it behoves us to pay efpecial attention to the
caufes ivherc they are difcoverable, the mere removal of them
being often of itfelf capable of effeftmg a cure. Thus,
when hydrops articuli occurs during the debility confequent
to typhoid and other fevers, the complaint can hardly be ex-
pi-ftcd to get well till the llrength of the conftitution is, in
fome degree reftored. The coimeiflion between the local
and conilitutional diforder is \«ell illullrated in a cafe which
Mr. Rufiell has related, and in which every local remedy-
was tried without avail : the difeafe, which would not yield
as Vi\\\:^ as the debility confequent to a typhus fever lafted, got
veil fpontaueouHy in\mediately wlien the patient regained his
ilrength. On ^Io^bid A flections of the Knee, p. 192.

Ill ordinary examples hydrops articuli is quite a local ma-
Jady, unconiicded with .any diforder of thc.ccnlUtutioii, and

mav be difperfed by topical treatment. One of the moft
effeftual means for this purpofe, is the application of a
blifter, which fhould be kept open with the favin cerate.
The operation of the blifter may alfo be very materially
promoted by the pretTure of a bandage. In fome inftawceii
the adion of the abfoibents may be fufficiently excited by
moderate exercife, and frictions with flannel impregnated
with the fteam of vinegar, or by eleftricity, and rubbing the
joint with camphorated mercurial ointment. The patient
fliould likewife be purged with calomel, or kaU acetatum,
unlefs any particular reafons forbid.

Surjiical writers inform us of cafes, which refift common
treatment, are attended with immoderate diftention, and even
with fuch irritation upon a weak conftitution, as ferioufly
impairs the health. Here, the furgeon would be juftified in
making a fmall pun Anre into the joint, in order to difcharge
the fluid. Care fliould be taken to make the opening no
larger than neceftary, and to draw the integuments to one
fide, before introducing the lancet, or trocar, fo that the
wound in the capfular ligament, as foon as the operation is
finiftied, may become covered with (kin.

Exc'ifion ofDifeiifed Joints In the year 17SZ, Mr. Park,

a furgeon at Liverpool, made the propofal of totally extir-
pating many difeafed joints, fo as to do away the neccfiity
of cutting off limbs, which might ftill be of more ufe to the
patients than any artificial contrivance. It was his plan to
effect an entire removal of the heads of fuch bones as coin-
pofed the difeafed articulation, and then to make the fawn
extremities of the bones grow together, like the ends of a
fracture.

After undertaking fome experiments upon the dead fub-
jeft, Mr. Park, in ijSi, performed the operation of extir-
pating the difeafed knee of a ilrong robuil failor, aged 3;.
The method purfued was much like that which had been
previoufiy tried upon the dead fubjeCt, and which was a?
follows : An incifion began about two inches above the
up))er end of the patella, and extended about as far below
its lower part. Another one was made acrofs this at right
angles, immediately over the patella, down to the bone, and
nearly half round the limb, the leg being in an extended
ilatc. The lower angles, formed by thele incifions, were
raifed, fo as to lay bare the capfular ligament ; the patella
was then taken out; the upper angles were raifed, fo as
fairly to denude the head of the femur, and to allow a imall
catling to be pafted acrofs the pofterior flat part of the bone,
immediately above the condyles, care being taken to keep
one of the flat fides of the point of the inftrnnicnt quite
clofe to the bone all the way. The catling being with-
drawn, an elallic fpatula was introduced into its place, for
the purpofe of protecting the foft parts during the fawing of
the thigh-bone. The head of the bone, thus feparated, was
carefully dlfleCted out ; the head of the tibia was then eafily
turned out and fawn ofl", and as mtich as poflible of the c?p-
fular ligament difleCted away. The quantity of bone re-
moved in tlie operation was a very little more than two inches
of the thigli-b')ne, and rather more than one inch of the
tibia. The only large artery divided was one on the front
of the knee, and it ceafed to bleed before the operation was
concluded; but the ends of the bones bled very freely. To
keej) the redundant integuments from falling inwards, and
tlie edges of the wounds in tolerable contaft, a few iutnres
were iifed. The drelTings were light and fupcrficial, and
the limb was put in a tin cafe, which was long enough to
receive the whole member, from the ankle to the trochanter
major.

\Vc learn from Mr. Park, that afterwards many trouble-
fome cireumltances occurred, arifing chiefly from the diffi-

JOI

culty of keeping the limb in a fixed pofidon, the great
depth of the wound, and the abfcefles and finufes which were
formed in the part. The firll fymptoms, however, were
not at all dangerous. But the patient was obliged to keep
his bed nine or ten weeks, and it was many months before
the cure was complete. The man afterwards went to fca,
and lo ufcful was his hmb, that he was able to do his duty
extremely well.

Mr. Park made another attempt to extirpate a difcafed
knee, but it was lefs favourable, as the patient lingered a
few months after the operation, and died.

About the fame time that Mr. Park made his propofal,
a fimilar plan was fuggefted by P. F. Moreau, a French fur-
geon, and tried in feveral inltances, upon the knee, elbow,
&c. by himfelf and his fon.

The excifion of difeafed joints fecms, at prefent, to have
no advocates among furgeons of judgment and experience.
A full relation of all that is known on the fubjeft has been
lately publifiied by Dr. JefTrays, in a work entitled " Cafes
of the Excifion of Carious Joints." In tliis book may be
found a defcription of a very ingenious faw for facilitating
the operation. The inltrument is coiiftruftcd with joints,
like a watch chain, fo as to allow itfelf to be drawn behind
a bone with a crooked needle, and be calculated for cutting
the bone from behind forwards, without injuring the foft
parts. It was made by Mr. Richards, who was alFiIlcd by
his nephew, the prefent Mr. Richards, of Brick Lane,
London. In placing the faw under the bone, its cutting
edge is to be turned away from the fledi. Handles are
afterwards hooked on the inftrument.

The reafons which keep the praftice of cutting out
difeafed joints from being imitated, are, in our opinion, of
the mod invincible kind. We believe that it is only right to
amputate a limb, on account of a difcafed jonit, when the
patient's health is fo reduced, that it cannot any longer bear
the irritation of the local difeafe, and that as long as the
ftrength holds out, the propriety of endeavouring to cure
the difeafe, and preferve the limb, is diftated by every prin-
ciple of good furgery, as well as humanity. If it be only
in hopelefs circumftances, and in a reduced ftate of the pa-
tient, that we are to turn our minds to the ufeof the knife,
it feems improbable that a patient, after being greatly re-
duced by hectic fymptoms, would in general recover from
fo bold and terrible an operation, as that of diffefting away
the whole of the knee-joint. If fome few fliould efcape
with life and limb preferved, would the bulk of perfons
treated in this manner have the fame good fortune ?

The extirpation of fo large an articulation as the knee
cannot be compared with the operation of amputation, in
point of fimphcity and fafety. The chief objeclions are
founded, however, not upon the pain, nor difficulty of the
operation, but upon the great length of time wliich the
healing of the wound requires, and which, in the firlt cafe
recorded by Mr. Park, was no lefs than eight months.
His fecond example, as we have already mentioned, ended
fatally. Moreau's patient, though much debilitated, efcaped
the firft dangers confequent to the operation ; and " after
three months confinement, the patient was in fuch a Hate,
that Moreau expected he would be able to walk upon
crutches in another month or fix weeks!" In the mean
time the young man died of a dyfentery. Allowing the ex-
cifion of the knee to be followed by all poflible fuccefs, few
men of judgment will alfo acknowledge, that the advantage
of having a mutilated, lliortened, ftiff limb, inllead of a
wooden leg, is an adequate compcnfation for the more pain-
ful operation that has been endured, and the greater rifle
that has been run.
Vol. XIX.

J o I

Many of the foregoing obfervations were originally
publifiied in a Treatife on the Difeafes of the Joints by
S. Cooper, 1807.

Joints, in Alining, are applied to the vertical fifiures, or
cutters, by which mod of the ftrata are divided nearly ver-
tically, into feparate blocks and pieces. In the limeftono
quarries in Derbyfiiire, two very dillinft kinds of joints arc
noticed in the rock, fome that are peculiar to the particuhx
beds of Hone, (the filfures of W. Martin,) and rarely
fink through more than two or three beds ; and others, tliat
break through all the beds of iiniedone, iuid form a perfectly
ilraight wall often to the face of their quarries ; thefc lall
fccm perfectly allied to mineral veins, though often not more
than the eighth, or a quarter of an inch wide, and liave their
fides flcirted with fluor, or calcareous fpar, or barytcs, and
are poliihed, or fiiew thicker fides in fome inllanccs, and often
thefc joints contain fmall fpecks of lead ore ; while it is very
rare for the other, or partial joints, to contain fpar or ore ;
thefc kinds of joints, when clofe filled v.ilh fpar, fo as to ce-
ment the parts of the rock firmly together again, feem to
anf wer to Uie cotemporaneous veins of Werner ; and t(:e fpar-
joints of other writers ; Mr. William Martin calls them
rifts, Outlines, p. 171. Quarrymen fometimes apply the
term joint to the partings or thin way-boards which feparate
the different thin llrata or beds of iione in a rock ; but pro-
perly, thefe are called bed-joints, or llrata-feamf. The de-
finition which M. Werner gives of ilrata, via. " thofe parts
of a rock which lie between parallel mils and fjiires,"
(Tranfi. of New Theory of Veins, p. 2 ), is much too
general, as it may include both the kinds of joints above-
mentioned, and the impropriety alfo is (b-iking, of apply-
ing the term;™/ to the bed-joints of a rock, or fenii-ilrata
of Martin ; with fuch vague ideas as thefe, it is no wonder
that many obfervers have miitaken the cutters or joints of
thick llrata, that happen to range parallel, for bed joints or
ftrata-feams, and defcribed ftrata as vertical, whicli are in
reality horizontal, or near it.

J01NT.S, in Architellvre, denote the feparations between
the ftones ; which are filled with mortar, plafter, or ce-
ment.

Joint, in Carper.lry, Sic. is applied to feveral manners of
alTembling, or fitting, pieces of wood together. Thus
we fay, a dove-tail joint, &c. See Joinehy, Moutise,

DoVE-T.ilL, &C.

Joint, Univerfal, \n Mechanics, an excellent invention of
Dr. Hook, adapted to all kinds of motions and flexures ;
of which he has j;iven a large account in his Cailerian
Leftures, printed in 1678. This feems to have given occa-
fiou to the gimbols ufed in fufpeiiding the fea-compafs, the
mechanifm of which is the fame with that of Dtfaguhers's
rolling lamp.

Joint, in Ship BuiUing, a term fignifying the junfturc of
the frame -timljers, v\hioh ii> reprcfentcd by a line, whereby
the fhape of the vcffel is determined at the flations of tlic
frames, to which the moulds are made for forming the various
timbers, and although the frame is compofed of a double fet
of timbers, yet they are generally clofe enough that the
mould, made at the joint or middle, gives the ftape of tlie
forcfide of the one, and the aftfideof the other.

Joint j'li-li.vi, in Law. In perfonal aftions feveral wrongs
may be joined in one writ ; but aftions founded upon a tort,
and on a contract, cannot be joined ; for they require difTercnt
pleas and different proccfs.

Soi^T-biUlery. See Batteuy.

ioi^iT-excculars, in Laiu, are two or more perfons .np-

pointed fuch by will : in which cafe they are accounted but

as one fingle perfon, fo that the actions done by one of tliem

Z t arc

J o I

arc taken to be the a£ls of all, becaiife they all reprefent
the perfon of the teRator ; thus, where two joint-execiitors
are pofleffed of a leafe for years, in right of their teftator,
one of them may fell the term without the other's joininjj ;
and in like manner, where one joint-executor gives a releafc,
the others are bound by it, each having an authority over
the whole cftatc ; but a joint-executor is not charged with
the ails of his companion, any farther than he is aftually
poficfled of the goods of the teilator : however, if joint-
csecutors enter into an agreement, that each fhall inter-
meddle with particular parts of the tcftator's eftatc, in that
cafe each becomes chargeable for the whole by agreement.
It has been held, that two joint-executors cannot urge fe-
parate pleas, bccaufe their teftator, if living, on an adtion
brought againft him, could have been allowed but one plea ;,
and that, if all the executors are not named in any adlion
brought by joint-executors, the aftion will abate. As to
legatees, the receipt of one executor charges not the other.
See Executor.

Joi'ST-liz'.'s, denote lives that continue during the fame
time, or that exift together. See L.wv.-annuiti-s.

Jor^r-niL: See Carptnlcrs^ joint Rule.

.] O i NT-TEN' A NCY, in Lciv, fee the next article.

JOINTENANTS, or Joint-texasts, m La-w, thofe
who co.ne to, and hold, lands and tenements by one title
pro mdi'vifo, or without partition

Thefc are ditlinguifhed from fole, or feveral-tenants, from
parcen:rs and from tenants in commrjti. Anciently they were
called /i7r//<:;)>f'/, and not hxrccks. See Severalty.

An eftate in joint-tenancy is where lands or tenements are
granted to two or more perfons to hold in fee-fimple, fee-
tail, for life, for years; or at will. This is fometimes
called an eftate in "jointure," which word, as well as the
other, fignilies an luiion or conjunSion of intereft. The
" creation" of an cllate of tliis kind depends upon the
wording of the deed or dcvife by which the tenants claim
title ; for this ellate can only arife by parcliafe or grant, that
is, by tiie sft of the parties, and never by the mere acl of
the law. Now, if an eftate be given to a plurality of per-
fons, without adding any reilriftive, excluilve, or explana-
lor)' words, as if an eftate be granted to A and B and their
heirs, this makes them immediately joint-tenants in fee of the
lands. For the l.iw interprets the grant fo as to make aU
parts of it take efFeft, which can only be done by creating
an eftate in them both. As, therefore, the grantor has thus
united their names, the law gives them a thorough union in
all other refpefts. The "properties" of a joint eftate are
derived from its unity ; and this unity is fourfold ; wa. the
unity of intereft, the unity of title, the unity of time, and
the unity of pofteffion ; or in other words, joint-tenants have
one and the fame intereft, accruing by one and the fame
conveyance, com nencing at one and the fame time, and
held by one and the fame undivided poflefiion. With regard
to unity of intercjl, it may be obferved, that one joint-te-
nant cannot be entitled to one period of duration, or quan-
tity of intereft in lands, and tlie other to a different ; one
cannot be tenant for life, and the other for years ; one can-
not be tenant in foe, and the other in tail. (Co. I.itt. lS8.)
But if land be hmited to A and B for their lives, this
makes them joint-tenants of the freehold ; if to A and B
and their heirs, it makes them joint -tenants of the inheritance.
(Litt. J 277.) If land be gianted to A and B for their
lives, and to the hciis of A ; here A and B are joint-te-
nants of the freehold during their rcfpeftive lives, and A
has tiie remainder of the fee in feveralty ; or, if land be
given to A and B, and the heirs of the body of A ; here
both have a joint eftate for Lfc, and A hath a feveral re-

JO I

mainder in tail. (Litt. § 285.) Joint-tenants muft alto
have an unity of title ; their eftate muft be created by one and
the fame aft, whether legal or illegal ; as by one and the
fame grant, or by one and the fame difteiJin. (Litt. § 27S.)
Joint-tenancy cannot arife by defcent or aft of law ; but
mcrclv by purchafe, or acquilition by the aft of the party ;
and, iinlefs that aft be one and the fr.mc, tlse two tenants
would have different titles ; and if they h:ul dif^rent titles,
one mitrht prove good, and the other bad, which would ab-
folutely dellroy the jointure. There muft alfo be an unity
of tint; ; their eftates muft be vefted at one and the fame
period, as well as by one and the fame title. As in cafe of
a prefent eftate made to A and B ; or a remainder in fee
to A and B after a particular eftate ; in either cafe A and B
are joint-tenants of this prefent eftate, or this vefted re-
mainder. But if, after a leafe for life, the remainder be
limited to the heirs of A and B ; and during the continuance
of the particular e.'.ate A dies, which vefts trie remainder of
one moiety in his heir ; and then B diep, whereby the other
moiety becomes vefted in the heir of B ; now A's heir and
B's heir are not joint-tenants of this remainder, but tenants
in common ; for one moiety vc'led at one time, and
the other moiety vefted at anotlier. (Co. Litt. 188.)
Moreover, in joint-tenancy there muft be an wMty oi pof-
ffjfion. Joint.ten:ints are faid to be feifcd '• per my et per
tout," by the halt or moiety, and by all ; that is, they each
of them have the entire poflefiion, as well of every pared
as of the •v.-ho'.e. (Litt } 288. 5 Rep. 10.) And there-
fore, if an eftate in fee be given to a man and his wile, they
are neitlier properly joint-tenants, nor tenants in common : for
huft)3nd and wife being coniidered as one perfon in law, they
cannot take the eftate by moieties, but both are fcifed of
the entirety, " per tout et non per my ;" the conlequence
of which is, that neither the hulband nor the wife can dif-
pofe of any part without the aftent of the other, but the
whole muil remain to the fiirvivor. (Litt. § 66^. Co.
Litt. 187. 2 Vern. 120. 2 Lev. 39.) From thefe princi-
ples we may deduce other incidents pertaining to the joint-
tenant's eftatc. If two joint-tenants let a verbal leafe of
their land, refervingrent to be paid to one of th^-m, it ftiall
enure to both, in refpeft of the joint-reverlion. ^Co. Litt.
214 ) If their leflcc furrenders his leafe to one of them, it
fht'.ll alfo enure to both, becaufe of the privity or relation
of their eftate. (Co. Litt. 192.) For the fame reafon,
livery of feifm, made to one joint-tenant, (hall enure to both
of them vCo. Litt. 49 ) ; and the entry, or re-entry, of one
joint-tenant, is as eft"eftual in law as if it were the aft of
both. (Co. Litt. 319. 364.) In all aftions, alfo, relating to
their joint-eftate, one joint-tenant cannot fue or be fucd with-
out joining the other. (Co. Litt. 19J ) But if two or
more joint-tcrants be feifed of an advowlon, and they prefent
different clerks, the biftiop may refufe to admit either : be-
caufe neither joint-tenant hath a feveral right of patronage,
but each is feifed of the whole ; and if they do not both
agree within fix months, the right of prefentation ftiall lapfe.
But the ordinary may, if he pleafcs, admit a clerk prefeiited
by cither, that divine fervice may be regularly performed ;
and if the clerk of one joint-tenant be fo adn.itted, this ftiall
keep up the title in both of them. (Co. Litt. JS5.) It is
held alfo, that one joint-tenant cannot have an aftaon againil
another for trcfpafs, in refpeft of his land (3 Leon. 262.) ;
for each has an equal right to enter on any part of it. But
one joint-tenant is not capable by himfelf of doing any aft
which may tend to defeat or injure the eftate of the other,
as to let k-jfes, or grant copy-holds (1 Leon. 234.) ; and if
any wafte be done, which tends to the dellruftion cf the in-
heritance, one joint-tenant may have an aftion of wafte
J agaljift

J o I

sgainft the other, by conilni<aion of the ilatute Weftm. 3.
c. 22. (2 In!>. 40?) So likewile, though at common
hw no aiftion of account lay for one tenant againil anotlier,
iinlefs he had conftitured him his bailiff or receiver (Co.
Litt. 200.) ; yet now by the ilatute 4 Anne, c. 16. joint-
tenants may have actions of account againil each other, for
receiving more than their due (h.-.re of tiie prolus of tlie
tenements lield in joint-tenancy. From the fame principle
alfo arifes the remaining sjrand incident of joint cllates ; via.
the doclrine oi furvivorjhip ; wliich fee.

An eitate in joint-tenancy may he fevered ^ni ilejlioyed, by
deilroying any of its conllitnent unities. The fad, indeed,
cannot be effetted by any fiibfequent tranfaclion. But the
joint-lenant'sellate may be dellroyed without any alienation,
by merely difuniting their pqffl/fion. Hence, if two joint-
tenants agree to part their lands^ and hold them in feveralty,
they are no longer joint-tenants, and the riglit of furvivor-
fhip is by fuch feparation deftroyed. (Co. Litt. 18S.
I9_5.) By common law ail the joint-tenants might agree to
make partition of the lands ; but one of them could not
compel the other fo to do (Litt. § 290.) ; but now by the
flatutes ji Hen. VIII. c. l.and :!2Hcn. VIII. c. ^z. joint-
tenants, either of inheritance or other lefseftates, are compel-
lable by writ of partition to divide their lands. Again, the join-
ture may be dellroyed by dellroying the unity of t'ule.
As if one joint. tenant alienes and conveys his eliate to a third
perlon, the joint-tenancy is fevered, and turned into tenancy
in common. (Litt. § 292.) But a devife of one's ihai-e
by will is no feverance of the jointure ; for no teflamcnt takes
effect till after the death of the teftator, and by fuch death
the right of the furvi/or, which accrued at the original
creation of the eftate, and has therefore a priority to the
other, is already veiled. (Litt. § 287.) It may be alfo
deftroyed by dellroying the unity of interej}. And tiierefore,
if there be two joint-tenants for life, and the inheritance is
purchafed by or dcfcends upon another, it is a feverance of
the jointure. (Cro. Eliz. 470.) In like manner, if a joint
tenant in fee makes a leafe for hfe of his fliare, this defeats
the jointure, for it deftroys the unity both of title andinte-
reft. (Litt. 9302, 303.) And whenever, or by whatever
means the jointure ceafes or is fevered, the right of furvivor-

J o I

fettled upon her by her hufoand, to hold during lier life, if (he
furvives him.

JOINTURE, in Laiv, a covenant whereby the hufband,
or fome Iriend in his behalf, makes over to his wife, on con-
dition of m.arriage, certain lands and tenements for the term
of her life, or oliierwife, in lieu of dower.

Others define jointure a bargain and contraft of livelihood,
adjoined to liie contratl of marriage, being a conip.-tent
piovilion of frev-huid lands or tenements. Sec. for the wife,
during her life at Icall, to take effedl in profit or poneflion,
after the death of her huiband, if ibe lierfelf is not the caufe
of the extermination or forfeiture of it.

And to make a perfeft jointure wiihin the ftatute of 27
Hen. VIII. c. 10. to bar dower, leveral thirgs arc to be
cbferved. i. It n-.uit be made to take eifedl for the life of
tiie wife in pofieilion or profit, prefently after the dcceafe of
her hufband. 2. It ir.uil b? for the term of her own life, Or
a greater ellate ; but it may be limilrd to continue no longtr
than (he remains a widow, &c. 3. It mult be made forhcr-
felf, and to none other in trull for h'T. 4, It is to be CK-
preffed to be in fatisfaftion of her whole dower, and not 1
part of it. J. It may be made before or after marriage :
if it be made before, the wife cannot waive it, and claim
her dower at common law (4 Rep. 1,2); but if it be
jnadc after marriage, Iho has her election, afier the hufijand'i
death, and may either accept it, or refufe it, and betake
herfelf to her dower at common law ; for (lie was not cap.-.-
ble of confenting to it during coverture, unlefs the jointure be
made by act of parhamcnt. After the de.Hlii of her hufLanJ,
the wife may eiitcr into her jointure, pnd is net driven to i
real aclion, as (he is to recovvr dower bj the common law (
and upon a lawful eviction of her jointure, (he fliall be en-
dowed according to the rate of h;r hu(band's lands, wfcereof
(he was dowable at common law.

A wife's jointure fliail net be forfeited by the treafon of
the hufband (Co. Litt. 37.) ; but feme-coverts, committing
treafon or felony, may forfeit their jointures, and being cor.-
vicl of recufancy, they fliall forfeit two parts in three of
their jointures and dower, by 3 .Tac. I. c. 4.

JOINVILLLE, John Sirede, in Biography, a French
hiflorian, born in the early part of the thirteenth century.

(hip the fame inftant ceafes with it. (Co. Litt. 108.) Yet, if made a confiderable figure in the court cf Le\i is IX. Thi:

one of thefe joint-tenants alienes his fliare, the two remaining
tenants dill hold their parts by joint-tenancy and furvivorfhip
(Litt. ^ 294. J ; and if one of three of thefe joint tenants
relea-fes his (hare to one of his companions, though the joint-
tenancy is dellroyed with regard to that part, yet the two
remaining parts are (liil held in jointure (Litt. J 304.) ; for
they ilill preferve their original conflituent unities.

Things perfonal may belong to their owners, not only in fe-
vcnJty,butaIfo injoint-tenancy,andin common as well as real
e.lates. Thus if a houfe, or other perfonal chattel, be given
to two or more abfolutely, they are joint tenants of it ; and,
unlefs the jointure be fevered, the fame doctrine of furvivor-
fhip fhall take place as in ellates of lands and tenements.
(Litt. § 2S2. I Vcrn. 482. ) The king cannot have a joint
property with any perlon in one entire chattel, or fuch a
one as is not capable of divifion or feparation ; but where
the titles of a king and a fubjedl concur, the king (hall have
the whole. Blackft. Com. b. ii.

JoiNT-wa/cr, a tcrmufed by our farriers, for what the old
writers in medicine have called hydarthros ; a running of a
clearichor from the joints, when they are either wounded or
ulcerated : it is common in difeafes of horfcs.

JOINTEE, in the Manege. See Handful.

JOINTRESS, or Joi.NTEREss, (he that hath an eftatc

prince he followed in all his militaiy expeditions, and afiifted
him alfo iu the adrainiflration of jullice. One of the duties
which he had to perform, was to hear the pleas of applicant."!
at the palace gate, and to report them to his majefly, and
alfo to invefligate the truth of the allegations. When
Lewis took the crofs, and made liis expedinon into Egypt
in 1249, Joinville, inftigated by the martial fpirit and devo-
tion of the age, attended him with a train of followers fuited
to his rank, and his narrative of this enterprize in his life of
Lewis, is one of the moft curious and valuable records ef
that age. The hiflorian (hared his fovereign's captivity, as
well as the dangers which they all inc-.irred from the comr
mon enemy. He returned in fiifety, and was fo much im-
prc(rcd with the danger and impolicy of thefe expeditions,
that he made no fcruple of condemnmg thof^i who advifed
Lewis to undertake his fecond crufade, and excufed himfelf
from accompanying the king, on the pretext of having been
ruined by the firfl. Joinville's hiftory was completed in the
year 1309, when the author, according to Gibbon, muft
have been more than ninety years of age : it is a faithful de-
tail of the fafts which occurred under his own obfervation.
" A monkifli hiflorian fhould have been content to applaud
the m«ll defpicable part of his (the king's) charaftcr ; but
the noble and gallant Joinvi'le, who (hared the fricndfhips
Z z 2 Rr.4

J O L

and captivity of Lewis, has traced with the pencil of na-
ture tlic free portrait of his virtues as well of his failings."
The moil valuable edition of this work is that of Du Cange
in i6SS ; but the text of the Paris edition in 1761 is reckon-
ed the moft pure and authentic. It has been lately trandated
into the Englifh, and publi(hed by Mr. Johnes of Hafod.
Moreri, Gibbon.

JoiS'viLLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Upper Marne, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftriel of WafTy, fituated on the Marne ; ij miles
fi.E. of St. Dizier. The place contains _:;o86, and the canton
7476 inhabitants, on a territory of 145 kiliometres, in 15
comminics. N. lat. 48' 27'. E. long. 5° 13'.

JO I RE, St., a town of France, in the department of

Mont Blanc ; 4 miles S.E. of Chambery Alfo, a town in

the fame deparlment ; 15 miles S.E. of Geneva.

JOISTS, or JovsTs, in Architdhirc, thofe pieces of tim-
ber framed into the girders and fummcrs on which the boards
of floors are laid.

Joifls are from fix to eight inches fqnare, and ought fcldom
to lie at a greater diilance from ' each other than ten or
twelve inches ; nor ought they ever to bear at a greater length
than teti feet ; or to lie lefs into the wall than eight inches.
See Chimney.

Sometimes the carpenters furr their joills, as they call it ;
that is, they lay two rows of joifts, one over the other.

JOKALAY, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
government of Abo ; 22 miles N.W. of Abo.

JOKES. See Jesting.

JOKI, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of
Niphon ; 50 miles N. of Meaco.

JOKIOS, a town of Sweden, in the province of Tavaft-
land ; 28 miles W.S.W. of Tavallhus.

JOKKAS, a town of Sweden, in the province of Ta-
vaftland ; T07 miles N.E. of Tavallhus.

JOKKATO, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Barra.

JOKO, a town of Africa, in fcarta. N. lat. 14' 3 o'.
W. long. 8 .

JOKOMI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
25 miles N. of Jedo.

JOLCOS, or, a:i Homer calls it, Ja-Jcos, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a tov.'U of Theflaly, in Magnefia, at the lower extre-
mity of the Pelafgic gulf, feveu lladia from Demetrias and
the fea. It was anciently coniiderable, and had a famous
port. Pliny fays that Adralte at this place invented the fu-
neral games ; and Strabo reckons it in the number of thofe
towns which were deftroyed in order to people the town of
Demetrias. Jafon, the fon of Efon, was king of .Tolcos, and
from hence the Argonauts took their departure; and it is
faid that on their return they found the town in the poffcflion
of Pclias, brother of Jafon, who had him put to death.

JOLIAN, in Geography, a town of Hindooilan, in Gu-
zerat ; 20 miles N. of Gogo.

JOLIB\, denoting, in the language of the Negroes,
" great water," is a name which they give to the river Niger,
calKd by the Moors " ISiil il Abud,'' or the river of Slaves.
When Mr. Park, in his interelting Tour, firft difcovered this
river, it appeared to him as broad as the Tiiames at Weft-
minder, and flowing majellically, but flowly, from weft to
eaft, through the middle of a very exteniive town, called
Sego. This cnterprifing and ingenious traveller pnrfued the
tcu'le of the Joliba from W. long j" 30' to Silla, long.
1" 30', the utmoll extent of his expedition. See GuiN
an4 Niger.

JOLlTIiUS., in Botany, from m, a violet, and ?,iSor,

J o ^I

ajlone, a cryptogamic plant, referred by Linnxus to the
genus Bvffiis, by fome others to that of Lichen. It is found
in the form of broad crimfon patches, when moift, fmelling
llrongly of violets, or rather of Orris root, clothing the
fnrface of Hones in clear fprings, as at Holywell in Flintlhire,
Tunbridge, and other places. Nothing is known concern-
ing the fruflilication.

JOLLONE Key, in Geogr/tphy, a fmall ifland among
the Bahamas. N. lat. 26' 12'. W. long. 77- 2'.

JOLO, or SoERE Cart.\, a town of Java, and capital
of the kingdom of Soefoehoenam.

JOLUCAR, a town of Spain, in the province of Gra-
nada ; 7 miles N.E. of Motril.

JOLUT, an ifland near the weft coaft of Eaft Green-
land. N. lat. 60° 56'. W. long. 46 ' 50'.

JOLY, Claude, in Biography, a French writer, was
born at Paris in 1607. He was precentor of the cathedral
of Paris, and died in that city in the year 1 700. He was
author of a book entitled " Maxims for the Education of a
Prince," which was condemned by tlie judicature of Paris,
and was burnt by the hands of the common hangman in
1665. He iikewife wrote feveral other pieces, chiefly theo-
logical.

JoLY, GuY', a French writer of memoirs, was counfel-
lor to the king, and fyndic of the renters of the hotel de
ville, in Paris. He was attached to the cardinal de Retz,
whom he followed, for a confiderable time, in all his various
fortunes. After the return of that minifter from Rome,
Joly quitted him on account of want of mutual confidence.
He drew up "Memoirs from 164810 1665," in two volumes
l2mo. which are chiefly an abridged account of what the
cardinal himfelf has recorded in his own memoirs : but they
are written in a more exaft ilyle than thofe of the cardinal,
and contain many additional curious fafts. Joly was en-
gaged to defend the rights ot the queen, and drew up
" Remarks on Two Treatiies written by Peter Stockmans
in oppofition to her Claims on Brabant and the Low Ceun-
tries." He was author of another work, entitled " In-
trigues of Peace, or Negociations at Court by the Friends
of M. le Prince, after his retreat in Guienne." Moreri.

JoLY", in Geography, a port on the S. coaft of Nova
Scotia.

JOMELLI, NicoLO, in Biography, one of the moft in-
telligent, learned, and affeAing dramatic compofers of mo-
dern times, was born at Avellino, a town about twenty-live
miles from Naples, in vi'hich city he had his inufical educa-
tion under Leo and Durante. The firft opera to which we
find his name, is " Riccimero Re de' Goti," compofed for
the Argentina theatre at Rome, 1740: and between that
period and 17J8, he compoled for that city ibnrteen operas,
befides others for Venice and different Italian theatres.

From 1758 to about 1768, he refided in Germany, being
engaged in the fervice of the duke of Wurtemburg, at
Stuttgardt, or rather at Ludwigfl)urg, his new capital,
where .Tomelli's works were performed. Here he produced
a great number of operas and other compofitions, by which
he acquired great reputation, and totally changed the taltc
of vocal mufic in Germany. On his return to Italy, he
left all thefe produdtions behind him, upon a fuppofltion
that he flionld again refume his ftation at Ludwigfljurg,
after vifiting his native country. But as he never returned
tliither to claim thefe compofitions, they fell into the hands
of his patron, the duke of Wurtemburg, who preitrved
them as precious relics of this great mafler.

Propofals were publifticd at Stuttgardt, in 1783, and in
Cramer's ^33. 5cr. ^UB, for September of the fame year,

for

J O M E L L I.

;' r printing by fubfcription the entirs dramatic works of
' ):iielli in fcorc, which he compofcd during his refidence
ai the court of the duke of Wurtemburg, conlifting of fif-
teen ferioiis operas, five paftonil dramas, and three burlettas ;
but whether this undertaking was ever accompliftied, we
have not been able to learn.

The ferious operas which Jomelli compofed for Stutt-
gardt, are the following : " L'OHnipiade, La Clemeny.a
di Tito, Nittoti, Pelope, Enca nel Lazio, Catone in
Utica, II Re Pailorc, Alejandro nell' Indie, Eiiio,
Didone, Demofoonte, Semiramide, Vologefo, Artaferfs,
and Fetonte." Paftoral dramas : " Imcneo in Atene, II
Pailore Ilhiflrc, and L'Ifola Difabitata." Comic operas :
" II Matrimonio per Concorfo, La Schiava Liberata, and
II Cacciatore Delufo."

Very few entire operas of Jomelli were ever performed in
England: the firll was " Attilio Regolo," in 175;, with-
out any captivating finger. Serafini, firil man, with little
voice, tlioiigh a good actor ; and tlie Vifconti, lirll woman,
but now pafec, were little alile to render the mulic capti-
vating, or even to do it jullicc. Yet an extraordinary cir-
cumilance happened during tiie whole run of tliis opera,
which no other, perhaps, could ever boall. This drama
was terminated by a piece of recitative without a fuble-
quent air, in fpeaking which, Seralini was conilautly en-
cored. A circumllance the more extraordinary, as the
EnglilTi in. general, who are ignorant of the Italian lan-
guage, hate recitative, and would never go a fecond time
to an opera, if not attrafted by the airs and fine finging.

In 175J. Jomelli's opera of " Androraaca" was per-
formed in Loudon ; in which the firil air, " Si foil'
iin cor trianno," has confiderabk
of the allegro is now old fafhioned,

a model for that fpccies of dance throughout Europe, ever
fincc it was compofed.

The operas of Jomelli will be always valiable to pro-
fcflbrs and curious collectors, for the excellence of the com-
pofition ; though it has been thought necedary, in com-
pliance with the general rage for novelty, to' lay them
afide and to have the fame dramas new fet for the (lage, in
order to difplay the talents, or hide the dtfefts, ot new
fingers.

A> Jomelli was a great harmonift, and naturally grave and
inajeftic in his ilyle, he fcems to iiave manifefted abilities
in writing for the church, fupcrior even to thofe for the
ftage.

Of the many oratorios he compofed, we are onlv ac
quainted with three : " Ifacco Figura del Redentore ;''
" Betuli;'. Liberata j" and " La Paffione ;" all written by
Metaftatio, and all admirably fet. In the fir/l accompanied
recitative and air of " Ifacco," at the opening of the fecond
p:u-t, beginning, «< Chi per picta mi dice, il mio figlio che
fii ?" in which are painted, with an uncommon dei^ree of
agitation and pafiion, the anxiety and terror of Sarali, dur-
ing the abfencc of Abraham, whom (lie fuppofes is in the
aft of facrificing her fon Ifaac, have been juitly much ad-
mired.

We are in poflcflion of a Te Deum and a Requiem
of his compofition, which manifell him to have been a
great matter of tlie church Ilyle ; though he had acquired
great fame as a dramatic conipoier before he began to ex-
ercife himfelf in this fpecies of writing, concerning which
he had never bellowed a thought fince he left th^mufic-
merit ; but the clofe fchool, or confervatorio, till about the year 1751, when it
A great part of this having been determined at Rome that the mufic for pafTion-
opera was compofed by Jomelli in his firft maimer; but week fhould be as excellent as pollible, Durante, Jomelli,
originality and the hand of a mafter always appear. I'he and Perez, were employed to fet the leffons from the La-
air, «< Eccoti il fig!io," as fung and acled by Mingotti, mentations of Jeremiah, for the tliree moll folemn days of
was truly dramatic and affeftin^. The whole is very ?upe- that holy time. Jomelli's compofition was performed on
rior to almoll all contemporary produftions. AVednefday, Perez's on Thurfdays, and Durante's on

In 1759, a duet by Jome'li, in the pafticcio opera of Good Friday. The firft is entitled " Lettione Primo per K
" Volocrei'o," was extremely pleafing, and the firft which mercoledi fanto, con Violini, Oboe, Viola, Flauti e Corni

" " da Caccia." The fecond

we remarked on the prefent dramatic model, chiefly in
dialogue, with only burfts of paflion, in two parts. And
Elifi, while he was in England, fung feveral grand airs by
Jomelli, compofed on purpofe to difplay that finger's dex-
terity in hitting wide interval.

In 176S, Guarducci, inftead of an opera for his benefit

Lettione Prima del Giovedi
fanto, a Soprano folo, con Violini, Viola, Oboe, c Corni
da Caccia." And the third " Lettione Terza del Vencrdi
fanto, a 4 Voci, con Violini, Viola, e Corni da Caccia."
Having procured a fcore of thefe compofitions at Rome,
and lately examined them, we can venture to fay that they

had the oratorio of " Betulia Liberata," written by Me- all appear admirable : and as the compoft;rs were all men

tallafio, and fet by Jomelli, in which, among many admi- of great abihties, who exerted themfelves on this honour-

rable compofitions, an air of fupplication by the high able cccafion, it is difficult to determine, in their feveral

prieft, through which were heard the murmurs of the peo- fty'es, which is the beft. The produ&ons of Jomelli and

pie in a diilant chorus, crying for peace and bread in tones Perez are m an elevated, elegant, dignified, fupplicating,

fo fubdued as fcarccly to be heard, was juftly admired for and expreffive oratorio ftyle ; and that of Durante more in

its fine and new effeft. the ancient ftyle of church mufic : more learned in modu-

After he quitted Germany, Jomelli compofed a great lation, more abounding in fugue, and more elaborate in the

number of operas exprefsly for the king of Portugal, who texture of the parts, as might be expcftcd from hismaturer.

ried every expedient to tempt him to go to Lifijon ;
which honour, though he declined, on account of the deli-
cate ftate of his wife's health, yet he annually furniflied
that prince with new productions, as well as with whatever
lie compofed for other purpofes.

age, and tlic folemnity of the day on which his mufic was
to be performed.

But though Jomelli acquired confiderable fame by this
compofition for the church, yet he was fo far from being
intoxicated by it, that in a vifit to Padie Martini, at Bo-
He compofed,. after his return to Naples, three operas logna, foon after, he told t'nis learned contrapuntill that he
for that city : " Armida," in 1769 ; " Demofoonte,'' 1770 ; had a fcholar to introduce to him. Padre Martini allured.
" Ifigenia in Aulide," 1771. And in 1772, " Achille in him, that he fhould be glad to inftruft any one fo well
Sciro," for Rome, which was his laft. recommended. And a few days after, the good father

Some of the mufic which he compofed for the dances of aiking who and where was the difciple he had talked of ?
his operas has been much celebrated, particularly his " Cha- Jomelli anfwcrcd, Padre fan 10 ; and pulling ?i JIuJ'io of pa-
coar.e," which is well known in England, and has ferved as per out of his pocket, on which he had been trying his

7 llrtngtU.

J O M E L L I.

^rength in modulation and fugue upon eanli fa-mo, begged
of hfm to examine and point out his errors.

■prom this period he produced imny admirable compofi-
tions for the church, in which he united elegance with
learning, and grace with bold delign. Among other pro-
duClions of this kind, the two following merit commemo-
ration. An " Offertono,"or motet, for five voices without
inllrun-.eiits, followed by an Alleluja of four parts in
chsrns : and a •' Mifla pro defunAis," or burial fervice,
-which he compofed at Stuttgardt for the obfequies of a
lady of high r.iiik and favour at the court of his patron,
the duke of Wurteniburg. Thefe compolitions, which
arc learned without pedantry, and grave without duhiefs,
vi-ill be lading monuments of his abilities as a contra-
puiitift.

But the moll elaborate of all his compofitions, is the
■" Mifercre," or lifty-firll pfalm, tranflattd into Italian verfe,
by his friend Saverio Mattel, which he fot for two voices,
accompanied with inltruments, in 177?, the year before his
deceafe. In this produftion, which breathes a pious gra-
vity, and compunflion of heart fuited to the contrite fenti-
ments of tlie pfalmill, there is a manifell ftruggle at extra-
neous modulation and new ei'fefls, perhaps too much at the
expcnce of facility and grace. Though all the movements
of this compofition are flow, yet the execution is fo diffi-
cult, both to the voices and inftruments, that when it was
performed in London at Marchetti's benefit, it was the
opinion of the late Mr. Bach, that Jomelli had purpofely
■written what he could not execute himfelf, in order to per-
plex the performers. This, however, mud have been faid
in pleafantry, for Jomelli had no malevolence in his difpo-
fition ; perhaps in driving at excellence with too great foli-
citude, he fometimes had recourfe to art and dudy, indead
of giving way to his own feelings. There are, however,
admirab'e ftrokes of pafTion as well as fcience in the mufic
that he has fet to this pfalm, which, though above the
comprehenfinn of common hearerr,, will afford great plea-
fure to thofe that are able to read the fcore, or to follow
the performers through the labyrinths of art.

This admirable compofer had, in general, fuch a facility
in writing, that he feldom courted the Mufe at an indru-
ment ; and fo tenacious a memory, that Sacchini adored
us he frequently compofed an air on opening a book of
lyric poetry, while, like a peripatetic, he has been walking
about a room, which he remembered a year after, and then
committed it to paper, as fad as he could write a letter.

As Raphael had three manners of painting, Jomelli had
three dyles of compofition. Before he went to Germany,
the eafy and graceful flow of Vinci and Pergolefi pervaded
all his produftiona ; but when he was in the fervice of the
duke of Wurtcmburg, finding the Germans were fond «f
learning and comphcation, he changed his dyle in com-
pliance with the tade and expeftations of his audience ; and
on his return to Italy, he tried to thin and fimplify his dra-
matic Mufe, which, however, was dill fo much too opc-
rofe for Italian ears, that in 1770, upon a Neapolitan being
afked how he liked Jomclli's new opera of " Demofoonte,"
he cried out with vehemence, i J'celerata, Si^nore .'

Chmate fcems to operate fo much on mufic, however its
influence may be difputed in manners and government, that
what is admired in one country is deteded in another. In
cold climates labour is necefiary to circulation ; in hot, ea/e
is the grand defidcratum. This principle is carried to fuch
excefs in Italy, that whatever gives the ficarcr of mufic the
Jead trokiblc to difentangle, is Gothic pedai tic, and fc^U-
rata. As to difficulties of execution, in a fwgh- part, the
#ompofer» and performers may fpiii their braiiis, and burll

their blood-veffels, and welcome, provided the texture of tl.c
parts is clear and fimple.

The Gothic inventions, as they call them, of fugites,
canons, and laboured counterpoint of the fixteenth century,
they are v.-illing to refign to the Flemings, who fird brought
them into Italy ; but of which all the natives, except a
few obdinate pedants, druggled to dived their mufic, par-
ticularly that for the dage, during the lad t\yo centuries.

It is the (serfs only of learning and facility that is truly
rcpi-ehenfiblc by good tade and found judgment ; ard diffi-
ciill and eify are relative terms, which they only can define.
To lovers of mufic who have heard much in various dyies,
little is new ; as to others who have heard but little, all is
new. The former want refearch and new effeiils, which, to.
the latter, old mufic can furnifn. Palates accudomed to
plain food find ragouts and morceaux fr'iamls too highly fea-
foned ; while to thofe who have long been pampered with
dainties, fimplicity is infipid. How then is a compofer or
performer to pleafe a mixed audience, but by avoiding too
much complacence to the exchifive tade of either the
learned, or the ignorant, the fupercilious, or the fimple ?

The health of Jomelli began to decline in 1770, foon
after we had feen him in perfect health at Naples. He was
then corpulent, and reminded us of the figure of Handel.
In 1 77 1, he had a droke of the palfy, which, however,
did not impair his intellefts, as he compofed " Achille in
Sciro" for the Roman theatre, and a cantata for the fafe
delivery of tiie queen of Naples, in 1771 ; and in 177J,
his Italian " Miferere," the mod elaborate and dudied of ail
his works.

His learned friend, Signor Saverio Mattel, the tranflator
of the pfalms into Italian verfe. from wliofe admirable ver-
fion Jomelli had taken the " Miferere," or fifty-fird pfalm,
drew up a very intereding account of the works and public
funeral of the great muficiaii, and printed it in his " Saggio
di Poefia Latine ct Italiane," publiflied at Naples imme-
diately after his deceafe. "

The reverence and regard with which vvc have been long
impredt'd for the works and charafter of this gifted man,
have already rendered the article too long to admit of fur-
ther extenfion, or we fliould have wiflied to infert Signor
Mattel's whole account ; but having given it elfewhere, we
fiiall here only cite the introduftion, which does equal ho-
nour to the author and his friend.

Naples, September, 1774. " Yederday all the muficians
of this city united in celebrating the funeral of the great
JomeUi. Tl;e church was very finely ornamented ; and a
great number of wax tapers were placed about the pompous
bier. Two orchedras of three rows each could fcarcely
contain the vocal and indrumental performers who affided
in executing the mufic that was exprefsly compofed on the
oecafion by the worthy Sabitini, who beat the time himfelf,
as maedro di capella. It was the celebrated Genaro Manna,
compofer of the archiepifcopal church, who fird fuggelled
this plan of a public funeral, in tvhich all thefe muficians
had an opportunity of manifeding their regard for Jomelli,
and of furnidiing an example to pofterity of the gratitude
due to great talents, which may likevvife dimulatc young
artids to merit equal honours. At the defire of Signor
Manna, not only every mulician attended the funeral and
performed gratis, "but contributed likewife towards the ex-
pences of this folcmnity.

" Jomelli was my friend ; he lived two years in my nei;;h-
bourhood, and I had frequent opportunities of converfing
wi.h hitn, and of admiring his captivating manners, parti-
cularly his raodefty in fpeaking of rival artids, whofe com-
pofitions

I O N

pofitions he readily praifed, though tiicir authors were not
equally candid in fpeaking of him.

" Jomelli had acquired coiinderablc knowledge in other
arts than mufic : his poetry was full of tafic, and there is a
fine ode of his writing, in the collection publilhed at Rome,
on the fnbjeft of the reconciliation between the pope and
king of Portugal.

" He was ambitious of diflinguiHiing himfelf from other
compofers in a way peculiar to himfelf. His invention
was always fertile, his ftyle lyrical and Pindaric ; andjiill
as Pindar darted from one fuhjeiSt to another, Joniilli
changed his tones and themes in a way wholly new, and
learnedly irregular."

This account is terminated with many excellent rcfleftions
on the ftyle of Jomelli, and the cabals and frivolous tafte
of the Neapolitans at the time of his death. All we fhall
add is, that the latter works of Jonielii will be ever re-
g;irded with reverence by real judges of compofition, as
there is no mixture of trivial or fantaftical movements or
palfages in his truly clalTical, and often fublime works.

JON, m Natural Hyiory, the name of a gem dcfcribed
by Pliny, and faid to be brought fro.m the Eail Indies ; he
defcribes it as being of a purple or violet colour, but rarely
very deep in the tinge. It feems to have been a fpecies of
amethyft.

Jon of Chios, in Biography, a tragic and lyric poet and phi-
lofopher, who ti'll recited his poems in the 82d Olympiad,
4)2 years B.C., mentions in fome verfes quoted by Euclid,
the ten-ftringed lyre, ^sxa^^ofL' >.-j(x ; a proof that the con-
joint tetrachord was added to the i'cale in his time, which
was about fifty years after Pythagoras is fuppofed to have
conftrufted the oclacliord. Jon died, according to Fabri-
cius, vol. i. p. 68l. 419 B. C, and 78 years after Pytha-
goras. Bcfides tragcdi-js and dithyrambics, Jon compofed
odes, pxans, hymn>', and fcoiia, '.r convivial fongs.

ZONA, I, Hll, or I-Colum-hi.l, in Geography, one of
the weiicrn liiands of Scotland, in the tlaniic ocean, is
feparated from the weftern point of Mull by a narrow chan-
nel, call d the found of I. It meafires about three miles
in length, by three quarters of a mile in breadth. It is a
place of much note in the early annals of the country, as the
retreat of learning, during the ageof barbarifm and illiteracy
which pervaded Europe after the overthrow of the Roman
empire. Dr Johnfon calls this place " the luminary of the
Caledonian regions, wlience favage clans and roving bar-
barians derived the benefits of knowledge, and the bl-. flings
of rchgion.'' The monkifh writers called this ifland lona,
which fignifies the ifland of waves ; Bede calls it Hii ; but
the proper name is I, (founded like the Engliili ce,) which
in the Gaelic figniP.es ifland, this being called lo by way of
eminence. In more modern times, this iiif.ilar dillrict ob-
tained the name of I-Colum-kill, that is, the ifland of Co-
lumb's-cell. The name lona is now difufed, and the ifland
is generally called I, except when thefpeaker would wifli to
mark it with peculiar emphafis, and then it is expreffed I-
Colum-kill. The Druids were undoubtedly in pofieflion of
this ifland prior to the introduction of Chrifiianity : a green
eminence, clofe to the faund of I, is to this day called the
Druid's burial place ; and here are ftill extant the remains
of a fmall Druidical temple, or circular row of upright
ftones, in a farm called Roffal, where, as the name imports,
the courts of juflice were held. The ifland feems to have
been early the feat of a religious fociety of Chrillians, or
erder of monks, nam.ed Culdees, who fettled here about
the begin:iing of the fixth century. The foundation of a
circular building or houfe, called the Culdees cell, ftill re-
mains. The hiilory of the Druids in litis ifland is wholly

JON

unknown ; but that of the Culdees has been amply and
learnedly narrated by Dr. Jamiefon, in a quarto volume,.
P'.ihliliied in iSli. It was refcrved for Columba to raife
the fame of the ifland to the great height it attained to in
his own and after ages. This eminent man left his native
country, Ireland, in the year 56^?, to preach the gofpcl to
the Northern Picts ; and having "converted the Pictilli mo-
narch, obtained from him the grant of this fequeliercd ifle,
where he founded an abbey for canons regular. Havi-ig
fuccefsfully prcfided here upwards of thirty years, he died
June 9th, jy; ; leaving his abbey firmly fcttkd, a people
converted by his labours from Paganifm to Chriftianity, and
a name renowned for fanitity, piety, and " good works '*
The abbey acquired very extenfive jurifdiflions ; held, for
many ages, the chief fway among the Scottifli and Pictifli
monafteries ; and was liberally endowed by the piety and
munificence of the kings and great men of Scotland. The
Danes diflodged the monks in 807, and the abbey remaiiiL-d
for feveral years depopulated ; but on the retreat of the hi-
vaders, it received a new order of inhabitants, the Cluniacs,
who continued to occupy it till the difTolution of monadic
inihtutions, when the revenues were united to the fee of
Argyle ; and, on the abolition of epifcopacy, became the
property of the duke of A rgyle. Tiie remains of the abbey,
and its appendages, though much dilapidated, are, by the
care and attention of the Argyle family, kept in better pre-
fervation than moft ruins of the kind in Scotland. The kite
dukes built a wall round the whole abbey, to prevent further
depredations ; and prohibited their tenants from ren-.oving
any fallen ftones Time has levelled fome of the buildings
with the ground ; but the greater part is ftill flanding.
The cathedral, or St. Mary's church, is almoft entire : it is
built in the form of a crofs, Ti^ feet in length, and 23 in
width ; the lenglh of the tranfept 70 feet. In the church-
yard is a crofs of a fingle piece of red granite, 14 feet high,
22 broad, and lo inches thick. St. Oran's chajcl, faid to
be the firll buildiiig begun by Columba, is Hill (landing, but
in a ruinous condition. The Virgin's chapel was entire till
within a few years, when part of it fell. Mofl of the cloif-
ters and the bilhop's houfe are alfo ftanding. There is ftill
remaining of the abbey, I'ufScient to give a tolerable idea of
what it was. Of the nunnery, an eftablifliment nearly coeval
with the abbey, there are fewer remains: the church be-
longing to it is deprived of the roof. Here alfo ftands what
was called the parifti church, yet entire, but verging to de-
cay. Near the chapel of St. Gran is a large enclofure,
called the " burying. place of Oran,'' in which are depofited
the remains of forty-eight Scottilh kings, four kings of Ire-
land, eight Norwegian monarchs, and one king of France^
who were ambitious of repoling in this hallowed ground. In.
the fame fanftuary, at a refpedful diltauce, lie moil of the
lords of the ifles.

The ifland of I is included in the imited parifliesof Kil-
finchen and Kilviceuen. It abounds with many valuable
miiK'rals. Here is but one fmall village, containing about
60 houfes and ^50 inhabitants. The parifh miaifter of KiU
viccucn vifits this ifland every quarter of a year, which is the
only opportunity of public worfliip and religious inftruflion
which the people now enjoy. Strange reverie ! that divine
fervice ftiould be performed but four times in the year, in a
place where it was formerly celebrated as many times in a
day. Sincl.iir's Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. xiv.
Pennant's Tour in Scotland. Johnfon's Journey to the
Weftern Iflands. Chalmers's Caledonia. Jamicfon's Hif-
torical Account of the ancient Culdees, &c. 4to. iSii.

loNA, a town of Hindooflan, in the country o£ Delhi ;
2? miles 6. of Delhi.

JONiE

J O N

JONJi Piscis, the Jonas-fjh, a name given by many-
authors to the common fliark, the canis carcharias of
authors.

It lias this name from an opinion that it was the fifh which
fwallowed up the prophet of that name. But there are
many objeftions to fuch an opinion.

JONAH, or the Prophecy of Jonah, who was the fon of
Amittai, and a native of Gathhcpher, a town belonging to
the tribe of Zebulon, in Lov/er Galilee, a canonical book
of the Old Teftament, in wliich it is related, that Jonah
was ordered to go and prophefy the deftruftion of the Nine-
vites ; but that difobediently attempting a voyage another
way, he war. difcovered by the riling of a fudden tempeft,
and caft into the fea, where he was fwallowed up by a large
fifli. Having lodged three days and three nights in the belly
of the fifli, he was difgorged upon the fliore : whereupon,
being feniible of his pall danger, and furprifing deliverance,
he betook himfelf to the journey and embaiTy to which he
was appointed. Arriving at Nineveh, the metropolis of
AfTyria, he, according to his commiflion, boldly laid open
to the inhabitants their fms and mifcarriagej, and proclaimed
their fudden overthrow ; upon which the whole city, by
prayer and falling, and a fpeedy repentance, happily averted
the divine vengeance, and efcaped tlie threatened ruin.
Jonah, in Head of admiring the divine clemency, was indig-
nant under the apprehenfion tliat his veracity would be fuf-
pecled, and that he would be deemed by the people to be a
falfe prophet. Having retired from the city, he prepai'ed
for himfelf a booth, over which a plant fprang up mira-
culoufly in one night, which, by its fpreasling foliage, lliel-
tered him from the burning heat of the fun. But the plant
fuddenly withering away, fo that he was expofed to a hif-
focating wind and the fun's fcorching beams, he again ex-
prelTed his impatience, and his wilh to die rather than to live
in fuch ciixumllances of diftrefs. At length, having been re-
proved for his impatient, querulous temper, and the con-
duft of Providence in fparing the Ninevites having been juf-
tiflcd to his full conviction, his complaints were filenccd.
Of his further hiftory we have no authentic account.
Jonah was the moll ancient of all the prophets whofe
writings are preferved in the Scripture canon. Some have
fuppofed that he prophefied in the latter end of Jehu's, or
the beginning of Jehoahaz's reign, at which time the king-
dom of Ifrael was brought very low by the opprelTions of
Hazael king of Syria. (2 Kings, xiii. 22.) Others refer
Ills predictions to the reign of Jeroboam H. king of Ifrael,
or beiween the years 823 and 783 B.C. 2 Kings, xiv. 2^.
New-come's Verfion and Notes.

JONDAL, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the
the diocefe of Bergen ; 30 miles E. of Bergen.

JONDISABUR, a town of Perfia, in tlie province of
Cluiliilan ; 185 miles E.S.E. of Bagdad.

JONEIKISCHKEN, a town of Pruffian Lithuania;
36miles W. of Tiliit.

JONES, in Biography, a WeKhman who was blind, and
the bell performer on the harp of his time. The old duch.efs
of Marlborougii would have retained him in her fervice,
with a penfion, as an inmate ; but he could not endure con-
finement, and was engaged by Evans, the landlord of a
well-accuftomed home-brewed ale-houfe, at tlie Hercules'
Pillars, oppofite Clifford's Inn palTage in Fleet-llreet,
where he performed in a great room up ftairs during the
winter feafon. He played extempore voluntaries, the fugues
in the fonatas and concertos of Corelh, and moll of his folos,
with many of Handel's opera fongs, with uncommon neat-
Jiefs, which were thought great feats, at a time when fcarcely
,any thing but Welfli tunes with variations was ever at-

J O N

tempted on that inftrument in the hands of other harpers.
He alfo played on the violin, and accurately imitated on
that inftrument, to the great delight of the home-brewed
ale-drinkers, the fobs, fighs, and groans of a Quaker's
fermon.

Evans dying, his widow took Cuper's Gardens in Surrey,
oppofite to Somerfet-houfe ; erefted an orchellra there,
wliicli was reckoned the bell for mufic in the kingdom ; fur-
nillied it with an organ, which was played by little Harry
Burgefs, the harpfichord-player at Drury-lane, with his
ufual unmeaning neatnefs ; and eflablillied the Gardens as an
evening place of entertainment for the fummer feafon, like
Vauxhall, with the addition of fire-works. But it was too
much in the vicinity of Drury-lane and Covent-garden for
order and decorum to be long preierved inviolate ; fo that
after four or five fummers, it was fuppreffed by tlie magif-
trates ; and poor Jones, who had been adir:itted as a per-
former in the orcheftra by mother Evans, (as fhe was
ufu ally called,) lofing both his falary and importance, died
about the year 174S. He was buried in Lambeth church-
yard, and his funeral proceflion, attended by a great number
of mufical people, was folemnized by the performance of a
dead march by a voluntary band of innumerable initru-
ments.

Jones, John, late organift of St. Paul's, the Charter-
houfe, and joint organill of the Temple with Stanley.
The father of this mufician, a worthy man of profeflional
merit and good conduct, having lived many years at lady
Vanbrugh's, Whitehall, as a domellic mufician, prevailed
on her ladyfliip to patronize his fon ; which flie did fo ef-
feclually, that though his abilities as a performer or com-
pofcr were not above mediocrity, nor were his perfon or
manners very captivating, yet, by the zeal and influence of
his father's patronefs, he obtained three places, which are
regarded by miificians as the polls of honour in London,
and more defirable, if the king's chapel be excepted, than
any at which an organill can afpire.

Jokes, John, a phyfician of the i6th century, and author
of feveral works, but of whofe hiftory httle more is known
than that he was born in Wales, or was of Wellh ex-
traftion ; that he ftudied at both our univerfities, and took
a medical degree at Cambridge ; and that he became eminent
in the practice of his profeffion at Bath, and in Notting-
hamlliire and Derbyfliire. He mentions curing a perfon at
Louth in 1562 ; and the date of his lall publication is
1579. He wrote only in the Englilh language, and left
the following works : i. "The Dial of Agues," Lond.
153-6 ; 2. " 'The Benefit of the ancient Bathes of Buckilone,
which cureth m.oll grievous Sicknefles," ibid. 1572. This
work contains very httle concerning either the nature or
killory of thefe baths ; but chiefly general du-edions,
compiled from ancient authors, relative to the diet and
regimen proper to be ufed with a courfe of ba'ihing ;
3. " The Bathes of Bath's ayde, wonderful and moll ex-
cellent againft very many Sicknefles," ibid. 1572. ; 4. " A
brief, excellent, and profitable Difcourfe of the natural
Beginning of all growing and living Things, Heat, Genera-
tion, &c." Lond. J 574 ; 5. " A Tranflation, from Latin
into Englifli, of Galen's tour Books of Elements," ib. 1574.
Dr. Aikin puts the following qu^re, after mentioning tliis
work : " Is not this the fame with the preceding piece J"
6. " The Art and Science of preferving Body and Soul in
Hcahh, Wifdom, and Cathohc Religion," 1579, 410. See
Aikin, Biog. Mem. of Med.

Another phyfician, of the name of John Jones, is men-
tioned by bibliographers, who was born at Landaff, and
w^% admitted a member of the Royal College of Phyficians,

JONES.

in London, near the end of the 17th century, and was
author of the following publications : 1 . «' Novarum Difler-
tationum de morbis abftrufioribus Traftatus primus, de
Fcbribus intermittentibus. In quo obiter de Fcbris continue
natura cxplicatur,'' Lond. 1683 ; 2. " De morbis Hiber-
norum et de Dyfenteria Hibcrnica,"' ib. 1698. ; " The
Myfteries of Opium revealed," ib. 1701. Eloy. Dift.
Hift.

Jones:, Ikiso, an eminent architect, was born in London
about the year 1572. He was probably intended for a
mechanical employment, but his talent for tlic line arts at-
trafted the notice of fome conliderable perfons about the
court, among whom were the earls of Arundel and Pem-
broke. To the latter of thefe noblemen he was indebted
for that degree of patronage which enabled him to vifit
Italy for the purpofe of perfefting himfelf in lar.dfcape-
paiiiting, to which his genius feemed firll to point. He
took up his refidence chiefly at Venice, where it is faid tlie
works of Palladio gave him a turn to the ftudy of archi-
te<fture, which branch of art he made his profeflion. He
was invited by Chriftian IV. king of Denmark, to under-
take the office of his firft architedl. Having been fome
years in the fervice of that fovereign, he accompanied him,
in 1606, on a vifit to his brother-in-law, king James; aid,
expreffing a defire of remaining in his native country, he
was appointed architeft to the queen. He ferved prince
Henry in tlie fame capacity, and obtained a grant, in re-
verfion, of the place of furveyor-general of the works.
After the death of the prince, Mr. Jones vifited Italy again,
and fpent fome years there in improving himfelf in his art.
On his return he undertook the duties of the office c-f furveyor-
general, and finding the Board of Works mucli in debt, he
relinquirtied his own dues, and prevailed upon the other
principal officers to do the fame, till all arrears were cleared.
In 1620 the king fent him to inveftigate the nature and pur-
pofe of that remarkable antiquity, Stonehenge ; and he
wrote a treatife to prove that it was the work of the Ro-
mans, but he made no converts to this opinion. He was
now employed in building the banquctting-lioufe at Wiiite-
liall, which remains a model of the pure and elegant tafte
of thearchiteft. He was likewife appointed a commiflioner
for repairing the cathedral of St, Paul's, which office, as
well as his other pods, was continued to him under the
reign of Charles I. The repairs of St. Paul's did not
commence till 1633 ; and he is accufed of having com-
mitted, in that undertaking, fome capital faults by mixing
the Roman and Grecian Ityle with the Gothic. He had
much employment both from the court and nobility, and
realized a handfomcf tune, which was diminiflied by his
fufferings during the troubles which fucceeded. He was
obnoxious as a favourite of his royal mailer, and as a Roman
Catholic. He was firft attacked in 1640, when he was
called before the houfe of lords, on a complaint of the
pariffiioners of St. Gregory's, for demolifhing part of their
church, in order to make room for his additions to St. Paul's.
He was fined, in 1646, 545/. as a mahgnant. He was much
afflifted by the king's death, and died, worn down by grief
and misfortune, in July 165 1. He was the greateft Englifh
architeA previoufly to fir Chriftopher Wren. A colledlion of
his defigos was engraved and publithed by Mr. Kent, in two
volumes folio, 1727. Others were pubhflied in 1743 and
1 744, A copy of Palladio'e architecture, with manufcript
notes by Mr. Jones, is in tlie library of Worceller college,
Oxford. Biog. Brit.

JoNKS, William, father of fir WiUiam, llie fubjeft of
the next article, was born in the year 1680, in the ifland of
Anglelev, North Wales. His parents were yeomen, or

Vo;.. XIX.

little farmers, in that ifland, and gave to tiieir Ton tlie bcft.
education which their circumftances would allow ; but he
owed his future fame and fortune to the diligent cultivation
of the intclleflual powers by which he was eminently dif-
tinguiflied. Addided from early life to the iludy of ma-
thematics, he commenced his career of advancement in the
humble oflice of a teacher of thefe fciences on board a man
of war. In this fituation he attrafted the notice, and obtahicd
the friendfliip of lord Anfon. He appeared as an autlior in
his 22d year ; wlicn his treatife on the art of navigation was
much approved. We may judge of his predominant tafte
for literature and fcience by a trivi.il circumftance which
occurred at the capture of Vigo, in 1702. Having joined
his comrades in pillaging ths to.vn, hefclefted a booklcller's
ftiop, in hope of obtaining fome valuable plunder ; but, dif-
appointed in his expe£tations, he took up a pair of fcifTors,
which was his only booty, and which he afterwards exhibited
to his friends as a trophy of his military fuccefs. On his
return to England, he eftabbdied himfelf as a teaclier of ma-
thematics in London ; and here, at the age of 26 years, he
publiflied his •' Synopfis PalmariorL-m Mathcfeos ;" a work
which has ever fince been held iu the higheft eftimation
as a compendious b-.t comprehenfivc fummary of mathe-
matical fcience, Mr. Jones was no lefs efteemed and reipefted
on account of his private cbatatter and pleafir.g manners,
than fc* his natural iaL-nls and (cientific attainments ; fo
that ho reckoned among bis frie:ids the moft eminent per-
fons of the period in v/h'ch lie lived. Lord Hitrdwicke
feleittcd him as a companion nn the circuit, when he was
chief juftice ; and when he aftsrwards held the great f.-al,
conferred upon him the office of fecretary for the peace, as
a teftirnony of his friendfhip and regard. He was alfo in
habits of intimate acqi;.;lntance with lord Parker, prefident
of the Royal Society, fir Ifaac Newton, Halley, M-rd, and
Samuel Johnfon. So highly was his merit appretiated kr
fir Ifaac Newton, that he prepared, with, his penniffion,
and very much to his fatisfaClion, a very elegant edition of
fmall tracts in the higher mathematics. Upon the retire-
ment of lord Macclesfield to Sherborne caftle, Mr. Jcncs
refided in his family, and inftrucled his lordfliip in che
fciences. Whilft he occupied this fituation he had th^>
misfortune, by the failure of a banker, to lofe the greateft
part of that property which he had accumulated by the
moft laudable induftry and economy ; but the lo!s was in a
great i^eafure repaired to him by the kind attention of his
lordlhip, who procured for himafinecure place of coeiidcrabic
emolument. He was afterwards oflered, by the fan.c noble-,
man, a more lucrative fituation ; which, howevei, he declined,
that he might be more at leifure to devote himfelf lo his
favourite fcientific purfuits. In this retreat he formed an
acquaintance with Mifs Mary Nix, the daughter of a cabinet-
maker, who had become eminent in his profeffion, and
whofe talents and manners had recommended him to an
intimacy with lord Macclesfield. This acquaintance ter-
minated in marriage ; and the conneAion proved a fource
of perfonal fatisfaction to Mr- Jones himfelf, and of per-
manent honour to his name and family. By this lady Mr.
Jones had three children ; two fons and a daughter. One
fon died in infancy ; the other will be the fubjeCt of the
next article ; and the daughter, who was married to Mr.
Rainsfjid, an opulent merchant retired from bufincfs, pcfifhcd
mifeiably, in the year 1802, in confequence of her clothes
accidentally taking fire. The death of Mr. Jones was oc-
cafioned by a polypus in the heart, which, notwithftanding
the medical attention and affiftance of Dr. Mead, proved
incurable. Of the fingular felf-poffeflion and promj til udc of
Mrs. Joi.es, the following anecdote is related. A friend,
3 A «ha

JONES.

who knew her hufband's dangerous fituation, addrefled him
with a letter of condolence, recommending acquiefcence
and relignalion from a due confideration of the brcvily of life.
Mrs. Jones, perceiving its purport, and probably dreading
its effects on the fpirits of her hufband, when flic was de-
fired by him to read it, compofed in the moment another
letter fo clearly and fo rapidly, that he had no fufpicion
of the deception ; and th.is (lie executed in a llyle fo chear-
ful and entertaining, that, inilead of being dcprelfed, he was
greatly exhilarated by it. His diforder at length terminated
in his death, which happened foon after the incident we
have ^ated, in July 1 749. The property of which he
died ^wTened was moderate ; but his reputation was uni-
verfally acknowledged. After his death, the widow was
favoured with many offers of fervice by tliofc who refpefted
her deceafed hufband ; and flie was under peculiar obliga-
tions to Mr. Baker, author of a trcatife on the microfcope,
&c. for affillance in arranging the collcdtion of fliells, foffils,
and other curiofities left by Mr. Jones, and difpofing of
them to the greatell advantage. His library was bequeathed
to lord Macclesfield. It has been faid by the compilers of
the Biographical Dictionary, that Mr. Jones had completed
a very important mathematical work, and had adually fcnt
the firll fheet to the prefs, but that the progrefs of his dif-
order obliged him to difcontinue the impreffion. It is
moreover faid, that the MS. fairly tranfcribed, was entruited,
a few days before his demife, to the c ire of lord Maccles-
field, who promifed to publiHi it for the honour of the
author, and the benefit of his family. If this account be
true, and a work, which was to have been entitled, " The
Introduction to the Mathematics," had been aftually pre-
pared, the MS. n-,u(l have been lofl, as it could not be
found among the books and papers of lord Macclesfield,
who furvived his friend many years. Among the memoranda
of Ik William Jones there is no document that ferves to
confirm or difprovc this account. The mathematical works
of Mr. Jones, that have been publiflied, are much admired
for neatnefs, brevity, and accuracy ; and they afford ample
evidence, telliSed alfo by his correfpondence with Mr. Cotes
of Cambridge, that he was a very eminent mathematician.
We have already mentioned his " New Compendium of the
whole .•\rt of Navij^ation," 8vo. 1702 ; and his " Synopfis
Palmariorum Mathefeos ; or, a new Introdudion to the
Mathematics, containing the Principles of Arithmetic and
Geometry, demondrated in a (liort and eafy Method," 8vo.
1706. In the Philofbphical Tranfaftions, we have feveral
papers on logarithms, on the properties of conic feilions,
on the difpofition of equations for exhibiting the relations
of geometrical luies, &c. communicated to the Royal
Society, of which he was a member. He was alfo the
editor of fome mathematical works of fir Ifaac Newton,
under the title of " Analyfis per quantitatum feries,
Huxiones, ac differentias ; cum enumeratione linearum tertii
ordinis." Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Correfpond-
ence of fir William Jones, by lord Teignmouth.

JoMES, Sir William, the fon of the fubjed of the pre-
ceding article, was defcended, by tl-e maternal fide, from
fome of the ancient princes and chieftains of North Wales ;
but he is entitled to notice in this place on account ©f much
more important and valuable dlflin&ion^ ; tliofe of talents,
acquirements, and character, which raifed him to a r^nk of
pre-en inence, that has been attained by few either m an-
cient or modern times. From the materials fupjjKed by
lord Teignmouth, in his ample and excellent " Memoirs of
the Life, Writings, and Correfpondence of fir William
.Tones," in addition to thofe which our own recolledtion will
luruifh, v.-e flt.iU be able to give an account of this dif-
4

tinguifhed perfon, which, however imperfcd it may be, and
however inadequate to our fentiments of perfonal refpect,
and feelings of hvely gratitude, cannot fail of being interell-
ing to our readers ; nor will they need any apology if we
exceed our ufual limits on this occafion.

Sir William Jojies was born in London on the eve of the
feftival of St. Michael, in the year 1746; but having loil
his father when lie was three years old, the care of his edu-
cation devolved upon his mother, who appears to have been
eminently qualified to direft and fuperintend it, more par-
ticularly' in his infant years. Her character has been de-
lineated by her hufband in the following terms : " She was
virtuous without blemidi, generous without extravagance,
frugal but not niggard, cheerful but not giddy, clofe but not
fuUen, ingenious but not conceited, of fpirit but not paf-
fionate, of her company cautious, in her friendlliip trufty,
to her parents dutiful, and to her hufband ever faithful,
loving and obedient." Mrs. Jones took great pains, by th.c
ftudy of algebra, trigonometry, and navigation, to qirjliiy her-
felf for being the preceptrefs of her filter's fon ; and to tliele
fciences, rather remote from a lady's province, Ihe paid par-
ticular attention, becaufe he was deftined to a maritune
profellion. Her fohcitude for the improvement of her own
fon induced her to decline accepting the kind invitation of
the countefs of Macclesfield to reni.iin at Sherborne callle,
after her hufband's death ; and her difcriminating judgment
led her, in her plan for his inftruftion, to rejeft the feverity
of difcipline, and to conduit his mind infenfibly to know-
ledge and exertion, by exciting his curiofity and directing
it to ufeful objeiSs. In confequence of her attention, he
was, in his fourth year, able to read diltinClly and rapidly-
any Englilh book ; and with a view to the cultivation of
his memory, fhe caufed him to learn and repeat iome of,
tlie moil popular fpeeches in Shakfpeare, and the bell of-
Gay's fables. His propenfity to reading was fignally inani-
fefted in his fifth year ; and in his fixth he was initiiitcd
by the afllftance of a friend in the rudiments of the Latin
grammar. At Michaelmas 1753, in the clofe of his iVventli
year, he was placed at Harrow fchool, of which Dr.
Thackeray was the head mafler. During the two firfl
years of his refidence in this feminary, he was diftinguifhed
more by diligence than by fuperiority of talents ; but his
faculties gained flrength by exercife, and the profpedt of
the eminence to which he afterwards attained gradually
brightened. His mother, who anxioufly watched over his
progrefs, improved the opportunities which his vacations,
and the abfence of 1 2 months from fchool, in confequence
of the fracture of his thigh-bone, afforded, of increafing his
acquaintance with his native tongue, and with Enghfti
author?, and of teaching him alfo the rudiments of drawing,
in which (lie herfelf excelled. During this interval, the
progrefs of his clafGcal fludies was interrupted. However,
on his return to fchool, he was placed in the clafs to which
he would have attained, if no interruption had occurred.
This error of judgment, on the part of his mafler, though,
it fubje£ted him to corporal pir.iilhment and degradation
for non-performance of exercifes which fhould not have
been required, and though it produced in his mind an in-
vincible abhorrence of his matter's condudt, ferved to roufe
his emulation, and to call forth the exertion of his native
pow-crs ; fo that in a little while he was advanced to the
head of his clafs, and might, if he had been fo difpofed,
have retorted on his dafs-fellows their former reproaches
of his indolence or dulnefs. In his 12th year, he was re-
moved to tlie upper fchool. At this time a circumilance
occurred, which afi'orded fignal evidence of tlie itrewgth and
tcnacioufncfs of his memory. His fthool-ftUows propofod

JONES.

to amufe themfclves with the reprefentation of a play ; and
at his recommendation the Tempeft'was fclefted ; but not
being able to procure a copy, he fiirnidied them with it
from his memory ; and in the exhibition he performed the
part of Profpero. As he advanced in the fchool, his dili-
gence increafcd ; and he commenced the ftudy of tlie Grtek
language. At this time lie trandated into Englilh verfe
•fevcral of the epiftlcs of Ovid, and all the paftorals of Vir-
gil ; and he compoL'd a dramatic piece on the ftory of
Melcager, whicli he denominated a tragedy, and which,
dadng the vacation, was afted by fonie of his moll intimate
fchool-fellovvs ; the part of the hero being performed by
liimfelf. His acquaintance with profody was very dif-
tino-uilhed ; fo that he was able to fcan the trochaic and
iambic verfes of Terence, before his companions fufpefted
that they were any thing but mere profe. At fchool he
wrote the exercifes of many boys in the two fuperior clafTes,
and thofe in liis own chfs were happy to become his pupils.
During the holidays he learned the rudiments of French
and arithmetic ; and in this early age he was highly gratified
by being honoured with an admiflion to the fociety of
learned and ingenious men at the houfe of Mr. Baker and
his friend Mr. Pond, At the requeil of his mother iie read
the " Spetlacle de la Nature ;" but derived greater amufe-
ment, as he acknowledged., from the Arabian tales, and
from Shakfpeare, whofe poems and plays he repeatedly
perufed with increafed delight. At Harrow he invented a po-
litical play, in which Dr. Binnet, biOiop of Cloyne, and the
celebrated Dr. Parr, were his principal aflbciates. " They
divided the fields in the neighbourhood of Harrow, ac>:ord-
ino- to a map of Greece, into Hates and kingdoms; each
fixed upon one as his dominion, and afTumed an ancient
name. Some of their fchool-fellows confented to be ilyled
barbarians, who were to invade their territories and attack
their hillocks, which were denominated fortreffes. The chiefs
vigoroufly defended their refpeftive domains again It the
incurfions of the enemy ; and in thefe imitative wars the
younf^ ftatefmen held councils, made vehement liarangues,
and c'ompofed memorials, all donbtlefs very boyidi, but cal-
culated to fill their minds with ideas of legiflation and civil
government. In thefe unufual amufements Jones was ever
the leader.'' In his 15th year Dr. Thackeray was fucceeded
]jy ]3r. Sumner, who foon difcovered the talents and ac-
quirements of his pupil ; and who afforded him every ad-
vantage in the profecution of his ftudies which he had it in
his power to grant him. Indeed this excellent inftrudtor of
youth, with an excufable partiality and an amiable modefly,
was heard to declare, " that Jones knew more Greek than
himfjlf, and was a greater proficient in the idiom of that
language." During the two years which he fpent with Dr.
Sumner, he employed his time in reading and imitating the
beft aneient authors of Greece and Rome ; and, devoting the
iii.rhtas well as the day to iludy, he acquired the knowledge
of^the Arabic charadlers, and a fufficient acquaintance with
the Hebrew language to enable him to read fome of th.e
Pfalms in the original His reputation was at this early period
of his life fo extenfive, " that he was often flattered by the
inquiries of ftrangers, under the title of the great fcholar."
Sone of his juvenile compofitions, both in profe and verfe,
may be found in the fragment of a work which he began
at Ichool, and entitled " Limon," in inr.tation of Cicero,
and may be found in the complete edition of his works.
His inccfiant application occafioned a weaknefs in his fight,
which rendered it neceffary for Dr. Sumner to interdict it
dur.ng the laft months of his relidence at Harrow. The
inrervals of interrupted ftudy, v/hich he reluftantly al'owed
hiMfelf, were employed in learning chefs, by pracliCng

the games of Philidor. As he was intended for the pro.
fellion of the law, for which, howc\er, he does not icem
to have had any great predileftion, fome of liis friends re-
commended his being placed, at the age of 16, in tlie
office of a fpecial pleader ; others, however, wifhed him
to be removed from Harrow to one of tlie univerfities.
The choice of an univerlity v as for fome time the fub-
jed of dehbcration ; but at length Oxford was preferred
in confequence of the recommendation of Dr. GlalTe, and
the inclination of his mother, who determined to refide
with him at tlie univerfity. In the fpring of 1764. he was
niatriculated and admitted into Univerlity college ; and
in the following term, after having fpent a few months at
Harrow, in order to finifli a courfe of lettures in which
he was much interefted, he fixed hinifelf at Oxford. Upon
his firft fettlement in the univerfity he was ratlier difgulled
than pkafed with the plan of education. " Inllead of pure
principles on the fubjeds of tafte, on rhetoric, poetry, and
pradlieal morals, he complained that he was required to at-
t-end dull comments on artilici;il ethics, and logic detailed in
fuch barbarous Latin, that he profefled to know as little
of it as he then knew of Arabic." The only logic then in
fafliion was that of the fchools : and in a memorandum
written by himfelf, which,"' fays his biographer, lord Teign-
mouth, " is my authority for thefe remarks, I find an anec-
dote related of one of the fellows, who was reading Locke
with his own pupih, that he carefully palfed over every
paflage in which that great metaphyfician derides tlie old
fyftem." After a refidence of a few months at the uni-
verfity, on the 31ft of October, 1764, Mr. Jones was una-
nimoufly elected one of the four fchol.irs on the foundation
of fir Simon Bennett, for whi^-h aiTillance he was grateful ;
more cfpecially as the profpect of a fellowihip was remote.
Addiiied to oriental literature for feveral years, he now in-
dulged his inclination by the ftudy of Arabic under tlie
example and encouragement of a fellow ftudeut, and wi;li
the affillance of a native of Aleppo. His fituation at the
univerfity became gradually more plcafanc to him than it was
at firll ; for his college tutors, perceiving that his whole
time was devoted to improvement, difpenfed with his atten-
dance on their ledtures, and even allowed him to purfue his
ftudies in a manner agree ible to his tafte and inclination.
To the perufal of the principal Greek poets and hiliorians,
and of the entire works of Plato and Lucian, lie added the
ftudy of the Arabic and a'fo of the modern Perfic lan-
guages. Daring his vacations, which he fpent in London,
he attended the fchools of Angelo, in order to acquire the
elegant accompliihments of riding and fencing ; and at
home he direded liis attention to the modern languages ;
reading the beft authors in Italian, Spanifli, and Portuguefc.
The potfefiion of a fellowlhip, which he was anxious of
obtaining, partly for relieving his mother from the burdeu
of his education, and partly for (ccuring fome kind of in-
dependence, however inconiiderable, to himfelf, was ftiU at
a dillance ; and he almoll defpaired of obtaining it. Hav-
ing been recommended to the family of earl Spencer by Dr.
Shipley, to whom he was not perfonally known, but who
was not unacquainted with his compofitions at Harrow, an
offer was made to him by Mr. Arden, related, by marriage,
to his friend Sumner, of being private tutor to lord Al-
thorp, now earl Spencer. The propofal was cheerfully ac-
cepted, and upon an interview with his pupil, then feveu
years old, he was fo pleafed, that he determined to give up
all thoughts of a profeffion, and to devote himfelf to the
faithful difcharge of the duties of education now devolved
upon him. In the fummcr of 1765, he wholly left the uni-
verfity, and entered on his new office. At Wimbledon,
3 A 2 where

JONES.

wlicre he refided till the approach of winter, he found lei-
furc to compofe many of his Eiiglidi poems, and to read
the greatell "part of the Old Teftament in Hebrew, parti-
cularly the book of Job, and the Prophets, which he Iludied
with great attention. In the following fummer a fellowfhip
became vacant, and he was elefted to it Aug. 7, 1766. At
this time he was offered by the duke of Grafton, then at
the head of tlie trcafury, the place of interpreter for Eall-
ern languages, which he politely declined, apprehending that
it would be inconfillent with his other engagements and piir-
fuits. In the courfe of this fiunmer he formed an acquaint-
ance with a young lady, Anna Maria, the eldell daughter of
Dr. Ship!>-y, then dean of Winchefter, who was vifiting
at Wimbledon, to which he owed the happincfs of his fu-
ture life. Buc fuch were his views of an honourable indepen-
dence, and his refolution never to owe his fortune to a wife,
or her kindred, that, notwithllaiiding tlie impreffions made
upon his heart by the perfon and convcrfation of this lady,
he could not then admit any idea of a matrimonial connec-
tion. In the following wmter he attended the two fchools
of Angelo, and by a fecret arrangement with Gallini, ac-
quired the accomphfhment of dancing. Having occafion to
accompany lord Spencer's family to Spa in the fummer of
1767, he i:nprovcd himfelf, during the (liovt period of three
weeks' rellrience in this place, in the art of dancing, by the
le(li)is of Janlbn-.of Aix-la-Chapelle, and acquired a very
confiderable knowledge of the German language. In the
year 1 768 application was made to Mr. Jones by the fecre-
tary of Hat;, on behalf of the king of Denmark, then in
England, requelling him to give a literal tranflation of the
life of Nartir Shah in the French language. Having for
fome time declined the propofal, he at length accepted it ;
and the tranflation was publiihed, after fom.e delay, in the
year 1770. To the hillory of Nadir Shah, he added a trea-
tife on Oriental Poetry, v/hich treatife, executed by a young
man in his 23d year, has been juftly confidered as an extraor-
dinary pcrforniance ; " inftrudlive and elegant, interelling
from Its novelty, entertaining from its fubjeft and variety, and
exhibiting the combined powers of talle and erudition."
Being at Tunbridge in 1768, he then began to learn muiic,
and afterwards received lefTons from Evans on the Welih
harp. We may here mention his attendance on a courfe of ana-
tomical lectures by the celebrated Hunter, and his ftudy of
the mathematics, whicli he fo well underttood, as to be able
to read and underlland Newton's Principia.

In the beginning of this year he had commenced an ac-
quaintance with Reviczki, afterwards the imperial niiniiler
at Warfaw, and ambaffador at the court of England, with
the title of count. This accompliihcd nobleman being cap-
tivated by the charms of oriental literature, cultivated an in-
timacy with Mr. Jones, which was continued by a corrc-
fpondence, that was carried on for many years. Many of
the letters that paded between them on their favourite i'ub-
je£l are publifhed in the Hfe by lord Teignmouth. In the
feimmerof 1769, Mr. Jo:ies attended his pupil to Ha;ro\v' ;
aad it was with pecuhar fatisfaiSlion that he renewed that in-
lercourfe with Dr. Sumner, which had been for fomc time
interrupted, though not altogether difcontinued. Here he
tranfcribeda Periian. gramm<ir, which three years before he
had compofcd for a fehool-fellow, who was deftined for
India ; iie alfo began a didionary of the Perfian language.

Of the religious principles of Mr. Jones fome account may
be reafonably expected. Whllil he was at Harrow, in his
24th year, wc have reafon to believe that hh fuith in Chrif-
tianjty was not unblended with doubts. Indeed no particu-
lar attention feems to have been paid to tliis part of liis edii-
'Cation ; a circumltancc- wliich, we confefs, appears to us

furprifing, and for which we are unable to account. His
mind, however, was fo upright and fo well difpofed, that he
e.KprelTed his doubts, not in the too fafliionable mode of con-
ceited cavilling, but with a fincere dcfire of obtaining a folu-
tion of them. Finding himfelf difappointed, he determined
to examine the fubjecfl for himfelf, and to perufe the whole
fcripture in the original, that he might be enabled to form a
correal judgment of the connedtion between the two parts,
and of their evidence both internal and external. The
refult was a firm belief in the authenticity and infpi-
ration of the facred writings. About this time he drew
up a feries of propofitions, which have been found in
his own hand-writing in a Hebrew copy of tile book
of Hofca, and which contain the llictch of a demonftration
of the divine authority of the Chrillian religion. To thefe
propofitions, tranfcribed by his biographer, the following
note is fubjoined : " what muft be the importance of a
book," of wliich it may be tridy laid, " if this book be not
true, tlie religion which we profefs is falfe ?"

Towards the end of the year 1769, Mr. Jones accompanied
lord Spencer's family to the continent. Soon after his return
he adopted the refolution of altering his plan of life. The
courfe which he was purfuing, however agreeable it was
rendered to him by the family with which he was connected,
did not exadly corrcfpond to that idea and fpirit of inde-
pendence which marked his charafter. " He united the
laudable delire of acquiring public diilimJlion and of making
his fortune by his own efforts : above all, he was ani-
mated with the noble ambition of being ufcful to his
country ;" accordingly he determined to devote himfelf to
the ftudy and practice of the law ; and with this view he was
admitted into the T-'emple on tlie 19th of September 1770.
His attachment to Oriental literature and to general fcience,
however, continued unabated, notwithllandiiig the time and
attention which he devoted to his new profefllon. In 1772
he publiihed a fmall volume of poems, confilling chiefly of
tranflations from the A'iatic languages, with two profe dif-
fertations annexed : and though he does not appear to have
communicated any paper for the Philofophical TranfaCtions,
he was, on the 30th of April 1772, elefted a fellow of
the Royal Society. On occafion of taking his Mafber's
degree in the univerfity in 1773, he compoled an oration,
intending to have fpoken it in the theatre. The fpeech was
publiihed 10 years after, and the topics that cliaraderize it
are, " an ardent love of liberty, an enthuliaftic veneration
for the univerfity, a warm and difcriminate eulogium on
learned men, who devoted their talents and labours to the
caufe of religion, fcience, and freedom.'' In the com-
mencement of 1 774, he publiflied his commentaries on Afialic
poetry, a work begun in 1766, and finifiied in ,1769, when
he was in his 23d year, which " was received with admira-
tion and applaufe by the oriental fcholars of Europe in

general, as well as bytlje learned of his own country." To
thefe commentaries is annexed an elegant addrefs to the
Mufe, in which Mr. Jones declares hispurpofe of renouncing
polite literature, and devoting himfelf altogether to the ftudy
of the law. In January 17 74 he was called to the b:u- ; and
for fome years he feems to have inflexibly adhered to the
above-mentioned refolutions. For fome time he declined
pradlice, and feduloufly applied himfelf to his legal ftudies.
In 1775, for the firft time, he attended the fpringcJrcuit and
fefiions at Oxford; perhaps more as a fpeftator than anaftor;
and in the following year he was regular in his attendance
at Wellminfter-hall. In 1778 he publiflied a ti-anflalion of
the fpeeclies of Ifseus, in caufcs concernuig the law of fuc-
cefiion to property at Athen.s, with a prefatory difcourfe,
notes critical and liiUorical, and a commentary. Tlie year

JONES.

1784 forms an intoreftiiig era in the memoirs of Mr. Jones.
His profefllonal pradlice had increafed, and afforded a pro-
fped of farther enlargement with augmented profit ; but as
his views were particularly diredL-d to the vacant feat on the
bench of Fort William in Bengal, and as lurd North had
encouraged his expeftation of occupying it, he was lefs
anxious about the augmentation of bufiiiels in his legal pro-
feflion. In this Itate of fiifpcncc, the pohtical events of the
times engaged his attention. To the American war, in its
commencement and further progrcfs, he was decidedly ad-
verfe. At this time the refloftions which he indulged dic-
tated a very animated and claffical ode to liberty, which he
compofed in Latin, and publiihed under the title of " Julii
Meleligoni ad Libertatem," the afTuined name being formed
by a tranfpolition of the letters of C uhelmus .Toncrms. This
ode ilrongly difplays his genius, erudition, feelings, and politi-
cal principles. The vacancy of a feat in parliament for the
UDi\-erfity of Oxford being likely to occur, Mr. Jones was
encouraged by his friends to offer himfclf as a candidate; but
though he was ambitious of this honour, the diiappointment
gave him no great concern. Although this contcllcd elcftion
occupied a coniiderable portion of his thoughts and time, he
founB leifure to pub!i{h a fmall pamphlet, entitled " An In-
quiry into the legal Mode of fuppreSing Riots, with a eon-
ftitutional Plan of future Defence." In a fpeech, eminently
charafterillic of his principles and feehngs, which he intended
to have delivered at a meeting of the freeholders of Mid-
dlefex, alTembled Sept. gth of this year, for nominatitig two
reprefentatives in the new parliament, he reprobated the
American war and the conduft of the late parliament in
fupporting it : he expreiTed liis fentiments without referve
on the African flave trade, amlavovved the conduA which he
would have purfued, if he had been placed in the houfe of com-
mons. In thecourfe of this year, the death of his mother, to
whom he was attached by every poffible tie of nature, affeflion,
and gratitude, involved him in the deepeft aiHiftion. In this
and the following year he was diligently employed in his pro-
feflional lludies and prailice, wlvilft hterature and politics
aHb engaged a degree of his attention ; but the principal ob-
jeft of his ambition and hopes was the vacant feat on the
bench in India. Whatever was conneded with this objeft in-
terefted his thoughts ; and hence he was led to undertake the
tranflation of an Arabian poem on the Mohammedan law of
fucceffion to the property of inteltatcs. In the year 1782
the public attention was much occupied with attempts to pro-
cure, by conftitutional mean?, a reformation of parliament.
This was a bulinefs congenial to Mr. Jones's fentiments and
•feelings ; and he concurred in the pubhc efforts for this pur-
pofe, both by fpcaking and writing. About this time he
pubhihed his " Eifay on the Law of Bailments ;'"' and in the
fame year, 1 782, he became a member of the Society for Con-

ftitittional IrJormatii

In his letter of acknowledijment for

•being elcctL^d into this fociety, he profeiTes his attachment to
the excellent conftitution of his country; and then adds,
•" on the people depend the welfere, the fecnrity, and the per-
■tnanence of every legal government ; in the people mnil rdide
all fubftantial power f and to the people mull all thofe, in
whofe ability and knowledge we fometimes wifely, often im-
prudently, confide, be always accountable for the due exercife
of that po^>ver with which they are for a time entrulled."
Whilft he was at Paris, in the year 1782, he wrote a little
-"jeu d'efprit," as he calls it ; ajid of winch he fays, in a
Jetter to lord Althorp, " it was printed here by a fociety,
who, if they will fteer clear of party, will do more good
;to. Britain, than all the philofophers and anlitiuaries of So-
.merfet houfe. But to fpcak the tre.tti, 1 greatly doubt,
whether they, or any other man in this country, caa do it

fubftantial good. The nation, as Demofthenes fay?, will
be fed hke a confumptive patient, with chicken brotii and
panada, which will neither fuffer him to expire, nor keep,
him wholly alive." T*iis "jeu d'efprit" was a "Dialogue
between a Farmer and Country Gentleman on the Principles
of Government." After a bill of indiftment had been
found againft the dean of St. .\faph, for the publication of
the edition, which was printed in Wales, fir William Jones
fent a letter to lord Kenyon, then chief-juftice of Cheftcr,
in which he avowed himfelf to be the author of the dia-
logue, and maintained that every pofition in it was ftriftl^
conformable to the laws and conllitution of England. In
the beginning of i 783, Mr. Jones pubhflied his tranflation of
tlie feven Arabian poems, which he had finiflied in I78».
The moll interelling period of Mr. Jones's life was now ap-
proaching ; for in March 1783, by the adlive fricndlhip
of lord Afhburton, and under the adniini 11 ration of lord
Shelburnc, he was appointed a judge of the fupreme court
of judicature at Fort WiUiam in Bengal, on which occafion
he received the honour of knighthood ; and in the April fol-
lowing, he married Anna Maria Shipley, the eldeft daughter
of the bifliop of St. Afaph, a lady to whom he had been long
attached, who deferved his moil affcclioiiate eilecm, who
contributed in a very high degree to his domeflic happinefs,
and who lamented his death with a moft pungent and perma-
nent grief. To the publications of fir William Jones, which
we have already noticed, we ftiall here add an abridged hif-
tory of the life of Nadir Shah, in Englilh, and a hillory of
the Perfian language, intended to be prefixed to the firfl edi-
tion of his Perfian grammar.

Sir Wilham Jones embarked for India in the Crocodile
frigate, and in April 1783 left his native country. He was
now in his j7th year, with his faculties in full vigour, in
poffeffion of the appointment to which his views had been
long directed, indulging the expeftation of acquiring an
ample independence, and having no reafon to apprehend
that the climate of India would be hoftile to his conllitution.
He could not be forry to abandon the political difcuffions,
that divided his friends and alienated them from one an-
other ; and which muft have produced mutual (hynefs and
refei-ve between him and thofe to whom he was in other
refpefts attached ; and which ferved to agitate the whole
country. He had with him a companioa and friend, from
whofe fociety he could not but derive the greateft Hitisfaftion
and comfort, which kindred minds and united hearts are ca-
pable of receiving and communicating. In fnch fociety,
and with ample refources in his own mind, a kind of tempo-
rary banifhment from his country would be tolerable, the
long voyage would not be tedious and uninterefting, and a
fettlement for important and beneficial purpofes in a foreign
land would be regarded without an-xiety and averfion. In
September 1783 he hinded fafely at Calcutta, and was re-
ceived with cordial congratulations by thofe who were chiefly
interelled in his arrival. In the following December he en-
tered upon his judicial fundlions, and at the opening of the
fcfiions, delivered to the grand jury his firll charge, which
was concife, elegant, appropriate, and conrihatory. Scien-
tific objeils, during the intervals of profcfiional duties, en-
gaged his attention ; and in order to combine the efforts of
many in ufeful purfuits, he cJevifed the inllitution of a fo-
ciety in Calcutta, fimilar in its plan and ol Jefis to thofe that
have been-cllabliflied in the principal cities of Europe. See
Society.

In the year fuccecding that of his arrival, fir WiUiam Jones

was attacked with a diiorder which exhaulled his llrcngth,

and threatened his valuable life. As foon, however, as be

was able to undertake it, he projefted a journey to Benares,

^ , principally-

JONES.

prir.cipally with a view of opening fourccs of ufeful informa-
tion. He proceeded by way of Moorfliedabad, Jungepore,
Bliagilpoor, and Patna, to Benares. In the courfe of this
jouiney his diforder once and again returned upon him, and
fcemed to excite in his mind an apprehenfion of its fatal ter-

. niin-.ition. That this was the cafe we infer from a prayer

'which he ccmpofed on this occafion, and which is as follows :

" O thou heftower of ail good ! if it pleafe thee to con-

'tinue my eafy taflis in tliis life, grant me ftrength to per-
form them as a faithful fcrvant ; but if thy wifdom hath
■willed to end them by this thy vifitatioh, admit me, not
weigliing my unw<^rthinefs, but through thy mercy declared

•in CI rift, into thy heavenly manfions, that I may continually
adrar.ce in happin -fs, by advancing in true knowledge and
awful love of thee, thy will be done !"

After a fhort refidence at Benares, he returned by the
Ganges to Bhagilpoor ; and in his journey from hence to
Calcutta, he vifited Gour, once the refidence of the fove-
reigns of Bengal. In a letter written to a friend after his
return, he fays, " As we approached Calcutta we perceived

■ the difference of climate, and thought of Bhagilpoor with
pleafure and regret." "J air. juft returned," fnys he, in

'another letter, " as it were from the brink of another world,
having been abfent near fevcn months ; and reduced to a
flceleton by fevers of every denomination, with an obftinate
bilious flux at their heels. My health is tolerably reftored
by a long ramble through South Bahar, and tlie dillrift of
Benares." During this tour he wrote two tradts ; one a
little tale in verfe, under the title of " The Enchanted
Maid," or " Hindu Wife ;'' and the other, " A Treatife on
the Gods of Greece, Italy, and India," afterwards prefented
to the Society, and publifiicd in the Afiatic Refearclies. The
defign of this work is to evince a refemblance, too ilrong
to have been accidental, between the popular v.-orfliip of the
old Greeks and Italians, and that of the Hindus, and be-
tween their ftrange religion and that of Egypt, Ciiina, Per-
fia, Phrygia, Pliccnicia, and Syria, and even remoter nations.
This rcfemblan'jc, if it were ellabliflied, would authorife, as
fir WiUiam Jones conceives, an inference of a general union
and affinity between the moft dillinguiflied inhabitants of the
primitive wor'd, at the time when they deviated, as they did
too early deviate, from the rational adoration of the only
true God. Sir Wihiam Jones, with his reftored health, re-
fumed his fundions in the fupreme court of judicature, and
renewed tiie meetings of the fociety, interrupted by his ab-
fence. The fociely of fir William Jones was lb much valued
and fo'jjrht for, and he was fubjedt to fo many intrufions,
that, for the fake of enjoying the benefit of air and exercife,
and of piirfuing his htecary purfuits without interruption,
he made choice ot a refidence at Crifiinagur, where tlie foil
was dry, and the air pure. To the Afiatic Mifcellany, a pe-
riodical work undertaken at Calcutta in 1785, but alto-
vgether unconnefted with the Afiatic fociety, fir W. .Tones

■.contributed occafional cpmpofitions. Sir William, having
long propofed making an excurfion to Chatigan, tlie eaftern
limit of the Britifli dominions in Bengal, executed his dclign
after the recefs of the court in the beginning of 1786, and
repaired thither by fea. During his Ihort refidence at Cha-
tigan, he found leifurc, amidft oilier occupations, to perufe
twice the heroic poem of Ferdofi, the Homer of Perfia,
f u.ppofed to contain 60,000 couplets. But the work to which
his principal attention and labour were direCled, was a tranf-
lation of the Hindu and Mohammedan laws. Accordingly,
in one of his letters, he fays, " Sanfcrit and Arabic will
enable me to do this country more efiential fervice, than the
jiitroduftion of arts, (even if I fiiould be able to introduce
fhem,) by procuring an accurate digell of Hindu and Mo-

-liammedan laws, which the natives hold facred, and by whicK
both jufticc and policy require that they lliould be governed."
Accordingly, he addreffed a letter to the governor-general,
lord Cornwallis, on this fuVjeft. The marquis Cornwallis
confidered the accomplifiimenl of tlie propoied plan, as cal-
culated to refleft the higheft. honour on his adminiilration.
With this fantlion fir AV. Jones entered on tlte execution of
the work; and having carefully feleCted, from the moll
learned Hindus a id Mohammed.ans, a fufficient number of
perfons duly qualified for the tsfk of compilation, he traced
the plan of the digell, piefcribed its arrangement, and
pointed out the MSS. from which it was to be formed.
Although it is much to be regretted that fir W. Jones did
not live to tranflate the digeft of Hindu law, to the compi-
lation of which he had devoted fo much attention and la-
bour ; yet it is fatisfadlory to know, thiit his benevolent
intentions have not been difappointed, and that Mr. H. T.
Colebrooke, in the civil fervice of the Eaft India company
at Bengal, from motives of public fpirit, and a laudable
hope of diftinttion, has completed a tranliation of it with
an ability which does him the highell credit. Sir W. Jones
fuggeiled an improvement in the police at Calcutta, fo as to
render it more efficient, and more conformable to the Britidi
conftittnion. His fu /geilions were adopted in an applica-
tion to parliament, and confirmed by its fan£tion. The ap-
plication of fir W. was inceffant ; and after what he calls
his " feafoning," the ftate of his health allowed his devoting
fevcn hours a day for four or five months in the year to pro-
feflional engagements, and unremitted attention, during the
vacations, to a complete knowledge of India, which was to
be obtained only in the country itfelf, where it was his inten-
tion not to prolong his ftay beyond the laft year of the
eighteenth cenfy.ry. Among other literary occupations
which engaged his attention, he undertook the charge of
editing the elegant poem of Hatefi, on the unfortunate loves
of Laili and Majnon, an Arabian youth and priiicefs. He
publidied the book at his own expence, and appropriated
the profits of the fale to the relief of infolvent debtors in the
gaol at Calcutta. The bufinefs that was devolved upon him
asprefident of the fociety at Calcutta, and in confequence of
preparing the various excellent papers which he contributed
to it, will be more particularly noticed in our account of
that Soiiety. In the year 1789, fir William prefenledto the
public a tranflation of an ancient Indian drama, entitled
" Sacontala," or the "Fatal Ring," exhibiting a very pleaf-
ing and authentic pi£lure of old Hindu manners, and one of
the greateft curiofities that the literature of Afia had yet
brought to light. Calidas, the author of it, called by
fir W. the Shakfpeare of India, lived in tlie firft century
B. C and wrote feveral other dramas and poetical pieces.
The principal fonrces of amufement of v.-hich fir W. availed
himfelf, was the converfation of the Pundits, with whom he
talked freely, in tlie lan'guage of the gods (Sanfcrit), and
botany, in which latter lludy, if it may be fo called, he was
much nffided by lady Jones. Their evenings were generally
pafied together, and devoted to the perufal of the bell mo-
dern authors in the different languages of Europe. We
find, however, from feveral of his letters, that he felt
great anxiety concerning the debilitated- ftate of her
health, and that, painful as mulL be their mutual feparation,
he had engaged her promife to take her pafiage for Europe
in January 1793. Such was her affectionate attachment to
herhufband, that file remained in India in oppofition to the
advice of lier phyficians, though file could entertain no rea-
fonable expedlalion of recovering her health in the climate
of that country. It was finally fettled, however, that fhe
fljould return to England j and it was his determination to

follow

JONES.

follow her in the enfuing fearon, hoping at that period to
have difeharged his engagements with the government of
India, and intending to purfue Iiis refearches through Perfia
or China by a circuitous route, to his native country. Lady
Jones embarked in December 179J5. Soon after her depar-
ture, vix.. in the beginning of 1794, fir William Jones pnb-
liihed a tranflation of the Ordinances of Menu, comprifing
the Indian fyllem of duties, rchgious and civil. In this
work he had been hjng engaged from motives fimilar to
thofe which had indiici'd him to undertake tlie compilation
of the digeft ; -v:::. to aid the benevolent intentions of the
legidature of Gre;>t Britain, in fecuring to the natives of
India the admiiiifLration of juftice, to a certain extent,, by
tlieir own laws.

To thofe who entertain a juft fenfe of the importance of
the principles and the utility of the duties of religion, the fol-
lowing prayer, compofed by Ur W. Jones on tiie firil day of
the year 1782, about fifteen months before his embarkation
for India, and more tlian twelve years before his death, will

not be unacceptable: " F.ternal and incomprehenfible

Mind, who, by thy boundlefs potuer, before time beg;;';,
createdft innumerable ivorlds, for x}a.y glory, and iimumerable
orders of hsings for their happ'imfs, which thy infinite gooilmfs
prompted thee to delire, and thy infinite luifdom enabled
thee to know ! We, thy a:a!uns, vanifli into nothing before
thy fupreme majefty ; we hourly feel our lueahiefs ; we
daily bewail our vices; we continually acknowledge our folly ;
thee only we adore with awful veneration ; thee we tha[ik
with the mod fervent zeal ; thee we />j-cj/? v. ith aftonilhment
and raptare ; to x\\y power we humbly fubmit ; of tYiy gcod-
tie/s we devoutly implore protection ; on ihy ii':jdom we
firmly and cheerfully rely. Wc do but open our eyes, and
inftantly we perceive thy divine exiftence ; we do but exert
our reafon, and in a moment we difcover thy divine attributes;
but our eyes could not behold thy fphndour, nor could our
TO/«(i!f comprehend thy divine ejfince ; we yt? tliee on/y through
thy ftupendous and all-perfeCl worls ; we Inciu thee only by
that ray of facred light which it has pleafed thee to reveal.
Neverthelefs, if creatures too ignorant to conceive, and too
depraved to purfue, ihc meaiis of their ow« happinefs, may,
without prefumption, exprefi their wants to their Creator,
let us humbly fupp.'icate thee to remov? from us that e%'i/,
which thou hall permitted for a time to exift, that the u!l:-
nijie good o£ al\ maybe complete, and to fecure us from that
vice, which thou fuifereft to fpread fnares around us, that
the triumph of virtue may be more confpicuous. Irradiate^
our minds with all ufe/ul truth ; inltil into our hearts a fpirit
oi general benevolence ; give under/landing to the foolifii ; meek-
nefs to the proud ; temperance to the dilFolute ; fortitude to
the feeble-hearted ; hope to the defponding ; faith to the
unbelieving ; diligence to the llothful ; patience to thofe who
are in pain ; and thy celeflinl aid to thofe who are in danger:
comfort the ajjlicled ; relieve the diflrejjed ; fiipply the
hungry with falutary food ; and the thirjly with a plentiful
llrcara. Impute not our doubts to indifference, nor our
flo'Mnefs of belief to hardnefs of heart ; but be indulgent to our
imperfe3 nature, and fupply our imperfections by thy heavenly
favour. ' Suffer not, we anxioufly pray, fuller not op-
preffion to prevail over innocence, nor the might of the avenger
over the 'wenhiefs of the jufi.' Whenever we addrefs thee
in our relirement from the vanities of the world, if our
prayers are fooli/b, pity us ; if prefumptuous , pardon us ; if
acceptable to thee, grant them, all-po\i'err'ul God, grant them ;
and, as with oar living voice, and with cur dying lips, we
will exprefs our fubmiffion to thy decrees, adore thy provi-
dence, and blefs thy difpenfations ; fo in a.\ future ftates, to
which we reverently hope thy goodnefs will raife us, grant

that we may continue praifing, admiring, venerating, ■worfiip'
ping thee more and more, through luorlds without numbc'')
and ages without end.'" This prayer is undoubtedly tliC
effulion of a truly pious mind, imprefled with jull fentiments
of the Deity and of human nature ; and though it does not
exprefs any explicit faith in the doflrines of Chriftiaiiity,
thefe fenliments are fiich as rcafon and experience fuggell,
and fuch as revelation cxprefsly teaches us. It (hould alfo
be rccoUefted, that long before this prayer v.as written,
fir W. Jones had demonftratcd, as we have already obferved,
to his own fatisfadion, tliat Jefus was the Mediah pre-
dicted by the prophets. Wc have alfo farther evidence,
which no incredulity can conteft, of his firm belief in the
divine auth()rity of the fcriptures and divine miflion of Jefus
Chrift. Of the facred writings, he fays, in a palfage tran-
fcribed from his own MS. in his bible : " I have carefully
and regularly perufed thefe holy fcriptures, and am of opi-
nion, that the volume, independently of its divine origin,
contains more fublimity, purer morality, more important
hiftory, and finer ftrains of eloquence, than can be collected
from all other hooks, in whatever language they may have
been written." It would indeed be cndlefs to cite paffuges
from his writings, which demonltrate his fentiments on the
fubject of revelation, and at the fame time his earned fclici-
tude to imprefs his own belief on others. In this connexion
we cannot forbear tranfcribing a pall'age from the Memoirs
of his biographer, which do honour to his judgment and
his heart.

" In matters of eternal concern,'' fws lord Teignmouth,
" the authority of the highell human opinions has no claim
to be admitted, as a ground of belief; but it may, with the
ftriftell propiiety, be oppofed to that of men of inferior
learning and penetration ; and, whiKl the pious derive fatis-
faftion from the perufal of fentiments according with their
own, thofe who doubt or difbeheve, (hould be induced to
weigh, with candour and impartiality, arguments which
have produced convi&ion in the minds of the beil, the
wifeft, and the moil learned of mankind."

After the departure of lady Jones, " whofe focicty had
fweetened the tci! of application, and cheered his hours of
relaxation," fir William mixed more in promifeuous focicty;
" but his affe6tions were tranfportcd with her to his native
country," and, without doubt, led him to anticipate, with
an anxiety blended with deliglit, the period which he had
fixed in his own mind for leaving India, and reimwing his
intercourfe with her, and witli otlier fri;.nds. But Provi-
dence had otherwife determined. On the evening of the
2cth of April, or nearly about that date, in 179J., he pro-
longed his walk to a late hour ; in confecjuence of which he
complained of aguifli fymptoms ; but fc ling no alarm he
jocularly repeated an old adage ; " An ague in the fpiing
is medicine for a king." But his complaint, of which he
had no apprehenfion, was that which is common in Bengal,
viz. an inflammation in the liver. The medicines prefcribcd
by the phyfician who attended him, and who foon difcovered
the nature of his diforder, were adminiftered without cfft ft.
The progrefs of the difeafe was uncommonly rapid, and
terminated fatally on the 37th of .'\pril 1794. Kis biogra-
pher found him, on the moniing of that day, " lying on his
bed in a polhire of meditation ; and the only fymptom of
remaining life was a fmall degree of motion in the heart,
which after a few f-.-conds ceafed, and he expired without a
pang or groan. His bodily fuffering, from the comphicency
of his features and tlie eafe of his attitude, could not have
been fevere; and his mind mu!L have derived confohlion
from thofe fci'.rces where he h.-.d been in the habit of feeking
it, and where nlcne, Lj our lull moments, it can ever be

found."

JONES.

found." On the foUowmg day the funeral ceremony was oriental fubjefts difplay a tadc, which we feldom And in the
performed, «' with the honours due to his pubhc ilation ; writings of thofe who had preceded him m thefe tracts of
and the numerous attendance of the moll refpeftable Britilh hterature. 1 he language of Conllant.nople was alfo famihar
inhabitants of Calcutta evinced their forrovv for his lofs, and to hm ; and of the Clunefe charafters and tongue, he had
their refpeft for his memory."

The following epitapli, evidently intended for himfelf, was
written by fir William Jones, not long before his demife.
It difplays fome ftriking features of his charafter, refigna-
tion to the will of his Creator, love and good-will to man-
kind ; but it is modeftly filent upon his intclledual attain-

Here was depofited

the mortal part of a man,

who feared God, but not Death ;

and maintained independence,

but fought not riches ;

who tliought

none below him, but the bafe and unjuft,

none above him, but the wife and virtuous ;

who loved

his parents, kindred, friends, and country,

with an ardour

which was the chief fource of

all his pleafurcs and all his pains ;

and who, having devoted

his life to their fervice,

and to

the improvement of his mind,

refigned it calmly,

giving glory to his Creator,

wifhing peace on earth,

and v. ith

pood will to all creatures,

on the [Twenty-feveiilh ' day of [yipril']

in the year of our bklTed Redeemer

Onethoufand feven hundred [_and ninety -four

learned enough to enable him to tranilate an ode ofConfucius.
In the modern dialefts of Europe, French, Itahan, Spanifh,
Portuguefe, and German, he was thoroughly converfant,
and had perufed the moil admired writers in thole languages."
Tlie following tranfcript of a paper written by himfelf, will
inform us, how far his knowledge of languages extended ;

Languages-;
Eight languages ftudied critically ;

Englifti, Latin, French, Italian,

Greek, Arabic, Perfian, Sanfcrit.

Eight ftudied lefs pcrfeftly, but all intelligible with a die-*
tionary ;

Spanifh, Portuguefe, German, Runick,
Hebrew, Bengali, Hindi, Turkilh.

Twelve ftudied lefs perfeftly, but all attainable ;

Tibetian,
Ruffian,
Welih,

Pali,

Svriac,

Swedifh,

Phalavi,

Ethiopic,

Dutch,

Deri,

Coptic,
Chinefe.

Twenty-eight languages

In anotl'.er memorandum, he mentions having read a gram-
mar of the Ruffian and Welfli. The knowledge of lan-
g-iages, however, was, in fir W. Jones's eftimation, inferior
and fubordinate to other objefts. They were, in his pof-
feffion, the keys of univerlal literature and fcience, and
ferved, according to the ufe which he made of them, to un-
lock ftorehoufes of ancient and modern treafures, for the
amufement, inftru6lion, and general benefit of mankind. The
eleven difcourfes which he addrefied to the Afiatic fociety,
and to which we (hall have occafion to refer under future

By an unanimous vote of the Court of Direftcrs of the articles, are fpecimcns of the ufes to which he applied

Eaft India Company, it was refolved, that a monument to them.

his memory ftiould be ordered, for the purpofe of being " A mere catalogue of the writings of fir William Jones,"

ercftcd in St. Paul's cathedral, with a fuitable infcription ; fays his biographer, " would Ihew the extent and variety of

and that a ftatue of fir Wilham Jones fliould be prepared at his erudition ; a perufal of them will prove, that it was no

the expence of the company, and fent to Bengal, with lefs deep than mifcellaneous. Whatever topic he difcufles,

direftions for its being placed in a proper fituation there, iiis ideas flow with eafe and perfpicuity, his ftyle is always

A fociety of gentlemen in Bengal, who had received their clear and poliftied ; animated and forcible, when his fubjeft

education at Oxford, fubfcribed a fum to be given, as a requires it. His philological, botanical, philofophical, and

prize, for the beft dilTertation on hischarafter and merits, by chronological difquifitions, hishiftorical refearches, and even

any of the ftudents of that univerfity ; and the premium his Perfian grammar, whilft they fix the curiofity and atten-

was adjudged to Mr. Henry Philpotts, A. M. Fellow of tion of the reader, by the novelty, depth, or importance of

Magdalen college. Lady Jones teftified her affedlion for the knowledge difplayed in them, always delight by ele-

fir William, and her defire to perpetuate his fame, by an
elegant monument erefted, at her expence, in the anti-cham-
ber of Univerfity college, Oxford, and by the publication
of liis works in an elegant edition of fix 4to. volumes ; thus
ftri£lly conforming to his opinion, that « the beft monument
that can be eredled to a man of literary talents, is a good
edition of his works."

" In the fliort fpace of 47 years," fays his biographer,
" by the exertion of rare intelleftual talents, he acquired a
knowledge of arts, fciences, and languages, which has
feldom been equalled, and fcarcely, if ever, furpafied."
Without confidering him as a competitor in Grecian litera-
ture with a Porfon or a Parr, he deferves to be ranked high
among claflical fcholars ; and " as a philologift, he could
boaft an univerfality in which he had no rival. His fi<ill in
the idioms of India, Perfia, and Arabia, has perhaps never
been equalled by any European ; and his compofitions on

gance of diclion. His compofitions are never dry, tedious,
nor difgufting ; and literature and fcience come from his
hands, adorned with all their grace and beauty. No writer,
perhaps, ever difplayed fo much learning, with fo little af-
feftation of it." With regard to his law publications, it is
faid, that his "EITayon Bailements" was fanftioned by
the approbation of lord Mansfield ; and all his writings in
this department fliew, that he had thoroughly ftudied the
principles of law as a fcience. As to his opinion of the
Britifii conftltution, it appears from repeated declarations
that occur in his letters, and particularly in his icth dif.
courfe, delivered to the Afiatic fociety in 1793, that he
confidered it as the nobleft and moft perfeft that ever wa*
formed. With regard to his political principles, he was an
enlightened and decided friend to civil and religious liberty.
Like many otiiers of the fame principles, he entertained a fa<
vourable opinion of the French revolution at its commence-
ment.

JONES.

-ment, and widied fiicccfs to the exeriions ef that nation for
"theeftabliflinient of a free conditution ; hut fiibfequenl eventa

-tnnd have given him new views, not fo much of the prin-

ciples on which the revohition was fcuniied, as of the

Mleafures which have been adopted by fome of its zealous

partizanB. To hberty, indeed, liis attachment was cnthu-

iialHc, and he never fpeaks of tyranny or opprcffion, but in

the language of deteflation. He dreaded, and widicd to

i-eftrain every encroachment on Hberty ; and though he never

enhfted under the banners of any party, he always concurred

in judgment and exertion with thofe who wifhed to render
■pure and permanent the conditution of his country. With

this view he was a zealous advocate for a reformation in the

reprefentation of the country, as the only means of rcRoring

the balance of the conftitution, and in one of his letters to
-lord Alihorp, he exprefsly declares, that " on the popular
•part of every government depend its real force, the obliga-
iion of its laws, its welfare, its fecurity, its permanence."

The laft political publication of fir W. .Tones is prior to the
■year 178J.

As a judge in India, his condutl was firidly conformable

to the profelTions which he made in his firft charge to the
grand jury at Calcutta. " On the bench he was laborious,
patient, and difcriminating ; his charges to the grand jury,
'which do not exceed fix, exhibit a veneration for the laws of
his country ; a juft and fpirited encomium on the trial by Befides the iinillied produttions of fir William Jones's
jury, as the grcatell and moil invaluable right derived from flcill and labour, he had contemplated nwny more than he had
them to the fubjeft ; adeteftation of crimes, combined with executed : and for this realbn, as well as many others, wc
mercy to the offender ; occafional elucidations of the law ; cannot forbear regretting his premature death,
and the ftrongeft feelings of htimanity and benevolence. It is needlefs to add any thing in commendation of his
His knowledge of the Sanfcrit and Arabic eminently qua> private and fecial virtues, The independence of his inte.
lifted him for the adminiftration of juftice in the fupreme grity, his probity and humanity, and alfo his univerfal phi-
court, by enabling him to deteft mifreprefentations of the lanthropy and benevolence, are acknowledged by all who
Hindu or Mohammedan laws, and to correft impofitions in knew him. The compiler of this article joins with many
the form of adminillering o;..ths to the followers of Brahma others in a grateful and refpeflful remembrance of hii dif-
snd Mohammed. The inflexible integrity with which he pofition to perform adls of kindnefs ; and he has reafons,
difcharged the folemn duty of this ftation will long be re- peculiar to hirafelf, for regretting his premature death. In
tnernbered in Calcutta, both by Europeans and natives. every domeilic relation, as a fon, a brother, and a hufbar.d,

Having through life directed hia attention to various he was attentive to every ditlate of love, and to every obli-
branches of liter,iture and fcience, in all which he had made gation of dv:ty. In his intercourie vvitli the Indian natives,
confiderable proficiency, his lail and favourite purfuit was he was condefccnding and conciliatory ; liberally rewarding
the ftudy of botany t and this conftituted the principal thofe who afiifted him, and treating his dependents as friends,
amufement of his leifure hours. His biographer records the following anecdote of a cir-

It might naturally be inquired by what arts or method cumftance that occun-ed after his demife : " the Pundits
he was enabled to attain that exti^aordinary degree of know- who were in the habit of attending him, when I faw them at
led^e for which hejwas diftinguifiied. His faculties were natu- a public durlar, a few days after that melancholy event,
rally vigorous and Ihvngthened by exercife \ liis mcmorv, could neither reftrahi their tears for his lofs, nor find terms
as we have before obfervcl, was, from early hfe, fingularly to exprcfs their admiration at the wonderful progrcfs which

'« Sir William, you attempt, in vain,
By depth of reafon to maintain,
That all men's talents are the fame,
Andthey, not nature, are to blame.
Whate'er you fay, whate'er you write,
Proves your opponents in the r-ght.
Left genius fhould be ill-defiu'd
I term it your fuptr'wr niincf,
Hence to your friends lis plainly fiiewn.
You're ignorant of yourfeif alone."

Sir Wilii.im Jones's Anfwcr.
' Ah ! but too well, dear friend, I know
My fancy weak, my reafon llow,
My memory by art improv'J,
My rnind by bafelefs trifles mov'd.
Give me (tlnis high my pride I raife)
The ploughman's or the gardener's praifc,
With patient and unceafing toil.
To meliorate a ftubborn fuii,
And fay, (no higher meed I alk,)
With zeal hall thou perform'd thy talk.
Praife, of which virtuous minds may boall.
They bed confer, who merit moil."

tervcl, was,

retentive ; his emulation u-as ardent and unbounded

his perfeverance invincible. In India his ihidies bejjan

he had made, in the fcienccs which they profoffed." Upon
I'ith the whole, we may join with Dr. Parr, who knew his ta-
the dawn ; and, with the intermidion of profeiTional duties, lents and character, in applying to fir William Jones his own
were continued throughout the day. Another circnmftance, words : " It is happy for us that this man was born.' '
which has besn exemphfied in fome other inftances that Having attained, by the afP.duous exertion of his abilities,
wiight be mentioned, and which gave him peculiar advantage and in a courfe of ufeful fcrviee to hid country and man-
in the exercife of his talents, was " the regular allotment of kind, a high degree of reputation ; and by economy that did
his time to particular occupations, and a fcrupulous adhe- not encroach upon his beneficence, a liberal competence, he
rence to the didribution which he had fixed ;" fo that " all was prepared, one would have thought, at the age of 47
hisftudies were purfued without interruption or confufion." years, to enjoy dignity with independence. His plans, and ihe
With fir W. Jones it was a favourite opinion, " that all men objetis of his purfuit, in the profpeft of future life, were
are born with an equal capacity for improvement." Ac- various and extenfive ; and he would naturally indulge many
cordingly fir I. Newton modedly declared, " that if he had plcafing ideas in the vifcw of returning, at a fixed period, to
done tlie world any fervicc, it was due to nothing but in- his native country, and to beloved friends, who wonl.i
dudry and patient thought," Sir W. Jones having main- anxioully wiih for his arrival. Few pcrfons feonicd to be
tained the above-mentioned opinion in convcrfation with a mere capable of improving and enjoying prolonged life than
friend, Thomas I-av/, cfq. received the following unprcme- fir William Jones ; and few pcrfons feemed to be better prc-
-ditated reply ; pared for a more exalted date of progreffive improvement.

Vol. XIX. 3B and

JONES.

and of permanent felicity, than tliat to whicli the mod dif- ford, and in this feminary lie purfued the ufual ceiirfe
tinsTuirned and profperous tan attain within the regions ef of ttudies with unremitted diligence. Here he adopted
mortality. the Hiitchinfonian opinions in theology and natural phi-
We fhill clofe tliis article with obferving that lady Jones, lofophy. Mr. Jones was admitted to the degree of B. A. in
fince the demife of fir William, has prefented to the the year 1749, and was, in the fame year, admitted to
Royal Society a colietlion of MSS. Sanfcrit and Arabic, deacon's orders. In 1751, he was ordained priett, and in
w>.!ch tie reckoned i:ienimable, and alfo another large t7:;3, he publilhed his " Full Anfwcr to Bifliop Clayton's
colleflion of Eaftern MSS.; of -which a catalogue, com- EITay on Spirit..'' in which he cndeavonrcd to fupport the
piled by Mr. Wilkins, is inferted in the 13th volume of fnc caufe of orthodoxy by an appeal to the religion ardlearn-
Wiiliani Jones's Works, 8vo. ed. ing of heathen antiquity. His next work was entitled the
JON-ES, AV Thomas, lord chief ju (lice of the Common "Catholic DoiSlrine of the Trinity," which was favourably
Pleas in the reigns of Cliarles II. and James II., is cele- received by the orthodox party. He now eKgaged in a
brated for liis reply to the latter, who confulted him on his courfe of experiments v.ith the view^ of elucidating ai.d
difpcnfing power, and faid he could foon have twelve judges ellabliHiing his favourite theory. In this he was liberally
of his opinion : iir Thomas f.nfwered, •' Twelve judges you fupported by friends who fubfcribcd among themfelves
may pofiibly find, fir, but not twelve lawyers." He was very large fums to enable him to purchafe fuch an appa-
author of Repor;s. Granger. nilus as he flood in need of. The refult of his l?,bours
Jones, Jerkmiau, a learned Englilh non-conformift di- was "An Effay on the firft Principles of Natural Phi-
vine in the eighteenth century, is fuppofed to have been lofophy," publilhed in 1762. In the year 1764, he was
born about the year 169,^. It is not known where he re- prefented by archbifiiop Seeker with the vicarage of Be-
ccived his grammar learning, but he was, at an early age, t'.ierfden, in Kent. Here, to increafe his income, he under-
dii\inguii1ied for his prolicicnry in ufeful knowledge. He took the tuition of a few pupils, an office for which he
purfued his academical (Indies under the tuition of his un- was admirably qualified. In 1765, the archbifiiop preientod
cle, the Rev, Samuel Jones of Tewkfbury, in Glouceflerfhire, him to the reitory of Pluckley, where he continued his
from wliofe feminary many pupilb were fent into the world, plan of education, and at the fame time difcharged the
who became diiiinguitlied for their literature or rank in life, padoral duties with exemplary zeal and diligence. In the
Am.ong thefe were Butler, afterwards bi(hop of Durham; year 1769, he publiOied "A Letter to a Young Gentle-
Seeker, afterwards archbifhop of Canterbury ; and Samuel man at Oxford, intended for Holy Orders, containing fome
Chandler, minillcr of the Old Jewiy meeting-houfe. When feafonable Cautions againft Errors in Do£frine.'' From
Mr. Jone.i had liuifhed his courfe of academical learning, he this time, to the year 1781, he publi(hcd feveral other
fettled witli a congregation of Proteftant DiiTenters at pieces, chiefly theological, and in the latter year he gave
Avening, in Glouceiterlliire. He obtained a high charafter the world his " Phy(iological Difquifitions, or Difcourfes

for found and very extenfive learning ; and he was popular

g the Natural Fhilofophy of the Elements." This

a preacher. Though a hard ftudent and a profound work contains much inftruftive, and much fanciful matter,

fcholar his manners were not fevere or forbidding : he would
elax from his (ludies and join a party in his neighbour.

mgenioufly applied in an attempt to inveltigate the caufes of
things, and to conftrutt a theory of nature on the principles
hood in theexercife of bowls. He died in 1724, when he of the author's favourite fyllem. His next publication was
was only in his thirty-firft year. During his life he pub- theological; it confided of leftures on the iigurative lan-
lilhed " A Vindication of the former Part of St. Matthew's guage of the Holy Scriptures, and the interpretation of
Gofpel, (XC." But his mod valuable and important work, it from the Scripture itfclf. This was pubhfted in 1788,
which he had prepared for the prefs before his death, but and, in 1790, he gave the public two volumes of fermons
which was not publilhed till the year 1726, was his " New on moral and rehgious fubjefts, which include difcourfes
and full Method of fettling the Canonical Authority of the on natural hidory, delivered at an annual lecture at Shore-
N'ew Tedament." The works of Mr. Jones remain as ditch church, oi which the
monuments of his learning, ingenuity, and indefatigable iii-

dufiry, and would have done credit to the affiduity and
ability of a literary man of fixty. They were become

preacner is appointed by the
Royal Society. In the year 1792 he employed his pen in
the fervice of pohtics, and printed a two-penny pam.phlct,
entitled " A Letter from Thomas Bull to his Brother John,

exceedingly fcarce, and bore a very high price, when, about which was mod indudrioufly circulated throughout the king-
ten years finrc, the cundudlors of the Clarendon prefs dom by the friends of adminidration. Mr. Jones attempted
republinied them. " Mr. Jones,'' obferves Dr. Maltby, to form a fociety " for the reformation of principles," but it
" has brought together, whh uncommon diligence and judg- did not fucceed : he was the founder of the periodical publi-
mcnt, the external evidence for the authenticity of the ca- cation entitled the " Britifh Critic,'' and he edited a collcc-
nonical books ; and he has, with equal ability and fairnefs, tion of trafts in two volumes, which had been originally pub-
flated his reafons for deciding againd the apocryphal." liftied by Mr. Law, Mr. Norris, Dr. Home, and others.
Had his life been fpared, Mr. Jones would have drawn This work was entitled " The Scholar armed againd the
u:i another and didinft volume on the apodolical fathers. Errors of the Time, or a Colleftion of Trafts on the Princi-
Monthly Magazine. piss and Evidences of Chridianity, the Conditulion of the
JoNKS, William, a worthy clergyman of the church of Charch, and Authority of civil Government." In 1795 he
England, was born at Lowick, in Northamptonfliire, in publinied"Memoiisof the Life, Studies, and Writings of the
the year 1726. He laid a good foundation of grammar Right Reverend George Home, DD. late lord bilhop of Nor-
learniug in the country, and when he was of a proper wich," to the fecond edition of which he prefixed a concife
r.ge he was admitted a fcholar at the Charter-Houfe in expofilion of Mr. Hutchinfon's leading theological and phi-
London, where he made a rapid progrefs in the Latin aid lofophical opinions. His lad publication was " A Dif-
G reek languages, and at the fame time (hewed a turn courfe on the Ufe and Intention of fome remarkable Palfages
for philofophical purfuits. When he was about eighteen of Scripture, &c." Siiortly after this, he fuffercd nioil
years of age, he was entered «f Uuiverfity college, Ox- feverely £i-om a paralytic feiziirc.whichat length, in February

1800,

J O N

I Roo, put an end to his life in the feventy-fourth year of Lis
age. Mr. Jones's learning was very rerpe<£lable, his attacl\-
nieiit to truth was zealous and ardent, and his moral conduft
highly exemplary. He delighted in doing good, and was a
vigilant and afFedtionate paftor. He was. in addition to his
other learning, a proficient in muiic, and compofed ten
church-pieces for the organ, and four anlliems, wliicli have
been much admired. His works have been piiblifhed in
12 vols. 8vo. See Gentleman's Magazine for iSoo.

Jones, Paul, a naval adventurer, was a native of Selkirk,
in Scotland, but fettling in America, he obtained, in 1775,
the command of a fliip under commodore Hopkins, and dif-
tinguiflied himfelf in feveral engagements, on which account
he received a captain's commifiion. He then failed to
France, and being well acquainted with the coaft of Ireland,
and the northern part of England, lie conceived the defign of
eSeding a defcenC. He accordingly landed at Whitehaven,
and did confiderable mifchief tliere. He afterwards failed
for Scotland, where he landed on the ellate of tlie earl of Sel-
kirk, and plundered his lord(hip"s houfe of all the plate : he
next took the Drake floop of war, with which he \\ent to
Brell After this he failed round Ireland to the North fea,
with three fliips, t;s. the Richard, Pallas, and Vengeance.
Having committed great miichief on that coaft, he fell in with
the Baltic fleet, convoyed by the Serapis frigate, and an-
other armed veffel, both of which he captured off Flam-
borough-head. For thefe fervices the king of France con-
ferred on him the order of merit, and gave him a gold-hiked
f«ord. We hear no more of his exploits after the conclu-
fion of the American war. He died at Paris in 1792.
Mjnthly Mag.

Jones, in Geography, a county of North Carolina, in
Newbern diftritt, bounded N. by Craven, and well watered
by the river Trent and its tributary llreams. It contains 4241
free inhabitants, and 1899 flaves. Its chief town is Tren-
ton.

Jones, St., a town of America, in Kent county, Dela-
ware, contaming ijS6 inhabitnnts.

Jones's Creek, a river of Pennfylvania, which runs into
the Delaware. N. lat. 40 j8'. W. long. 7,' i j'.

JosEs'a I/liinef, an iiland m Hudfon's bay. N. lat. 61''
52'. W. long. 63 \

JoNE.s"s Key, a Imall ifland in the Spanilh Main, near the
Mofquito (hore, furrounded with rocks. N. lat. 15' 35'.
W. long. 82" 27'.

Jones's Town, in Pennfylvania. See WlLLr,\MSBURr..

JONESBOROUGH, a polt-town of America, and
chief town of Walhington diilritt, in Teneflee, and alio the
feat of the diltrid and county courts, 26 mile? from Greenville
and 40 from Abingdon, in Virginia. — Alfo, the chief and
poft-town of Camden county, Edenton dillrict. North Ca-
rolina ; containing a court -lioufe and a few dwelling honles.

JONESIA, in Botany, is a genus dedicated by Dr.
Roxburgh to the memory of the celebi-nted fir William Jones,
who, amongll the varied and imrivalled accomplifliments
he attained in almoft ever)' department of fcience, was by
ro means unllcilled in botanical refearches. Roxb. A fiat.
Refearches, v. 4. .35J. Wiild. Sp. PI. v. 2. 287. (Asjogam ;
Hort. Malabar, v. 5. 117. t. 59.) Clafs and order. Hep-
tanilria Mono^ynia. Nat. Ord ?

Elf. Ch. Calyx of two leaves. Corolla funncl-lhaped,
with a clofed, fleihy tube ; limb four-c'eft. Neftary a little
ring bearing the ftamens, infertcd into the throat of the tube
of the corolla. Germen pedicellated. Pod-fhaped like a
cymitar, turgid, containing from four to eight feeds.

I. i.pmnala. Willd. (J. Aloca ; Roxb. Afiat. Re-
fearches, V. 4. 3JJ.) A native of the Eail Indies. — This

J O N

tree rifes to the height of about i j feet. Root whitilh, civ
vered with a blackifli bark, inodorou.-s, fumly fixed in the
ground and fpreading by means of numerous fibres. Lcai'cs
alternate, unequally pinnate, confilUng of from four to iiic
pair of oblong-lanceoiato, imooth, Ihining, (Irong leaflets.
Floivers making a denfe cyme, odorous, of a fine yellowr
colour. Stamens long and flender, of a be.uiliful lliining
red, with dark purple tops. Style grcenifli-white, v.-itli a
round tip.

We have feen a beautiful fpccimen of this plant which was
gathered and preferved by lord Valentia in his Travcli
through India; and this authorizes us to fay that the yljo^am
of the Horttis Miilabar'tctis is a molt corretl delineation of
our Jonefia. It is found in gardens about Calcutta, wl:erc
it grows to be a very handfome tree. The plants and feeds
were originally brought from the interior of the country,
where it is indigenous.

JONGLEURS, mnficians, players on inllniments, in
the infancy of French poetry, who attached thcnifelves to
the troubadours or provincial poets.

The hiilory of the French theatre informs us tha' a kind
of merry-andrews were thus called that accompanied the
troubadours, who began to flourilli about the beginning of
the eleventh century. The term jongleur feems to be a cor-
ruption 6f the Latin wovA joculator, in Yvench joueur, and in
Englifli player on an inftrumer.t. Mention is made of the
jongleurs from the time of the emperor Henry II., who died
in 1056. As they played upon different inftruments, thoy
affociated with the troubadours and fingers, to execute tiie
works of tiie firft, and thus, in their company they gained
admiffioii into the palaces of kings and princes, and drew
from them magnificent prefcnts. Some time after the death
of Joan I. queen of Naples and Sicily, and countefs of
Provence, which happened 1382, all thofeof the profefiion
of troubadours and jongleurs, feparated into two difierent
clalTes of acfors. Some, under the ancient name of trouba-
dours, joined finging to inftruments, or the recitation of
voices ; others limply took the name of players, or jociilators,
as they were named in their certificates.

About the year 1330, the minflrels of Paris, including
the jongleurs, formed thcralelves into a company, and ob-
tained a charter. The police frequently icpiefled their li-
centioufnefs, and regulated their conduft ; PhiHp Augullus
banilhed them the firil year of his reign ; but tliey \vei"e re-
called by his fucceflbrs, and united under the general name
of mt-nejlraudie, minftrelfy ; having a chief appointed over
them, who was called king of the minjlrcls. Lewis IX. ex-
empted them from a tariff or toll at the entrance into Paris,
on condition that they would fing a fong and make their
monkies dance to the tollman, perhaps to prove their title
to fuch indulgence : and hence arofe the well-knowp pro-
verb : Payer en gambades el en monndie dejinge. \

The affociated minftrcls inhabited a particular ftreet, to
which they gave the name, which it ftill retains, of St. Julien
dts Menejlriers. It was here that the public was provided
with njulicians for weddings and parties of pleafure ; but
as a greater number of them ufually attended on fuch occa-
fions than were ordered, and all ex[)cScd to be paid the fame
price, William dc Germont, provoil of Paris, in 1331 pro-
hibited the jongleurs and jonglerelTes from going to thole who
required their performance in greater numbers than had been
ftipulated, upon a fevere penalty. In 1395 theirJiberlinifm
and immoralities again incurred the cenfure of Government,
by which it was ftri ily enjoined that they fhouldnenceforth,
neither in public nor private, fpcak, aft, or fing any thing
that was indecorous or unfit for modell eyes and ears, upon
3 B 3 puiu

I O N

pain of two months imprifonment, sndliving on bread and
water.

Though the word minfrcl. in Enghth.is confined toftroU-
ing muficians, players on inftruments ; yet the term jongleur,
in old French, included buffoons, fortune-tellers, flight of
hand, tumblers, &c. befides violart, or performers on the
yjolle or viol j ju^l/irs, or flute players ; mufars, or players
on other inftruments ; canitques, or comedians.

All thefe, at laft, afTumed the name of jongleurs, as the
moft anqjent, and the women who followed this profcflion
were denominated jongleurciTes. They fettled at Paris in
«ne particulair llreet, which thence was called " la rue des
iongleurs,'" and which is IHU called the llreet of " St. Ju-
lien dcs Mer.c-riers." In that ilrect people ufed to apply
for performers on feftiv.ils, and for parties of pleafure.

By an ordonnance of William of Clermont, provoft of
Paris, 14th Sept. 1395, the jongleurs were forbidden to
Utter, reprefent, or iing in public places, or elfewhere, any
thing that would occalion fcandal, on pain of fine and two
months jniprifonmciit. Since that time we hear no more
of them, except their dancing and performing tricks with
fwords and otb.er weapor,';. Thcfe were called *a.'a/or«, in
Er. balileurs, merry ^andrews ; and, at length, tumblers and
rope-dancers SceMlNSTKEL.

IONIA, in Ancient Geo^rnphy,SQ called from the Jonians,
who inhabited this part cf Alia Minor, was bounded on the
N. by jEolia ; on the W. by the JEgean and Icarian feas ;
on the S. by Caria ; and on the E. by Lydia and part of
Caria. It lies between the 37 th and 40th degrees of north
latitude, but its extent in longitude, which has not been ac-
curately determined, was inconfiderable. The moft remark-
able cities of Ionia were Phocaia, Smyrna, Clazomense,
Erythra;, Teos, Lebadus, Colophon, Ephefns, Priene, and
Miletus. The iflands of Chios and Samos were likewife in-
habited by the lonians, ^nd belonged to their confederacy.
S.:c the next article.

JONIANS, conftitiiteaclafsof people among thofe who
were the mofl celebrated of the Greeks. They derived
their origin from the Hellenes, who were fo called from Hel-
len, the fon of Deucalion, and who formed a fmall tribe in
Theflaly: and from Doms, .yEolus, and Ion, his more
remote defcendants, the Hellenes were difcriminated by the
names of Dorians, jEolians, and lonians. The name of
the latter was gradually loft in the more illuftrious ap-
pellation of Athenians, fettled in the lefs barren parts of
Attica. (See Attic.\ and Atiien-s.) When the Hera-
cHdae took pofteflion of the Peloponnefus, 80 3'ears after
the taking of Troy, B.C. 1 104, a lignal revolution took
place in feveral ftates of Greece ; and thofe tribes, which
occupied the iflands and coafts of Afia Minor, were either
expelled by their conquerors, or migrated to feek new fettle-
ments. Tlw .ff^olians were the firft of thefe emigrants, they
crofTed the Helle^ont 88 years after the taking of- Troy,
B.C. 1096, and eftablidied themfclves in the country, after,
wards called MoY\s or jTioha. According to Blair's table*
their migration took place before the return of the Hera».
clidae, in the year B C. ti24. (See Xolis.) Upon the
death of Codrus, B C. 1070, the monarchical form of go-
vernment was abohfticd in Athens, and fucceeded by the ad-
miniilration of Archons. Difiatisfied probably with this
change, Neleus and Androclus, younger fons of Codrus,
determined to leave their country. Accordingly being
joined by many refugee.!, and Athenian citizens, who com-
plained that Attica was too narrow and barren for maintain-
ing the incrcafing number of its inhabitants, failed to Afia
Minor, and, expelling the ancient inhabitants, feizcd the
ceulral. and nwft beauiifvd portion of the Alialic coalt.

I O N

Their colonies were gradually diffufed from the banks of the
Hermus to the promontory of Pofideion. They afterwards
took pofTeflion of Chios and Samos ; and all thefe countries
were united by the common name of Ionia, to denote that
the lonians compofed the moft numerous divifion of the
colony. The Ionic migration is fixed in Blair's tables at the
year B.C. 1044, 60 years after the return of the Hera-
chdae ; but others refer it to the year B.C. 1055. The laft
tribe which emigrated was that of the Dorians, who, in the
year B. C. 944, failed to the iflands of Rhodes and Crete,
already peopled by Doric tribes ; while others tranfported
themfclves to the peninfula of Caria, which, in honour of
their mother country, received the name of Doris. (See
Doris.) In confequence of tiiis eftabliihment, which was .
formed 240 years after the Trojan war, the weftern coaft of
Afia Minor was planted by the .^olians in the north, the
lonians in the middle, and the Dorians in the fouth. The
lonians, in particular, fettled in a country of great extent
and fertility, enjoyi.ng the moft dehcious chmate, and pe-
culiarly adapted to a commercial intercourfe with the moft
improved-nations of antiquity. Thus favoured, they filencly
flouriflied in peace and profperity, till tlieir growing num-
bers and wealth excited the avarice or jealoufy of th?
powers of Afia. I'hey were fuccelTively conquered by
the Lydians and Perfian?, but never thoroughly fubdued.
<< Having imbibed,'' fays Dr. Gillies (Hift. of Anc. Greece,
vol. I. chap. 3.) " the principles of European liberty,
they fpurned the yoke of Afiatic bondage. In their glo-
rious rtruggles to realTume the charecler of freemen, they
folicited and obtained the afiiftance of their Athenian an-
ceftors, and occafioned that memorable rivalftiip between the
Greeks and Perfians, which having lafted two centuries,
ended in the deftruction of the Perfian empire. In this
Hluilrious conteft, the firft fucceffes of the Greeks againft
enemies far more powerful, and incomparably more numerous
than themfelves,. infpired them with an enthuGafm of valour.
Their exploits merited not only praife but wonder; and
feemed fit fubjeds for that hiftorical romance, which, in the
progrefs of hterature, naturally fucceeds to epic poetry."
In procefs of time the lonians, poftelling tlie delightful"
country above-mentioned, together with the mouths of great
rivers, having before them convenient and capacious bar-
hours, and behind, the wealthy and populous nations of
Afia, whofe commerce they enjoyed and engrofled, attained
fuch early and rapid proiiciency in the art.i of navigation
and traffic, as raifed the cities of Miletus, Colophon, and
Phocaea, to an extraordinary pitch of opulence and grandeur.
Their population increafing with their profperity, they dif-
fufed new colonies every where around them. Having ob-
tained footing in Egypt, in the eighth century before Chrift,
they acquired, and thenceforth preferved, the cHclufive com-
merce of that ancient and powerful kingdom. Their terri-
tories, though in their greateft breadth comprcfled between
the fsa and the dominions of Lydia to the extent of fcarcely
forty miles, became not only fiourilhing in peace, but for-
midable in war. With the utraoft induTlry and perfeverance
they iinproved and ennobled the ufeful or elegant arts, which
they found already praftiied among the Phrygians and Ly-
dians. They incorporated the mufic of thofe nations with
their own. Their poetry far excelled whatever Pagan an.
tiquity could boaft moft precious. They rivalled the ikill of
their neighbours in moulding clay andcafting brafs. Thev
appear to have been the firft pe()i>le who made ftatues of
marble. The Doric and Ionic orders of architefture perpe.
tuale, in their names, the honour of their inventors. Paint,
ing was nrft reduced to rule, and pra6tiied with fiiccels
among the Greeks ; and we may be affured, that, durinj;
7 the

I O N

the feventh century before' Ciirift, the Icuiians furpafled all
their neighbours, and even the Phoeniciansj in the arts of
deliKn, lince the magnificent prcfents which the far-famed
oracle of Delphi received from ti;e oftentaiion or piety of
the Lydian kings, were chiefly the productions of Ionian ar-
tills. In tlie following century looia gave birth to philo-
fophy ; and both fcience and talle wltc difFufed from that
country over Greece, Italy, and Sicily. (Gillies, ubi fupra.)
Tlie lonians, however, foon degenerated from the valour of
their ancellors, and became a ruperllitious, effeminate, and
voluptuous people, infomuch that, in the time of Hero-
dotus, they were looked upon as quite unfit for any military
fervice. They a::d the Greek colonies fettled in Afia, en-
joyed their liberties, and hvcd, according to their own
laws, from the time of their migration in the reign of Crcc-
fus, king of Lydia, to whofe fuporior power they were
forced to fubmit, after having baffled all the attempts of his
yredecefibrs. Before Cyrus invaded Lower Afia, he ear.
iieftly intreatcd the lonians ( B. C. 547) to fliare the glory of
Ilia arms ; but having lived at eafe under the mild govern,
nient of Croefus, they preferred their allegiance to him be-
fore the friendiliip of another unknown mafter. Accord-
ingly they oppofed him when he tiift invaded Lydia, and re-
jeSed the advantageous propofals of that prince ; but after
the defeat of Croefus they fent ambaffadors to the conqueror,
offering fubmifiion upon the terms which had been formerly
granted them by Croefus. Cyrus having Iieard them with
attention, anfwered them by the following apologue : «' A
piper feeing numerous flioals of fifhes in the fea, and ima-
gining he might entice them afnore by liis mufic, began to
play ; but finding his hopes difappointed, he threw a net
into the water, and drew a great number to the laiid, When
he faw the fifn leaping on the ground, fince you would not
dance, faid he, to my pipe before, it is unneceifary for you
now to dance, fince I have ceafed to play.'' They now per.
ceived that if they would efcape the rigour of fervitude,
they mull owe their fafety to the ftrenuous exertions of a
brave defence, not to the clemency of Cyrus. The Lace-
damonians, to whom they applied, jntcrpofed in their be.
}ialf, and remonllrated with Cyrus againlt his defign of
fubduing tiie Afiatic Greeks; but without effeft. The
lonians nad previoufly formed a powerful confederacy with
the other Hates. Cyrus, having ordered Crcefua into cap-
tivity, was eager to return towards the Eaft to complete his
conquefts in Upper Afia ; and he committed the reduftion
of all the countries of Lower Afia to the flcill of his lieu-
tenant, Harpagus (B. C. 539 ) This general, in a few
months, completely e.secuted his commiflion, and made him-
felf mafter of all the countries in Lower Afia, poffeffed by
either Greeks or Barbarians, In tlie reign of Darius Hy-
ttafpea, they made an attempt to recover their ancient Uberty,
and maintained a war againft the whole power of the Per.
fian monarchy for fix years ; but tliey were conllvaiiied to
fubinit, and punifhed with great feverity for their pre.
fumption in endeavouring to regain their rights. The lo.
nians aflifled Xerxes in his expedition againll Athens with
JO.O fhips ; but they were perfiiadcd by Themillocles to
abandon the Perfians, and their flight contributed not a
little to the famous vitlory gained by the Athenians at Sa-
lamis. A fimilar expedient was recurred to at Mycale, fo
that few Perfians efcaped (laughter. The Lacedxmonians
were fo pleafed with their behaviour on this occafion, that
they propofed to tranfplant them out of Afia into Greece j
but they declined accepting the propofal. On the conclu-
fipn of the peace between the Greeks and Perfians, which
happened in the reign of Artaxerxcs, one of the article!

I O N

fworn to by both parties was, that all the Greek ftates of
Afia fliould be made free, and allowed to live accordip'^ to
their own laws. The lonians, thus delivered from the Per-
fian yoke, formed an alliance with the Athenians j but were
treated by them rather like fubjcas than allies. Their for-
tune was various ; at one time fubjed to the Perfians, and~
at another time revolting from them, till they were at lengtli
delivered by Alexander, who reftored all the Greeks in Afia
to the enjoyment of their ancient rights and privileges.
After the death of Alexander, they fell under the power of
the kings of Syria, till the Romans obliged Antiochus III.
furnanicd the Great, to grant the fame liberty to the Greek
colonies in Afia, which they had procured for the Greek
itates in Europe. On this occafion, moll of the free cities
entered into an alliance with Rome, and enjoyed that kind of
liberty which the Romans ufed to grant ; till they were
again brouglit under fubje6tion by the famous Mithridates,
king of Pontus, whom they joined againlt the Romans By
his order they maflacred, without diltindlion, all the Ro.
mans and Italians wjiom trade, or the falubriiy of the cli-
mate, had drawn into -Afia. Nor would they fuffer even
their famous temple of Diana to be an afylum to thole who
fled to it for refuge. Upon Sylla's arrival in Afia they
abandoned Mithridates, and declared for the Romans.
Sylla, having routed all the armies of Mi'hridates, and re-
duced all the LeiTer Afia, revenged 011 the Afiatics the
death of fo many thoufand Romans, whom they had inhu-
manly murdered in -compliance with the favage orders of
^■Iith^idates, by depriving them of their liberty, and laying
fuch heavy taxes and fines on their cities, £3 reduced them to
beggary. The city of EpheUis was treated with tha
greateft feverity ; Sylla liaving fullered his foldiers to liva
there at difcretioii, and obliged the inhabitants to pay every
officer 50 drachmas, and every foldier 16 d^iiarii ' a-day.
The whole fum v/hich the revolted cities of Afia paid Sylla,
amounted to 20,000 talerets, that is, three millions eight
hundred and feventy-five thoufand pounds^ llerling ; for the
raifing of which they were forced to fell not only their
moveables, but even a great part of tiieir lands. This was
a mod fatal blow to Afia; nor did tiie inhabitants ever
after recover their ancient fplendour, notwithllaading the
favour fliewn them by many of the emperors, under whofe
proteftion they enjoyed fome Ihevv of liberty. Gillies' 5
Hill, of Greece. Anc. Un. Hid. vol. vi.

IONIC OrpeR, an order oi /Jrchite^ure, which owes it^.
invention to the people of Ionia, and was firll employed in
the temple of Diana, at Ephefus. This order la an im- ■
provement upon the Doric ; tlie column is more flender nrd
graceful, and, according to Vitruvius, is intended to defcrib*
the delicate proportions of the female figure, as the Doric
indicates the ftronger characlerillics of tha male. This
idea, he fays, is preferved throughout its de<:Grations : the
capital havmg two fpirals, peculiar to this order, on either
fide, in imitation of ringlets of hair projc&ing from the
head J the cvmaiium indicates the loclcs changing over the
forehead; wliile the mouldings of the. bafe reprefent the
turn and fnapo of the fiioes worn .by.-.7omen in the age \vhen
the order wan invented. It» general appearance is fimple,
though graceful and majeltic >. and as forming a medium be.
tween the mafcuHne Doric and the virginal ilendernefs of
the Corinthian ; it has been, in figurative language, com.
pared to a fcdate matron in decent, rather thfin in rich
attire.

This order may be ufed in all places confecratcd to peace
and tr.nnqnillity s accordingly we meet with it in churches,
colleges,, and libraries ; and the anei»nli ufed it in temples

dedicated

IONIC ORDER.

dedicated to Diana, Juno, Apollo, Fortune, Concord, &c.
It may alfo be employed in palaces, halls of jullice, and pri-
vate lioufes.

In crefting the temple at Ephefus, the bold charafteriftics
of the original hut were omitted ; and initead of the tri-
glyphs and mutulcs of the Doric order, the more delicate
dentils of the Ionic were fubftituted. The omifiion of thcfe
large members obviates the difficulty experienced in the exe-
cution of the Doric in confined lituations, particularly in
internal angles.

The Ionic bafe, according to Vitruvius, confifts of a
torus and two fcotise, with aftragals between them. In the
Athenian Ionics, the bafe confifts of two tori, with a fcotia
or trochilus between them, and two fillets, each feparating
the fcotia from die torus above and below. The fillet above
the torus generally projefte as far as the extremity of the
upper torus, and tiie lower fillet beyond it. The fcotia is
very flat, and its lection forms an elliptic curve, joining the
fillet on each iide. The tori and fcotia are nearly of equal
heights. In the Ionic temple on the Illyfus, a bead and
fillet are employed above the upper torus, joining the fillet
to the fcape of the column. In this temple, and in that of
Ereftheus, the upper torus is fluted, except the lower part,
where it joins the upper furface of the fillet, which is pre-
ferved entire. The bafes of the antze of the latter temple are
alfo recefi'ed. In the temple of Minerva Pofias, the upper
fcotia is enriched with a guilloche, and the bafes of the antse
are ftriated, the flutes being feparated from each other by
two fmall cylindric mouldings of a quadrantal feftion, which
join each other at their convexities. This is the true Attic
bow, it was invented by the Athenians, and is the mod
favourite bafe both with the ancients and moderns, being
lighter in its upper part than the Ionic, more pleafing in its
contour, and elegant in its general appearance. The Romans
did not confine the ufe of this bafe to their Ionics, but very
frequently adopted it in the Corinthian and Compofite
orders. They, however, differed very much from the
Greeks in the proportions they afiigned to it; for they
always make th; upper torus of a lefs height than the lower
one, have both tori plain, and give the fcotia a much greater
concavity. Tiie bafes of the Ionic and Corinthian orders
en the Colifcum, the Ionic on the theatre of Marcellus, and
the temple of Portuna Virihsat Rome, have nearly the fame
proportions with thofe defcnbed by Vitruvius. In the
temples of Minerva Polias, at Priene, and of Apollo Didy-
majus, near Miletus, the Ionic bafes eonfiil of a large torus,
three pair of a'lragals, feparated by two fcotix inverted
towards each other ; the upper pair of allragals lying below
the torus. In the former temple the torus is elhptical, and
feparated from the fhaft by the intervention of an aftragal.
The under part of this torus is alfo fluted, and there is a flute
.cnt in the upp.er part near tlie bead. In the latter temple, the
upper torus is plain, of a femi-circular fedion, with a nar-
row fillet between each bead of every pair. The bafe of
the Afia'ic Ionics differ very little from that of Vitruvius,
except that they have the fcotias inverted towards each other,
whicli gives a greater variety m the profile than when both
ftand in the fame pofition. The lonians alfo fometimes ufed
. the Attic bafe, as may be feen in the temple of Bacchus, at
Teos.

T!ie Ionic (haft is fome'.imeB plain, but more frequently
/Iriafed into j^ flutes witli an equal number of fillets.

Tlie villiile is a diiUnguifliing feature in this order, and
is varioufly executed. In all tlie Athenian Ionics, and in
ill* temple of Minerva Polias, at Priene, the loner edge of
the .canal bctiyecn the volutes is formed into a graceful curve.

bending downwards, and coiling round the fpiral."! whieh
form the volutes. The volutes of the capitals of the tem-
ples of Minerva Polias, and of Erectheus at Athens, ex-
ceed every other remain of antiquity for fingularity and
beauty : each volute has a double channel, formed by two
diftinft fpiral borders, which leave between them a deep
recefs or groove, diminifliing gradually in its breadth till it
is entirely loft on the fide of the eye. In the former temple,
the fhaft is terminated with a fingle fillet below the lower
edges of the volutes ; and in the latter, with a fillet and
aitragal. In both, the Colorino is decorated with wood-
bines, formed alike in the alternate courfes, but differing in
the adjoining ones. The upper annular moulding of the
column is of a femi-circular feftion, embelliflied with a
guilloche. In the temple of Bacchus, at Teos, the great
theatre at Laodicea, and in all the Roman Ionics, the con-
netting channel of the volutes has no border on the lower
edge, but is terminated with a horizontal line, which falls a
tangent to the beginning of the fecond revolution of each
volute. When columns are given to the flanks as well as
the front of a building, the angular volute of the outfide
column is double, and made to face both the contiguous
fides of the building ; examples of which are to be met with
in the temples of Fortuna Virilis at Rome, of Minerva
Polias at Priene, of Bacchus at Teos, and of Ereclheus,
and the temple on tlie Illyfus, at Athens. Sometimes the
capitals of all the columns are made to face the four fides of
the abacus alike, as in the temple of Concord at Rome,
fiom which example the Scammozzian capital, as it is
called, was firll imitated by Michael Angelo, as may be
feen in the Confervatorium, embeiliflred by him with this
capital during the pontificate of Paul III. before Scam-
mozzi was known as an architeft.

Both Grecian and Roman Ionic capitals have the echinus,
aftragal, and fillet. The echinus is uniformly cut into eggs,
furrounded with borders, and tongues between every two
borders. The aftragal confiils of a row of beads, two large
and two fmall altei-nately. In all the Roman buildings, ex-
cept the Colifcum, thefe mouldings are cut alike, differing
only in the tafte of the foliage.

In the temple of the Illyfus, the architrave confifts of
one broad facia, crowned with a cymatium. The parts of
the cornice vifible in front are the corona, with its cyma-
tium and fima. The cymatium of the frieze is wrought
under the cornice, and confifts of a fima reverfa, and bead
below it. The height of the architrave is about two-fifths
of the entablature ; and by dividing the upper three-fifths
into five other parts, the plain part of the frieze will be fov.nd
to occupy three, and tlie cornice two parts. The archi-
traves of the temples of Erectheus and Minerva Polias at
Athens, confift of three facix and cymatium ; the cymatium
of the frieze being m.oftly wrought under the corona. Di-
vide the height of the entablature, from the bottom of the
lower facia to the top of the cymatium of the corona, into
19 parts, and the architrave, with the part of the frieze that
is feen, will be found to occupy 1 6, viz.. eight for the archi-
trave, and as many for the frieze ; the other three parts will
comprife the corona, including the larimer and cymatium.

In general, the height of the entablature may be two
diameters ; but in buildings requiring grandeur as well as
elegance, it fhould not be leis than a fourth.

The Afiatic Ionic diflers rnateriallv from the European
or Attic. lu t!ie former, moll of the rem:i)ns are without
the friezes, fo tluit the height of the entablatures canr.ot be
precifely determined, notwithllanding that the architraves
and cornices Isave been accurately meafured. In the great

theatre

I O N

tTieafre at I^aodicea, however, this order has a pulvinsted
frieze, whofe height is rather lefs than a fifth of that of tlie
whole entablature. In the temples of Bacchus at Teos,
and of Minerva Polias at Priene, the architraves are divided
into three facii bolow the cymatium. In all the Aliatic
fpccimens, the crowning moulding is a fii:ia refta, lefs in
projettion than in height ; the dentils are conllantly ufed,
and their height is about a mean proportion between that of
the fima redta and that of the larimer ; it being always
greater than the height of the larisner, and lefs than that of
the fima rcfta. The cymatium of the denticulated band
being wrought aimed entirely out of the foiTit of the corona,
recelfed upwards, its eltvation is almofl concealed from the
eye of the beholder. The height of the cornice, from the
top of the fima, to the lower edge of the dcntib, is about
equal to that of the architrave. The altitude of the fiieze,
exclufive of its cymatium, or upper mouldings, may be
taken at about a fourth of the whole entablature. To give
it a greater proportion, would make the entablature too
high for the colum.ns.

In the Ionic examples of Greece, there is a conftant ratio
between the upper part of the cornice, from the lower edge
of the corona upwards, and the height of the entablature,
which is nearly as two to nine. This is a very diftindl divi-
fion, occafioiied by the great rccefs of the moiddings under
the corona ; for wliith reafon the cornice is not reckoned
too ciumfy, though the whole denticulated band and cyma-
tium of the frieze be introduced below it ; and this feems to
be the c!;aradteri(l:ic difference between the European and
Asiatic Ionics. This order, as found in Ionia, is complete ;
while the fpecimens of Attica want the dentil band, though
in other refpefts they are very beautiful. But the mod ex-
quillte remains we have of this order, are to be found in the
temple of Minerva Polias at Priene, which, for beauty of
proportion and elegance of decoration, exceeds every other
ipecimen.

Plate XXVIII. exhibits a reprefentation with the propor-
tions of this magnificent example, the proportions being
marked upon the outline.

Plale I. exhibits iwfgs. I, 2, 4, y, different bafes applicable
to the Ionic orders, fig. i. from the temple of Jupiter Olym-
pius ; Jig. 2. from that of Minerva Polias, at Athens ; Jig. 4.
an Ionic bafe according to Vignola ;_^i>. 5, elevation of the
capital of the temple of Minerva Polias, at Athens. This
is perhaps the motl elegant fpecimen that is to be found of
the Ionic capital.

loxic Architrave, bafe, capital, corniche, entablature, freeze,
pedJlaL See the fubftantivcs.

ioxic Dialed, in Grammar, a manner of fpeakmg pecu-
liar to the people of Ionia.

At filft, it was the fame with the ancient Attic ; but
pafilng into Afia, it did not arrive at that delicacy and per-
fection to vihich tlte Athenians attained ; inflead of that
it rather degenerated in Afia Minor ; being corrupted by the
admiifion of foreign idioms.

In this dialect it was that Herodotus, Hippocrates, and
Galen wrote. See Dialkct.

Ionic Stfl was the firfl of the ancient feds of philofophers,
and was called the Ionic fchool.

The founder of this fe& was Thsrles, (fee his article,)
who, being a native of Miletus,. in I^i.ia, occafioncd his
fo lowers to affiimethc appeliation of Ionic.

It was the dilHnguilhing tenet of this feci, that water
was the principle of aU natural ihinga-.

This is what Pindar alludes to in the beginning of his
£i!l Olympic Ode.

BuL Thales could not mean to aiTert, that water is the

I O N

efllfientcaufc of the formation of bodies; but merely, tl.at
this is the element from which they are produced. It is not
improbable, that by "water,'' he meant to cxprcfs the
fame idea, which the Cofmogonifts exprcfTcd by the word
cliaos, the notion annexed to which was that of a turbid
and muddy mafs, from which ail things were produced.
(Sec CiiAo.s.) It has been much debated, whether Thales,
befides the palfive principle in nature, which he called water,
admitted an intelligent, elBcient caufe. Thofe who have
maintained the affirmative lay great ftiefs upon fundry apho-
rifms concerning God, which are afcribrd by the ancients to
this philofojjher, particularly the following j that God is
the moll ancient being, who has neither beginning nor end ;
that all things are full of God ; and that the world is the
beautiful work of God. They alfo allege the tcftimony
of Cicero, who fays, (De Nat. Deor. I i. c. 10.) that
Thales taught, that water is the firil principle of all things,
and that God is that mind which formed all things out of
water. Thofe who are of the contrary opinion, urge that
the ancients, and even Cicero himfelf, though not very con-
fidently, afcribe to Anaxagoras the Iionour of having firfl
reprefented God as the intelligent caufe of theuniverfe, and
they add that the evidence in favour of Thales reds only
upon traditional tcdimony, which n.ay be oppof^.-d by other
authorities. (Elem. Alex. Strom, l.'ii. p. 364. Aug de
Ca. Dei. 1. viii. c. 2. Eufeb. Prep. Evang. 1. i. c. 7 ).
The truth may probably be this ; that Thales, though he
did not exprefsly maintain an independent mind as the effi-
cient caufe of nature, admitted the ancient doctrine con-
cerning God, as the aniinatii.g principle or foul of the
world. Concerning the material uurld, Thales taught, th.t
night exided before day, which doftrine he prob:ib!y bor-
rowed from the Grecian theogonies, which placed Nu. l-',or
Chaos, among the fird divinities. He held that dar.-. ;;rc
fiery bodies ; that the moon is an opaque body illuminated
by the fun, and that the earth is a fplierical body, placed
in the middle of the univerfe. In mathematics, Thales is.
faid to have invented fevcral fundamen'al propofitions, which
were afterwards incorporated into the elements of Euclid ;
particularly the following theorems, <uis. that a circle is bi-
feded by its diameter ; that the angles at the bafe of an ifof-
ceies triangle are equal ; that the vertical angles of two in-
terfeding hues are equal; that, if two angles and one fide
of one triangle be equal to two angles and one fide of another
triangle, the remaining angles aud fides are refpedively
equal ; and that the angle in a femicircle is a right angle.
Of bis knowledge of the piiji.iples of menfuration, and
confequeiitly cf thedodrineof proportion, his indrudions
to the Egyptian prieds for finding the height of their pyra-
mids, are a fullicient proof. His method was this; at the
termination of the fliadow he ereded a HafFperpen 'icuiar to
the lurface of the earth ; and thus obtained two right-angled
triangles, which enabled him to infer the ratio of the height
of the pyramid to the length of its fhadow, from the ratio of
the height ofthedaiVto the length of its diadow. (Laert. 1. i.
§ 24, 25. 27. Proclus in Eudid. 1. i. Plin. Plift. Nat
1. xxxviii. c. 17.) Aftronomy, as well as mathematics,
feems to have received confiderableimprovcm.ent from Thales..
He was able to prcdid an eclipfe, though probably with no
great degree of accuracy as to the time; for Herodotus,
who relates ihis fad (1. i.), only fays, that he foretold the
year in whichit would happen. He taught the Greeks the
divifion of the heavens into five zones, and the folditial and
equinodial points, and approached fo near to the kr.ow-
ledge of the true length of the folar revolution, that he cor-
reded their c.ilcndar, and made their year to contain 365 .
dajs. The feeds of natural fcience,' which had been fown

1 0 N

hv Thales, the father of the Grecian philoi'ophy, verefuc
cefsfully cherillicd in their growth by Anaximandei'. He
w-m followed in the Ionic fchool by Anaxifflene3, AnaXa»
goras, Diogenes ApoUionetes, and Archelaus of MiletUB, who
may be confidered as the lall preceptor in the original Ionic
fchool. See the feveral biographical articles. Socrates ig
commonly reckoned to have been the difciple of Archelaiis.
He was himfelf the founder of a fchool j for an account of
wh.ich fee SocnATES and Sikratic Jc/ml. The inferior
fciSs in the Ionic fucceffion were tne Cyrettaic, the Megaric,
Bid the Eliac or Eretriac, Thofe of higher celebrity were
■the Jtademic and the Cynic, from which latter arofe the Pi'
1-ifieletic ami the 5/o/V, which was the laft branch of the Ionic
ichool. See each of thefe articles.

The Ionic philofophy, notwithflanding the celebrity of its
firft profeffors, foon failed in the Grecian fchools, and never
afterwards recovered it3 ancient reputation and authority.
This was owing to the fufpicion of impiety under which it
lay in Athens, to the early growth of new branches from the
Socralic Hock, and to the rife and fpreadof the Elc?ti." and
Epicurean philofophy. In later times, the univerfal preva-
lence of the Platonic and Ariftotelian fyftems precluded
every idea of reviving the phyfibiogy of the Ionic fchool,
till, in the 17th century, an attempt was made for this pur-
pofe by Berigard, but in a manner fo circumfpect and co-
vert, that this philofopher was commonly ranked among the
followers of Arillotle, and even fuppofed to be deep'y
tinftured with the impiety of his fyilem. Claud B;rig?.ru
was born at Molena in Spain in the year i^^i, R-'d (ludiod
firft at Aix, then at Paris, and afterwards at Pifa, where,
by the favour of the duke of Tut'cany, he was appointed
profeifor of mathematics and botany. His fame, which
Ipread through Italy, induced the republic of Venice, in the
year 1640, to appoint him, with a liberal ftipend, profelTor
of philofophy in Padua. Here he remained till his death in
1668. In the year 1632, he publifned, under a fiftitious
name, a work entitled'" Dubitationes in Dialogos Galilsei
de Terrae Immobilitate ;" but his principal work is his
" Circuli Pifani," in which he relates the difputations
which were held at Pifa, on the phyfical writings
of Ariftotle, and gives his own fentiments upon them.
Berigard, having perceived ciie folly of that imphcit
obL-Jience which had been long paid to the authority of
the ilagyrite, became a determined opponent of his phi-
lofophy, not openly, which would have been hazardous, but
in the indiredl and concealed method of dialogue. Adopting
the Ionic fyfteni, he framed a difputation between the
Ariilotelians ar.d Ionics, in which he made Ariftaus refute
the re.ifoning of Charileus, and fupport the doftrine of the
Ionic ichool, by an appeal to rxpe.rience, as v.ell as by
ni.iny ingenious arguments. However he faw, and confeffed,
that both the Peripatetic and Ionic fyllems were materially
defective, and in many particulars erroneous j and therefore
much incUnedto philofophical fceptieifm. Neverthilefs he
endeavoured to prove, that the followers of ThaleS ap-
proached nearer to truth than tjiofo of Arillotle, the dan-
gerous tendency of whofe tenets, in feveral particulars, he
clearly cxpofcd. Among the doftrines of the Ilagyrite,
thofe which he chiefly reprobatsd were the following, ^'iz.
<hat the world is eternal j that the refidence of the firft
mover is confined to the outer fphere of the univerfc j that
neither the world, nor any being, can properly be faid to
have been created ; and that there is or.e foul common to the
whole human fpeciei. In oppofi:ion to thefe opinions,
which Berigard rejeded as capital errors, from which many
others muit arife, he maintained the Ionic doftrine of the
.eternity of the primary particles of matter; of a forming

JO N

and preAding mind, by whofe agency thefe particles were
coUefled into diftincl bodies i and of the combination and
difperuon of thefe as conftituting the formation and d'fTolu-
tion of all things. In (liort, Berigard fesms to haveprepared
the way for the revival of the Atomic fyftem of Epicurus,
which v/a5, foon after this time, reftored and defended by
Gaffendi. Brucker's Hift. of Philof. by Enfield. Bayle.

loKic Ti'iitifmigrathn was heretofore a'celcbraled epocha,
which took its rife from the retreat of the Athenian colonies }
who, upon the death of Codrus, put themfelves under the
command of his fon Neleus, and eftabliflied the twelve
cities of Ionia in Afia.

Thofe colonies, according to Eratofthenes, were eftabliflied
fifty years after the return of the Heraclids ; and, according
to Marfham, feventy-feven years after the taking of Troy.
See Ionia.

Ionic, or loN-iAS MaJs, in the Anc'iinl Greets Mufu.
Th.e Ionian mode, reckoning from the grave to the acute,
wa-s the fecond of the five middle modes in the Grecian
fyftem. This mode was alfo called Jajliau, and EucUd ftill
terms it l\ie gfdw Phrygian mode. See Mode.

lONIS, in Surgery, a caibuncleof a violet colour.

JONKAKONDA, in Geography, a town of Africa, is
the kingdom, of Yani, on tlie N. fide of the Gambia, N.
lat. ty 37'. W. long, ly' yo'.

JONKI OPING, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Kmaland, beautifully iltuated between two fmall lakes, at
the fouthern extremity of the Wetter lake ; it is the capital
of the province, and the feat of the parliament or fuperior
court of juftice for the kingdom of Gothland. The town i»
two miles in circumference, and contains Jooo inhabitants \
the houfes are moftly of svood, covered with turf. This
town contains two fauxbourgs, three ciiurches, an arfenal,
and a mannfaclure of arms; ij6 miles S.W. of Stockholm.
N. lat. i;7 45'. E.long. ij*- yg'.

JONKS, or JoN'QUEs, in Ship Buihling, veiTols very cem*
mon in the Eaft Indies, about tlie bignefs of our fly-boats,
but differing in form of building, according to the variou*
methods of tlie nations in thofe parts. See Jt/KK.

JONOOL, in Geography, a town on tlie N.W. coail of
the iflandof Timor. S. lat. 8= jy'. E. long, uj t^'.

JONQUETIA, in BolMy, was fo called after Deni»
Jonquet, who, in the year 1665, publiftied the Hortus Regius
Parifmis, in folio. This catalogue contains about 4000
plants, of which indeed the greater part are only varieties 1
but amongft them are many Canadian and Alpine jilants.— •
Schreb. 308. Willd. Sp. Pi. v. 2. 750. Mart. Mi!U Diit.
v. 2. (Tapiru-a; Aubl. Guian. v. 1.470. — Tapiria, Juff.
372.) Clafs and oxAtt , De;cnJria Peiifagynia, ^fat. Ord.
Terehiniaceet, JufI',

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth of five, rounditli, deciduous
leaves. Cor, Petals five, roundifh, concave, fpreading,
longer than the calyx. Stam. Filaments ten, fliortcr than
the corolla, affixed to a gland ; anthers roundifli. Piji,
Germen five-fided, furrounded by a glandule ; ftyles none ;
lligmas five. Peric, Capfule fomewhat globular, roundiih,
fivc'fruitfcd, of one cell and five valves. Seeds five, ovatei
ai'illatcd, each afS.sed to the valves.

Ell'. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petah five. Capfule fub.
globular, of One cell, five valves, and five arillated feeds.

1. i . paniculdtA, Willd. (J. guianenfis ; Mart.— Tapirira
guianenlis; Aubl. Guian. t. 188.)— A native of woods in
Guiana, where it flowers in November., and brings forth
fruit in April. It is there called Tapiriri.— This tree rife*
to the height of fifty feet, has a fmooth \\\^<i\.hark, and a
white uncompacl nuaod. Lea'oci alternate, unequally pii>-
4iate i confifting of four or five p.m ^>f fmooth, thin,

€i!tJre,

J O N

entire, oval, pointed leaflets. Flowirs fmall, numerous,
white, axillary, and terminating in large, wide, fcattcred
panicles.

JONTQmL. See Naucissi's.

-JOXvSAC, in Gcn;rraphy, a town of France, and prin-
cipal place of a dillrict, in the department of the Lower
Charente; nini miles S.S.E. of Po;)s. The place contains
2,09, and the canton lug+i inhabitants, on a territory of
1871 kiliometres, in 20 communes.

JONSBERG, a town of Sweden, in Eall Gothland,
near the coall of the Baltic ; 22 miles E. of Nordkioping.

JONSON, or Johnson, Bekjamin, in B'lo^nxpby, an
F-nglilh poet, was born, in 157.J, at Weilminllcr, abont a
month after liis father's death. He was educated at Weft-
minder fchool under the learned Camden, and had made
great progrefs in his ftudies, when his mother, who had mar-
ried a bricklayer for a fecond hniliand, took him from
fchool to work under his father-in-law. From this employ-
ment he efcaped, cnlilled for a coir.mon foldier, and ferved
in the army, contending with the Spaniards in the Nether-
lands. On his return from a fervice in wliich he had gained
much reputation, he entered himfeif at St. John's college,
Cambridge ; hut the ftate of his finances obliged him foon
to quit this relidence. He next attempted the profeffion of
an attor on the ftage, but his talents were but ill adapted
to this bulinefs ; and from the life of an aclor lie iMidertook
the more arduous taik of dramatic writing. He was pa-
tronized by the immortal Shakfpeare. The firll piece
which Jonfon printed was " Every Man in his Humour,"
aCled in 1598; his fuccefs in this eflbrt led him to furnidi
a play yearly, till his time was occupied by the compofuion
of the mal'ques, &c. with which the acceflion of king
James was celebrated. In 1609, he produced his " Epi-
cene, or Silent Woman," which is accounted the moil per-
fect of his comedies ; and in the following year " The
Alchemiit" was performed with great applaufe. So induf-
trioiis had his Mufe been, that in 1616 he publiftied a folio
volume of his works, and in the fame year lie received a
grant from the king of tlie falary of poet-laurcat for life ;
the ofRce being at that time occupied by another, but to
the duties of wiiich Jonfon fuccecded in 1619. He con-
tinued to write for tiie court and ftage, but, in 1629, one of
his comedies was hilTed oil. the ftage. From this time he
fell into necefiitous circumilances, owin,j as well to the
negligence of his difpoiition, as to his fondnefs for con-
vivial fociety. It has been alTerted, that king Charles I.
hearing of his diftrefs, lent him ten pounds, a prefent very
unfuitable to the means of a great monarch, and which t!ie
.poet received with an ill grace : the faft has, however,
been doubted, becaufe in Jonfon's works is to be found an
epigram, " To king Charles for an hundred pounds he fent
me in my ficknefs, 1629." From this period the powers
of his mind and body feemed to droop together, and his
later produftions are but mendicant poems iiddrefled to
differe.it patrons. He died in 16J7, at the age of fixty-
three. He was interred in Weilminfter Abbey, and the
infcription " O rare Ben Jonfon" was placed over his grave.
This fhort feiitcnce fiiews in what eiUmation his talents had
been held. He had indeed been regarded as at the head of
Englilh poetry, and was addrefled by the wits with the
reverential title of " Father Ben." The bufl that nov/
marks his place in Weftminfter Abbey, was put up by the
fecond earl of Oxford. The fame of Jonfon is principally
founded up >ii his comedies, which were for a long time
reckoned the mod perfect in the Engliili language : but
tliey have gradually difappeared from the ftage. It is now
generally admitted that liis exctlienee was cur.iprifcd within
VoL.'XIX.

J o P

narrow limits, aiid chiefly coiififted in the prefcrvation of
the unities and tiie (kilful management of the plot, but he
was defettive in almoll every thing which makes comedy
plcafant. " As a general poet, Jonfon is for the moll part
liarfli, frigid, and tedious, perpetually in purfuit of fome
uncommon thought, which he wants tafte and genius to
render ftrikingand agreeable." Biog. Brit.
JONTHl.ASPI, m Botany. Sec Clypeola.
JONTHOS, ;V,;(,., in Medicine, fignilics fmall inflamed
tumours, or pimples, which occur in the face. It was
trandaled varus by the Latins, which term they alfo ap-
plied to the acne of the Greeks. 1'he ionthi, or vari,
according to Sauvages, " are thofe fmall, red, hard, and
obftinate tumours, which fcarcely ever fuppurate, do not
itch, are not painful, and only appear in the face." He
cop.liders them as of the fame nature with the Gutta rofai.

JOOD-BOOD.ANG, in Geography, a town on the W.
coaft of the iftand of Celebes. S. lat. l" 39'. E. long.
119 21'.

JOODPOUR, a circar of Hindooftan, being one of tli;.*
three great principalities into which Rajpootana is divided.
It was alio named Marwar. In Acbar's diviuon of the
empire, thefe principahties were clafled as belonging to the
foubah of Agimere, which is fometimes called Marwar.
Tiiis principality lies to the N. W., bordering angularly on
the other twu, -cl-z. Oudipour and Jyenagur. The revenue-v
are Hated to have been, in 17)9, 40 lacks of rupees. Thi.s,
as well as Oudipour, is very mountainous, with a fandy foil
in the vallies. (See Rajpootaxa.) — .Alfo, a town in ths'
above circar, in the country of Agimere ; 85 miles W.S.W.
of Agimere. N. ht. 26 7'. E. long. 73- 48'.

JOOGD ANPOUR, a town of Bengal ; 16 miles N.W.
of Kiflienagur.

JOOGDYA, a town of Bengal; 70 miles S. E. of
Dacca.

JOOKY, a town of Bengal ; 14 miles N.E. of Bogli-
pour.

JOOSTLAND, St., a fmall ifland of Holland, fepa-
rated from the iiland of Walcheren, by a narrow clianncl,
and containing one village.

J00T6I-SIMA, or J.AOTSIMA, two fmall iflands of
Japan, near the N. eoaft of Niphon. N. lat. 37 56'. E.
long 137- jo'.

lOPiEAN, among the ancients, an exclamation ufed on
account of a viftory, or forae profperous event. Hofthian
thinks that lo Pxfin is a contraclion of the Hebrew Jua,
from Jehovah, and nj^, nfpexit ; and was the fame with'
J.htjvah Penoch, i.e. Dominus ' rejpiciat ht-noi. Something
like this exclamation dill remains among the Synx-rones, a
people of the Weft Indies, who, on any joyful 6'ccaiian,
frequently cry out 2'o Peho.

JOPPA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Pha:nicia,.fitu-
ated at the foiithern extremity of the plain of Saron, on a
high liill, which commanded a full profpeft of the fea on
one fide, and of a fertile country on the other. It had tlie
town of Jamnia on the S. ; Cxfarea Paleilina on the N. ; and
Rama, or Ramula, on the E. ; and it is often mentioned both
in the Old and New Teftament. The Greoks and PhaiiU
cians afcribe to it a very high antiquity ; and it is certain -
that it exifted 5C0 years before the Chriilian era, fmcc
Jofhua marks the limits of the tribe of Dan in the vicinity
of Japho, the Phanician name of this town. Joppa, which-
had a good port, and the cnly one that the Jews had on
the Mediterranean, belonged luccefiivcly to the Chaldeans,
Perfians, the La^idx of Egypt, and the Selcueidte of
Syria; and it was under the dominion of thefe lall 163
years B.C. Tlie inhabitants of this place provoked ilie
3 C indignation

J O R

indignation of JnJas Maccliabceus, by a violation of tlieir
treaties, and by precipitating 200 Jews into the foa, which
induced liiin to fall upon them by furprife in tlic night and
to burn all their voffcls. Joppa underwent various revo-
lutions until the arrival of Pompcy in Syria, about 64 years
before our era. This general rcUrided Jiidea witbm its
ancient bounds, and oblijred Hyrcanns to evacuate the
towns of PhcEnicia ; but Augultus gave this town to He-
rod. In confequence of the revolt of the Jews, Gallns-
Cellius, governor of Syria, took it and fet it on fire, AD.
66. The Jews made fevcral efforts to re-eitablifli it; but
Vefpafian, in the year 67, difpatched a body of troops
from Casfarea, who took it without difficulty. The Jews
betook thcmfelves for refuge to the lea ; but being befet
by a violent temped, more than 4000 of tliem perifhcd.
The Romans again deflroyed it. (Jofephus de Bell. Jnd.)
The town was fo entirely ruined during the holy war. that
it had fcartely any buildings left flanding but the old raftle,
jituated on an eminence above it, and ai.othcr near the fea-
Me. The town was afterwards rebuilt towards the lea
«ith good itore-houfes ; and is now called Jnjpi, or I'lj/ii,
rvhich fee.

Joppa, in Geography, a fiuall town of America, in Har-
ford county, Maryland ; 20 miles E. by N. of Baltimore.

JORBORG, a town of Saitiogitia, on the Niemcit ; 20
miles S. of Rolicnne.

J O R

JORDAENS, jACon, in Biography, a painter of hif-
tory and per; raits, poflelfed of yery fuperior abilitie.i in his a plain and defert of about 60 mi
art, was born at Antwerp in 1594. He lirll Itudicd with
Adan Van Oort, whofe daughter he married at an early
period of his life ; but it was to Rubens he Hood indebted
for the principal part of his knowledge ; though it is du-
bious whether he ever was admitted into the fchool of that
mailer. Certain it is, however, that he more forcibly car-
ried into effect his principles than any of his difciples, ex-
cept Vandyke.

It is faid by Sandrart, that Rubens was jealous of him, and
if fo great a man were capable of that mean paflion, certainly
the talents of Jordaens might well excite it. He painted
with almoil incredible force and brilliancy. Neither Rubens
nor Tintoretto, in that refpect, excel him ; his compolitions

delightful country, fo well adapted for comfflerce, that marts
and fairs are held in the adjacent places through the fiunmer
by the neighbouring inh.abitants. The etymology of the
name lias been varioufly afTigned. .Jordan, in Hebrew Jar-
il.ii, is derived from jcrad, defcaid'it, or jaiden, df/cenfus,
from its rapid defcent thrcujih that country. This origin
is more prob<ible than feveral others whicii have been given
by different writers. Some fay that it is formed (vf the
oriental lor, a ftreani, and Dan, a town, near which it
had its fource. Hardouiti fays that this name lignifies the
" river of delight," or the '" deli!;htfi;l river." Others
fay, that dan or dun figiiiiies depth, whence it was named
the " deep river," to diilinguilll it from others in Palefline,
all which were comparatively brooks or rivulets. The
Arabs call it Arden or Harden, or Ordounon ; the Per-
fians, Aerdun ; and the Nubian geograplKT Edrifi gives it
the name of Zacchar, which, in Arabic, iignifies fwelling or
overflowing. Jordan is fo confiderable, in comparifon with
others, that it is fometimcs (lykd, by way of emphaiir.,
" the river." The courfe of tlie Jordan is moltly tViuth-
ward, bending a few degrees towards the well. After a
mil of about ten or twelve miles, it pafi'es quite through
the Samachonite lake, whence, after a courfe of about
eighteen or twenty miles more, e.v^lulive of its windings,
it enters into the tea of Tiberias on the N. fide, and comeK
out again on the S. fide, at a fmall diftance froin a city of
that name. Thence it proceeds Kill fouth-weflward through
and falls into the
Af'phaltite lake. Its courfe is very rapid, though its bed
is deep. Pocccke compares its breadth to that of the
Thames at Windlbr. Shaw gives it only ^o yards, wliillt
lie ilates its depth, even at its brink, to be three yards. Its
banks are cccalionally beautiful, and in fomc places covered
with high and thick reeds, canes, and trees, fuch as willows
and tamarilics, wliich aflbrd a convenient lodgment for lions
and other wild bcalls. This river, it is faid, conftant'y
overflowed its banks about the time of the early harvL-ll, in-
foon after Eailer ; and in this refpcft ditl'ered fjom other

hich

ly fwell moll during th.

This

are full of bufUe, and deligned with great truth, even
grandeur of form. His defeft (and it mull be allowed
thit it is a great one, in an art wliofc principal end is to
adorn, to improve, to pieafe mankind) is groffnefs of fub-
je£l and of form ; not indecent, but vulgar, low common
life.

His power to give rotundity and relief to his llgures, is
amazing ; and his execution is of the moll mafterTy kind.

The French have pofTelfed themfelves of many of his
principal works ; two are particularly noticeable in the
gallery of the Louvre, the Fiemifli celebration of Twelfth
night, known by the appellation of " I.,e Roi bolt," and
Cliriil driving the money-changers from tlie temple.

He was remarkab'e for the rapidity of his execution,
a.id appears to have iludied his, figures and eflecls by candle
light, or in bright nm-ihiiic. Having obtained great re-
nown and fuccefs, he died in 1678.

JORDAN, in ytucient Geoj;rtiphy, the chief river of Pa-
lefline, which Iiad its fource in the lake of Pliiala, about 10
miles N. of that of Saniachon ; which origin of the river
was afcertained by Philip the tetrarch, who made the ex-
periment of throwing fome ilraw or chaff into the lake,
which came out at the Panion, or Paneas, where the river
emerges out of the earth, after having run about 120 fur-
longs under ground. This lake Pliiala, a name commonly
given to all other refenoirs of that kind, is iituated in a moll

rivers,

inundation has been afcribed to its fubterrancous communi
cation with the Nile. But it is more probably owing to
the melting of the tnows about that time, and the early rain
which falls in great abundance. Modern travellers inform
Ua, that It is no longer fubjec^ t* thefe overflowings : becaufe,
as they conceive, it has, by the rapidity of its current, worn
its channel deeper than formerly, or, perhaps, diverted fome
of its waters another way. Its water is c mmonly very
turbid, o,;calioiied by its rapidity ; but it is faid to be very
wholefonie and incorruptible : and fuperllition has even i.i-
velled it with the property ot wafiiing awav the lins of muii-
kind. Dr. Pococke, who mentions this circumllance, adds,
that not only men, but women, are ambitious of deriving
benefit from thcfe falutiferous waters, by bathing and fwim-
ming in it, even at the hazard of tlieir lives. The I^atii!
prielis ereft altars along its banks, where they fay mal's to
the devout pilgrims. We (liall only add, that the j-lain im
both lides of this river, from the fea of Tiberias to the Al-
phaltite or Dead fea, is very dry, fultry, and infalubrious
during the heat of fummer, and every where barren, except
in that part which lies near the ri\er, and is watered by it.
Anc. Uii. Hill. vol. ii.

JORDEN, EiiwAiin, M. D. in Bkgraphy, was born in
the year 1569, at High Halden, in Kent, and probably
educated at Hart-hall, Oxford. After completing his fludiJs
in his own country, he travelled abroad, viiiting feveral fo-
reign univerlities, and taking his degree of dodtor in that of
Padua. On his reluni, he pradifcd for a tin.e ia I^ondon,

where

J () R

where he became a member of tlie College of Pliyficians,
and wa? io f^rcat reputation for learning and abilities. He
gave an inllance of his frood fcnf; in detecting the impofture
.of one Ann Gnnter, \vl>.o ivas affeded with llrange and lin-
gular fymptoms, which were imputed to witchcraft. Dr.
Jorden removed, after foir.c time, from London to Bath,
where he fpcnt all the latter part of his life, univerfally
refpeited as well in his private clnraiTter as in his medical
capacity. The (liidious and fedentary life which he led,
aggravating the diford-rs to which he wa.- con'.Utiitionally
fubjeft, the gout and Hone, he di?d in his fixty-third year,
.on Janiiarv 7tli, 1632. He was author of two publications.:
*' A brief Difcourfe of a Difeafe called the Suffocation of
the Mother, 5cc." Lond. 1605 ; and 2. " A Difcourfe of
Natural Baths and Mineral Waters;" Lond. i6ji, 4to.
Tiiis foon went through a fecond edition, and v/as afterwards
reprinted in 16S9. in 8v3 , by Dr. Guidott, and a^^ain in
1673. It is a work of confiderable learning and ingenuity,
written in a clear ftyle and judicious method. Aikin's
Biog. Mem. of Med.

j'ORE, in Gecgraphy, the higheft mountain in the Che-
rokee country, through which the Teqeflec river forces its
waters. ,

JORGA, a town of Afiatic Georgia, in the province of
Kaket ; 85 miles S.E.of Tefii,:.

JORGE Greuo, a fmall inland near the coail of Brafil.

Jorge, St., a town of Brafil, in the government of St.
Salvador, aud chief place of the capitaincy of lUicos, fituatcd
pn land projecting into the Atlantic. S. lat. 14 45'. W.
long 22 40'. — Alfo, a to An of New Mexico, on the Bravo;
20 miles E. of Sumas.

Jorge (/c" Olanchi, Si., a town of Mexico, in the province
of Honduras; 100 miles E. of Valladolid. N. lat. 14'
35. W. long. 86 36'.

JORGEN, a unv.\ of Norway, in the diocefe of Ber-
gen ; j3 miles S \V. of Ron.fdal.

.ToiiGEy, Si., a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 14
miles S S.E. of Gratz. — Alfo, a town of Aullria ; 12 miles

S.E. of Ips .Alfu, a tov.-n of the duchy of Bremen; 8

miles N.N E. of Bremen.

JORGEN.-\W, a town of Pruffia, in the circle of Na-
tangen ; 22 miles S.S.E. of Konigiberg.

JORGENBURG, a to«a) of Auilna ; 14 miles S.S.W.
of Stevr.

JORGENTAL, a town nf PruOia, in the psovince of
Oborknd ; 6 miVs S.W. of Leibltadt.

JORGENTHAL, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitnieritz ; G miles N.E. of Kimnitz.

JORJAN, or CoRC.VN-, a town of Perlia, and capital of
a dillrift, to which it gives name, in the weftern part of
Chorafan, bordering on the Cafpian fea, fituated on the
Abifcoun. It was anciently the capital of Hyrcania, and
named Syringes; joo miles N. of Ifpahan. N. lat. 36'
54'. E. long 54 54'.

JORKO >V, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Saatz ;
J3 miles N. of Saatz. N lat. 50° 28 . E. long. 13 26.

JOROPOUR, a to\vn of Bengal ; 38 miles N.N.E. of
Ca'cutta.

JORQUERA, a town of Spain, i.i New Caftile, on
th^' Xncar ; 38 miles S.S E. of Alar^on.

JORR.ACH, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedf-
jas ; iSS miles S.S.E. of Mecca.

JORSA, one of the fmaller weftern iilands of Scotland,
between Scai-ba and Kerrcra.

JOR TIN, JoHV, in Biography, born in London in 1698,
was fon of Rcnatus Jortin, a native of Bretagne, in France,
who came over <is arefugee on the repeal of the edit'l of Nanus,

JOR

and who was appointed one of the gentlemen of the privy-
chamber to king William III. in 1691. He was afterwards
fecretar)' to admiral Riiflel, earl of Orford, and fir Cloudef-
ley Shovel, and periihed with the latter when his (hip Uruek
on the rocks of Sciily. This was in Otlober 1707, when
his fon John, only nine years of age, was fent to the Charter-
houfe as a day-fcholar, where he laid the foundation of a:i
exaA .and elegant clalTical talle. In 1 71 5 he was admitted
penli.iner of .lefus college, Cambridge, and fo diftinguiflied
liinifelf by his talents and application, that, v.-hile he was
nnd^.^-graduate, h.i was engaged, by the recommendation of
Dr. Tiiirlby, to tranflate fonie of Eiiftathius's notes on
Homer for Mr. Pope. He performed the work to the
fatisfadlion of tlie poet, who, however, did nut think it worth
while to make any perlonal enquiry after a young (ludent
at college. •' I was," fays Mr. Jortin, " in fome hopes,
in tliofe days (for 1 was young), that Mr. Pope would make
enquiry about his coadjutor, an j take fome civil notice of
him. But he did not, and I had no notion of obtruding
myfelf upon him — I ucver faw his face." Mr. Jortin was
admitted to the degree of bachelor of arts in January
171S-19, and v.-as eleded fellow of Jefus college in Odober,
1 72 1, and in the following year he took his degree 0I'
M. A. In this latter year he was appointed one of the
moderators at the difputations, and appeared likewife as a
writer, by the publication of his " Liifus Poetici," a collec-
tion of Latin poems, which have been ranked among tlie
moil elegant and truly claflical compofi.ions of the kind
produced by a modern fcholar. They have been frequently
reprinted, and retain their original reputation. He was
admitted to prlell's orders in 1724, and in 1727 was pre-
fented by his college to the vicarage of Swavefey, near Cam-
bridge. In 1730-1, he religned his vicarage, and fettled in
London, where he fervcd a chapel belonging !o St. Giles in
the Fields, in New-ilrect, Bloomlbury, about fixteen year-.
His firil publication, after his arrival in the metropolis, con-
fided of four fermoiis on the trurh of Chrillianity, which
have fince been incorporated in fome of his fubfequent pub-
lications. In the years 1731 and 1732, Mr. Jortin, in con-
junaion with bifhop Penric, Dr. Taylor, Mr. Upton, Dr.
Thirlbv, and others, publilhed, in a feries of twenty-four
fix-penny numbers, " Mifeellancous Obfervatiors upon
Authors, ancient and modern," which were highly ap-
plauded by the learned of his own country, and which were
tranllated into the Latin language at Amllcrdam.' He next
puhlifhed " Remarks on Speiifer's Poems," to which were
fiibjoined " Remarks on Milton ;" he publilhed likewife " Re-
marks on Seneca." In 1747 he was appointed by his frieixl
Dr. Pearfe, then redor of St. Martin in theFields, to be after-
noon preaclter at a chapel in Oxendoii-llreet. In 1749, Mr.
Jortin, at the recommendation of archbifhop Hernng and
birtiop Sherlock, was appointed preacher of Boyle's lec-
ture. The fubrtance of the difcourfes which he delivered
on this occalion, was afterwards inferted in his " Remarks,
upon Ecclefiaftical Hillory." Of this work, the liril vo.
lume was pi.blilhed in 17 Jl, and the fecond and third in the
years 1752 and 1754, the other volumes were given to the
world after tl'.e author's death. In i 751, he had been pre-
feuted by nrehhilhop Herring with the redory of St. Dun-
llan in the Eall ; and in the year 1755 he was prefcntcd by
the fame prelate with a Lambeth degree of D. D. The
principal work of Dr. Jortin was his " Life of Erafmus,"
of which the firll part was publilhed in 1758, in one volume
4to ; the fecond volume, printed in 1760, confilied only of
obfcrvations on the writings of Erafmus. The ground-
work of this piece of biographv, is one drawn up by the
celebrated Le Ckrc, and publilhed iu hi» «' Bibliothequc
3 C 2 Choific."

J O R

■ Choifie." «' The life of Erafmus," fays Dr. Knox,
" abounJ with matter intereftiiiEr to the fcliolar ; hut the
ftyle and method are fiich as will not pleafe every reader.
There is a carelcfsnefs in it, and a want of digniity and deli-
cacy." Neverthelefs it extended the reputation of Dr. .Tor-
tin beyond the limits of his native country, and cftablifhcd
his literary character in the remoteil univerfities of Europe.
The declining years of Dr. .Tortin were cheered bv fome
fiibllantial proofs of the elleem which he had infpired for
his charafter and abilities. In 1762, he was collated by
hifliop O(baldillon to a prebend in the cathedral of St.
Paul's, and in the fame year he was prefeiited by the fame
friend to the valuable vicarage of Kenfington. The biihop,
as another proof of liis determined patronage of our author,
appointed him archdeacon of London, in April 1764, and
it is bL'lieved he offered him the reclory of St. .lames, Weft-
minfter, upon the death of Dr. Samuel Nicol'.s, in Nove'm-
ber 1763, but he chofe to continue at Kenfmgton, that
being a fituation better adapted to his advanced age. Dr.
Jortin died on the ,-th of Sept. 1770, in the 72d year of his
age. The tranquil compofure of liis lall moments was ex-
preffed in the words he fpoke to his nurfe, who urged liim
to take more nourifhment : " No," faid he, " I have had
enough of every thing." He left a widow and two chil-
dren. The private charafter of Dr. Jortin was truly clli-
mable : he had a fpirit which raifed him above every thing
mean and illiberal, and would not permit him to Hoop for
preferment. His manners were fimple, and in fome refpefts
ruftic : he had true urbanity in"liis temper, and benevolence
in his heart. As a public defender of religion, Jie is clafled
by bifhop Watfon among thofe great and eminent names
ivho have honourably and fuccefsfully laboured to cila-
blifli the truth and illuftrate the doftrines of ChrilUanity.
Dr.- Knox, fpeaking of his " Difcourfes on the Chrillian
Rehgion," which was one of the^firft fruits of his theo-
logical jurfuits, fays they abound with found fenfe and
folid argument, which entitled their author to a rank
very near the celebrated Grotius. He farther adds, " as
a poet, a philofopher, and a man, he ferved the caufe
of religion, learning, and morality." Befides the works
already noticed, Dr. Jortin was author of an *' Efiay
on Mufical Expreffion:" of "Six Differtations on dif-
ferent Subjeds i" and after his death his " Sermons and
Charges," in feven volumes, were given to the world. His
works were publirtied a few years fmce in an uniform manner,
and may be had with or without the life of Erafmus. Of
thefe works a full account will be found in the " Memoirs of
the Life and Writings of Dr. Jortin," by the llev. Dr. John
Difney, who has alio given tlie cjiaracler of the author as
drawn by the energetic pen of Dr. Parr. " Jortin," fays
he, " whether I look back to his verfe, to his profe, to his
critical, or to his theological works, there arc few authors
to whom I am fo much indebted for rational entertainment,
or for folid inilruclion. Learned he was, without pedantry.
He was ingenious without the affectation of fingularity.'
He was a lover of truth, without hovering over the gloom'y
abyfs of fcepticifm, and a friend to free inquiry, without
roving into the dreary and pathlefs wilds of latitudinarianifm.
He had a heart which never difgraced the powers of his
imderllanding. With a lively imagina'ion, an elegant tafte,
and a judgment moll mafculine, and mod corrcft, he united
the artlefs and amiable negligence of a fchool-boy. Wit
without ill nature, and fenfe without effort, he could at v/ill
fcatter upon every fubjeft, and in every book the writer
prefents v.s with a near and dillinft view of the real man."

JORVIS, in Gi'ogiaphy, a town of Sweden, in the govern-
TT.er-t of Kuopio ; 43 miles S. of Kuopio,

J o s

TOS, in Anaent Geography, one of the Cyclades ifland?,
E.N.E. of the idand Sicinos, N.N.W. of Thera, and
S.S.W. of Nayos. This ifland derived its name from a colony
of lonians, who were its firlt inhabitants. It is famous only
for being the place of Homer's death and burial. It is faid
that the town of Argos was accullomed to fend every five
years a deputation to this iiland, commiffioned to offer li-
bations in its name on the tomb of the poet, which was
an objcft of public veneration.

JOSEF, St., in Geography, a town of California, where
the Manila (liip generally took in water on its voyage to
Acapuico ; 4J miles S. of Lorelo. N. lat. 23' 4'. W. long.
109° 4?!'. — Alfo, a town of the ifiand of Cuba ; 1 2J miles
W.S.W. of Havanna. — Alfo, a town of South America,
in the province of Chiquitas. — Aifo, a town hi South
America, in the province of Moxes. — Aifo, a fmr.!l ifiand
in the Atlantic, near the coaft of Patagonia. S. laV. 44' 30'.
— Alfo, a town of New Mexico, in the province of Sonera;
35 miles S. of Pitquin. — Alfo, a town of New Mexico, on
the Bravo ; 27 miles N.\\'. of Santa-Fe. — Alfo, a town of
South America, in the government of Buenos Ayres ; 1S5
miles E. of Corientes. — Alfo, a fmall ifland in the bay of
Los Camarones, near the coall of Pat.^gOliia. S. lat. 44- 30'.
— Alfo, a town and fort of Soulli America, in the province
of Tucumar ; 90 miles S S.E. of Salta. — Alfo, a town of
South America, in the government of Buenos Ayres, and
province of Moxes ; 80 miles S.W. of Trinidad.

J0.SKI' de Chlquilas, St., a town of South Am.erica, in the
government of Buenos Ayres ; 36 miles N.W. of Santa
Cruz dc la Sierra la Nueva.

Jo<;ef e!c Huales, St., a town of South America, in the
audience of Quito, on- the Napo ; 220 miles E.S E. of
Quito. S. lat. r- Jo'. W. long. 74" 26'.

JOSEFGROD, a town of Ruffian Poland, in thq
palatinate of Braclaw, fituated on a river which runs into
the Bog ; 76 miles S.S.E. of Braclaw.

JOSEPH, in Scripture Biography, a Hebrew patriarch,
who fuitained a rank and character that entitle him to par-
ticular notice.- He was the fon of Jacob by his wife Rachel,
and born about the year 1745 B.C. As he was the favourita
of his father, on account of his perfonal and mental endow-
ments, he became the objeft of the jealoufy and hatred of his
brethren ; and they fold him to fome Ilhmaeiites- who were
travelling to Egypt (B.C. 172S), feigning a tale that he had
been devoured by wild beafts. When the Ifiimaelites arrived
in Egypt, thay fold Jofeph to Potiphar, an officer of the
royal houfiiold. In this iituation Jofeph conducted himfelf
with fuch prudence, iuduftry, and fidelity, that his mailer
committed all his affairs to his management. After ten
years fervice Potiphar's wife aflailcd him with a temptation,
which every principle of gratitude and honour, as well as
of religion, induced him to refill ; but the confequence of
his integrity was her refentment, and a rcfolution, as far
as file could prevail, to effcft his ruin. Accordingly {he
formed an artful ilory, intimating that Jofeph had made aa
attempt upon her virtue ; and fWe contrived to inipofe upon
her hulband Potiphar, and to procure Jofeph's commitment
to prifon. The patriarch"s. cimduiS, during his imprifon-
ment, engaged confidence, and he was entrullcd with the
care of his fellow-prifoners. Among thefe were two per-.'
fons of fome diftinclion, who had belonged to Pharaoh's
houlliold. Both of them had dreams in the fame night,,
whicti they communicated to Jofeph, and which he under,
took to interpret. One of them was to be rellored to his.
office, and the other was to be hanged ; and the events
correfponded to his predictions. Upon the future advance-
ment uf one of thcfc perfons, .who was the chief butler^ the

other

J o s r. p II.

olhcr being the chief baker, he was altogether iimniiidfiil
of Jcfeph, and made no tiiort, notwiihllanding his appli-
cation to him, to procure for him his liberty. In procefs
of time Pharaoh had two dreams, by which his mind was
much imprelfcd, and which none of the wife men who be-
longed to his court were able to interpret. The chief
bvitler wai thus reminded of Jofeph, and acknowledging
to the king his ingratitude fv-r neglecling him, related the
circumftanccs pertjiiring to liimfelf and the chief baker.
Upon this information, Pharaoh ordered Jofeph to be
brought to him. The king imparted to him his dreams ;
and Jofeph, modillly difclaiming all pretenlions to fnperior
vifdom, and relying on that divine fuggcllion with which
he hoped to be fiivoured, interpreted them to his fatitfac-
tion. (B.C. I/IJ.) Tliefe dreams and their interpretation
it is unnecefTary for us minutely to recite. It is fufScient
to obferve, that the king was then forwarned of feven
years of fertility and abundance, which were to be fuc-
ceeded by the fame period of Herility and famine ; and he
found it neceffary to make previous provifion accordingly.
Witli this view Jofeph, who was near thirty years of age,
was appointed general fuperintendant of the affairs of the
kingdom, and invefted with authority next to that of
Pharaoh himi'L-lf, who alfo gave him in m.irriage the daughter
of Potipherab, prieft of On. The courfe of events was
precifely fuch as Jofeph had pre-fignificd by his interpretation
of Phar.ioh's dreams ; fo that grat:aries were eilablifhed
under his direftion in the cities of Egypt, and corn col-
ledied in great quantities, and laid up in (lore, during the
years of plenty, for the fupply, not only of Egvpt, but of
neighbouring countries in the fucceeding years of fcarcity.
The years of famine began B.C. 1708. In tlvis period of
general diftrefs Jacob fent i a of his fons, from Canaan to
Egypt, in order to purchafe corn. As thi:; bufinefs was
wholly committed to the management of Jofeph, they were
referred to him. Jofeph inilantly recognized their perfons,
though he was unknown to them ; but in order the more
effeftually to prevent their difcovery of him, and, probably,
to excite in their minds a due fenfe of their pail crime,
he queftioned them in an angry tone, and by an interpreter,
concerning their country ; and being informed that they
had come from the land of Canaan, charged them witli
being fpies, which charge they obviated by giving a true
account of their father and family. A .younger brother,
they faid, was left at home with his father, and another was
cow no more. Jofeph ftill perfifted in the charge, and re-
quired their verifying the account which they had given
of themfelves, by difpatching one of their number to fetch
their younger brother, while the reft remained in cuflody.
However. I.e afterwards relented, and propofed that oric
of them (hould remain till the arrival of the younger bro-
ther, and that all the rell fhould go home with corn for
their, families. Duri;;g ihcii detention they accufed one
another for the cruelty of their conduft towards Jofeph,
who,' ftill feigning himfelf a ftranger to their language,
heard their mutual reproaches with an en.otiun which lie
ccAld not fupprefs, and which, there/ore, required his.
withdrawing' from them. At length he gave them leave .
to depart, informing them, that if their account of themftlves
v,-^s true, they woyld be permitted to traffic in the land.
iSimeonj who is fuppofed to have been the principal aggref-
for in the treatment of Jofeph, was kept in cuilody ; and
the' others were difmificd. Before their departure -orders^
had been given that when the facks were filled with corn,
each man's money flmuld be returned in his fack's mouth.
This circumllance, when it was difcovered in their journey
homewards, very njuch alarmed them; and they _coiiduded_

tluit this was done in order to funiidi a pretence for en^
Having them when they ne.st vifiied Egypt. Jacob heard
their adventures with furprife and concern ; more efpc-
cially when he found that Simeon was lelt behind in cuftody,
and that they were pledged to take Benjamin with them
before they could obtain his releafe. At length, as the
fcarcity inereafed, and their fupply was pearly cxhauftcd,
Jacob, with great reluClancc,confenU;d to part with Ben-
jamin J and leaving ordered them to provide prcfents for
the ruler of Egypt, and to carry with ttiem twice as much
money as before, he committed lliem to the 1 lefling of
heaven, and difmifled them. Upon their arrival in Egypt,
they haftencd to prcfent themfelves before Jofepli ; and were
kindly received and liberally entertalr.ed at a public dinner
which he had provided for them. Some circumftances oc-
curred on this occailon which might liave brought their
brother to their recolleftion ; but they again departed wilk
their facks aiid money as before, and ni Benjamin's fack
was the filver cup out of which Jofeph himlelf drank. Upon
their return towards Canaan they were followed by an offi-
cer, who charged them with iiigratitude for the hofpitalilv
with which they had been treated, and with the tlieft of
his lord's filver cup. All of them protelled their inno-
cence i but upon fearching the facks, the cup was found
to their great furprife and concern in that of Benjan.in.
Tiiey were therefore taken back to .lofepli, who iiifilUd
upon detaining Bcnjaniin as a (lave, whilil they might bi
allowed to return home in peace. Recolleeiing the reluctance
with which his father !■■■' '>■•■'■ -l '■■'■'h liis"fon Benjamin,
and that they were fun '! ' :., they urged various

pieas for his being ;,!'. ;. any' them. Judah

was the advocate for ! rtv ; and he offered

himfelfas afubfliluteit ' ' d'to return. .lofepli

was at length overcoi .,mc intolerably irk.'

fome to him ; and he cr, . : icfraiu from difccvrr-

ing himfelf to his brethren. (V>.L'. 1706.) 'I'his part of the
facrcd hillory is wrought up with incomparable (jeauty and'
pathos, and mufl fufier by any att^irnt to r.'>ridge it, or to:
relate it in difierent language. ":' ' ■ being made,

they were all received, and par > n, his bro-

ther by the fame mother, wi:!i . . I'le tcnde.-eil

and moll affeftionate regard ; nc. ciiu , oic.Mi, the yiceroc
of Egypt, for fuch was the high rank he occupied, lofe any
time in acquainting Pharaoh with the arrival of liis brethren,
and with tiie circumllanccs of his father and his family..
The king immediately 'gave orders for their being fent for^
to Egypt, and for fett'ing them in the richelt part of
the country. Goihen was tlie dillricl which Jofeph allotted
to them ; and there they \vere fupplied with ample means,
of fubfillence, wh.lll the inhabitants of other parts of Egypt
were fufiering great dillrcfs on account of the famine, w iiich
ItiU continued. The long duration of this calamity drained
the people of all their money, and eon 11 rained them at length
to part with their cattle, their houfes, their land, and even
their perfonal freedom for fupport. (B.C. 1 705 ) Thus'
the whole kingdom of Egypt, the lands of the priefts
excepted, became the demelue of the crown ; and all the
people were reduced to the fervile condition of bondfmen to.
the crown. Moreover, the oid owners were feparated from
one another, qnd difperfed through different parts of the
kingdom, that they might thus f<Mg(?t their inteiell in th.c-
lands which they had fold, and ])recluded from forming
combinations for regaining- tliem. In this inflance, Jofeph"s
zeal for Pharaoh's intercii caufed him to overlUp the bounds
which found policy and jullice preftribed ; and coiitri--
buted to cllablilh a defpotilm, which eventually proved very
oppreffivf to the dcfcepdant;;.of Jofcjjh, and the rcll of the
■ - 5 '■ "' Ifraclites,

JOSEPH.

Ifraelites. In the lafl year of the famine, Jofeph informed
the Egyptians that they might expeft a crop during the fol-
lowing year ; and that he would enable them lo renew their
attention to agriculture, by diilribnting among them frcfh
lands, catdo, and corn : but he ftipulated this condition
with them, that from henceforwards the fiftii part of all the
prodiKls of their lands (hoiJd be referved for the king, and
that the relidue (hovild be their own. From this time,
(B.C. i'70'2,) a< the people confented to this ri'i'ulation, ft
became a law, that remained in force for feveral centuries,
that the littli part of the produce of the whole kingdom of
Egypt, the lands of the prieli-; cxci pteiJ, fhould belong to
the crjwn. After the death of Jacob, and tiic return of his
brethren to Egypt from Canaan, whither they had attended
the remains of their fa'.her (fee .Jacob), they were appre-
he;:live that Jofeph might retaliate the injuries which thev had
done him ; and therefore they informed him, by a nicf-
fenger, that it was their father's dying rcquell that he
would forgive them, and continue to afford them liis pro-
tection. Jofeph imm.ediately took an opportunity of re-
moving their fiifj)icion and anxiety, by repeated aluirances
of his unabated affection and zealous concern for their wel-
fare. Having furvived his fath.er about 60 years, he in-
formed his brethren (B.C. 163 j), that God, according to
his promife, would bring their pollerity from Egypt to the
land of Canaan ; and he therefore made them pledge them-
felves on oath, to bury him with his anceftors. Jofeph,
having occupied under iix fovereigns the office of viceroy of
Egypt, during So year?, retained it till his death, which
happened when he had attained the age of 1 10 years, in the
year 1635 B.C. When the Ifraelites took their departure
from Egypt, they obferved his injunelion concerning the
removal of his body ; and as we read in Joih. xxiv j2. it
was buried at. Schechem, in the field which Jacob bought
of Hamor. From Jerome we learn, that the Ifraelites
erefted a noble monument to Jiis memory, which was to be
feen in his time. We Hiall not enlarge this article by an
account of the tales of the Tahuudilfs and of the Koran
(chap, xii.), but refer the reader to D'Herbelot's Bibl.
Orient, art. Joii/oufih, for fpecimens of thefe legendary
tales. Gen. xxx — 1. Anc. Un. Hill. vol. iii.

Joseph I., in Biography, emperor of Germany, fon of the
emperor Leopold, was born in i^jrS. He was declared
hereditary king of Hungary, and crowned in 1687. In
1690 he v.-as elefted king of the Romans, and afcended the
imperial throne on tiie death cf his father, in 170J. He
purfued the fyllem of the late emperor, and maintained the
alliance againll France, with England, Holland, and Savov,
in fupport of the claim of the archduke Charles to the crown
cf Spain ; in which war tlie allies were fuccefsful. Jofeph
was of a haujjhty and arbitrary difpofition, employed violent
ineafures againit all the oppolers of liis authority, and fup-
j>orted with a high hand all the claims of his lioufe. In
1706 he put the electors cf Bavaria and Cologne to the ban
of the empire, for taking part with France ; and having de-
priveii thofe princes of a great part of their ellates, he
btfto-.ved the fame on his own relations and favourites. He
quarrelled with the pope, w horn he afterwards obliged to
recognize liis brother tlie archduke Charles as kmg of
Spwn. He made himfelf mailer of Italy, and levied con-
tributions on Mantua, Parma, Modena, Lucca, Genoa,
and other places. His armies defeated the revolted Hun-
garians ; but ii» the midll of his fucceflt s, he was carried off
by the fmiU-pox, in April 1711, at the age of thirty-three,
owing, it was believed, to the unfkilfulnefs of his phyficians.
His charafter has been varioufly reprefentcd. He was im-
paiieot of oppoStiofl, aAive, and ejiterprifin^ ; aii4 fee-

q'nently purfued from motives of refentment what he hdS
fn-ll undertaken from policy. In his imperial capacit)-, he
governed with more defpotifm than any of his predeceilors ;
and the houfe of Bavaria was a monument of the inflexibility
of his temper. Univer. Hilt.

JosF.Pi! 11., emperor of Germany, fon of Francis of
Lorraine and the einprefs-queen Maria Therefa, was born
at Vienna, in March 1741. Great care was taken of his
education ; and at the age of niiieteeF., he was married to
Ifabella, the infanta of Parma. He had, at an early period,
difplayed a delire of diftinguifhing himfelf, and military
glory was his iirll pafriini. He was crowned king of the
Romans in 1764 ; and having loft his Iirll wife, to whom he
was tenderly attached, he married, in 1765, the filter of the
eleelor of Bavaria. In this time year, on the death of his
father i'"rancis I., he fuocecded to the imperial crown with-
out oppoiltion. He now difylaycd gnat talents and ac-
tivity, by new-modelling the armies, Ei.d reforming all the
departments of government. He travelled through his do-
minions, and viiited Pruffia, Italy, France, and RulTia ;
snd on,liis return, among many other wife and excellent
regulations which he adopted, he fet apart one day in every
week for receiving petitions and complaints from all his
fuhjeifls, without any diftinclion of birth or fortune ; and
the officers of his court were cxprefsly forbidden to repulle
any, even the meanell objeft, who came to implore his pro-
tection. " It behoves me," faid the emperor, " to do ;uf-
tice ; and it is my invariable intention to render it to all the
world, without refpect of pcrfons." In the year 1771,
Germany fuffered the horrors of a famine, which was more
or lefs felt in all the countries of Europe. But in feveral
pai-ts of Germany, the fcarcily was fo great, that vail num-
bers of people actually perilled for the want of the con-
monell neced'aries of life. During thefe calamities, the
emperor joined the luonarchs of Prnfila and Rufita in the
difmemberment of Poland. The firll treaty for this ini-
quitous bufmefs was figiied in 1772, and which finally ter-
minated in the total extindtion cf that unhappy kingdom.
In 1780. by the death of the emprefs-queen, .lofepli fiic-
cccded to the crown of Hungary and Bohemia ; ard in the
follov. ing year, he iffued a decree in favour of the liberty of
the prefs, wliich was followed by others equally liberal,
particularly one in favour of a more liberal toleration. The
fnppreflion of the inquilition at Milan may be attributed to
the prevalence of a fimilar fpirit in the imperial coiincili.
He e.Ktended the privileges of fubjefts to the Jews ; and he
Ihewed his attention to economy, by certain regulations re-
lative to penlions, and by retrenching many which had been
granted by the benevolent facility of his mother. He pro.
mulgated a decree in favour of the liberty of the prel's ; and
by one of the articles, he allowed a free circulation to li-
terary reviews, and other periodical piibhcations : he even
permitted that all ftrictures upon the throne itfelf might be
publidied with full fecurity, provided they did not defcend
to the charafter of libels or pafqninades. •' If," faid he,
" they be founded in jnlliec, we (liall profit by them ; if not^
we (liall difregard them.*' In a journey to the Neiherkuids,
the emperor gained the love of the people by his courtefy
and generofity. He carried into effect a project for re-
fuming that line of fortrefTes which was called the Dutch
barrier, and vas garrifoncd by their forces. Thefe were all
difmantled, and the materials fold. On this vifit he de-
clared Oltend a free port, and ordered ieveral improvements
to be made in the harbour at his own expence. The em-
peror afterwards demanded of the Dutch the free naviga-
tion of the Scheldt ; but in tiiis he was unfuccefsful. On
hts rijturn to Vij-nna, he abulilhed the fvlleui of vaffalagc ;
8 aiKl

JOSEPH.

and took the mod decifive ftepj in ecclcfiaftical reform, and
the reduction of the power of the church. Numerous fup-
prdiions of religious houfos took place throu(;hout all his
dominions ; and in an imperial rcfcript, all Subordination
whatever, in fecular affairs, to the holy fee was formally
difclaimcd. Sucli proceedings awakened the moll lively
alarms in the papal court ; and on this occalion, pope
Pius VI. made a journey to Vienna: but notwithllandiiig
the very fiairerinij attentions which he received on his arrival,
he found it impoltible to procure an intermiiTion of thofe re-
forms, wliich were now extended to the fccular clergy and
hierarchy, as well as to the religious orders or regulars ; and
only obtained a refpite for fome threatened religions founda-
tions. In 1786 the emperor followed his attack on the
papal antliority, by calling an aflcmbly of the ccclefi.iftical
princes at Ratilbon, in which it was refolved to withdraw
from the jurifdic^ion of the pope. In 178S a declaration of
war was pnhlifhed againll the Turks, and in the fame year
the emperor in perfon reduced Schabatz ; but this wns fol-
lowed by the defeat of prince I/niclien(lein, who fell in the
aftion. Soon after a bloody battle was fought between the
Imperialilts and the Turks, on the heiglits of Uohadin, in
which neitlicr party could claim tlie victorv. The emperor
now prepared to attenij)! llic reduftion of Belgrade ; but
notwithlianding the great preparations made on this occa/ion,
liis plans were defeated, and he liad the mortification to wit-
iK-fs the rapid dellruftion of his troops by a dreadful mor-
tality. Putrid fever and dyfenteries of the moll malignant
kind fpread their influence through the imperial armies :
difcoiitent and complaint became imiverfal ; and in a fhort
time, one of the liueft armies in the world was reduced, in
a fingle campaign, to lefs than half the number of its original
combatants ; the remainder being loll by mortality, defer-
tion, and the f«ord, or rendered incapable of prefent fervice
by difeafe. In the mean time, .Tofeph was lalioiiring imder
the rapid decline of health, but flill continued to employ
himfelf indefatigab'y in public affairs. Thcfe, however,
were moilly of a kind to aggravate, by vexation and anxiety,
his bodily diiorder. The Low Countries were again in a
flame, and t!ie moil violent meafures were taken to reduce
the people to fubmifTion. Military execution took place in
feveral cities, and a general gloom, bordering on defipair,
overfpread the provinces. At length an open iniurrcction
broke out, conducted with fo much prudence and valour,
that the imperial troops were repeatedly defeated : fevcrai
important cities were taken pofTcfiion of by the infurgents ;
and the dates of Flanders, on November z;th, 1789, fcized
.the government of the province, openly declaring that the
emperor had f<n-feited all title to fovereignty. By the end
«f the year, BrufTels had expelled its garrifon ; and a treaty
of confederation was formed between all the Belgic pro-
vinces as independent Hates. Jofcph, almoll on liis death-
bed, was farther mortified by a remonllrance from the Hun-
garian nobility, demanding the reftoration of their ancient
rights and privileges. Willing to die in peace, he con-
fented to all their requilitions, but indlled upon retaining
three articles, which were highly creditable to his heart,
fiz. a general toleration, provilion for the parochial clergy
out of the revenues of fome fupprefTed monal'erics, and cer-
tain conceflions in favour of the liberty of the peafants.
•He died with great conipofure, on the 20th of February
1790. Leaving no ilRie, he was Cucceedcd by his brother
Leopold. .h>feph had many private virtue.?, as well as many
of the qualities of a great and good fove.'eign. He was pa-
tient of fatigue, and poffeffed of an ardent mind. lie ap-
plied himfeli" with unremitting diligeore to the fuppreffion of
intolerance and fupertlition, and ttr- promotion of indnilry.

throughout his dominions. He has been accufed of en-
croaching on the liberties of his Flemilh fubjeits ; and it \\ dl
be readily conceded that he was not perfect : but his faults
almoll vanilh among the truly glorious aflions which contri-
buted to the aggrandizement of his own name, and the per-
manent felicity of his people. Univer. Hill.

.loiKPH, king of Portugal, of the family of Braganza,
was born in the year 1714, and fucceeded his' father in 1750.
He was much beloved by his people, a circunillance that
enabled him toeffeiit feveral important regulations, in which
his good fcnfe and moderation were eminently coufpicuous.
Scniible of the danger of fudden changes, he advanced his
deiigns by almoll imperceptible fteps, fo as to prevent all
juil grounds of alarm and complaint. He fubjecled the
powers of the infamous Inqniiition to fome rellriiTtion, by
directing that none of its fentences lliould be carried inti>
execution till reviewed ar.d approved by the privy council.
He carried into effedl a treaty concluded between Spain and
Portugal jull before iiis father's death, which was conlidered
as inimical to his country, on the principle " that all engage-
ments among fovereigns Ihould be held lacred and inviolable."
This reign was marked, in 1755, with the terrible difailer of
an earthquake, which dellroyed a great part of the capital.
A confpiracy m 1758, headed by the duke of Avciro, and
favoured by the .Teiuits who had been banifhed from court,
brought his life into great danger. The principal confpi-
nitors were feized and executed, and the whole order of Je-
fuits was banilhed the kingdom. .lofeph had afterwards a
difpute with tlie court of Rome, and a war with Spain : in
the latter, Portugal was aflifted by the Enghlh, whofc bat-
talions, under general Burgoyne, checked the career of the
invaders, and obliged them, before the end of the cainpaign,
to retreat within their ov. n limits. After the peace of 1 76^,
little of importance occurred in the affairs of Portugal.
The king's councils, in the latter years of his reign, were en-
tirely governed by the marquis de Pombal, a man of en-
larged views, but of a haughty and violent difpjilition. A
diipute with Spain, about the limits of the two nations on the
borders of Rio de la Plata in South America, occafioncd
hoftile preparations on both lides, but httle was efFeded by
either. Jofeph died February 1777, and was fucceeded bv
his daughter, Maria Frances Ifabella, who is dill queen,
though in a deranged date of mind, and an exile in South
America. See Poktug.ai,.

Jo.sEPii of Extter, or Joi-KPiius LscxNCS, is mentioned as
a remarkable example of purity of literar)- talk and elc-
gance'of dyle, in an age generally reputed barbarotis. He
was a native of Devonlhire, and fionrillied in the clofe of
the twelfth, and the commencement of the thirteenth cen-
turies. He was an ecclcfiallic, and patronized by Baldwin,
archbilhop of Canterbury. Accordii:g to the learned Cam-
den, he accom.panied Richard L of England into the Holy
Land. He was author of two epic paems in Latin heroics.
The lii-ff, in iix books, is on the Trojan war; the other is
entitled " Aiitiocheis," the war of Anlioch, or the Cru-
fade ; of this lad only a fragment rem.in:., in v. hith the
heroes of Britain are celebrated. The li vie af Jofeph is not
oniy, fortheniod part, pure, but rich and ornanicntcd, and
his verfilication approaches the bed n-.odels of antiquity.
His dicliotl is compounded cliiefly of Ovid, Statins, aiid
Claudian, the favourite poets of the age. " Italy,"' fays
Mr. Warton, in his liidory of F.nglilh Poetry, " had at
that time produced no poet comparable to him." He was
author of love verfes, cjiigi-ams, and mifccllaneous poems.

Jo.sifH, .9/., in Geography, a fmall iflandin the Indian fea.
S. lat. J ' 45'. E. long. 54! 10'.— Alio, a town of Africa,
in the country of Gahm, on the Sereg:d ; k^ n;ilei 1£.S.E.

JOS

«f Galam. — Alio, a town of Canada, on the right bank of
the river St. Lawrence. N.lat. 46 4S'. W. long. 71 8'.
r— .^Ifo, a town on the W. coallof theidaml of Dominica;
TO miles S. of Porn'noudi. — Alfo, a town of Weit Flo-
rida, iltiiated.in a bay of the gulf of Mexico, to which it
gives nan-.e. N. lat. 2</ 48'. W. long. 85^.' _?4.'.— AHo, a
town of California.— Alfo, an illand in the llraits of Mane,
which convey the waters of lake Superior into lake Huron.
— Alfo, a lake in North America, 31 miles long, atid ij
broad, lying E. of lake Sal, and which fends its waters by
Cat lake river into Cat lake, and afterwards forms the
S.E. branch of Severn river. Ofnabnrgh houfe is on the
N.E. part of the lake— Alfo, a river which runs N.W.
into the S.E. part of lake Michigan. The Pautevvatamee
Indians refidc on this riv.-r, oppifite fort St. .lofcph. They
canraife 200 warriors. — Alfo, a river in the illand of Bar-
badoes, which runs into the fea ; four miles N.W. of Con-

fett's bay Alfo, a lake of Canada. N. lat. 50 50'.

W. loner. 90" 35'.

St. JosEi'Jl, Fort, called alfo GalLim, a town of Afnca,
fituated on the river Senegal, in N. Lit. 14 34'. W. long.

.Joseph Jl Onina, St., a town on the \V. coai^ of the ifland
of Trinidad. N. lat. 10 25'. W.. long. 60 55'.

JosLPii le Pnchiur, St., a town of the ifland of Marti-
nico. , , ,.

JOSEPHINIA, in Boinny, fo nam.'d by Ventenat, m
Jionour of his muniiicent patronefs .Tyfephine, the now
divorced emprefs of Buonaparte, whole claim to fiich coni-
jnemoralion we have already admitted ; fee tiuME.v. Ven-
ten. Malmais. 67. Brown. Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. I. 519.
Clafs and order, D'ulvinmh yh{wfpfnma. Nat. Ord. Lu-
lidje, Linn. Bl^n.ma:, Juff. Ptdatiine, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal Perianth inferior, in five deep, nearly equal,
acute fegments. Cor. of one petal, ringeiit ; tube not much
longer than the caly.x ; throat dilated, bell-fliaped ; lunb
iive-lobed, fpreading, two-li;>ped, the upper hp in two equal
'rounded Icgme.its, lower in three, of which tlie middle one is
largell. i'/nw. Filaments four, awl-fnapcd, Ihorter than the
corolla, two of them iliortcr than the rcll, with the rudi-
ment of a fifth ; anthers heart-fuaped, of two cells. Pi/l.
Germen fuperior, pyramidal, rugofe ; ilyle cylindrical, about
equal to the ftamens ; ftigma in four equal, oblo-.;g, acute
fegments Pcric. Nat anguhtr, muricated, of from four to
eight cells. S.:eds folilary, ered, oblong.

Elf. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Corolla ringent ;
throat bel!-(liaped ; limb five-lobed, the middle fegment of
the lower lip longeft. Stigma four-ckft. Nut of feveral
ceiis, muricated. Seeds folitary, ereft.

J. J. Impcratrlch. Vent. Malmais. t. 67.— Germen of
about four cells. Leaves lanceolate; elliptical, acute,
downy ber.eath like the liem. Segments of the calyx equal.
jSroaJH.— Gathered by the French voyagers on the well iide
of New Holland, who brought feeds to the garden cf La
Mahnaifon, where they fuccceded well. The plant is bien-
nial, floweriDg in the middle of fuinmer, decumbent, of an
inelegant or lurid afpeft, with large, toothed,; dull-green
ka-vcs. Flotverj axilliry, folitary, about an inch long,
whitilh, variegated and fpotted with dull purple.

2. i. grandifiora. Brown. Prodr. v. 1.520— Germen
of ei-rht ccils.^ Leaves lanceolate, pointed, flighily downy
beneath. Stem fmooth. Upper fegment of the *alyx half
th? length of the. rcll. Lowelt fegment of the corolla more
than twice as long as the others. iVo.-^;;,— Gathered by
Mr. Brown in the tropical part of New Holland.

JOSEPHSTHAL, in G.:osnq,hy, a town of Bohemia,
jjj me circle of Bolellau ; 12 miles N.N.E. of Turcau.

J o s

JOSEPHUS,- Flavil-s, in Biography, an emii.c"
.lewilli hillorian, was born in the year 37, when Calig-.i
was emperor. His father was Mattathias. defcended fro;:.
the ancient high-priells of the Jews : by his mother he was
of the royal liucaire of the Afmonceans, who, for a confi-
derable time, had the fupreme government of the Jewifli
nation. He was educated together with his brother Mat-
thias, and made fuch proficiency in knowledge, that when
he was but fourteen years of age, tli« highprieils, and fome
of. the principal people of the cit}', came frequently to con-
fu!t him about the right interpretation of things in the law.
In his. fixtecnth year he retired into the wildernefs, where
he lived in great abftemiournefs, and habits of felf-denial
during the fpace of three years. He ftudied the principles
of the leading fefts, and embraced, as the rule of his life
and conduct, thofe of the Pharifees, and being now nineteen
years of age, he began to act in public. At the age of
twenty-fix he went to Rome, where, by means of a Itagc-
player of his own nation, he obtained an introduction to
Poppsa, the emperor Nero's wife, by whofe intercll he pro-
cured the releafe of fome priells, whom Felix had fent pri-
foners from .Icrufalem. Returning home, he was appointed
by the revolted Jews governor of the two Galilees, in which
capacity, as a general, he bravely defended Jotapata againft
Vefpafian, but which was taken after a fiege of forty -feven
days. When the city was in the hands of the conqueror,
he gave orders to fearch for Jofephus, who had efcaped the
general inalfacrc, by concealing himfclf in a cavern cut- in. a
rock. In this gloomy recefs he met with forty men of emi-
nence who had concealed themfelves, and had with them
provifions fufficient for their fuppcrt feveral days. Ilpon
being difcovered, he propofcd to tl:; fi-tv r.v.n ■■}'^ had
taken refuge there, with him, thai ;! . ■ • /. i-,

and upon tiieir deterininalion r.ir > : : : cial

wounds, he perfuaded them 10 c:;:l I..,., u.^'^-..i..,) , \.ho
fliould kill the next man, and by an extraordinary civciun-
ftante he and one other were left the furvivors of the red.
Tliis iingle companion was eafily prevailed upon to join him
in accepting tjie proffered- mercy of the Romans. On beir.g
taken before Vefpafian, he boldiy predicted that v.hhin a
fliort time the empire would fall to the fhare of that general,
by which prediction, which %vas afterwards fulfilled, he Je-
curcd a favourable reception from him ; though he was re-
tained as a pnfoiier on account of the ufe v.lnch Vcfp:;fian
intended to make, of him in the farther ; . ' ihe

war againft the Jews. It fliould feem 1. it-

tered himfelf with tlie notion that he \' 1 a

knowledge of future events. " It is likvi) n; ,1 ili. vui-
cious and learned I^ardner, " that he often thought of .lofeph
in Egypt, and of Daniel in Babylon, and was" in hopes of
making a like figure at the court of Rome. But I fnppofe
it may be no dilparagemcnt to Jofephus to fay, that he was
not equal to them 111 vjifdom, or in virtue and integrity."
As foon as Vefpafian was feated on the imperial throne, Jo-
fephus was fct at liberty, and was taken by Titus with him
when 'he marched to lay fiege to Jerufalem. Here he faw
the ruin of his country, of which he afterwards l>ecame the
hillorian. He was fent into the city with offers of peace
upon condition cf the fubmiinon of his countrymen. They
defpifed his oflers, and rejeftcd his couiifels with fcorn. The
Jews nowconlidered him as adeferter and traitor to their caufe,
and it is a fail that they never manifeiled any peat rcfpett
for his writings. During the progrels of the fiege he did
not ceafc exhorting them to avoid their inevitable fate by a
timely furrender, and once, appro,achi:ig too near the walls,
he received a wound v/hichlaid him ienfelefs on the ground.
At. the caplure of th? city, Jofephua obtained the hbera-

lion

J O 3

tfon of Mattliias and feveral friends wiiliout ranfom ; he
had permifTioii alfo to fave what he ploafed out of the ruins ;
but hff contented himfelf with a copy of the facrod writings.
The emperor heaped upon Iiim his favours, and as a marlc of
his gratitude, he aiTiimcd their family furname of Flavins.
He employed his leifurc in drawing up thofe works which
have im:norta1ized his name. Thele are, i "TheHillory
of the Jewilh war, and th; taking of Jerufalcm," in fevcn
books. It was written in the language of iiis own country,
ar,d he afterwards publilhcd it in Greek for the benefit of
other nations. He profelTes to have written witli great fide-
lity, and appeals, for the truth of his liillory, to hving wit-
nefles. He prefented the work to Vefpafinn and Titus, of
whom the latter ordered it to be publiflied, and figned it with
his own hand to Ihew that it was authentic. 2. " The Jewi(h
Antiquities" in twenty-four books, or the hillory of the
Jews from the creation to the 12th year of Nero, in which
the war began. To this is fabjoined his life, written by him-
felf, and dedicated to Epapliroditu.-:, of whom we know
nothiug but from Jofephus himfclf, who defciibes him as a
lover of all kinds of learning, but as principally delighted
wth the knowledge of hiilory, and this on account of his
having been himfelf concerned in great affairs, and many
turns of fortune, and having ilievvn a wonderful vigour of an
excellent nature, and an immoveable virtuous refolution in
them all. 3. He wrote alfo " Two books againil Apion
fcf Alexandria," which is a vindication of the Jewilh peo-
ple againll the calumnies of that Egyptian author. "A
Difcourfe on the Martyrdom of the Maccabees ' is fomc-
times afcribed to him, but its genuinenefs is dlfputed, and
Ml". Whiifon who tranfiated the other works would not give
this a .place in his volumes. The works of Jofephus,
though (lighted by the Jews, nre held in high eftimation by
ChriSians ; his llyle is pure, agreeable, and fometimcs elo-
quent ; he has been called the Greek Livy ; and, like that
Roman writer, he is fond of difplaying the powers of his
ov/n imagination by long fpeeches. The hillory of the
Jewifh war, of which he was a fpeftator, is a moft inte-
relHng narrative. The bed editions of the works of Jo-
fephus, are thofe of HuJfon in two vols, folio. Oxford,
1720, and of Haverc:inip, in tv.'o vols. Amilerdam 17:6.
There have been a multitude of Englifli trandations ; to that
of Whiilon we have .ilready referred. Univer. Hill. Lard-
ner, vols, i and vii. edit. 178S. And Jofephus's own Life.
JOSHUA, a canonical book of the Old Teftament, con-
taining a hillory of the wars and tranfattions of the perfon
•w-hofc name it bears, who fuccceded Mofes in the govern-
ment of the Ifraolites, in the year 14^1 B.C. at the age of 90
years, and was their conduflor to the land of Canaan. He
was the fon of Nun, of the tribe of Eptiraim, and born in the
^dnd of Gofhen, in the year 1536 B.C. At the period of
the Exod::s (which fee), Jofhi.a was dininguilhcd by his
talents and virtues, fo that he was taken into the confidence
of Mofes, and fele£ted to command th; Ifraelites, when
they were attacked by the .i\.malekites, in their march from
mount Horeb to mount Sinai. He was likev.-ife honoui'ed
■with the privilege of accompanying Mofes to mount Sinai,
and of remaining with bim forty days, when he recci\t;d di-
rcftions for the future government of the Ifraeiites, and the
Isiws written on the firfl tables of Hone. He alfo accompa-
nied Caleb, and other ten perfons who were deputed to exa-
mine the land" of Canaan, previous to the invafion of it by
the Ifraeiites. When Mofes was apprized of his approach-
ing dcfTolution, he confirmed Jofhua as hii fucccfibr in themoft
public and folenin manner. Although he w^s advanced in
years when he conduced the Ifraeiites to Canaan, he per-
formed this arduous.underlaking. with fmguiar prudence and
Vol. XIX..

JOS

valour. When they were pafTuig the river of Jordan, in the
extraordinary manner whicli is recorded in their hillory, he
diredcd two monuments to be creftcd as a memorial of their
miraculous paffage, one on the fpot where the ark had Hood
in the bed of the river, and the other on the fliure ; and from
the hanksof Jordan he proceededtowards the plainsof Jcrichoj^
and pitched his tent for the firll time in Canaan, the land of
whith he was taking polfcflion at Gilgal. For the conflifts
• and fucceffes that attended his futr.re progrefs, we refer to
his hillory. Having furveyed and divided tlie lands among
the feveral tribes (B.C. 144J), he governed Ifr.T.'l in peace;
and when he became fcniible that the termination of his liffc
could be at no great dillance, he fummoned all the tribes
of Ifi-ael to Schechem, and recited the extraordinary opera-
tions of the providence of God in their favour, and havin?
awakened in their minds a becoming fenfe of gratitude, en-
forced upon them the wifdom and duty of perfeverini' obe-
dience to his laws, and exhorted them to renew the covenants
by which they had already engaged to worfliip and fervc
him. This tianfaftion was then folcmnly regillcred, and a
monument for perpetuating it was erefted near a great oak
which wa.s in Schechem. Soon after this event, "i>;z. in the
year B.C. 1426, Jofliua, having exhibited ample evidence
of the propriety of his name, which denoted " Saviour,"
died in his retirement at Timnath-fera, at the age of i 10
years. The book of Jolhua, fuppoled to have been written
by himfelf, and to have received fome additions from Samuel
and Ezra, (fte BiBLBandC.vxox,) may be divided into three
parts ; the lirll of which is a hillory of the conquell of the
land of Canaan ; the fecond, which begins at the twelft.*!
chapter, is a defcription of that country, and the divifion of
it among the tribes ; and the third, comprifed in the twolall
chapters, contains the renewal of the covenant he caufedthe
Ifraeiites to make, and the death of their victorious leader
and governor. The whole comprehends a term of fevcn^
teen, or, according to others, of twenty-feven years.

JOSIAH, king of Judaii, deferves particular mention
on account of his wifdom and piety, and fome memorable-
events that occurred in the courfe of his reign. He fuc-
ceeded to the throne, upon the alfaffination of his father
Amen, at the age of eight years, in the year B.G. 640, and
at a period when idolatry and wickcdnefs,. encouraged by
his father's profligate example, very generally prevailed,
Jofiah, who manifelled the influence of pious and virtuoui
principles at a very early age, began in his fixteenth year to
projecl the reformation of the kingdom, and to adopt mean.i
for reiloring the worfhip of the true God. At the age of
twenty years he vigorouily. purfued the execution of the
plans which he had meditated. He began 'with abolifliing
idolatry, firl; at .Terufalem, and then through different parts
of the kingdom ;■ dell roving the altr.rs which had been
erefted, anjltlie idols which had been the objedts of venera-
tion and worfliip. He then proceeded, in his twenty-lixth
year, to a complete relloration of the v.-or(hip of God, and
the regular ferviee of the temple.. Whilll Le was profe-
ci'.ting this pious work, and repairing the temple v/hich had
been long negleftcd, and whicli had funk into a Hate of dil.^-
pidation,! the book of the law, which had been coitcenled in the
temple, was happily difcovgred. This was probably a copy of
the I\-ntal.uch, which had been lodged there fbr fecuri'ty by
fome pious prielk in the reign of Ahaz or ManaiTi h. Joliali,
defirous of averting from himfclf and the kingdom threatened
judgments, determined to adhere to the dire<flions of the
lawj in the hulinefs of reformation which he had undertaken,
and to obferve the fettivaU enjointd by Mofes-, wliichi
had been IhamefuUy neglefted. \Vith this view he alfemblcd
all the elders o-f the people in the temple at Jerufalcm, and
3 D haTing

J o s

!-avmg aL-endcd the throne, read the hook of the Mofaic
law, and then entered into a folemn covenant to obferve the
ilatutes and ordinances which it enjoined. To this covenant
the whole adembly teftiiied their confent. The ark was re-
•ftored to its proper place ; the temple was purified ; idola-
trous utenfils were removed ; and thofe appropriate to the
worlhip of God fubftituted in their room. After thefe pre-
parations, the piifTover was obferved with lingular zeal and
magnificence. This took place in the eighteenth year of
Jofiah's reign. But in purfuing his laudable plans of re-
formation, he was rofifted by the inveterate habits of the
Ifraehtes, fo that his zealous and perfevering efforts were in-
effeflual. Their degeneracy was fo invincible, that the
Almighty fovereign was provoked to inflift upon them th.ofe
calamities which were denounced by the prophet Zephaniah.
In the thirty-fecond year of .Toliah's reign, Pharaoh Necho,
king of Egypt, advanced with his army againll Carchemifh,
a city lituated on the river Euphrates ; and he was oppofed
by the ki?.g of Judah ; fo that a bloody battle enlued at
Migiddo, in which Jofiah received a mortal wound, which
terminated in his death, after he had been conveyed to Je-
rufalem, in the thirty. ninth year of his reign, B.C. 609.
His death was greatly lamented hy all his fiibjefts ; and an
elegy was written on the occafion by the prophet Jeremiah,
which is not now extant. 2 Kings, xxii. xxiii. 2 Chron.
xxxiv. XXXV.

JOSIDA, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland
of Niphon ; 16 miles E. of Seoda.

JOSLOWITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Znaym ; 8 miles S.E. of Znaym.

JOSNIOW, a town of Poland, in Podolia; 48 mUes
N.N.W. of Kaminiec.

JOSQUIN DEs Pre/, or, as he is called in Latin, Jof-
■qu'wiis, or Jodocus Prataiju, and in Italian Giofqmno del Prato,
in Biography, a Netherlander, tlie difciple of Okenheim, and
maellro di cappellato Louis XIL king of France, was the
greateft mufician of his time ; and, in many particulars,
of any time, fince the invention of counterpoint.

His compofitions for the church, though long laid afide,
and become obfolete by the gradual changes in notation, con-
tinue ftiU to merit the attention of the curious. Indeed the
laws and difhculties of canon, fugue, augmentation, dimi-
nution, reverfion, and almoft every other fpecies of learned
contrivance allowable in ecclefiaftical compofitions for voices,
■were never fo well obferved, or happily vanqui{hed, as by
Jofquin ; who may jullly be called the father of modern
harmony, and the inventor of almoft every ingenious con-
texture of its conllituent parts, near a hundred years before
the time of Paledrina, Orlando di LaiTo, Tallis, or Bird, the
great mufical luminaries of the fixteenth century, whofe
names and works are itill held in the highell reverence, by all
Jrue judges and lovers of what appears to us the true and
genuine ttyle of choral compofitions.

This ingenious, learned, and voluminous compofer, is enu-
jueratcd, by Lewis Guiceiardini, among Flemilh mnfielans.
However, the condaut addition of Pratenfis, or Del Prato,
to his name, feems rather to make him a native of Prato, in
Tufcany ; and the frequent mention that is made of him by
Italian writer.^, implies at leaft, if he was not a native of
Italy, that he had lived there, and that his works were very
famiUar to them ; for not only by the name of Jofquino,
Jodoco del Prato, is he often mentioned by Franchinus, and
all the mufical writers of Italy in the next age, as a mod
excellent cumpofer, but by inifcellaneous writers, who only
fpeak of mufic incidentally. As a proof of this, we need
give no better authority than the following paffage in Caftig-
lione's admirable «' Cortegiano/'

J o s

This author, fpeaking of the operations of prejudice in
favour of great names, tells us of the eagernefs anil deliglit
with which a polite company of his acquair.tance had read a
copy of verfes, fuppofing them to have been written by San-
nazaro, who afterwards, when it was cerl;ii;i that they were
not of his compofition, thought them execrable. " So like-
wife,'' fays one of the interlocutors, "a motet fung before the
duchefs of Urbino was unnoticed, till it was known to be
the produftion of Jofquin.''

Franchinus, enumerating the great muficians of his time,
fppcifies Tinftor, Gulielmrs, Guarncrius, Ji fquin de Pret,
Gafpar, Agricola, Loyfet, Obrecht, Brumel, Ifaac, and
calls them moji ddighiful compofcrs.

The fame author, in another work, lets us know that he
had been perfonaily acquainted with Jofquin : for, fpeaking
of fome inaccuracies in the fefquialterate proportion, he fays :
" Di quedi inconvenienti ne advertite gia molti anni paiTati
Jufquin Defpriet et Gafpar digniflimi Compofitori." This
was printed in I JoS, fo that " many years ago," mud throw'
thefe conipofers far back into the fifteenth century ; and, he
adds, '' though they acquiefced in my opinions, yet, having
been corrupted by Img hah'it, they were unable to adopt
them.''

Zarlino, who likewife fpeaks of him among the prattcipe-
rili, gives another inftance of predileftion in favour of Jofquin
at Rome, " which," fays he, " was at the expcnce of my
friend, the admirable Adrian Willaerl, who has often himfelf
confirmed the faft ." The motet " verbum bonum et fuave,"
for fix voices, having been long performed in the pontifical
chapel at Rome, on the feilival of our Lady, as the pro-
duftion of Jofquin, was thought to be one of the fined com-
pofitions of the time ; but WiUaert, having quitted Flan-
ders, in order to vilit Rome, in the time of Leo X. and
finding that this motet was fung as the coftipofition of Jof-
quin, whofe name was affixed to it in the chapel books, ven-
tured to declare it to be his own work, and not that of the
famous Jofquin : but fo great was the ignorance, envy, and
prejudice of the fingers, that, after this declaration, the
motet was never again performed in the pontifical chapel.

Adami, in his hidorical lid of the fingers in the pope's
chapel, mentions Jofquin next to Guido, as one of the great
cultivators and fupporters of church mufic ; he cpUs him
" Uomo infigne per I'inventione," and fays that lie was a
finger in the pontifical chapel during the time of Sixtus IV.

After quitting Italy, he was appointed maedro di cappclla
to Lewis XII. of France, who reigned from 1498 to
I J 15, and it is hardly probable that fuch an honour fiiould
have been conferred upon him till he had arrived at great emi,
nence in his profelTion ; he mud either have acquired the
public favour by his works or performance, before he could
be noticed by a fovereign ; indeed the impediments to their
approximation mud have been reciprocal, and it has been well
obferved, that it is as difficult for a prince to get at a man of
merit, as it is for a man of merit to approach a prince.

It is related, that when Jofquin was fird admitted into the
fervicc of I^ewis, he had been promifed a benefice by his ma-
jedy ; but this prince, contrary to his ufual cudom, for he
was in general both jud and liberal, forgot the promife he
had made to his maedro di cappella ; when Jofquin, after fuf-
fering great inconvenience from the fhortnefs of his majedy's
memory, ventured, by a finvular expedient, to remind him
publicly of his promife, without giving offence ; for being
commanded to compofe a motet for the chapel royal, he
chofe part of the 1 19th Pfalm : " Memor edo verbi tui
fervotuo ;'' " Oh think of thy fervant, as concerning thy
word ;■' which he fet in fo fupplicating and exquifite a man-
nerj that it wa» univerfally adnaired, particularly by the

king,

JOSQ^UIN.

ting, who vvas not only charmed with the mufic, but felt printing. And thefe very curious compofitions muft have

the force of the words fo etreftually, that he foon after been ftudied, and frequently rehearfcd, before their perform-

granted his petition, by conferring on him the promifed pre- ance ; for though no rapidity of execution is required, yet,

ferment : for which aCt of ju!liceand niunilicence, Jofquin, as there are no bars, and t!ie value of the notes is freejutntly

with equal fehcity, comrofcd, as a hymn of gratitude, an- changed by pofition, as well as by the modal iigns, upon very

part of the fame Pfalm: "Bonitatcm feciiti cum fervo fliort notice, this, joined to the difficult iolution of the

slh,

tuo, Dominc," '« Oh Lord, thou liall dealt gracioufly with canons, muft have made it impoffible for them to have been
thyfervant." fung at fight, even by thofe who were accuilomed to the

Jofquin feems to have been pofleiTed of a certain vein of notation.
Avit and liumour, as well as mulical genius ; of which Gla- Specimens of thefe compofitions in fcore may be feen in
reanus has given his readers feveral inllances, bcfides thofe Burney's Hiilory of Mufic, vol. ii., and whoever examines
jult related. In confequence of the long procrailination of tliem will find that no notes have had admiffion by chance,
the performance of Lewis Xllthspromife relative to the be- or for the fake oi rempllfage, but that, like the prints of
nefice, Jofquin applied to a nobleman, in high favour at Hogarth, every thing not only contributes to the principal
court, to ufe his intcreft with this prince in his behiilf, who, defign and harmony of the whole, but has a fpccific ciiarac-
encouraging his hopes witli proteftations of zeal for his fer- ter of its own.

vice, conftantly ended with faying, " I ihall take care of this But Jofqr.in's mafTes, though more frt quently cited and
bufinefs, hi me alone''' — Lmjfc faire moi {laijfer met faire), celebrated by mufical writers than thofe of any other author,
when, at length, Jofquin, tired of this vain and fruitlefs af- and indeed than any of his other works^ feem inferior
furance, turned it into folmifation, and compofed an entire to his motets in every refpeCf ; for thefe are not only com-
mafs on thefe fyllables of the hexachords La fol fa re mi ; pofed on fubjefts of his own invention, or in fragm'ciits of
which mafs is among the produftions of our author in the the moft beautiful and ioleinn chants of the church, but in
Britifh Muleum, and is an admirable compofition. a flyle n.ore clear and pleafiiig.

The following circumilancc, which likewife happened In the third and fourth colleftion of motets publifhed
during Jofquin's refidence at the court of France, has been at the beginning of the fixteenth century, under the title of
recorded both by Glareanus and Merfennus. Thefe writers " Motteti della Corona," there arc many by Jofquin, which
inform us, that Lewis, though mufic afforded him great are truly admirable, particularly a miferere for five voices,
pleafure, had fo weak and intlesible a voice, that he never which, as it confifts of three movements, is too long to ba
was able to fing a tune, and that he defied his maeRro di cap- infcrted in a work of this kind, but appears to u» a model
peila to compofe a piece of mufic in which it was pofTlble of choral compofition, without iiillrumpnts ; as the fubjefts
for him to bear a part. However the mulician accepted the of fugue and imitation are fimple, and free from fecular le-
challenge, and compofed a canon for two voices, to which vity ; the llyle is grave and reverential ; the harmony pure ;.
he added two other parts, one of which had nothing more to the imitations are ingenious, and all conllruded upon a frag-
do than to fullain a fingle found, and the other only the key ment of canto fermo, to wliich the fecond tenor is whoky
note, and its fifth, to be fung alternately. Jofquin gave his confined : repeating it, in the firft part, a note lower every
majefty the choice of thefe two parts, and beginning with time, beginnmg at the fifth of the key, and defcending to
the long note, after fome time, his royal fcholar was enabled its odave ; in the fecond part, afccnding in the fame manner ;
to continue it, as a drone to the canon, in defpite of nature, in the third part, beginning at the fifth, and defcending to
which had never intended him for a finger. the key note.

Rabelais, in his prologue to the third book of Pantagrucl, This fpecies of laboured compofition has been frequent-
places Jofquin desPrez at the head of all the fifty-nine >/o)ru/x ly ccnfured, and ftigmatized by the name of pedantry

and Gothic bnrbarifm, which, perhaps, it would now de-
ferve, out of the church ; but in the time of Joiquin, whei»
there was little melody, and no grace in the arrangement, or
meafure of fingle notes ; the fcience of harmony, or inge-
nuity of contrivance in the combination of fimultancous
founds, or mufic in parts, as it was the chief employment of
the iludcnt, and ambition of the compo!er, fo the merit of

Mujidnes whom he had formerly heard. Jofquin, among mu-
ficians, was the giant of his time, and feems to have arrived
at univerfal monarchy and dominion over the affeftions and
paffions of the mufical part of mankind. Indeed his compo-
fitions feem to have been as well known and as much prac-
tifed throughout Europe, at the beginning of the l6th cen-
tury, as Handel's were in England lixty years ago.

In the mufic book of prince Henry, afterwards Henry both, and the degree of regard bellowed upon them by pof-

VIII., which is preferved in the Pepys' coUcrtion, at teritv, fiiould be proportioned to their fuccefs, in what was

Cambridge, there are feveral of his compofitions, and we are their chief object, and not in what had no exilltnce at the

told that Anne of Boleyn, during her refidence in France, time in which thefe muficians hved.

had coUefted and learned a great number of them. In a With refpeft to fome of Jofquin's contrivances, fuch as

very beautiful MS. m the Britilh Mufeum, confining of augmentations, diminutions, and inverfions of the melody, ex -

French fongs of the ijth century, in three and four parts, preflcd by the barbarous Latin verb cancrhare, from tho

there are hkewife many of Jofquin's compofitions. But the retrograde motion of the rr«i, they were certainly purfued

moft capital collection of his works, and of contemporary to an exccfs ; but to fubJue difficulties has ever been etlcem-

contrapuntiils which we believe is now fubfifting, is in the ed a merit of a certain kind, in all the arts, and ti-eate<! with

Britilh Mufeum, confuting of the firft and third fet of the refpect by artills. Michael Angelo, in delineating the dif-

mafies of Jofquin, compofed forthe pope's chapel, during the ficult attitudes into which he chofe to throw many figures in

pontificate of Sixtus IV., who reigned froi.i 1471 to 1484; his works, and which other artills had not courage, or per-

witlVnialfcs by Pierre de la Rue, Ant. Fevin, John Moreton, haps abilities to attempt, procured himfelf a great name

<cc. among the judges of corredt drawing, and bold defign ;

All thefe were printed by Ottavio Petruccio da Foffom- though a great part of the fpedtator's pleafure in viewing

brone, under a patent from Leo X. fignedby cardinal Bern- them muft arife from refieiSing on the difSciilty of the under-

bo, his Iccretary. Thefe mafTes were the firft mufical pro- taking. There are different roads to the temple of Fame 111

tuitions that iffucd from the prcfs after the invention of every art ; and that which was followed by Jofquin, and hia

3 D 2 emulatoit,

T o s

J o u

■emulators, was too full of thoms.bramloles, and impcdimcTits, .70SS, or Joostje, in Mythology, an idol tvorfhipped by

to be purfucd by men of common genius and abilities, tlie Cliniefe at fome of their grand feftivals, which they ob-

Paintivg and fculpture, which arc to dcHglit and deceive the ferve by way of interceffion for the fick at Batavia an(i

eye, do not, any more than muiic, conline their powers to elfcwhere. To this idol they offer codly prefents ; and

the mere endeavour at plealing the fenfe of which Jhey are the they alio make a large vefTel of paper and combullible

object ; and there are pictures, ftatues, and mufical compo-
Ctions, which aflord very little pleafm-e but what is mtellec-
tiial, and ai-ifmg from rcfleftion on the learning, covreftnefs,
and great labour which the artift. mull have bellowed on
tiiem.

Canons of difficult folution were, to muficians, a fpccics of

problem, and fervcd more to exercife the mind than pleafe the monolatry.

materials, adorning it with flags, and then fetting it on fire
till it is confumed. The name JooHje, given to this idol by
the Dutch, which the Englilh feanicn call Jofs, is a Dutch
nick-name for the devil, and was probably given to this
idol by the Dutch, when they iirll favi' it, either from its
ppcarance, or from the piinciple that all idolatry is de-

ienfe ; and though a peculiar genius, or penetration, is re-
quifite for the quick difcovery of riddles and rcbulFes, yet,
ftill more cunning is neceffary to their produftion ; and,
however contemptuoufly thefe harmonical contrivances may
be treated by the lazy lovers of more airy and fimple compofi.

tiotis, the ftudy of them is ilill of fuch ufe to mufical fludents, ^^- y-,'_ ^y. Jong
in their private exercifes, that a profound and good contra-
puntift has, perhaps, never yet been made by other means.
Thofe who defpife thii feejning -.Gothic pedantry too much,
refemble fuch Jialf-brodlcholars, as have expected to arrive
at a confummate knowledge of the Roman claffics, without
fubmitting to the di-udgcry of grammar and fyntax. Indeed
a great compofer.has, perhaps, never exifted fincethe inven-
tion of counterpoint, who, at his moments of leifure, has not
attempted to manifeil fuperior learning and flcill in the pro-
dutlion of canons, and other difficult arrangements and com-
bination of found ; and who, if he fucceeded, was not vain
of his abilities. Before the cultivation of dramatic nmfic,
as canon and fugue were univerfally lludied and reverenced,
they were brougfet to fuch a degree of perfedioii, as is
wonderful ; and though good talle has long baniflicd
them from the theatre, vet the church and chamber ftill.

JOSSELIN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of Morbihan, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillria of Ploermel; 19 miles N.N.E. of Vannes. The
place contains 2678, and the canton 14,157 inliabitants, on

territory of 215 kiliometres, in IQ communes. N. lat.

J06SLIOKA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Sandomirz ; 76 miles S.S.W. of Sandomirz.

JOSVO, a town of Hungary ; if) miles W. of Cafcliau.

JOTAKO, a fma'.l ifland in' the Mediteraniicui ; z miles'
E. of Teaki.

JOTAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, on the "\V. coaft.
of Natolia, near cape Arbre ; :o miles N. uf Milets.

JOTAPATA, in Anc'ient Geography, a town of Phcenicia,
fituatcd in tlie vicinity of Ptolemais. It was defended by
Jofephus the hillorian, but at laft taken by Vefpafian, iu
the reign of Nero, A.D. 67. Its defence lailed for fevcn
weeks, and 40,000 Jews were killed. Jofeph. de Bel. Jud.

JOUAN ch l'Lsle, St., in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the North Coalts, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftricl of Dinan ; 24 miles S. of St. Malo.

occafionally, retain them, with great propriety: in the The place contains 685, and the canton 8543 inhabitants,

.church they preclude levity, and in the chamber exercife in- on a territory of 150 kihometrea, in 8 communes. N. lat,

genuity. 48° 12'. W. long. 2^ 29',

As Euclid ranks firft among ancient geometricians, fo .10UBERT, Laurent, in Biography, a learned phyli-

Jofquin, for the number, difficulty, and excellence of his cian, and royal profeffor at Montpellier, was born at Valence,

Eiufical canons, feems entitled to the firll place among the in the province of Dauphine, in France, on the i6th of

old compofers, who have been moft afCduous and fuccefsful December 1,29, of a good familv. After he had finifhed

in the cultivation of this difficult fpecies of mufical caleu- his fchool education, he went to Montpellier, where he

lation,

But though the ftyle of Jofquiu;

his fe,

Dofiti(

is grave, and chiefly in fugue, imitation, and year

matriculated in the faculty of medicine on the ill of
March 1550, and took his degree of bachelor the foUowiiig

1550, and
He afterw

other contrivances, with little air or melody ; yet this the leftures of the celebrated Fallo

ards ftudied at Padua, where he attended

puis.

nd at fome other

defect is amply fupplied to contrapuntills, and lovers of places; but returning to Montpellier, he finilhcd his 1
choral mufic, by purity of harmony and ingenuity of de- cifes, and received the degree of dodor in the year 1558.
£gn. Indeed, we have never fcen, among all his produc- The manner in which he had performed his a6ts procured
tions that we have fcored, a fingle movement which is not for him fo much of the confidence and efteein of Houorc
llamped with fome mark of the great maftcr. And though Caftellan, that this profeffor, being fummoncd to court in
fugue and canon were fo univerfally cultivated in his time, the following year, to hdd the office of firll phyfician of
when there were many men of abilities in this elaborate and Catharine de Medicis, queen of Henry II. he nominated
complicated kind of writing ; there is fuch a manifeil fupe- Joubert to give the Icftures in the fchools during his ab-
riority in bis powers, fuch a fimpk majeily in his ideas, and fence ; and his nomination met with the fandioH of the
fuch dignity of defign, as wholly juftify the homage which faculty. Joubert (hewed himfelf worthy of the lionourable
ie received. appointment, and acquitted himfelf in fo dillinguiffied a
It will, perhaps, be thought that too much notice manner, that on the death of profeflbr Rondelet in 1566,
has been taken of this old compofcr and his works; but as he was immediately named his fuccefTor in the chair. He
he is one of the great heroes of the art, and the type of was likewife the fecond fuccefibr of Rondelet in the dig-
all mufical excellence at the time in which he fiouriihed, the nity of chancellor, having followed Saporta in 1574. He
Jefs need be faid of his contemporaries, who, in general, was called to Paris by Henry HI. in K7g, who cnteiv

vers but his imitators.

Jofquin, according to Walthcr (0@liQcaIifc!)rs Cc^icon),
was buried in the church of St. Gedulc, at Bruffels, where
his figure and epitaph are ili'l to be fcen. His death mull
iave happened early in the i6th century.

'?79>
tained hopes that Joubert would be able to cure the bar-
renncfs of Louifa de Lorraine, his queen. But his attempts
proved unfuccefsful ; and he returned to Montpellier with
the title of phyfician in ordinary to the king, and continued
to praftife his profeffion there to the end of his life, which

happened

J O V

Ti:>ppen5j on the 21ft of Odober jjS^, when he was on the
road from Thouloufe.

This phyfician was the autlior of fcvcral worts, and
Tvrote with much corredncfs M\d even elegance. A col-
ledion of thofe, which were written in the Latin language,
has been frequently reprinted under the title of " Operum
Latiuorum Tomus primus et fecundus.'' The firlt edition
is that of Lyons, in 15S2, folio ; the fubfequent ones ap-
peared at Frankfort, in 1599, 1645, and 166S, alfo in folio.
The following have been publillied feparately : " Paradoxa
Medica, feu de Fobribiis," Lyons, 8vo. 1566 ; " Do IVlle,
Quartana.ct Paralyfi," ibid. 1567, 8vo. The treatife on the
plague was alfo publiflied in French, in 1581 ; «■ D." affeai-
bus pilorum et cutis, prxfertini capitis, et de Cephalalgia.
De afTedibus intcrnis partium Thoracis," Geneva, l^jz.
Lugd. 1577, 1578 ; " Traitc du Ris, fon effcnce, fes canfcs
ct effels, ' Paris, IJ74, 1379,8^-0.; " Modicinx Pradiccs
Libri tres," Luird. 1^77, l2mo.; " Pharmacopoeia a Joanne
Paulo, fangmaiftero, edita," ibid. IJ79, 8vo. j " Traitc dcs
arcbufades," ibid. 158 1. This, however, is the third edi-
tion ; the work was feveral times printed, and contains
very corred opinions and precepts refpeding the nature
of gun-iliot wounds ; " Guidonii de Cauliaco Chirurgia
Magna," ibid. I385, with notes by the editor. The fame
work was tranflated into French, by Ifaac Joubert, his fon,
and went through nine or ten editions ; " Traitc de.s Eaux,"
Paris, 160J, iimo. But of all the works of Laurent
Joubert, that in which he ventured to raife his voice againtl
popular medical errors, was the mod: diftinguiflied ; " Er-
reurs popiilaires touchant la Mcdccine," Bourdeaiix, 1579.
This work made fo great an imprefTion upon the public
mind, that it was printed ten fucceffive times in the courfe of
fix months. Eloy. Did. Hill, de la Med.

JOUER d.-s Instrumexs, Fr. to play upon mufical in-
flruments. The French fay jouer du violon, ds la hajfe, du
hautheis, d: lajlutc ; toucher h clavecin, et les orgues ; fanner la
trompeite ; donner du cor ; f'mcer la gu'Uarr.'. They play on
the violin, the violoncello, the hautbois, and the flute ; but
they touch the harpfichcrd and the organ ; found the trum-
pet and French horn ; and pinch the guitar.

JOUGH-HOLES, in Mining, is the name, in fome parts
of Derbyfltire, for lenticular cavities, principally in the ver-
tieal joints or in the veins, whicii are lined with cryftals.
Thefe are called tick-holes, drufes, lochs, nefts, S:c. in
other fituations. Tiie manner in which thefe curious holes
were formed and left is endeavoured to be explained in Mr.
.Farey's Report on Derbvfhire, vol. i. p. 247.

.IOVL-\LE Arcanum. See Arcanlm.

JoviALE Bezoardlcum. See Bezoakdicum.

JOVL\N, in Biography, a Roman emperor, born about
the year 531, was a native of Singidunum, in Pannonia, and
fon of count Varronian, who had a I'igh reputation in the
ftate, and who was enjoying, in honourable retirement, the
fruit of his long fervices. The fon had been brought up
to arms, and had obtained fo much reputation as a com-
mander, that although an avowed ChriiU.m, the emperor
Julian would not fuffer him to refign, upon offering to do
fo rather than quit his religion. On the death of Juhan, in
his expedition againft the Perfian empire, June 363, Jovian,
wlio was but tlie firil of domeftics, was nominated to the
purple. At fir.1 a few voices only falutcd him with the
names of Emperor and Auguilus. The tumultuary accl;;-
n.aiion was inllantly repeated by the guards who furrounded
the tent, and pall'cd, in a few minutes, to the extremity of
the line. Mo prince was ever raifed to the throne under
•more critical circumftances. The Pvoman army, diftre&d
sad difpirited, was retreating from the eneiriy's country

J o u

towards its own frontiers, purfued and continually liaraflTed
by a much fuporior force. He made a difadvanlagcous
peace with Perfia, fliut up the heathen temples, recalled the
banilhed clerg)-, and from henceforth it was determined
that ChrilHanity fliould enjoy an uninterrupted triumph over
hcathenifm. On arriving at Antioch he difplayed his at-
tachment to the orthodox dodrine, by refloring the churches
to all the adherents of the council of Nice. At the fame
time, in order to (juiet the minds of his fubjedls of the old
religion, he iffucd a decree of toleration, permlttin,! ti.e
cxercife of the ccrem.onies of the pagan worihip. He left
Antijch in the winter-feafon, and proceeded to Corllanti-
nople. He caiif-d fonie ornaments to be added to the ton.b
of Ju'.ian, at Tarfus, as he palfed. At Ancyra he allumed
the title and enligns of the confullhip, and conferred tlio
fame on his infant fon. Dadaftana, an obfcure town, at
about an equal dillancc from Ancyra and Nice, was markrd
for the fatal term of his journey and his life. After i:i-
dulging in a plentiful, perkaps an intemperate fupper, l.f;
retired to rell, and in the next morning he was found dead
in his bed. The body of the dcccafed emperor was lent t»
Conllantinople to be interred with his prcdeccffors. Hi*
fudden death was imputed either to the effects of an over-
loaded ilomach, or to the gas arifing from burning char-
coal, which had been placed in his chamber to dry tlii-
walls. This event happened in the eighth rawntli of his reign,
and in the thirty-third year of his age. Gibbon. Univ.
Hilt.

JOVIUS, Paul, an eminent hiftorian, was born at Como,
in Lombardy, in 143 5. Having received a good education,
he went to Rome, where he wrote a work, entitled " Df
Pifcibus Romanis." He had a penfion from Francis L king
of France; and Clem.ent VH. gave him the bilhopric of
Nocera, an office to which he did no credit, on account of
his debauched manner of living. He died at Florence ia
1452. His principal work is a hillory of his own time, whicii
was publifhed at Stralhurgh in 1556. He alfo wrote the
lives of illuHrious men. Fie had a brother who wrote a
hiflory of Switzerland. Moreri.

JOULOPPED, in Heraldry, a term applied to the gills
of a cock, when borne of a different tindure from his
head.

JOULTS, in Mining, is applied, in Derbylhirc, to pieces '
of fpar and lead-ore intermixed, from the ilze of walnuts
to that of the tilu Sometimes thefe are called knockiiigs,
or hannaway. See Farcy's Derbyfliirc Report, vol. i.
?■ 3^>9-

JOUNPORA, in Geography, a t«wn of Hindooftan, ia ;
Bahar ; 25 miles S.W. of'Patn.n.

JOURA, a barren ifland in the Greci m Arch'p lagr,
about 16 miles in circuit; 12 miles S.\S'. of j'Vndrns.
N. hit. 37' 37'. E. long. 24" 46'.

JOURKOUP, a town of Aliatic Turkey, in Cara ,
mania ; 50 miles E.N.E. of Akferai.

JOURNAL, a day-book, regiller, or account of what
pafles daily. See Dairy.

JoUKS'AL, ia Merchants' jlccounts, is a book into whioU
every particular article is poited out of thewalle book, and
made debtor. This is to be very clearly worded, and jairl)^
engroffed. See Bcok-kekpikg.

Journal, in Sea ylj'airs, is a regifler kept by the pilot,
and others, wherein notice is taken of every thing that haj)-
pens to the ihip, from day to day, and from hour to hour;
with regard to the winds, the rhumbs, tlie rake, fouiidint^.,
&c. in order to enable him to adjull the .reckom.-g, and iliv
lermine the place wicre the ihip is.

In

JOURNAL.

In all fea-journals, the day, or what is called the twenty-
four hours, begms at noon, and is counted thence twenty-
four hours to the next noon : the firll twelve hours, from
noon to midnight, are marked with P. M. fignifying after
mid-day ; and the fecond twelve hours from midnight to
noon are marked with A. M. fignifying after midnight ; fo
that the (hip account is twelve hours earlier than the fhore
account of time. There are various ways of keeping jour-
nals, according to the different notions of mariners con-
cemiii<r the articles that are to be entered. Some writers

diretl the keeping fuch a kind of journal as is only aft'
abllradl of each day's tranfaclions, fpecifying the weatherj.
what rtiips or lands were feen, accidents on board, the lati-
tude, longitude, meridional diftance, coiirle, and nm. Thefe-
particulars are to be drawn from the (hip's log-book, or
from that kept by the perfon himftlf. Other autliors re-
commend the keeping only of one account, including the
logbook, and all the work of each day, with the deductions
drawn from it. The form of the latter kind of journal, witlt
an example of the work of a (ingle day, is as fvlbws :

AbilraiTt of a Journal from England towards Madeira,

Remarks on BuarJ.

K.

-1

9

^

9

2

9

?

S

?

8

7

7

2

8

.?

8

7

7

6

7

2

7

O

6

4

Courfes.

N.W.byW.iW.

Leeway.

S. J W.

Leeway.
W. S. W. i W.

Leeway.
N.N.E. iE.

Leeway.

S. W.

Leeway.

S. W. I W.

2 points.
N.E. 4 E.

o point.
S. J W.

2 points.

S. i w.

0 point.
S.S.E.

1 ^ point.

Traverfe Tables.

N.VV. i W.

S. I E.

W. by S.

N. by E.
S. W. 1 W.

33.6

35.8
6,6

37.6

D. L 24,4

W.

29'7
33.6
4h5

Dep.

IC4,8

94.7

Lizard's latitude
Ship's latitude

Diff. latitude
Or
Lizard's longitude
Ship's longitude

= 49" ?7' >•'• 347°

= 40' 52' N. 2691

= 9%

= CC4 miles.

= 5 14'W.

= 15'39'W.

779

DifF. lonjT. =^ 9^ 2^' = 565

Lizard bears N. 37" 45' E.

Dilhince 685 miles.

Ti-. 13th of Oilober.

Thefe twenty-four hours hard gale?, and cloudy, weather
accompanied with hard rains.

Handed fore-top-fails.

At 10 P. M. heard a gun at a dillance.

At 2 A. M. faw to the N. N. E. i E. the fla(h of a gun,
and after (ifty-fix beats of the pulfe at the wrift, we heard
the found, by which we judged the diilance to be about
eleven miles, and a (liip in dillrefs. Bore away to (peak
with her.

At fix, having greatly over-run the diftance, and finding
nothing, concluded (he was gone down, fo hauled our wind,
and (tood to th

S.W.

No obfervations this day.
Variation of i J point well.
Departure, latitude
Difference of latitude
Prefent latitude
Sum of latitudes
Middle latitude
Departure, longitude
Difference of longitude
Prefent longitude

Madeira's latitude
Ship's latitude

DiJf. of latitude
Or
Madeira's longitude
Ship s longitude

41

16' N.

o 24' S.
40= 52' N.
82° 08'
41° 04'
i3=33'W.

2 06' W.
15" 39' W.

32" 38' N. 2C7,:?

40° 52' N. 2691

8' 14' 618

494 miles.
16 51' W.
15 39'W.

DitT. longitude
Madeira bears
Diflant 505 mile

(j° 30' W.

JOURNAL.

"JouRVAl-'is now "become a common name for newfpapers,
which detail tlie daily tranfadUons of Europe.

JouRXAL is iilfo ufed for the title of feveral books which
come out at dated times ; and give abltraCts, accounts, &c.
«f the new- baolis that are publilhed, and the new improve-
ments daily made in arts and fcicnces.

The firll joiirnal of this kind was, the " Journal des S?a-
■vans," printed at Paris : tlie defign was fet on foot for the
eafe of futh as are too bnfy, or too lazy, to read the en-
tire book thcmfelves. It feems an excellent way of fatis-
fying a man's curiolity, and becoming learned upon eafy
terms ; and fo ufeful has it been found, thai it has been
executed in moft other countries, though under a great va-
riety of titles.

Of this kind are the " Afta Ernditorum of Leipfic ;"
the " Nnuvelles de la Republique des Lettres" of M. Bayle,
&c. ; the " Bibliotheque Univerfelle, Choilie, et Ancient
et Modorne," of M. le Clerc ; the " Memoires de Tre-
voux, &c." In 1692, Juncker printed in Latin, an " Hif-
torical Treatife of the Journals of the Learned," pubhihed
in the feveral parts of Europe ; and Wolfius, Struvius,
Morhof, Fabricius, &c. have dene fomething of the fame
kind. The " Philofophical Tranfactions of I^ondon ;'' the
" Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences :" tliofe of
the " Academy des Belles Lettres ; " the " Mifcellanea
Naturx Curioforum ;" the " Experiments of the Academy
del Cimento ;" the " Acta Philo-exoticorum Nature et
Artis," which appeared from March 16S6, to April 16S7,
and which are a hiftory of the Academy of BrefTe ; the
<' Mifcellanea Berolinenfia," or Memoirs of the Academy
of Berlin ; the " Commentaries of the Academy of Peters-
burg," the " Memoirs of the Inllitute at Bologna," the
♦' Afta Literaria Suecise," the " Memoirs of the Royal
Academy at Stockholm," begun in 1740, the " Commen-
tarii Societatis Regije Gottingenfis," begun in 1750, &c.
&c. are not fo properly journals, though they are frequently
ranked in tiie number. Juncker and Wolfius give the ho-
nour of the firft invention of journals to Photius. His
" Bibliotheca," however, is not altogether of the fame
nature with the modem journals ; nor was his delign the
fame. It confifts of abridgments, and extracts of books
which he had read during his embaffy in Perfia. M. Salo
firft began the " Journal des S^avans," at Paris, in 1665,
under the name of the Sieur de Hedouville ; but his deatli
fbon after interrupted the work. The abbe Gallois then
took It up, and he, in the year 1674, gave way to the
abbe de la Roque, who continued it nine years, and was
fucceeded by M. Coufin, who carried it on till the year
1702, when the abbe Bignon inftituted a new fociety, and
committed tlie care of continuing the Journal to them, who
improved and publilhed it under a new form. The other
French journals are the •« Memoirs and Conferences of
Arts and Sciences, by M. Dennis, during the years 1672,
1673, and 1674;" " New Difcoveries hi all the Parts of
Phyfic," by M. de Biegny ; the "Journal of Phyfic,'
begun in 1684, and fome others, difcontinued almoft as foon
as begun. " Rozier's Journal de Phyfique,' ' begun in July,
1771 ; " Annales Chimiques," &c. &c. The " Nouvelles
de la Repubhque des Lettres," News from the Republic of
L.etters, were begun by M. Bayle in 1684, and carried on
by him till the year 1687, when M. Bayle being difabled
by ficknefs, his friends, M. Bernard and M. de la Roque,
took them up, and continued them till 1699. After an
interruption of nine years, M. Bernard relumed the work,
and continued it till the year 1710. The " Hillory of the
Works of the Learned, " by M. Bafnage, was begun ii;
ihe year 16S6, and ended in 1710. The " Univcrfai Hif-

torical Library," by M. Le Clerc, was continued to the
year 1693, and contained twenty-five volumes. The " Bib-
liotheque Choifie," of the fame author, began in 1703.
The " Mercury of France" is one of the mod ancient
journals of that country, and was continued by different
hands ; the " Memoirs of a Hillory of Sciences and Arts,"
ufually called Memoires des Trevoux, from the place wh'.ie.
they are printed, began in 170 1. The " Effays of Litera-
ture" reached but to a twelfth volume in 1702, 1703, and
1704 ; thefe only take notice of ancient auihors. The
" Journal Literaire," by father Hugo, began and ended in
1705. At Hamburgh, they have made two attempts for
a French journal, but the defign failed : an " Ephemeridc*
S^avantes" has alfo been undertaken, but that i'oon difap-
peared. A " Journal des Scavans," by M. Dartis, ap-
peared in 1694, and was dropped the year following. That
of M. Chauvni, begun at Berlin in 1696, held out three
years, and an eiTjy of the fame kind v.-as made at Geneva.
To thefe may be added, the " Journal Literaire," begun at
the Hague in 17 15, and that of Verdnii, and the " Me-
moires Literaires de la Grande Bretagne," by M. de la
Roche ; tlie '• Bibhothcque Angloife," and " Journal Bri-
tannique," which were confin d to Englifh books alone.
The Italian journals are, that of abbot Nazaii, which lalled
from 1668 to 1 68 1, and was printed at Rome. That of
Venice began in 1671, and ended at tlic fame time with the
other : the authors were Peter Moretti, and Francis Miletti.
The "Journal of Parma," by Roberti and father Bacchini,
was dropped in 1690, and refnmed again in 1692. The
" Jojroal of Ferrara," by the abbe de la Torre, began and
ended in 1691. " La Galerio di Miucrva," begun in 1696,
was the work of a fociety of men of letters. Seignior
Apoftolo Zeno, fecretary to that fociety, began another
journal in 1710, under the protedion of the grand duke:
it was printed at Venice, and feveral perfons of dillindion
had a hand in it. The " Falli Eruditi della Bibliotheca
Volante," were pubhihed at Parma. There has appeared
fince, in Italy, the " Giornale del Letterati "

The principal among the Latin journals is that of Leip-
fic, kept under the title of " Ada Eraditoriim," begun in
1682 : P. P. Manzani began another at Parma. The
" Nova Literaria Maris Balthici," laded from 1698 to 1708.
The " Nova Literaria Gerraaniac," collected at Hamburgh,
began in 1703. The " Ada Literaria ex Miuufcriptib,"
and the " Bibliotheca Curiofa," began in 1705. and ended
in 1 707, are the work of Struvius. Medrs. Kulter andSike,
in 1697, began a " Bibliotheca Novorum Libroruni," ar.d
continued it for two years. Since that time there have been
many Latin journals ; fuch, befules others, is tlie " Com-
mciitarii de Rebus in Scientia Naturali et Medicini gedis,"
by M. Ludwig. The Swifs journal, called " Nova Lite-
raria Helvetia?," waa begun in ijoi, by M. Scheuchy.er ;
and the " Acta Medica Hafnenfia," publifhcd by T. Bar-
tholin, make five volumes, from [lie year 1671 to 1679.

There are two Low Dutch journals ; the cue under the
title of •' Boockzal van Europe ;" it was begun at Rotter-
dam, in 1692, by Peter Rabbus ; and continued, from 170;
to 1708, by Sewel and Gavern : the otiier was done by a
phytician, called Ruiter, who began in 17 10. The Gcr-
man journals of bell note are, the " Monallilichen ITnter-
redungen," which held from 1689 to 169S. The '• Biblio-
theca Curiofa," begun in 1704, and ended in 1707, both
by M. Tenzel. The " Magafin d'Hambourg," begun ia
174S; the " Phyficalifche Beludigunzin," or Philofophi-
cal Amufements, begun at Berlin in 17J1. The " Journal
of Hanover," began in J700, and continued for two year*
by M. Eccard, under the direction of M. Leibnitz, and

aflerwirds

J o u

afterwaiJk carried on V>y others. Tlie Thculogical Joiir-
nal, publinied by M. I.oelcher, under the title of " Altes
& Neiis," tiiat is, Old and No^v. A third at Lcipfic and
Frankfort, the authcrs MeilVs. Walterek, Kraufe, and
Grofchufiius, and a fourth at Hall, by M. Turk.

The EngliHi journals are, the ■' Hiftcry of the Works of
the Learned," begun at London, i6()9- " Cenfura Tem-
poru:r.," in i-oS. About the fame time there a]ipeared
two new ones, the one under the title of " Memoirs of
Literature," containing little more than an Englifh tranf-
lation of fome articles in the foreign journals, by M. de
la Roche ; the other a colledtion of loofe tracts, entitled
" Bibliotheca Curiofti," or a Miiceilanv. Thefe, however,
with fome orhers, are now no more ; but are fucceeded by
the " Monthly Review," which began in the year r749»
and gives a charailer of all E:ighfh literr.ry pubhcatiar.s,
with the moil confiderable of the foreign ones ; the " Criti-
cal Review,"vvhich begun in 1 7 j6, nearly on the fame plan :.
the " Anti-jacobin Review," beg.ui in 1798; the " Ame-
rican Review," in i3ii ; the " Britiih Critic," in 179S ;
the " Britifh Review," in i8ll-; the '• Ecleftic Review,"
in iSoj' ; the " Edinburgh Review," in 1S03 ; the " Lon-
don Medical Review," in i3o8 ; the " Quarterly Re\icw,"
in 1809. Belides thefe we ha\-e feveral monthly pampl.t'.ts,
called Magazines, which, together with a chrcnologictd
i'cries of occurrences, contain Icttei-s from correfpondents,
commuricating extraordinary difcoveries in nature arid art,
with controvcrfml pieces on all fubjefls. Of thefe are
the following: vii. the " Agricultural," begun in 1799;
the •' Baptill," in 1809; the " Botanical," in 1786; the'
" Britifh Farmer's," in iSii ; the " European," in 1782 ;
the " Evargelical," in 1793 ! ^''^ " Earmer's," in 1800;
" Flower's Political," in 1807 ; " Freethinking ; in 181 1 ;
•' Gentleman's," in 1731 ; '< Gofpcl," in 1806 ; " Lady's,"
in 1771 ; " Methodiit,"' in 177^'; the " Monthly,'" in
1796 ; '• Mufical," in 1809 ; " Military," in 1811 ; '" Plii-
Itjfophical," \v. 1798 ; " Sporting," in 1792 ; " Univerfal,"
in 1747 To thefe may be added feveral other periodical-
publications under diff;rent title?, fuch as " Ackermans
Repofitory," begun in iSlo ;" Antiquarian Cabinet," in
tSo6; " Arcana," in i8)0; "Army LilV," in 1809;
« Chriftian Obfervcr," in 1802 ; " Chrillian Guardian,"'
in 1809 ; " Dramatic Cenfor," in 181 1 ; " Edinburgh Me-
dical Journal," in 1805; " General Chrcnido," in iSii ;
*• La Belle AfTemb ce," in 1S06 ; " Lad)'s Mufeum," in
1798; "Literary Panorama," in 1S06; "Medical Ob-
ferver ;" " Medical Compendium," in 1809 ; " Medical
Journal," in 1799; " Moiuhly Repertory," in iSc6 ;
« Military Chronicle," i-.i 3810 ; " Naturalift's Tvlifcellany,"
in 17S9 ; " Naval Chronicle," in 1799 ; " Nicholfon's
Journal," in '1802; " Philanthropift," in rSic ; " Reper-
tory- of Arts," in 1704; " Retrofpeft," in i8c6; " Re-
flector," in 1810; " Satirift," iir 1807; " Scourge," in
iSii ; &:c. &c.

JOURNCHOPPERS, incur OiJ IFrHcrr, regrators of
yarn; which formerly, perhaps, was called _/cur«. They
are mentioned in the flat. 8' Hen. "VI. c. 5.

JOURNET, FRANgALSE, in Biegrof-by, one of the
greatcfl. afirefics that has appeared on the ll'age of the French
lerious opera. She was at lirll admired for the meUifluence
of her voice, her noble figure, ajid the chani'.s qf her adlioii..
fihc had an air and carriage fo ftrikirg, and fomething fo
liitcreding and touching in her countenance, that flie drew
tears from thofe who only looked at her in the part of Iphi-
geuia. She had eyes and arms which guidtd to the heart
all tlu: exprcfiion of wlwt Ihe had. to paiat., ,

J O Y

She quitted the ftage in 1720, after fifteen years appljcfe
and admiration, and died in 1722. ElTais fur la Muiique.

JOURNEY, in Hiijbnndry, fignifies as much ground as-
can be ploughed over in a day, tliough it is not applied i:v
the fame way in all diltricls, or has the farrle fignification, as
in fome it is ufcd to exprefs a much Icfs proportion of la*
hour. It often fignifies the length of time the team is en-
gaged in labour, cither in ploughing or any other fort of
work. With all horfes under team labour, great attention
fliould be paid by the perfon whohas the care of theni, in-
feeding and drefiing them.. See Te.vm.

JouKNTY, Sdblalh-ilay' s. See Saeb.ath.

JOURNEY-MAN, formed from the French >,/rn/<-, a-
day's tvori ; anciently figniflcd a perfon who wrought with.-
another by the day ;. though now, by the ftatute, it extends
to thofe likewife who covenant to work with another in their
occupation or trade by the year.

.rOUTRA, in Gecgrapky, a town of Sweden, in Tavaft-
land ; 6j miles N.E. of Tavailhus.

J0U"^;ENCY, Joseph, in Biography, a learned Jefuit, was-
born at Paris in 1643. ^^ entered the fociety of Jefus in
1659, and was cholcn profeflbr of rhetoric in its ferainaries,
firlt at Caen, then at La Fleche, and finally at Paris, where
he taught with great reputation for nearly twenty years. He
was incited to Rome in 1699, to allill in writing the -con-
tinuation of the hillory of the fociety, and died in that city
in 1719. His part of the hillory of the Jefuits comprifes
the period from 1591 to 1616, and was printed in folio in
the year 1710. As a philologift he is known by his " La-
tin Harangues delivered on different occafions," in two vo»-
lumes, i2mo. : " Appendi.K de Diis et Heroibus Poeticis,"
which is a compendium ot the heathen mythology : " Notes
on Terence, Ovid, Horace, Perlius, Juvenal, Martial, and-
fome of the works of Cicero." He gave alio a Latin ver-
fion of the firll Pliilippic of Demollhenes. He is faid to-
have difplaycd, in his feveral works, great purity, elegance^
and facility of llyle, for which he is more diftinguilhed than-
for novelty or depth of thought. Moreri.

JOUVENET, JoHK.anhilloriealpainter^born at Rouen,
in Normandy, in 1-644. He received his firil inflruftion.s
from his father; but his principal teacher was Pouflin, and
his mott ufeful fludies the works of that mailer.

He had a ready invention, and was therefore employed to
adorn the apartments of 'Verfaille'; and the TriantMi. In the
Hofpital of tlie Invalids at Paris, he painted the twelve
apollles ; each figure 14 feet high. It mull be acknow-
ledged, however, that he failed in true tafte. His ilyle
partakes too much of French flippancy ; the fiibllitution of
fomething ftriking for what is folid and good ; and his co-
louring is heavy. It is firid, that, being deprived of the ufe
of his right hand by paralyfis, ke painted ever after with his
left. He died in 1717.

JOUVENU, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a
canton, in the dillrict of Macon. The place contains 1469,
and the canton 10,491 inhabitants, on a territory of 165
kiliometres, in 23 communes.

JOUX la V1LI.E, a to-.vn of France, in the department
of the Yonne ; 9 miles N. of Avallon.

Joux, Mont, a part of mount Jura,. near the. fource of.
the river Doubs, on the borders of Swit-^erlajid, and that
part of the canton of Berne which borders on France.

Joi:x, a lake of Svvitzerland, in the canton of Berne,

fituated on a part of mount Jura ; 4. miles W. of Romain-

moticr.

JO WA To'ivK, Liwer, a town of North America, on the

5 E.f.d=

I P E

E. fi.U- of tlie river MifTifippi ; which, between tw-nty and
thirty years a^o. cou'.d tiirnifti 30 warriors. N. lr.t. 40'
30'. \V. long. 91 i;'.— The Ufyper Jo-.va tozvn is about I J
miles below the mouth of tlic river .Iowa, on the E. fide of
the Millifipni, and could formerlv furnifli 400 warriors.

JOW.AN c! MuoiiAli, a townof Alders; -o miles SAV.
of r.eteef. ° •'

.lOWGONG, a town of Bengal; 18 miles S E. of
Biirdw til.

.lOWR NSSER, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 16
rr.il.-* S K. of L<!cknow.

.lOVVRIES, a clu;ter of fmall id.wds in the Mi-diterra-
re«n, near the E. coalt of Tunis, oppofite to I.,enipta, an-
ciently called Tarichire, and thought by Ca;rar to he of fo
much importance, that he appointed fcveral llationary vef-
fels to focure tliem. N. lat. jj^ 38'. E. long. 10 <j6'.

JOY, in Ethics, is that palTion which is produced by
live, regarding its ribjecl as prefent, either immediately or
in profpeft ; m reality or imagination. This pafTion has
been found to increafe the perfpiration and urine of human
bodies. See P/.k.aslre and Pain.

JOYEUSE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ardcche, and chief place of a canton, in
the dillritt of L' Argenticre, 21 miles S.S.W. of I'riv.is.
Tiie place contains 1074, and the canton 12,616 inhabitants,
on a territory of 212A kiliometres, in 18 commuiifs. N.
lat. 44 29'. E. long. \ 19'.

■TOYNAGUR, a town of Mecklev ; 8 miles N.W. of
Munnypour

JOYNARANSHAUT, a town of Bengal; i3 miles
E N E. of Iflamabad.

JOYNER'.s Press. Sec Press.

.TOYNERY, the art of working in wood, and of fitting
or joining various parts or members of it together.

The French c?ll it mrnuifrrie, from minutana, i'mall work ;
by v.hich it is iliilinguilhed from cnrpentry, which is conver-
fant in the larger and lefs curious work. Sec Joinery.
JovNEHY, Column of. See Column.
JOYPOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal; t8 mile?
E N.E. of lil.imabad — Alio, a townof AiTam; 16 miles
S.S.E. of Gentia.

JOZE, St., a town of Brazil, on the Tapajos ; 45 miles
S. of Pauxis. — Alfo, a town of Brazil, in the governn.ent

<'f Minas Geraes; So miles S.W. of Viilarica Alfo, a

town of Braril, in the government of Goyas ; 75 miles
E.X.E. of Villa Boa.

JoZE, St., tit^ Dera, a town of Brazil, on the Rio NVgro ;
205 miles from Fort Rio Negro.

Jozi. y/zu, a town of Brazil, in the government of Para ;
on the river Tocantin ; 70 miles S.W. of Para.

JOZO, in Ichthyology, the name of a fmall fea-fi(h, of the
fea-gudgcon, or rork-firti kind, common in the Mediterra-
nean, and called gobius alius by fome authors. It is brought
to market at Rome and Venice. See GoDil s.

JOZZI, Giu.-Ei'PE, in Biography, an Italian opera finger
of the fecond clafs, with a foprano voice, came into Eng-
land with Monticelli, at the beginning of lord Middlefcx's
regency in 1742. He was a much better performer on the
harpfichord than a finger. He gained great reputation here
by his very accurare, brilliant, and expreilive manner of exe-
cuting Alberti's leffons, and a confidtrable fuin of money
bv printing ?.nd felling them as his own eompofitious.

IPAM.in Geography, a town of Afriea, on the Gold
coall; ;o miles S.W. of Acta.

IPAKEMA, a town of Brazil; 1 6c miles S.W. of
I'crnambuco.

IPECACUANHA, or Ii-ecacsamia, in Pharmacy, a
Vol.. XIX.

1 P E

little wrinkled root about the thicknefs of a moderate quiH,
brought hither from feveral parts of the Weft Indies ; much
ufed as an emetic, and againft diarrhoeas and dyfentcries.

The firit European who brought this ro(.t into ufc was an
apothecary of Brazil, whofe name was Michael Triftaon.
The book vi-hich the author pubUfhid on ihis fubjecl fallirg
into the hands of the Englifh, is tranfiated into our langu:ige,
and Hands, among a number of like accounts, among Pur-
chas's Pilgrims.

He fays it is an excellent remedy againft dyfcnteries and
fluxes of all kinds. He fays alfo, in its defciiption, that the
i'talks are a ijuarttr of a yard long, and the roots nearly as
much ; and that the leaves grow only four or ftve upon a
plant.

This agrees very well with all that we have fince difcover-
ed of this plant : and the method of ufing it at that time,
we iind, was not as a vomit ; but they bruifed the frelh root,
and lleeped it about twelve hours in water, at the end of
wIulIi time the patient drank the water early in the moni-
ing : it operated by (lool ; but after its opera'ion, the na-
tural purging and voiding of blood ceafed. This feems the
original account we have of this drug. De Laet, from this,
compiled his account, which is almo'.l a literal trar.fla"ion of
this into I..atin : from his hint Pifo and Mir^grav,- enquired
after it more carefully upon the fpot, and from t! ■m came
the firll accurate accounts we had of it ; fo that all feems^
ah origine, deduced from Michael Trillaon's account of it.
Miller apprehends that the plant v.hich fnrniflies the true
ipecacuanha belongs to the genus of Trioftcum, or j',:!fe ipeca-
cuanha. It is, as fome have thought, the Pfychotria emetica
of Linmcus the younger. But the authority on which Mutis
recelv.:d the information is not to be implicitly followed.

Pifo divides this root into two forts, the white and the
brown ; or, according to Geoffroy, the Peruvian and Brazi-
lian ipecacuanha: but three forts, fays Dr Woodville, are
dillinguifhable in our fliops ; -viz,. a(h-coloiired or grey,
brown, and white. The cjh-coh.urcd is brought from Peru,
and is a fmall wrinkled root, bent and contorted into a great
variety of figures, brought over in fliort pieces full of
wrinkles and deep circular fiffures, down to a fmall white
woody fibre that runs in 'he middle of each piece ; the corti-
cal part is compact, britt'e, and appears fmooth and refinous
upon breaking ; it has very little fmell, the talle is bittcrifh
and fub-acrid, covering the tongue, as it were, w ith a kind
of mucilage. The broivn is fmall, fomewhat more wrinkled
than the foregoing ; of a brown or blackifh colour without,
and white within : this is brought from Brazil The ivhit;
fi<rt is woody, has no wrinkles, and no perceptible biitcrnefs
in talle. The firil, that is, the afh-colourcd or grey ipeca-
cuanha, is that ufually preferred for medicinal ufe. The
brown has been foinetimes obfervcd, even in a fmall dofe, to
produce violent effects. The white, though taken in a large
one, has fcarcely any cffetl at all.

Tiiere are divers falfe fpec'es of ipecacuanha, or roots,
which, on account of their external appearance, bear tlie de-
nomination of ipecacuanha, and are fometimcs fold for it.
Dr. Douglas mentions two : the one white, refembling the
true white, only larger in fize, llraightcr, and fofter to the
touch ; the other brown, of a deeper colour th.in the true
brown, and fomelimes mixed with red, whence it has alio
been called red ipecacuanha. Thcfc arc both produced in
Maryland and Virginia, where they are uled as vomitives
by tj'ie lower fort. Sir Hans Sloane has difcovercd that the
latt'-r is no other than the root of a poifoiious apocynutn,
defcribed by him in his Natural Hillory of Jamaica. Sec
Phil. Tranf. N 410.

The genuine ipccacuaiha has fcarcely any fmell, iir.l-f»
3 E ■ dtirun;

IPECACUANHA.

during its pulverization, or infufion in liquors, when it emits
a faint naufcous one. GeofFroy obferves, that in pulverizing
confiderable quantities, the finer powder that flies off is apt
to affeft the operator with difJiculty of breathintr, a fpitting
of blood, a bleeding at die nofe, or a fweiling and inflamma-
tion of the eyes and face, and fometimes of the throat ;
which fymptoins go off in a few days, fpontaneoufly, or by
the aid of vcnefeiiion.

Dr.-Irving afcertained by experiments, that this root con-
tains a gummy and relinous matter, and that the gum is in
much greater proportion, and is more powerfully emetic,
flian the lefin : that the cortical part is more active than the
ligneous; and that the whole root manifcils an aiitifeptic and
aitringent power. He alfo found its emetic quality to be
nioft effectuiiUy counicractcd by means of the acetous acid,
infomucU that 30 grains cf the powder, taken in two ounces
of vinegar, produced only fon-.e loofe ilools.

The bark of- ipecacuanha is faid to be preferable to its
root, as an emetic; acting equally well, and with equal
fafe'.y, in a fmaller dofe, either in powder, or infuuon. Six
grains of tlie bark, infufcd for a night in an ounce and a half
of old Rheniili, proves a good emetic. Sec l^liil. Tranf.
•N 476. fed. 10.

The brown ipecacuanha yields, by diilillation, a fmaller
.quantity of oil than the grey ; and the laft portion of the
fpirit which comes over witii the oil, on urging tire fire to
the grealell violence, though it be confiderably acid to the
" talle, yet does not feera to contain lefs, but rather more vola-
tile particles than the fpirit drawn in tlie fame manner from
the grey. On mixing the fpirits of both kinds alfo with fait
of tartar, the volatile parts of that from the brown cfcape
with more rapidity than thofe from the fpirit of the grey,
and affed the ;iofe more fcni'ibly.

It is rational to conclude from Iience, that if the brown
ipecacuanha contains lefs oil than the grey, it alfo contains
lefs refm ; and that as this la(t portion of fpirit contained
more volatile parts, it mull naturally be expected that it
fliould prove more violent in its operation than the grey.
Tiiis obfervation alfo, which is countenanced by faft, may
in fome degree favour the opinion of tiiofc who affirm, that
the purgative vi.'-tues of medicines are excited bv a volatile
fait, and that they are more or lefs violent, as they contain
more or lefs of this fait.

The brown ipecacuanha, as well as the grey, will afford
two forts of e.xtrafts, a refinous asid a fahne one ; but both
thefe are yielded in a fmaller quantity from the brown than
from tl)e -grey, and confequently t!ie refiduum is always
grcHrer from liie brcwn. Eight ounces of the grey ipeca-
xaanha yield, with fpirit of wine, ten drams of the reiinous
extraftj the fame quantity of the brown, treated in the
fame manner, yields only li'x drams. From the refiduum of
this <iuantity of the grey kiiid, thus divelled only of its
refin by the fpirit, there may be procured, by a watery fol-
vent, two ounces of a faline extraft ; but the reiidue of the
fame quantity of the brown will yield only five or fix drams
of this extraft, by the fame -treat aient. The refidue of the
grey, thus divelled of its refinous and faline parts, will
■vveigh four ounces ; and the refidue of the brown, after the
feme treatment, wiH weigh fix ounces. Hence it is very
cvidjnt, that the aitive principles arc mtich more abundant
in the grty thin in the brown kind of tliis ufeful root.
, Neumann fays that fixtetn ounces of good ipecacuanha
3»fiU yield three ounces of refinous matter, in which its virtue
eonfiib, by means of fpirit of «'ine ; and from the fame
quantity, by means of water, five ounces of gummy matter
were extraited.

If the- procefs of this aiialyfis be varied, and the watery

menllruum ufed firft, the proportion of the faline extraA
will be greatly increafed by it, and that of the refinous
greatly ditniniflied ; eight ounces of the grey ipecacuanha,
thus treated, yielding three ounces and a half of faline ex-
trait, and only thirty-fix grains of the refinous one after-
wards by fpirit of wine ; and the fame quantity of the brown
yielding one ounce and three drams of the faline extrati, and
only twenty-four grains of the refinous one, by means cf
fpirit of wine afterwards ufcd. From all this it is eafy to
perceive, that the brown ipecacuanha contains much lels of
the aftlve parts, and much more of the terreflrial, than the
grey ; and yet it is equally certain from trial, that the brown
is much more violent in its operation than the grey.

This fceius a perplexing fort of paradox ; but to explain
it we muit remember, that the virtues of medicines are not
to be meafured by their bulk nor their weight, the moll
po-.vcrful of all acting in the fmallefl quantities. It has been
obferved, that the lafl portion of fpiiit drawn from the
brown is more pungent and ilrong than that from the grey ;
and probably this part of the root has as much power
to irritate the internal parts of the intellines as the refinous
parts.

The belt menllruum for cxtrading the entire virtue of the
root, appears to be a mixture of one part of pure fpirit,
with two or three parts of water. In the (hops, wine is
employed : an ounce of the root is macerated or digefled in
a pint of Canary, or fifleen ounces of mountain, to wliiih
fome add a quarter of an ounce of dried orange-peel. Thefe
tinft^ires, in dofes of from half an ounce, or lefs, to an
ounce and upwards, prove mildly emetic. Lewis Mat.
MeJ.

It has been found by experience, that this is the mildeft
and fafeft emetic with which we are acquainted ; having this
peculiar advantage, that if it does not operate by vomit, it
readily paffes off by the other emunctories. It was firfl in-
troduced to us with the charafter of an almott infrdlible
remedy in dyfenteries and other inveterate fluxes, as diar-
rhcsa, menorrhagia, and leucorrhcca, and alfo in diforders
proceeding from obilructions of long Handing ; nor has it
loil much of its reputation by time. The ufe of ipecacuanha
in thefe fluxes is thought to depend upon its reiloring per-
fpiration ; for in thefe cafes, efpccially in dyfentery and
diarrhoea, the Ikin is dry and tenfc ; and while the common
diapiioretics ufually pais off by (tool, fniail dof;s of this
root have been admiiiiftered \\-ith the bell effects, proving
both lax;itive and diaphoretic. Dr. Ca len attributes its
good effefts entirely to its purgative quality. In common
cafes of dyfentery, it is faid foon to jjertorm a cure, by
bringing on a free diaphorcfis, or plentiful fweat, after the
patient has taken a puke or two, and 7S covered up warm in
bed. In putrid or malignant dyfenteries, it requires to be
continued f.r fevcral days, and repeated as an evacuant,
with the affiitance of rhubarb, cordial antifeptics, and mild
opiates, or aftringents. In cafes requiring plentiful evacu-
ation, or when the offending nvatter is lodged deep, fir John
Pringle recommends it to be given in fmall dofes, and re-
peated at proper intervals, till vomiting and purging
come on.

In the fpafmodic afthma, Dr. Akenfide remarks, that
when nothing contraindicatcs repeated vomiting, he knew
no medicine fo effectual as ipecacuanha. In violent pa-
roxyfms, a fcruple procures immediate relief. When the
complaint is habitual, fro.m three to five grains every morn-
ing, or from five to ten every other morning, may be given
for a month or fix weeks. This medicine has been alfo fue-
cefsfully ufed in hscmorrhages. Several cafes of menor-
rhagia are mentioned by Dalilberg, in w-hich one-third or

I p II

Iialf of a jrrah was given every four hours, till it effedled a
cure. Thele fmall dofes are likewifc found of great ufe in
catarrhal ar.d even con fumptive cafes, as well as in various
ftates of fever. Dr. CuUen (Mat. Med. vol. ii.) infonns
us, that he knew a praAitioner who cured interuiittents by
giving five grains of ipecacuanha, or enough to excite
naufea, an hour before the accefflon of the fit was cxpcAcd ;
and that Dr. Thonnpfon, formerly of Montroie, propofed
to care agues by the employment of cinetics given at the
time of acceflion, or at the end of the cold llage ; and this
practice has alfo been fuccefsfitl, and may indeed be exe-
ci:ted by tartar emetic : but in trying fuch prafliccs, the
ipecacuanha was found more manageable than the other,
and generally more eafy to the patient. Woodv. Med.
Bor.

Ii'EfTACUAXHA, Bajlard, in Bofany, is a fpecies of afvh-
fiiis. or fwalio;v-wort.

IPECAcuAKirA, Falje, or Dr. Tinkar's weed, from his
having been one of the firft ptrfons who brougiit the root
into trie. See T.iiosTeUm.

IPECA-GUAC.^, in Ornithohgy, the name of a Bra-
filian fpecies of duck. It is of a middle fizc between the
duck a:id g»oft, and is kept tame there for breeding and
e<tting. It will fatten as well on dry land as when it has the
ufe of water, and lays a vaft nnmber of eggs.

IPECATI-APOA, the name of a Bvafilian fpecies of
d'.!ck called pi'ta by the Portuguefe ; the word in that lan-
guage exprelfmg goo.'e. It is nearly of the fize of the goofe,
but is exadlly of the fliape and figure of the common duck.
It is very common in the Brafilian rivers, and is flcfliy and
well tailed.

IPECU, the nam.e of a Brafilian bird of the wood-pecker
kir.d, called by Mr. Ray, pkus varius Brajil'icnfs. It is of
the fize of a common pigeon. Its beak is itraight, and very
hard and (harp, and it pierces the bark and wood of trees
with it, in the fame manner as the European kinds. See
Pifis HnmIus.

IPEK, in Geography, a river of Servin, v.hich rifes in
mo'.:nt Hsmus, and riins into the Danube, near Galom-
batz.

IPERSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the county of
Sc^warzenburg ; 13 miles S.W. of Schainfeld.

IPERUQUIBA, in Ichthyology, a name by which fome
have called the remora, or fucking-fifh ; called alfo by tlie
Portuguefe, f'texe pogador, and pkxe ptollho. See Echi-
nus.

IPHICRATES, in Biography, a celebrated Athenian
gen&ral, was born in a humble rank of life ; hut by improv-
ing the fituation in which he was thrown, he, at an early
age, raifed himfeif to a high military command. As he ad-
vanced in the army, he fhewed himfeif a ftricl difcipliRarian,
and attentive to every circumftance of military improvement.
He made war againft the Thracians, obtained fome viftories
over the Spartans, and affiiled the Perfian king againft
Eg)'pt. He changed the drefs and arms of his foldiers, and
rendered them more alert and expeditious in ufing their
weapons. In the focial war, a fleet Avas fitted out by the
Athenians for the recovery of Byzantium, under the joint
commands of Iphicrates, Timotheus, and Chares. The
two former differed from the latter on his propofal to attack
the enemy's fliet during a violent llorm, and were in con-
fequence charged by him with treafonable intentions. They
were recalled by the people of Athens, and publicly profe-
cuted. Timotheus was condemned, and went into exile :
Jphicrates defended himfolf with great fpirit, and was ac-
quitted. He was indebted for this not only to his elo-
quence, but to the menacing appearance, round the tribunal,

1 P 0

of feveral militaty pavtizans. Wlien reproached for allowtnir
and encouraging fo violent a proceeding, he replied, " i
have long borne arms for the fafety ot my country, and
fliould be a great fool not to employ them 'to fave myfelf."
From this time, however, he ceafed to ferve in the army.
He lived to a great age, and faw his countrymen fully re-
conciled to him. He left one fon, named Monetheus, by
the daughter of the king of Tlu-ace. Uiiiver. Hift. Corn.
Nepos.

II'HOFEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
duchy of Wurzburg ; 15 miles E.S.E. of Wurxburg.

IPIALES, a town of South America, in tlie province
of Popayan ; 36 miles S. of Pafto.

IPOMOiA, in Botany, fo cal'ed by Einnaeus, from .4,
which he unaccountably miflakes for the Convolvulus plant,
whereas it means a creeping fort of worm that infefls and
corrodes vines ; and Iftoic:, I'th. By this appellation he
evidently intended to exprefs the clofc rclemblance of
Jpomaa to the genus Coni-ohulus, with which it agrees in
habit altogether. Linn. Gen. 87. Schreb. 116. U'illd.
Sp. PI. v. I. 879. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 2. Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed 2. v. i. 338. Brown. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i.
484. JufT. 134. Lamark lUullr. t. 104. (Quamoclit;
Toum. t. 39.) Clafs and order, Pentandria Alonogynia.
Nat. Ord. Cc.mpanacc«, Linn. Coti'Ml-culi, JulT.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth inferior, oblong, fmall, ifi five
deep fegments, without any appendages, permanent. Cor.
of one petal, funnel-fi-.aped, or bell-diaped ; tube fomewliat
cylindrical, very long ; hmb five-cleft, fpreading, with five
plaits. Stain. Filaments five, anl-fhaptd, nearly the length
of the corolla ; anthers roundifli. Pi/! Germen fuperior.
roundifli; llyle thread-fliaped, the length of the corolla;
fligma capitate, nearly globofe, in two or three lobes.
Peric. Capfule roundifli, of two or three ctHs. Seeds few,
large, roundifli, fometimes hairy.

Efl". Ch. Calyx dt-eply five-cleft, naked. Corolla with
five plaits, fomewhat funnel-fliaped. Stigma capitate and
globofe, lobcd. Capfule of two or three ceils. Seeds two
in each cell.

A large geiiu-s, more corredly difl;inguiihed from Con-
vohuhis by the globofe form of its ftigma, than by the more
narrow or tubular fliapc of the corolla. For want of at-
tending to this, Linnseus and others have mifplaced feveral
fpecies. .Tacquin in his CoUedr.nca, v. 3. 303, has called the
attention of botanifts to this fubjecl, and Mr. R. Brown in
his Prodromus has recently thrown further light upon it, in-
dicating, moreover, the want of brafteas or appendages to
the calyx in Ipomaa, which are found in Ccnvihldus.

Examples of Ipomcca, eminent for their beauty, are
I. Quamoclit, Linn. Sp. PI. 227. Curt. Mag. t. 244, a
native of the Eail Indies, remarkable for its finely peftinaieii
leaves, and rich crimfon bbflinr.s : — I. cocdnea, Linn. Sp;
PI. 2 2«, Curt. Mag. t. 221, found in the Weft Indies,
and eallly cultivated, as an annual, in our gardens ; — \.-\Bona
mx, Linn. Sp. PI. 228. Curt. Mag. t. 752, found aU'o ia
the Weft Indies, and rarely fccn with us. The tl.nVars 0/
the iaft are large and white ; we fliould from the nanVc, as
well as their appearance, guefs them to be fra^tnint in tift
evening;

IpoMCEA, in Gnrdeti'mg, comprehends plant.^ of die her-
baceous flowery kinds; of which the fpecies chielly cuUi-
vated are the winged-leaved ipomoea (I. quamoclit), and
the fcarlet-flowcrcd ipomoea (I. coccinea).

Of the iecond fpecies there is a variety vritli orange co^
loured flowers.

Method of Culture Tiiefe plants are increafed by fowtiig

the well-ripenedfceds in fmall pots, plunging them in a.uiilil
3E2 hot -bod.

I P o

)iot-bfd, or in the earth of the bed, in the earlv fpring
months, proper air and water bcinij given. When the
plants have attained fome jrrowth, and in the firR fort begin
to flimls they fhould be removed, with balls of earth about
their roots, into the places where they are to grow ; or,
whicli-js better for the firft kind, into feparate large pots,
rephing'ng them in the bark hot -bed. They (hould have
proper (licks fet for them to twine about ; fome pots <xf the
firll kind being placed in the flove, as being more tender in
their nature.

The fird fort affords variety in the ftovc, and among
other tender potted plants in the fummer ; and the latter, in
the fronts of warm borders, as well as among the lefs tender
potted flowering plants.

IPOMOPSIS, in Botany, fo called, byMichanx, from
»-oi, lo Jlr'ike forcibly, and oJ.i-, the Jight, in allufion, as it
(hould feem, to the dazzling brilliancy of the flowers of the
original fpecies. Michanx Amer. v. i. 141. Sm. Exot.
Bot. V. I. 23. Ait. Hcrt. Kcw ed. 2. v. i. 342. Clafs and
order, Pentandr'ia Mor.s^ynia. Nat. Ord. Campanacet, Linn.
Pohmotiia, ,Tu(r.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, bell-fliaped, membra-
Jious a; the bafe ; its limb in five, long, equal, linear, eredl
fegments. Cor. funnel-fnaped ; tube cylindrical ; limb in
five, iee^p, ovate, nearly equal fegment?. Stam. Filaments
five, inferted into the upper part of the tube, awl-(ha])ed,
fhorter than the limb ; anthers roundilli, tv.o-lobed. Pi/l.
Germen fuperior, ovate ; ftyle thread-lTiaped, about as long
as the tube ; ftigma in three, deep, oblong, downy, fpread-
ing fegments. Perk. Capfule rather (liorter than the calyx,
ovate, obtufe, of three cells, and three valves. Secdi feveral
in each cell, in two rows, acutely angular.

E(r. Ch. Calyx in five fegments, membranous at the bafe.
Corolla funnel-fhaped. Stam.cns fpringiiig from the tube.
•Stigma three-cleft. Capfule fuperior, of three cells and
three valves. Seeds feveral, angular.

I. I.elegans. Scar'et Ipomopfis. Michaux Amer. v, 1.
14;. Sm. Exot Bot. t 13. (IpomiTa rubra; Linn. Sy!h
Veg. ed. 14. 204. Polemonium rubrum ; Linn. Sp. PI.
231. Ca.tua coronopifolia ; Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 870.
Quamoclit pennatum ereclum, floribus in thyrfum digcllis ;
Dill. Ekh. 321. t. 241.) " Stem ereft, llrai;,'ht. Corolla
thrice as long as the calvx '" — A native of South Carolina,
•whence it was originally brought to Sherard's garden at
Eltham. It has occafionally been imported fince from the
fame country, and was lately raifed in great perfeflion at
Meffrs Lee and Kennedy's, where the excellent figure in
exotic botany was drawn. It flowers in September or
Oftober, and confequently ripens feed with difficulty. Ac-
cording to all apocarati'-e this beautiful plant is a liennial.
Root fibrous. St.-m fuiitary, er.-cl, becoming panicled at
the height of four or five feet, round, leafy, and clothed,
like the whole herbage, with (hort, glandular, white hairs.
Ija-ucs pinnatifid ; fegments long and narrow, thofe of the
radical leaves (hor.er and broader; floral leaves fimple.
Ftowirs on (hort ftalks, drooping. Corolla equally five-
cleft, of a bril iant ficsrlet, elegantly dotted on the infide.
Stamens (lender, red : anthers yellow, Ccrnun fmooth, pale-
green. Capfule almoft membranous, the partitions from the
centre of the valves. Seeds in two rows, fmall, not winged,
a. /. inconfpicua. Little Blue Ipomopfis. Sm. Exot.
Bot. t 14 Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. i. 342. — "Stem
much branched and 'preading. Corolla fcarccly longer than
the calyx. Segmcrts of all the leaves linear.'" — Native of
^rth America, and firll raifed, in 1793, at Sion Houfe,
by Mr. Thomas Hoy, F.L.S. It (lowered in November.
Rttot annual. Slimt numerous, ;ibout a foot tiigh, leafy,

IPS

round, pubefcent as in the laft fpecies. Leaves alternatr,
pinnatifid ; fegments long and narrow, generally fimple.
Fl'jiL'cr-Jtiilis various in length, fimple, fohtary or in pa ,
erect. Caly:' with rather broader teeth than the foregoii ^.
Corolla blue, with a white tube, by no means ftriking i .
beautiful. Stigma purpli(h. Capfuk ovate, thin, whitiili.
Dr. Smith has obftrvcd, that this fpecies ferves to conlr
the Ipomopfis of Michaux, with which it agrees fo comp'e.
in every botanical character, that we find it not very l
to eftabh(h even a fpecific difference on found principi
while, on the otlier hand, it (hews how di(rerent this natu
genus is from Cantua, and all others to which it lias b
referred. The fame author mentions a third fpecies, /. ...
b'lda, gathered by Dombey, at I..ima, much like this, L, ■.
upright ; its leaves doubly pinnatifid, with fomewhat elli; -
tical lobes, and its flowers whitifli.

IPPO, in Natural Hi/lory. See M.\c.4SS.\R Pofon.
IPS, in Geography, a town of Aullria, fituated near t': •
conflux of the Ips and Danube, on the fcite of the anci ■! ;
Pons Ilis, on Ifipontium ; 48 miles W. of Vienna. N. lat.
48 13'. E. long. 1 j" 5'.

IPSALA, or Skii'silar, a town of European Turkey ^
in Romania ; 53 miles S.W. of Adrianople.

IPS.ARA, called by the ancients Pfyrea or Pfyria, an
ifland in the Grecian Archipelage, about fix milc.'i long and
three wide ; the foil is in general flony, and affords m great
refources to agriculture and commerce. It, however, pro-
duces figs, grapes, a fmall quantity of cotton, and fome
corn, and red wine is an article of commerce. The inha-
bitants are chiefly Greeks, about 1000 in number, who pay
a tribute of about looo crowns, and are fubjecl to the cadi
of Scio; fix milesN.W. of Scio. N lat. 38 43'. E.long.
25 35''. About a league from Ipfara lies a (mailer and
dtftit ifland, called " Anti-ipfara, fcarccly two leagues
in circumference. Between thefe two iflands (hips find a
very good anchorage.

IPSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Culmbach; 17 miles N.N.W. of Anfpach.
IPSILl, a fmall ifland in the gu'f of Engia.
IPSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town and river of Afia,
in Phrygia, S.E. of Synnada ; famous for a battle fooght
here in the year 300 B C. between Antigonus and Deme-
trius, having an army of 70,000 foot, jo,coo horfe, and
75 elephants, and the kings of Seleucus, Lyfimachus and
Caflandra, who had 74,000 infantry and 10500 cavdry,
400 elephants, and so chariots of war. Antigonus was
defeated and killed. Demetrius fled into Greece. The
conquerors divided their lands between them

IPSWICH, formerly called Gippefwleh, G\ppefw\d, Gyp-
pcujicus, &c. in Geography, a bon>Uc!i and the county town
of Suffolk, England, is fcatcd on the northern bank of the
river Orwell, at the didance of 18 miles N E. Irom Col-
chefter, 54 S.W. of Yarmouth, 12 N.W. of Harwich, and
69 N.E. of London. In the year iSco, it contained 2221
houfes, and 74,292 inhabitants. Near this place the river
Gippen, cr Dipping, unites its waters with the Orwell,
which is navigable for 12 miles to the fea at Harwivh,
where is a commodious haven, or harbour. Ipfwich ap-
pears to have been a town of fome confequence during the
Anglo Saxon dynally ; for it was forlilicd with a vallum
and fofs when the Danes made their dep-edatory incur-
fions into this part of the ifland. Within the fpace of ten
years they pillaged this town twice : firll in, or near the
yeartjgi, and again in 1000. In the fifth year of king
.lohn's reign, the fortifications were repaired and materially
(Irengthened. The walls were provided with, at lead, four
fortified gates ; which were refpeilivcly called, from their

relative

I P S W I C IT.

relative fituations, Eaft-Gate, Weft-Gate, North-Gate, and
South-Gate ; and tlie town was alfo divided into fo'.ir leets
or wards. Some frapjnnents and parts of the old walls are
ftill remaining. Of "tlft callli', no vcftige is left, either to
prove its fcile, or define its chanicler. The liberties of the
borouf^h, however, extend bevond the walls, and compre-
hend the fovir hamlets of Stoke-Hall. Wikes-Ufford, Brooks-
Hall, and Wikcs-Bifhop. The extent of thefe liberties
comprifcs an area, meafuring about four miles from call to
weft, and nearly five miles m a tranfverfe direftion. The
corporation has alfo iurifdiclion and advantageous privileges
by water, on the Orwell to the fea-port of Harwich. In
the time of king Edward the ConfelTor, his queen held two
.parts of the borough, and her brother, earl Oucrt, a third
part. When the Domefday book was made, Roger Bigot,
earl of Norwich, poffcfled the half hundred of Gippefwid.
At the former period, there were J38 biirgeffes refiding
here, who paid cuftom to the king, bnt at the conqucll
there were only no burgefles, and in the Norman record
it is ftated, that •' 528 houfes are now empty." The firlt
charter granted to the borough is dated 2;th of M.iy i ujg,
lil of kmg John ; this grants to the burgeffes, i, ' Tiie
boroun-h with all its appurtenances, liberties, &c. to be
holden°of t!ie king and his heirs by the p.iyment of th.- right
and ufual annual farm, and 100 fluUings more at the exche-
quer." This fiim is fuppofed to have amounted to lixty
marks, or 40/. : 2. The burgeffes were alfo exempted from
the payment of all taxes under the names of tholl, leilage,
ft:dlage, pafFage, pondage, and all other cuftoms by land,
and at fea-ports : :?. To have a merchant's gild, and lianfe
of their own: 4. N.i perfou to be quartered on them with-
out confent, or any thing taken from them by force:
5. That they mi.rlit hold their lands and recover tlieirjii ft dues
from whomfoever they be owmg:'' which implies that the
inhabitants were tlien co;illituted lawful fubjefts: " 6. That
they fliouid hold their lands and tenures within the
borough, according to the cuftom of tlie borough of Ipf-
wich : 7. That none of them thall be lined or amerced, but
according to the laws of the free-borouglis : S. And that
they might choofe two baihves and four coroners out of the
more lawful men of the faid town.'' Suffolk Traveller.

After this charter was ratified and obtai ed, the burgeffes
affembled in the church-yard of St. M4ry at Tower, and
there held their firft great court ; appointed ofScers, &c.
Here they continued to tranfad their public bufinefs till the
13th year of Edward I. *s reign, when that monarch feized
the borough, and held it in fubordinati.jn for fix years.
He then renewed and confirmed the charter, by public act,
dated at Berwick, A D. 1 291. For this liberty the bur-
geffes were required to pay an annual rent of 60.'. to the
king. Another charter was granted by king Henry VI. ;
but the mod material aft of this kind was procured
in the 17'h year of king Charles II. Among the privileges
conferred on the burgeffes by thefe charttrs. is that of fend-
ing two ::ie iv,bers to parliament, who are elected by the votes
of about 700 burgeffes. The officers of thefe, and who are
entruftcd with the civil government of the place, arc two
bailiffs, a recorder, loportmen, and 24common-councilmcn.
The borough is faid to have returned members ai ori^;W.
Like the generality of parliamentary boroughs, this has been
the caufe of much bribery, corruption, and litigation. A
mcm)rable initance of the latter occurred before a com-
mittee of the houfe of commons in 1780, when Mr.Ca'or,
who had obtained a majority of votes by bribery, &c. was
declared difqualified to take a feat in the houfe, and a new
KiU waj vlFucd to elc£l another perfon. The particulars of

this cafe are fully narrated in Oldfirld's " Hiftory of
Boroughs,'' vol. ii.

In addition to the privileges already noticed, the corporate
otTicers of Ipfwich are authorized to pafb fines and recoveri-.s,
try civil and crin inal caufef, and liold pleas of the cro.vn.
Tliev alio hold affixes of wine, bread, beer, &c. and have an
adnii'ialty jurifdiction, whereby they are entitled to all waifs,
ftrays, and goods eft on fhore. No freeman can be com-
pelied to ferve on juries out of the town ; and every burgefs
is entitled to feveral advantageous privileges on failing ti>
different ports.

Ipfwich at prefent contains twelve parifh churches. In
the Domefday book nine are fpecified : and in the year 12S7
it is related in Stowe's Annals that fome churches in this
town, at Yarmouih, atDunvsich, S:c. weredellroycd by a

violent ftorm, and by the waves of the agitated fe;

Th

names of the prefent pariflies, are, I. St. Clement's, which is
confolidated with St. Helen's, and h.is no church: 2. St.
Helen's, or Helleii's, is a reflory : 3. St. Lawrence's chui ch
is f:iid to have been begun by John Bottold, who died A.D.
1431. The chancel w.^s erected by John Bal«yn, whi>
died in 1449 ; and a chantry was founded here, in 1 5 14, by
Edmund Dauntry, a poftnian of this town, who alfo caufed
the market crofs to be built : 4. St. Margaret's was impro-
priated to the priory of the Holy Trinity, the church of
which was formerly ftanding near St. Margaret's churcli-
yard : 5. St. Mary's, at Elms : 6. St. Mary's, at Kay: 7. St.
Mary's, at Stoke : S. St. Mary's, at Tower : 9. St. Mat-
thew': 10 St. Nichol.is's: II St. Peter's: 12. St. Stephen',?.
Belides thefe, the three following churches are in the vicinity
of the town : i. Thurlefton : 2. Whitton : and 3. Weller-
fie'd. The monaftic eftabliihments within the town were
formerly very numerous, and feveral houfes, parts of build-
ings, and places, ftill retain the names of the refpedive
focieties. Thefe were, j. The Holy Trinity, or Chrid
Church, a priory of Black canons: 2. St. Peter and St. Paul,
a priory of Black canons : 3. St. Mary Magdalen, and St.
James, a hofpital for leprous perfons : 4. Dandy's Alms-
houfes: 5. A houfe of Auftin friars: 6, 7. and 8. Black
friars. Gray friars, and White friars. For accounts of
thefe eftabliihments, fee Tanner's Notitia Monaftica.

Ipfwich formerly contained feveral large houfes belonging
to wealthy merchants and eminent perfons. Of thefe a few
remain in reduced and dilapidated conditions. Among
thefe are walls and a brick gateway to a building called
Wolfey-coUege, which was appropriated and enlarged by
Cardinal Wolfey for a dean, 12 fecular canons, £ clerks, and
S clioirifters. To this college was annexed a grammar fcliool :
but before the founder's defign was carried into effect lie
was arrefted by king Henry 'VIII. and is fuppofed lo
have taken poifon to efcape an ignominious trial and exe-
cution. The fcite of the college comprifed about fix acres
of land. The bifliop of Norwich had a palace called Cur-
fon's houfe, in Silcut-ftreet. Sir Andrew Windfor, after-
wards lord Windfor, had a houfe in the parifh of St. Mary,
at Stoke. The archdeacon of Suffolk poffefTed a houfe,
called Place or Palace, in Upper Brook-ftrect. Part of the
outer wall and gates lately remained. In the parifh of St.
Ste;.>hen were formerly two houfes, or manfions of confider-
al le note : one of which belonged to, and was inhabited by
Charles Biiiudon. duke of Suffolk ; and the other to fir
Anthony Wingfitld, knight of the Garter, vice-chamber-
lam and privy-counfcUor to king Henry VIII. Some
apartments of the latter ftill remain, and are curious exam-
ples of the ftyle in which fuch manllons were ornamented.
Several little houfes in this town are cmbehifhed, both ex-
8 ternall/

I P s

ternally and internally, with carved and ftuccoed devices ;
but thefe are chiefly of the age of James I. and Charles I.

The commerce and trade of Ipfwich, thoii!jh not upon
a large fcale, funiiiTi employment to many of the poorer
inhabitants, and fortunes to ihofc who pofTcfs property to
fpecuiate with. Several velTfls belong to this town, and
many have been built here. Four building yards are at-
tached to the port. Tiie chief trade of the place is malt-
ing. Ipfwich is fupplicd with live fairs annually, and five
days out of the feven are appropriated for markets. For
the accommodation of perfons frequenting thefe, a large,
commodious market-place has been erected from defigns
by Mr. Brown, an architect of this town. A ferics of
buildings, on pillars, is difpcfcd round two quadrangular
courts, in which perfons who frequent the mai'kct may be
provided with flielter and accommodation for a fmall annual,
or weekly rent. The plan is judicious, and admirably adapted
to its purpofe. In this town are live charity-fchcols for the
education and clothing of poor children.

On the quay is a cuftom houfe : it was determined in t!ie
reign of Edward III. that the bailiff and burgefles of Ipf-
\vich had the fole right to take cuilom-houfe duties for
goods landed at tiie port of Harwich : whence it is inferred
that the latter was a fubordinate, and dependant port to
the former. Tlie tide commonly rifes from to to 12 feet :
but at low water the river is fliallow and narrow. At Ipf-
wich are the following public buildings : a town-hall, coun-
cil-chamber, and fliire-hail ; a workhoufe, or hofpital, and
fome alms-houfes.

Adjoining the town is a feat and park called Chrift-
church, occupying tlie fcite and lands of an ancient priory ;
and to the fouth of Ipfwich are the fellowing feats : Tat-
tingfton-hal!, Wolverfton-hall ; — to the weft are Chauntry,
Sproughton, Burllal, and Bramford, Hintlefliam-hall, Stoke-
hall, and Hill-houfe. Among the eminent natives of tiiis
town, the name of Thomas Wolfey is particularly diftin-
guifiied. He is faid to have been the fon of a butcher,
but this is doubted bv the editor of the fecond edition of
<' The Suffolk Traveller." It is evident, however, that he
rapidly advanced from a low rank in fociety, to be even the
itiafter of his tyrannical and fellifh monarch ; but at length he
fell a facrihcc to his own ambition and to the caprice of his
king. He was born here March 14.71, and died at Leicefter
Nov. 29, 1530. Several memoirs and accounts of him have
been publillicd, but an " impanial li.^e'" of him " is ftill a defi-
deratumin Euglifli biography." Chalmers, in hisintereihing
" Hillory of the Colleges and Halls, &c. of Oxford," has
given a (liort and difcriminating memoir of him, with refer,
cnces to, and obfervations on the cardinal's different biogra-
phers. The following names occur as " v/orthies' of I] fwich :
Ralph Brownrigg, D.D. and bidiop of Ese'er : William
]5utler, phyfician, who, according to Fuller, " Worthies of
England,"*' (vol. ii. p. 340.) was thejEfculapius of the age.''
Mr. Raw, a refpectable bookfciler of Ipfwich, is printing
a htdory of this town. Suffolk Traveller, 2d edit. 8vo. 1 764.

Ipsw icn, the Agawam of the Indians, a poll-town and
port of entry in America, pleafantly fituated on both fides
ef Ipfwich river, in EfFex county, Maflachufetts, 30 miles
N.E. by N. of Bofton, and about a mile from the fea.
The towndiip of Ipfwich is divided into four parifhes, and
contains 60 1 lioufes, and 3305 inhabitants, who are chiefly
farmers ; a few veflels are employed in the fifliery, and fome
few trade to the Well Indies: fiik, thread, and lace, of an
elegant texture, are manufadturcd here in large quantities,
by women and children, and fold for ufe and export;\tion in
Bofton and other mercantile towns. Ipfwich townihip was
iacorpfirated in 163.J.. It was fcj-.Tierlv a place of conlider-
6

IRA

able importance ; but its decline is attributed to a b
harbour, and fhoals in the river. N. lat. 42^43'. W. .
7°" 5:0'-

Ii-swiCH, Netv, a fownftiip in Hilliborough county,
Hamplhire, containing 1266 inhabitants; fituattd on the
W. fide of Souhagan river, and feparated from Wliaiflioi.k
mountain by the N. line of Maifachufetts; 56 miles N.W.
of Bolion. It was incorporated in 1762, and has a }lou-
ri filing academy.

IQUEIOUY, or Iquique, an ifland in the Pacific
ocean, near the coalt of Peru, about a mile in circumference,
fitu:fted in a fmall gulf, which affords flielter for veffels, but
no frefh water. It is inhabited by Indians and (laves be-
longing to the Spaniards, who are employed in collecting a
yellow earth, fornled by the dung of birds, as manure for
vine?, and with which eight or ten fhips have been loaded
annually for a century. S. lat. 20 20'.

IQUISENQUI, one of the iilands of Japan, fituated
near tlie S.E. coall of the ifland of Ximo. This ifland is
verv fmall. N. lat. 32-; E. long. 132 40'.
IRABAD. SeeHiRABAD.

I R. A BATTY, a name given to the river Ava, in fome
part of its courfe.

IRAC, Akaei.in, a country of Arabia Deferta, fituated
to the fouth of the Tigris and Euphrates ; the ancient
Babylonia or Chalda»a. This country, towards the N.E;,
is watered by branches of the Euphrates, and is fertile, con-
taining a number of cities and towns : towards the S. W.
it is a dreary wildernefs. One of the prijicipal places in it
is BafTora.

Irac, or Irac/ljemi, a province of Perfia, chiefly cor-
refponding with the ancient Ecbatana; is bounded on the
N. by Ghilan and Mazandcrari, on the E. and N.E. by
Choi-afan, on the S. by Farfillan, and on the W. bv Kho-
fiilaii or Chufiilan, and the Arabian Irac. This province
contains apart of ancient Media and Parthia : it is about
150 leagues in length, -and 120 in breadth; and part of it
confifts of barren mountains, or fandy plains, which are alto-
gether unproduftive, but near the rivers there are extenfive
and fertile plains. The air is healthy, but very dry ; the
cUniate is hot ; and it hardly ever rains in the fummer for
fix months together. Mount Taurus, which traverfes the
province, furnifhes the animal that yields mufic ; manna, of
an exquifite whitenefs, is found in feveral places : galbanum
is collected in the mountains near Ifpahau ; and in feveral
places they cultivate grapes, fome of which are dried, and
others afford white wine. In this province are reckoned
about 40 towns or cities. Ifpahan, the capital of Perfia,
is the chief.

IRACOUEO, a river of Guiana, which runs into the
Atlantic. N. lat. 5 35'. W. long. 54' 27'.

IRACUNDUS Mu.scuLus, m. Jlmitomy, a name given
by fome authors to one of the mufcles ot the eye, called
alfo the rectus' exterior and abducens. It is one of the
quatuor refti oculi of Albimix, and is called by him .ind
Douglas, as well as many others, the abdudtor.

IRAMALLY, in Geo^mphy, a town of Hindooilan, in
the circar of Dindigul ; 30 miles W.N. W of Dindigul.

IRAPILLY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Myfore
country ; 12 miles S E. of Sankeridurgum.

IRASBURG.a townfhip of America, in Orleans countv,
Vermont, fituated on Black river; 12 miles S. of the Ca-
nada line ; containing ij inhabitants.

IRASCIBLE, in the Old ri,ilofo-^hy, a term applied to
an appetite, or a part of the foul, where anger and the
other paifions, which- animate us againft things difficult, of
odious, were fujjpolcd to refide.

Of

I R E

. ©f tlie eleven kinds of paflions attributed to the foyi, phi-
lofoplicrs afcribe five to the irafcible appetite ; viz. wrath,
boUncfg, fear, hope, and dcfpair : the other fix are charged
Cn the conciipilcibk" appetite ; liz. pleafuro, pain, uelire,
averlion, iovc, and hatred.

Piato divided the foul into three parts ; tlie reafonable,
irafcible, and concupifcible parts. The two lall, according
to that philofophc-r, arc the corporeal and mortal parts of
tlic foul, which give rife to our paffioiis.

Plato fixes the feat nf the irafcible appetite in the heart ;
aaJ of the concupifcible in the liver : as the two fourccs of
jjlood and foirits, which alone affecl tl)c mind.

IRAVAT, or luAVATi, in BiiiJu Mythology, the
'tame of an elephant on vvhich Indra, the regent of the
fiimamcnt, a".d prince of the beneficent genii, rides. (See
Indua.) It is generally painted with three trunk?, or
probofci, and is driven by Indra's charioteer na:ncd iSiatah.
The Hindus affign vehicles, which they call vahan, to their
difterent deities, male and female. Thus, the vahan of Indra
is Iravat (feeVAiiAs); but not, it would appear, exclu-
iively, for Major Moore, in the Hindu Pantheon, p. 261,
fays, that he has pictures in which other deities, llama
and Krilhna in particular, are raounlcd on this favoured
animal. Indra being a perfonilication of the vifible heavens,
bis attiibiites and dillinftions partake of firmamental allu-
fions. In his wars he employs many elephants, who are in
fact clouds ; and their names tranflated mean l/jinitl.^r, bearer,
hlack, liihlu, rumbler, groivler, &c. Tlie chief of all thefe is
; Iravat, which means viatsry, the aqueous property of clouds
being that moil apparent ; and we .Tiay, in this appropriate
noaienclature, fancy that we difcern fome appearance of con-
nection in the m.ythological machinery of the Hindus, ge-
nerally at the firll view fo apparently anomalous and extra-
vagant.

IRBEN, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Cour-
land, on the coafl of the Baltic; 18 railes E.N.E. of
Windau.

IRBITSKAIA, a town of Rufiia, in the government of
Perm, on the Irbit; 100 miics N.E. of Ekaterinburg.

IRCUNDA, a town of Hiudoodan, in the circar of
Cicaoole; 20' miles S.W. of Cicacole.

IRE Holmes, two iflands arnong the Orkneys, a httle
to the Vv. of the ifland of Sanda.

IREBY, High, or Marhl-h-ehy, a parifli and market-
town in AUerda'e-ward, in the county of Cumberland, Eng-
land, is fituated near the fource of the river Ellen, 303
miles dlftant from London, and contained, according to the
population return of the year iSoo, 73 houfes, and 358 in-
liabitants. Here arc two annual fairs, and a weekly market
on Thurfday. The town, though now inconfiderablc, is
of great antiquity, and was, in the opinion of Camden, the
« Arbeia of the Romans, wliere the Barcarii Tigrienfes
were ftalioned ;" but Horfley dilTents from this evidence,
and a.Terts, that no Roman antiquities were ever found here ;
and that the affinity of names has lefs force in tliis in fiance,
as there is another Ireby in Lancafhire, on the borders of
Wedmoreland and Yorklhire. This gentleman, with Mr.
Ward, places the Arbeia at Morefby, where remains have
been dug up, and the fci'.eof a ftation is evident. Beauties
cf England and Wales, vol. iii.

IREDELL, a county of A.merica, in Saliftury diAriit,
North Carolina, furrounded by Surry, Rowan, and Burke.
The climate is fahibrious, the lands beautifully variegated
wiih hills, and the foil rich. It contains 87C1 inhabitants,
of whom 1 48 1 are ilaves. Iredell court-houfe has a poll-
ofi'ce ; 25 miles from Saliiljury..

IRE

IREG A, a town of Hindoodan, in the ciitar of Adoni ;
50 miles W.N.W. of Adoni.

IREJ, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Gohud ;
70 mi es E. of Narwa. N. lat. 25 37'. E. long. 75) 40'.

IRELABOO, a town on the N. coall of the iflaiid of
Sumatra. N. lat. 5-9'. E. long. 96' 15'.

IRELAND, a large and fertile illand in the Atlantic
ocean, lying on the weit of Great Britain, from which it is fe-
parated by the Iridt fea, or St. George's Cliannel. It con-
tains the moll weftern land in Europe, if we except Iceland;
and it has no country bct.vcen it and the coall of Labrador
in North America. The fea which feparates it from Great
Britain, varies in breadth from 14 to 40 leagues ; but is
contratled between Scotland and the county of Down to a
channel only iix leagues wide, and farther north to a ilill
narrower flrait of lefs than four, between the N.E. point
of the coaft of Antrim and the Mull of Cantyre.

The general figure of Ireland fomewha'. refembles a
parallelogram, the greatell length of \\hich that can be
meafureii along a meridian, is from Bloody Farland Point,
in the county of Donegal, to the Stags of Cork liarbour ;
this does no: exceed 1S5 Irilh ,or 23^;^ Engliih miles. It is
much indented on the eail by the Inlh iea, and on the weft
by the Atlantic ocean, fo that its breadth is very unequal.
Between Emlagh R id-., in Mayo, and the mouth of Strang-
ford lough, which is the greateft, there arc 143 Iridi (1M3
Engliih) miles, whilil betv.een the bays of Dublin and
Galway there are but 86 Iriili miles, and between Dundalk
and B.illyfliannon no more than 67. It will not, therefore,
appear furprifing, that there is not a fpot in Ireland whicli
is fifty miles diltant from the fea. If a diagonal line be
di-awn from Fairhead, the north-eailern point, to Mirenhead,
the fouth-weilern point, it will meafure 241 Irifh, or 306
Engliih miles, which is the greateft diilance between any two
points of theidand. The number of Irifh plantation acres
is above 12 millions, which is nearly equal to 20 millions of
Enghfh acres.

The fituation of Ireland is peculiarly favourable for re-
ceiving and bellowing the reciprccal ber.efits of external com-
merce. Its coauiiunication is open and direiil with Eng-
land, France, Spain, Portug;d, the coall of Africa, the
Eall Indies, South America, the Weil Indies, the United
States of .-iraerica, Newfoundland, Hudfon's Bay, Green-
land, &c., with by far the greatell part of the riclalt, the
molt fertile, the moil commercial, and the moll r.uitualiy
dependent' countries in the world ; with countries abounding
in an endlefs variety of commodities, furniiliing every mate-
rial on which the varied induitry of man can be employed,
and prefenting the ntnioll allurements to the cnterprifing
trader. It feems dellincd by nature, fays Mr. Newenham,
to be the great emporium of tlie commodities of Europe and
America ; and, indeed, of thofe of alinoll every maritime
country upon the furface of the globe.

The face of the country aflcrds a pleafing variety. In
fome parts there are rich and fertile plains, v.'atered by large
and beautiful rivers ; in others frequent hills produce that in-
terelting fucceflion of objtfls with which a flat country can
never abound. In two or three counties, there are moft
romantic and pifturcfque fcencs, whillt in others, extcnfive
plains have been converted intomofly morafTcs. A fuflicient
quantity cf weed, however, is wanting in mi;ll parts to
render the views as interelling as the general charadlcr of the
country would lead us to expedl. That this was not the
cafe in former times, is evident from various accounts. Gi-
raldus Cambrenfis, quoted by Camden, Stamhurtt, and other
old writers, fpcak of it as covered with woods, which are
aUB often reftrred to in afts of parliament, and other public

documents.

IRELAND.

Aocymcnts. Tliefc vrere partly cut down to deprive the
natives of their faitneffes, and partly for the purpofe of ex-
tending agriculture. In the reigns of James I. and Charles
I., during the continuance of peace, a very extenfive export-
ation took place, chiefly of pipe (laves and other fmall tim-
ber ; and befides. w hat was confumed in domeftic fuel, im-
menfe quantities » ere charred for the iron works whicli were
carried on in different pans of the ifland. As no attention
was paid to renewing them, the foreds were fpeedily reduced.
Yet Boate, whofe work was publifhed about the middle of
the fcventeenth century, informs us that there were ftill fundry
great woods remaining in all the provinces, fome of them
many miles long and broad. All thefe have fince been de-
molifhed, and there does not exift in Ireland any traft de-
serving the name ofaforcft: but the wiiole country is cleared
foi- the purpofes of agriculture, and retains none of the
vail woods to be found in the favage (late, yet Ireland is not
dcrtitute of woods that are botli ufefuland ornamental. A
fpirit of planting has been prevalent for fome years pad,
vhich has been powerfully encouraged by the premiums of
the Dublin Society, as well as by Ceveral afts of parliament
for the pr:te6lion of timber, fo that the country begins to
alfume a lefs naked appearance, and will, perhaps, become
once more entitled to its old name of the Woody ifland.

Ireland has been ever celebrated for the fertility of its
foil. The rich.eil land is that whicli lies near the principal
rivers, but there is not much which can be called bad ; and
the proportion of that whicli is wa(le was not thought by
Mr. Arthur Young, fo long ago as the year 177S, to be
as great as in England. The moft uncultivated traCls are
the momitainous didricis in all the wettcrn counties, wliich
feem ])laced as barriers againft the fury of the vad Atlantic.
In every part of Ireland there is (lone either near the furface
cr at no great depth, which Mr. Young confidercd as the
greateft fingularity of Ireland. " May we not recognize
in this," he continues, " the hand of bounteous Providence,
which has given, perhaps, the mod dony foil in Europe to
the nioilied climate in it ? If as much rain fell upon the clays
of England, (a foil very rarely met with in Ireland, and
never without much done,) as falls upon the rocks of her
-fider ifland, thofe lands could not be cultivated. But the
rocks here are clothed with verdure ; thofe of limeftone, in
particular, with only a thin coveriuif of mould, have the
fofted and mod beautiful turf imaginable." Light fandy
foil is feldom met with, and chalk has not been found in any
part of the ifland, though there is a white limeftone fome-
what refembling it.

The mountainous chains in Ireland are neither numerous
nor import^mt ; but an upland ridge divides the country from
the N.E. to the S AV., giving birtli to feveral of the rivers.
The Irifli hills generally form fiiort lines or ditached groujis,
which are fo difpcrled through the country, that there is
fcarcelv any part in which the profpeft is not terminated by
this fpecies of majedic fcenery. There are none, however,
equal in height to feveral in Great Britain, the highed pro-
bably falling fliort of ?ooc feet ; yet there are a few, Cuch
ns Mangerton and M'Giniciiddy's Reeks, near the lake of
Killarney, and Brandon, near Dingle, in Kerry ; Croagh
Patrick and Nepliin in Mayo ; and Sliebh-Donard, one
■of tlie Moiirne mountains, in the county of Down, which
deferve the attention of tlic naturatill, as they have been
found to produce many of thofe plants pecuhar to Alpine
regions.

As the whole of the country is fnind to have done near
the furface, it was natural to expect that it contained valuable
minerals ; and we accordingly find that fuch an expectation
■was early formed, though, iiithcrto, much pains do not

feem to have been taken to difcover ihem, and render them
ufcful. A plan was indeed recommended hy Mr. Kirwan,
which, if it had been adopted, would have c(l;ib!iflied a com.
plete niineralogical fchool in Ireland, and would thus have not
only led to the difcovery of the minerals, but have alfo in-
ilnufled in the mode of procuring them with mod advan-
tage. As, latterly, attention has been excited to the fub-
ject, much progiefs may be fliortly expedled. The lime-
done quarries, which abound almoit every where, are now
generally worked, and aflbrd a mod valuable manure. A
great variety of n:arbles is f<nuid, fome of which are un-
commonly beautiful, and capable of a very high polifli, fo
as to leave little caufe to regret the difficulty of procuring
Italian marbles. Gypfum, fo valuable a material in the
hands of the ornamental artid, is found in great abundance
near Belfad, and fuller' s-earth has been found in feveral
counties. The mountains of granite in Wicklow and Car-
luvv fupply the capital with this ufeful done for building;
and flates of excellent quality are found in many parts of
the ifland. The beds of coal, to be feen in various regions
of Ireland, have not yet been properly explored. That of
Kilkenny, found at Cadlocomer, is defervedly celebrated
amon,j mineralo jiils as the pured coal of the kind to which
it belongs, which is the Jlor.e or vmnf.ammnble coal. This is
the kind generally found in the foutiiern parts of Ireland ;
but in the counties of Tyrone and .-iiitrim fome mines of
flate-coal have been worked. Iron ore is very abundant ;
and before the foreds were confumed, there was a great
number of iron works in various parts. Boate divides the
iron mines of Ireland into three defcriptions : i. What he
dylrs the bog-mine, or, what is now termed lowland ore,
found in moors and bog« ; the ore refcmbiing yellow clay,
but mouldering into a (dackifli fand. 2. The rock mine ;
a bad fort; the ore intimately combined with ftoni-. 3. That
found in various mountains ; the ore fpheric and of a whitilh
grey colour ; balls of the bed ore contained kernels full of
fmall holes, wlience the name honey-comb ore. Boate praifcs
this iron as frequently rivalling that of Spain ; and Mr.
Kirvvan affirmed, before the houie of commons, that the
Arigna iron was better than any iron made from any fingle
fpecies of ore in England. A defective iupply of coal
renders, however, the abundance of this ore of no avail.
There are alfo valuable mines of lead, copper, and cobal"-,
fon.e of which have been \Trought to advantage ; and gold
has been found in the county of Wicklow, though not
of fuch confcquence as to promife much national advan-
tage.

The bogs of Ireland form a very remarkable feature of
the country. Thefe are of different kinds, and in fome
places are very extenlive. As trees, and even utenfils of
different kinds have been found in thele bogs, they are
fuppofed not to be of very great antiquity ; and the moll
probable account feems to be, that when foreds had been
cut down, the trees were fuffered to lie on the fpot, and
the cultivation of the ground negleded. Thefe trees in-
tercepted and conlined dreams of water with the various
rubbi(h they brought with them ; and became gradually
covered with a vegetation of mofs, fedgy grafs, ruflies, and
various aquatic plants. Notwithllanding attention was
dircdled to the recovery of thefe extenfive wades more than
a century ago, very little has yet been effeiled, which is
rather to be attributed to want of proper exertion, than
to fuch recovery being impraflieable. In the year 1809,
however, on the recommendation of the Right Hon. John
Foder, at that time chancellor of the exchequer, who will
be long remembered as a zealous promoter of the intereds
of Ireland, when party aniinodty will be forgotten, com-

miffiuners

IRELAND.

■JnirTioners were appointed " to enquire into the nature and
extent of the bogs of Ireland ; and the prafticability of
draining and cultivating tlu;ni." As the vaft extent of
thefe hogs has not enabled the co-.nmifiioners to complete
the taflv committed to them, it can only be obfervcd, that
the firft of a number of dillrids contains 36,430 Englilh
acres of bog, and that the expeiice of tlie operations which
a very able engineer deemed neceflary for completely drain-
ing it, was 70,014/. -/s. ^d. The bogs in the King's county
alone, exceeding 500 acres each, contain at leall 124,000
acres. The drainage of thefe bogs is, therefore, a. matter
of vaft importance, not only to Ireland, but to the empire
at large, as thefe lar.ds, now of little or no value, would,
when drained and properly cultivated, yield a vaft fupply
ef food, for which England has had to pay large fums in
gold to her moft bitter enemy. It has alfo been made
evident, that this drainage would increafe the quantity of
turf fuel, fo as to render it both more ealily procurable
and cheaper. At prefent only the fmall bogs, which it is
not intended to drain, and the edges of the large ones,
are accefiible to the turf-digger, but the drainage would
enable an approach to the interior parts of them ; and fuch
is the quantity, that after every exertion, to reclaim, there
will remain more for turf than an increafed confumption
can poffibly exhauft in the courfe of ages. This is an ob-
fcrvation of much importance, becaufe the want of this
excellent fuel would be very feverely felt in a country
where few coal mines are worked, and where the fupply of
coal is confequently uncertain and expenfive. The in-
ftruSions of the commiffioners do not authorife them to
examine the numerous boggy trafts on the fides of moun-
tains, which not being in general deep, afford at times good
pafturage. Tlie bell mode of reclaiming thefe would be to
introduce the culture of Fiorin, as recommended by the
Rev. Dr. Richardfon, and thus render them good mea-
<Iows.

Perhaps no country of the fame extent is more bounti-
fully watered by fine rivers and lakes, or more indented by
noble harbours, than Ireland is, fo as to poffefs, in an emi-
■nent degree, thofe great requifites for agriculture, manu-
factures, and the mod extenfive commerce. The rivers,
befides abounding with an inhnlte variety of fifh, communi-
cate uncommon fertility to the lands which they beautify,
and afford a multitude of the bell fituations for the machinery
of manufaiStures, fo that wind-mills are very rarely met with
in this .country. But though many of thefe rivers are very
confiderable in point of fize, and run a pretty long courfe,
and fome of them are capable 'jf bearing large boats many
miles above their fall into the iea ; yet there are none which
can be called navigable in the fame fenfe as the Thames or
the Severn. This is partly occafioned by rocks running
acrofs their beds, and thus forming catarafts ; partly by
the praAice of breaking down the banks to make fords for
the convenience of travellers, when bridges were lefs fre-
quent than they are at prefent ; and partly by weirs made
cither to ferve mills, or for the fake of catching ialmon.
Much, however, may be done by labour, attention, and
expence, to remove thefe impediments, arid extend internal
navigation ; and fo fenfible was the Irifli legiflature of this,
that a fum of money has been appropriated, under the di-
reftion of commiffioners, for this purpofe. The Shannon
is the principal river of Ireland, which, riling in the -northern
part of Connaught, almoft infulates that province and the
county of Clare, and after a courfe of 150 miles, in which
it expands into fix different lakes, it flows into ths Atlantic
ocean, between the counties of Clare and Kerry, being na-
vigable for large veffels as far as Limerick. The Suir, the

Vol. XIX.

Barrow, and the Nore, which iSpenfer has defcribed as thrfc
brothers, proceeding in different direfiions from Siicbh-
bloom, a ridge of mountains between the King's and
Queen's counties, aiid in the north of Tipperary, pour their
united ftrcams into the bay of Walerford.

The number of lakes or loughs in Ireland is very great,- '
and fome of them are large, and even magnificent. Many
of thofe fheets of water, however, which are called by
this name, are in reality arms of' the fea, as Lough-Swilly,
Lough Foyle, and others. Of thofe which arc, -ilrictly'
fpeaking, lakes. Lough Nea'gh, Lough Erne, and Lough
Corrib, are the mod confiderable in point of extent ; as
Lough Lane, or the lake of Killarney, is the moll dif-
tinguilhed for its beauties. There are alfo many mineral
fprings in different parts, the moft remarkable of v.'liich will
be noticed under their refpeftive counties.

The harbours of Ireland are very numerous. Thefe have-
been divided into the principal havens, and the leffer or
barred havens ; but the dillinCtion feems of little ufe, as
they will deferve notice, rather on account of their being
frequented, than on account of natural advantages. Thofe
indeed which are moll capacious, on the S. and S.W. have
hitherto been little frequented, except by the fmuggler, of
by veffels unable to reach their deltined port. Waterford
and Cork harbours on the S. ; Bantry and Dingle bays
on the S.W. ; the cftuary of the Shannon, and the vaft
bay of GaKvay on the W. ; that great opcn-ug on the
N.W. of w-hich the bay of Sligo is a part ; *Lough Swilly
and Lough Foyle on the N., are the moll confiderable. On
the eafiern fide, there are none poffeffcd of great natural
advantages, yet from the greater improvement of the ad-
joining country and the vicinity of England, there are
many which are much frequented, efpe-;ially the harbours
of Belfaff and Newry, and the barred havens of Dublin,
Droghcda, and Wexford. The principal commercial towns
are Dublin, Cork, Belfall, Limerick, and Waterford.

With refpeCl to the climate of Ireland, ffrangers foon
perceive that it is in general lefs hot in fummer, and lefs
cold in winter than in England, and other countries in the
fame latitude ; and that very hot or very cold weather,
when it does take place, continues for a much fliorter time.
If, however, the climate be more temperate, it is alfo niucli
damper, both on account of a greater fall of rain, and of a
moillure in the atmofphere when there is no rain, -which
produces a \ery ilriking effedl on the walls of houfes, on
furniture, and various other articles. This prevalence of
moillure feems to be occalioned by the winds blowing from
the vaft Atlantic ocean, and is more perceivable in the weftern
and fouthern parts. Though the frequent fliowers anfwer
very well for pafturage, and clothe the limeilone rocks
•with verdure, yet they often interfere with the gathering
-in of the harveil, and render expedition on the part of the
farmer, in ufing fine weather whilfl in his power, more iiccef-
.fary. This ftiort continuance of heat is not fufiicient to
-ripen peaches, grapes, and other fruits, without great care
and attention ; but the broad-leaved myrtle (Myrtu*
communis) grows luxuriantly, with very little care, in the
.fouthern counties, being feldom injured by the cold of
winter; and the arbutus (Arbutus unedo) is not found as
.a native in any other country fo far diftant from the equator.
Perfons advanced in life co«iplain of an unfavourable change
in the climate, faying that it is much feverer and more un-
certain tlian it ufed to be ; and an ingenious writer. Dr.
AV. Hamilton, (in the 6th vol. of Tranfaclions of the Royal
Irhh Academy), has Hated fome facts which appear to add
.credibility to fuch complaints. Tlie pine-tree, cfpccially
that fpccies called the Scotch fir, formerlv grew on many
3F ' cf

I R F. L A N D.

of the mountains of this i.land, ar/J on parts of the nortlierii
and weltern coaits exceedingly bare and open to ftorms.
Vaft roots and noble trunks of this fpecies of pine liave
been fecn, and examined with attention, in fitiiatious where
human indiiftry cannot now rear a twig of the hardicll tree.
The devailation occafioned by fands in fome parts of the
northern coaft, and even in the fouth, and the greater in-
fluxes of the tide, fcem to prove tlie more frequent recurrence
and greater violence of the Atlantic ftorms. The deftruc-
tion of the forclls may perhaps account fatisfadtorily for
fotne of thefc fafts, whilll others may liave been occafioned
by -circumHances not yet fufliciently attended to. Dr. Pa-
terfon, in his " Obfervations on the Climate of Ireland," has
adduced many fafts to controvert the opinion of a change ;
and the obfervations made a century and a half ago, are fo
applicable to the country at prefent, that it may be in-
ferred the prefent feafons do not materially differ from former
ones, and that the influence of the Atlantic has always been
much the fame. Tlie winds moft prevalent in Ireland are the
weft and fouth-weft, which, contrary to the poetical defcrip-
tiou of zephyrs, are frequently attended with rain and ftorms.
Eafterly \vinds are lefs common, and are jjcnerally dry and
keen ; thcfe are faund prejudicial to health, and invalids
avoid being expofed to them. On the whole, if the climate
of Ireland be not the moft agreeable, it is found very whole-
fome ; iuftances of longevity are frequent, and if peculiar
ciniumftatrces occallon much fickncfs in many of the large
tov.-ns, the peafantry are very healthful, and, in confequence
of it, robuft and hardy. The bogs, which fome have fup-
pofed to be unwholefome, are of a very different nature
^from the moraffes in other countries, which appears both
from the tin^ber preferved in them, and from the effeCl
produced on the fkins of animals unfortunately loft in
them.

The produftions of Ireland, and the animals found in it,
do not differ much from thofe in England. The moft valuable
ones in both feem to have been imported from other coun-
tries, and the variety of thefe muit be greater in England,
on account of its fuperior cultivation. The domeftic ani-
mals are the fame, and from the care taken of late years to
improve the breeds, it may be expeiled that our iheep and
oxen wiUjiot be furpafled. Bede, who has commemorated
the praife of Ireland for abundance of honey and milk,
alio mentions numerous herds of deer, which animal the pro-
grefs of cultivation has now rendered rare. In various parts
of Ireland are dug up enormous horns of deer, which lome
writers have imagined to be of the fpecies called moofc dier
in America; but Mr. Pennant has demonftrated that tlie
animal muft have almoft donbled in fize the American
monfter, which is fometimes found feventeen hands in heigl-t.
The Irifti horns have been found of the extent of fourteen
feel from tip to tip, furniftied with brow antlers, and weigh-
ing 300 pounds ; the whole fl<eleton is frequently found
with them. It is fuppofed that the animal muft have been
about twelve feet high. Wolves infefted the country for-
merly, but are faid to have been extirpated by Ohver Crom-
well. It has been afterted that no poifonous animal will
live in Ireland, and even that no fpiders will haunt Irillt
timber, which, as is faid, was the caufe why it was often
employed in magnificent ceilings in the middle ages.
•' Whether it be owing to the foil or the climate," fays Dr.
Beaufort, " certain it is that in Ireland there are neither
m >les nor toads, nor any kind of ferpents ; and it is not a
hundred years fince frogs, of which there arc now abundance,
were full imported from EngJEud. But though tiic fame
experiment has been made with fnakes and vipers, it has
bappily been unfuccefsful." 'l"he rivers, lakes, aud leas
6

are ftocked with a great variety of fifli, which yield a picn*
tiful article of food to all ranks of people. The fifheries
on the coaft give employment to great numbers, and have
become, in fome iuftances, au objeft of national attention
and legillative encouragement, though they have never yet
been carried on as exienfively as they might be, or there
could have been no occalion for an importation of filh from
foreign countries. Jephfon Oddy, cfq. in his prolpec^ns of
a weliern lidiery company, mentions that the Nymph bank,
and others near the coaft of Ireland, abound with the fmelk
cod, Hug, hake, turbot, pollock, &c., and that the adjoiniiiL.'
feas are frequented at different periods by mackarel and her-
rings in great quantities ; and he forcibly urges that if tiiiv
filhcry was carried on with fpirit, it wo'd'd fupply both Eng-
land and Ireland with abundance of fill), fo as to render im-
portation unnecelTary, whilft it would at the fame time give
employment to nutnbers, and prove a valuabk nurfery for
feamen.

The native graffes are thofe cllccmed moft valuable by
the farmer, fo that Ireland has ever been celebrated for the ex-
cellence of its paftures ; the number of cultivated vegetables
is daily increaling ; and in confequence of the attention
lately paid to botanical knowledge, it appears that native
plants have not been beftowcd with a fparir.g hand. The in-
trodnclion of the potatoe, the value of which is univerfally
acknowledged, and which forms the principal part of tiie
food of the Irilh peafautrv, has been commonly attributed tu
fir Walter Raleigh.

To this general and hrief account of the natural ftate of
Ireland, it may be proper to fubjoin a lilt of the counties
into which Ireland is divided. The population of each, as
ftated by Dr. Beaufort, is added ; at the fame time it muft
be obferved, that this moft probably falls far ftiort of the real
population, as in fo many years as have elapfed fince its pub-
lication, there muft have been a confiderable increafe. It
may ferve, however, to give fome idea of the comparative
population of different counties, until more fatisfaiSory
documents than at prefent exift enable us to give a more
correct ftatement. The number of counties is 32, which are
contained in four provinces. A particular account of each
will be found under their refpettive names.

Ulster.

Antrim

Carrickfergus

Dew»

Downpatrick

Armagh

Armach

Tyrone

Omagh
Londonderry

Eondondcrry

Donegal

I.iftord

Fermanagh

EnnitkiUen

Cavan

Cavan

Monaghau

Monaghan

Eein-.hter.

Eouth

D.mdalk

Meath

Trin^

Weftmcath

Muilingar

Eongford

Longford

King's county

Plulipftown

Queen's couiiy

Maryborough

Kildare

Naas

Dublin

Dublin

Wicklow

Wicklow

Wexford

Wexford

Carlow

Carlow

Kilkemiy

ivilkenny

r.i>..!aur.n.

j6c,ooo

201,500
120,000
158,000.
) 25,000
140,000
71,800
•.1,570

1 iS,oco

57.75Q

II 2,40a
69,000
50,100
74,500
82,000
56,0001

lyS,ooo
58,000

115,000
44 oco

I CO .coo

CoN.NALOllT

R E L A N D.

Cdn-n.vvoht.

?];;.(,

Sli.cro

Co.oco

I.<-,trim

Carrick on Sliamion

50,000

Rolcommon

RofcoMimoa

S6,ooo

M.vo

Caftlebar

T 40. 000

GaKvay

GaKvay

Ml-XSTKU.

142,000

Cl:iri

E;.inis

96,000

Limerick

I^ir.ierick

170,000

KclTV

Trake

107,000

Cork

Cork

416,000

Tipovr.-.rv

Clor.mcll

1 6y,00O

\:.iicv[o,'d

WiitcrfurJ

u 0,000

Mr. Piiikerton is of opinion tt-.at Ireland was early dif-
covorod by tlie Plmiiicians. " On tlie iiril dawn of hillory,"
f jy s lie, " ai;d v\ hen llic north-wcit of Europe was as obfcure
to t'.K' Greeks, as the idands on the north-eail of Siberia
were recently to us, it would feeni that Ireland conllitiited
one of the Cafliterides. The poems afcribcd to Orpheus de-
ferve no credit, but it appears that the idand was known to
the Greeks by the name of Juveona, about two centuries
before the birth of Chri'.l. When Csfar made his expedition
into Britain, he defcribes Hibernia as being about half the
fize of the iGand wluch he had explored ; and while the Ro-
mans maintained their conquefts in the latter region, Ireland
continued, of courfe, to be well known to them, and Pto-
lemy has given a map of the ifland, which is fuperior, in ac-
curacy, to that which repreients Scotland. Towards the
decline of the weftei'n empire, as the country had become
more and more known, and had been peopled with various
tribes, the Romans difcovcred that the ruling people in Ire-
Iind were the Scot! ; and thenceforth the country began to
be called Scotia, an a,ppellation retained by the monalUc
writers till the eleventh century, when the name Scotia
having paficd to modern Scotland, the ancient name of Hi-
bernia began to re-affume its iionours. It is fuppofed that
this name, and the Gothic denomination Ireland, are mere
r.iodiiications of the native term £rin, implying the country
of the weft."

" It is probable," fays the fame writer, whofc attention
to the fiibject of antiqsities gives great weiglit to his opi-
Kion, •' that the original population of Ireland palled from
Gaul, and was afterwards mcreafcd by their brethren the
Guydil from England. About the time that the HclgiE
feized on the fouth of England, it ap))ears that kindred
G;)thic tribes paifed to the foath of Ireland. Thefc are the
Pirbolg of the Irifli traditions ; and appear to have been the
fame people whom the Romans denominated Scoti, after
they had emerged to their notice by not only extending their
coiiquells to the north and eail in Ireland, but had begun to
make maritime excurfions a^ainll the Roman provinces in
Britain. But Irela.id had been fo much crowded with Cel-
tic tribes, expelled from the continent and Britain by the pro-
grefs of the German Goths, that the Belgx almo.'f loll their
native fpeecli and dillinft character ; and from intermarriage,
&c. became little diilinguifhablc from the original popula-
tion, except by fuperior ferocity, for whic'.i the Scoti, or
thofe who affecled a defcent from the Gothic colonics, were
remarkable ; while the original Gael Lem to have been an
innocuous people." Such is Mr. Pinkcrton's account of
the early (late of Ireland, but as very different ones have
been given rcfpcfting this, and as it llill continues to be a
fuhject of controverfy, it will be proper to give a brief ab-
ilract of the principal opinions, and the autliority on which

thev reft. The celebrated Edmund Spcnfer, in his " View
of the State of Ireland," fjppofcs it to have been firft peopled
by the Scythians, from whom the name Scotia was de-
rived. Thefe fettled in Ulfter, and a colony from thcui
went to Scotland. Another nation came out of Spain to
the weft part of Ireland, and finding it wafte, or weakly in-
habited, pofteired it. Thefe he fuppofed to have been
. Gauls, who had learned letters in Spain, where they were
introduced by the Phoenicians, and brought them to Ire-
land, where it is certain they were known at a very early
period. From the Scythians, Spenfer fuppofes the Irifli to
have derived, ift, the cuftom of keeping their cattle, and
living themfelves, for the moll part of the year, in loo/ies or
hordes, paduring upon the mountains and waile wild places ;
and removing llili lo frefti land, as tliey had depallured the
former. This cuflom, which fecnis to have continued lo
Spenfer's time, was rery injurious. The boolies were re-
ceptacles for outlaws and loofe people, who there evaded
juftice ; and thofe who lived in them grew inore barbarous,
and lived more liccutioudy than they could in towns, ufing
what manners they lifted, and praclifing what mifchiefs and
vilianics they would either againft the government, or private
individuals. Another Scythian cuftom was the wearing of
mantles, and long glibbes, which is a thick curled bufti of
hair, hanging down over their eyes, and monftroudy dif-
guifing them. Thefe mantles Spenfer defcribes as conve-
nient for outlaws, rebels, and thieves. As the paflage is
curious, and the work lefs known than it ought to be, the
infertion of it may afford fome entertainment to the reader.
" Firft the outlaw being for his many crimes aud villanies ba-
nifhed from the townes and houfes of honeft men, and wan-
dering in wafte places, far from danger of law, maketh his
mantle his houfe, and under it covereth himfelfe from the
wrath of heaven, from the offence of the earth, and from the
fight of men. When it raineth, it is his pent-houfe ; when it
bloweth, it is his tent ; when it frcezeth, it is his tabernacle.
In fommer he can wear it loofe ; in winter he can wrap it
clofe ; at all times he can ufe it ; never heavy, never cuni-
berfomc. Like wife for a rebell it is as ferviceable. For in
his warre that he makctli (if at leaft; it deferve the name of
warre) when he ftill flyctli from his foe, and lurketh in the
thick woods a:id llraite pafFages, waiting for advantages, it
is his bed, yea, and almoil his houfliold ttufl'. For the wood
is his l-.oufc againit all weathers, and his mantle is his couch
to ileep in. Therein he wrappeth himfelfe round, and
coucheth himfelfe llrongly againft the gnats, which in that
country doe more annoy the naked rebclls, wbilft they keepe
the woods, and doc mo»-e (harply wound the.m than all their
enemies fwords, or fpears, which can feldome come nigh
them ; yea, and oftentimes their mantle fervcth them, when
they are neare driven, being wrapped about their left arme,
inftead of a target, for it is hard to cut thorough with a
fw ord, befides it is light to beare, light to throw away, and
being (as they connnonly are) naked, it is to them all in
all. Laftly, for a thiefe it is fo hanJfomc, as it may fecm
it was firft invented for him, for under it he may cleanly con-
vey any fit pillage that commeth handfom!y in his way, and
when he gocth abr;';ad in the night in free-booting, it is his
beft and fureil friend ; for lying, as they often doe, two or
three nights together abroad to watch for their booty, with
that they can prettily fhroud themfelves under a bufti, or a
bank fide, till they may conveniently doc their errand ; and
when all is over, he can, in his mantle, paffe thorough any
town or company, being clofe hooded over his head, as he
ufeth, from knowledge of any to whom he is indangered.
Befides this, he, or any man els that is difpofed to mifehicle
or villaiiy, may under his mantle goc privily armed without
3 F 2 ■ lufpicion

IRELAND.

f nfpicion of any, carry his head-peece, his fkean or piftol if
lie pleafe, to be alwayes in readinefs." In like manner he
confiders the lon^ liaii- or glibbe as. fcrving tlic purpofe of
concealment. The Iii(h cry, or /mliiil/ as he calls it, which
tlie kerne or foldicry ufe at their firft encounter, he alfocon-
liders of Scythian origin ; and alfo the calling upon the name
of fome chieftain, as Ferragh fonullance, which he fuppofes
to be the name of a chief under whom they fought fuccefs-
fuUy againft the Africans. To this he adds their lamen-
tations at their burials, " with difpairful out-crycs and im-
moderate waylings," which favour greatly of the Scythian
barbarifin. Our ingenious author next proceeds to (hew
that the Irifh arms and weapons are Scythian, and the fame
alfo as thofe ufed by the old Scots, who were of the fame
ilock ;- that the Irifn refemblcd the Scythians in their con-
fufed kind of march without order or array ; and alfo in cer-
tain religious ceremonies. From all thefe circum (lances he
infers that the Irifh are anciently deduced from the Scytliians.
He afterwards adduces cuftoms derived from the Spaniards
and Gauls in proof of colonies of them having been ella-
bhlhcd in Ireland, but they are fewer in number and lefs re-
markable. The ufe of faffron (hirts, the giving the charge
of all houfhold affairs at home and abroad to their women,
the manner in which thefe fat on horfe-back, with a few
others, are ttated as of Spanifh origin ; whilft the ufe of
long darts and wicker fhields is mentioned as derived from
the Gauls. Such is Spenfer's opinion refpecting the origin
of the Irifh, founded, as may be feen, on conjcftures, for
the inferences drawn from cuiloms can fcarcely deferve any
other name. The colony from Spain, which he admits,
though he fpeaks doubtfully of the origin of the people,
and gives no particulars, is laid great ftrefs on by the ad-
vocates for the ancient glory of Ireland. " Not to fpeak of
the original fettlement by Partholan," fays Dr. Leland, "it
is maintained that about 500 years before the Chriftian era, a
colony of Scythians, immediately from Spain, fettled in
Ireland, and introduced the Phoenician language and letters
into this country ; and that however it might have been peo-

Eled ftill earlier, yet Heber, Heremon, and Ith, the
)ns of Milefius, gave a race of kings to the Irifh, diilin-
guifhed from their days by the names of Gadelians and
Scuits or Scots. Hence their writers trace a gradual re-
finement of their country from a ftate of barbarous feuds,
faftions, ?nd competitions ; until the monarch, celebrated
in their annals by the name of OUam-Fodla, eftaWiOied a re-
gular form of government, ercdled a grand feminary of
learning, and intlituted the Fes, or triennial convention of
provincial kings, priefls, and pt^ets, at Teamor or Tarch,
in Meath, for the eilablifhment of laws and regulation of
government. Keating, the Irifh hifcorian, who tranfcribed
his accounts from poetical records, mentions little more of
this boafted affembly, than that its great objeft was to intro-
duce civility, and to guard againfl tliofe crim.es which pre-
dominate in days of rudenefs and violence. The magnificent
detail of its grandeur and fole.mnity, the fcrupulous atten-
tion paid by its members to the national hiftory, annals, and
genealogies, are nothing more (as I am afiincd) than the
interpolations of an ignorant and prciumptuous tranflator.
But whatever were the intUtutions of this monarch, it is
acknowledged that they foon proved too weak for the wil4-
nefsand dilorder of the time. To Kimba'ii, one of his fuc-
ceffors, the annalifls give the honour of reviving tliem ; bc-
fides that of regulating Ulller, his family province, and
adorning it by the (lately palace of Eamania, erefted near
Armagii." One of his fuccelTors, to fecure his power, di-
vided the ifland into twenty-live dynallies, inflead of live ;
but the pencarcbul government was rcltoreil about a century

before the Chriftian era. Anarchy, fedition, and muni r
cpntinued prevalent, notwithftanding the wife laws oct 1-
lionally enaftcd ; and an Irifli chieftain is faid to have aJ-
dreffed himfclf to Agricola, and to have encouraged him
to make a defcent on Ireland. Thofe, however, wlro
warmly contend for the honour of Ireland, fay that fucli
defcent would not have been effeftua! ; and record with
triumph that t.he Irifli monarch of this time, inflead of
dreading an invafion of the Romans, failed to the afTillance
of the Pifts, led an irruption into the Roman province, and
returned in triumph laden with foreign fpoils. After this,
the old Firbolgs or Belgic inhabitants grew fo powerful
and turbulent as to ellabUfh a mo:iarch of their own race,
and to harai's the country by what was called the Atta-
cotic war. Tuathel, a Milelian prince, reflorcd the power
of his family ; and in the time of his grandfon, in the third
century, Finn, the fon of Comhal, better known by the
narne of Firgal, is faid to have lived, and to have been
general of his troops. The fucceflion of kings of the Mi-
lefian family, to the year 1198, is faid to have been 171.

General Vallancey, who has paid very great attention to
the a:!tiquities of Ireland, and whofe great learning and per-
fonal refpcftability, as well as his exertions for tlie good of
fociety, fhould fecure him from petulant and wanton abufe,
has, in his " Vindication of the ancient Hiflory of Ireland,''
maintained tire truth of the leading fafts mentioned by
Keating and others. The Scythians, by whom the country
was peopled, were, according to him, not the Northern,
but Southern Scythians, the fame people as the Phccnicians,
who are to be dillinguiihed from the Canaanites, and were
the navigators of the latter, acknowledged as fuhjcfts. but
never admitted to a (hare in the government, or to the rank
of nobleffe. They had the ufe of letters, a knowledge of
aflronomy, of marine aftronomy in particular, and of navi-
gation ; but had no knowledge of the fine arts, their reli-
gion forbidding it. Thefe Phcsnicians are fuppofed to have
been originally Perfians or Indians, proceeding from that
eaftern dillricl, the fuppofed fcurce of all civilization ; and
the late writers on Indian antiquities produce many circum-
ftances tending to eftablifli a knowledge of Ireland in that
oriental people, and an intercourfe with it at a very early
period. It would occupy more room than the nature of a
Cyclopaedia would allow, to enter upon the arguments ad-
duced by the learned general in fupport of his opinions.
Suffice it to fay, that they chiefly rell on the etymology of
nam.es, on a refemblance in certain words, and on a relcm-
blance alfo in certain religious ceremonies and old cufloms,
which are thought to have originated in fire-worfhip, which
is fuppofed to have been once prevalent throughout Ireland.
The Rev. Dr. Ledwich, author of an elaborate work on
the " Antiquities of Ireland," endeavours, with all the
eagernefs of a partfzan, to expofe and ridicule all preten-
fions to early civdization. He contends that Ireland was
firll peopled from Great Britain by the Celts, who were
wandering favages, of whom little is recorded, and that little
proclaims their ignorance and barbarifm. The Belga; and
other northern tribes afterwards fettled in it ; and it had at
no time arrived to a greater degree of improvement than
when vifited by the Enghfh under Henry 1 1. To be quali-
fied to form an opinion on the preceding fubjedl wou'd re-
quire a long courfe of ttudy, the acquilition of languages
of little ufe except to the antiquary, and the perufal of
many volumes in the higheft degree dry and uninterefling ;
and after all, fuch is the want of written documents of an
early date, that the mod we could arrive at would be pro-
bable conjefture. Afthe fame time, it does not appear
improbable, much lefs abfurd to fuppofe, that the Plia;ni-
4 Clang

IRELAND.

X:ians miVht have coloi^izcd Ireland at an early period, and
introduced tlioir laws, cuftoms, and knowledge, with a
comparatively high (late of civilization ; and that thefe
ithight have been gradually loll amidlt the difturbances of
the country, and at Ja!l completely deftroycd by the irrup-
tions of the Oilmen, fo as to have reduced Ireland to a bar-
barous flatc, previous to the Englifli invafion.

The converfion of Ireland to Ciuillianity is generally at-
^ibuted to Patrick, who has been called the " tutelar faint
of Ireland." He is faid to have landrd ui Ireland A.D. 430.
The people were, however, prepared for his preaching by
the labours of fome former milTicnaries. Notwithllandiug
the introduction of Chrillianity, the petty princes and
people retained their ferocity of manners ; and the annals
abound in horrid inilauccs of revenge, and hideoijs effcdts of
avarice and ambition. " Yet Chrillianity, as then taught,"'
fays Dr. Leland, " although it could not eradicate, at lead
retrained the national vices. A numerous body of ecc'e-
fiaftics, fccular and regular, quickly fwarnied over the
whole country- ; frequently became umpires between con-
tending chieftains ; and when they could not confine them
vithin the bounds of reafon and religion, at 'eall terrified
them by denouncing vengeance againil their exceffes. An
ignorant people Hdened to their tales of pretended miracles
with a religious horror. In the midft of every provincial
conteft, and every domelHc ilrife, they were facred and in-
violate. They foon learned to derive their own emolua^ent
from the public veneration. The infant chiuxh was everv
where amply endowed, and the prayers of holy men repaid
by large donations. Seme of the oldeft remains of Iri(h
literature, as they have been explained to me, inform us,
that the people were taught to dedicate the firll-born of all
cattle to the church, as a matter of indifpenfible obligation.
But if the clergy thus acquired riches, they applied them to
the nobleft purpofes. The monks, fays Mr. O'Connor,
fixed their habitations in deferts, which they cultivated with
their own hands, and rendered the moft delightful fpots in
the kingdom. Thefe deferts became cities ; and it is re-
markable enough, that to the monks we owe fo ufeful an
inllitution in Ireland, as bringing great numbers together
into one civil community. In thefe cities the monks fet up
fchools, in which they educated the youth, not only of the
ifland, but of the neighbouring nations. The teftimony of
Eede is unqueftionable, that about the middle of the feventh
century, in the days of the venerable prelates Lininn and
Colman, many nobles and other orders of the Anglo-Saxons
retired from their own country into Ireland, either for in-
ftruftion, or for an opportunity of living in mGnafteries of
flrifter difcipline ; and that the'Scots (as he ftyles the Iriili)
maintained them, taught them, and furnilhed them with
books, without fee or reward: — a moll honourable teiii-
mony, fays the elegant lord I<yttelton, not only to the
learning, but likewife to the hofpitality and bounSy of that
nation ! A conflux of foreigners to a retired ifland, at a
time when Europe was in ignorance and confufion, gave pe-
culiar luftre to this feat of learning : nor is it improbable or
furprifing that feven thouf^nd (Indents ftudied at Armagh,
agreeably to the accounts of Irifli writers ; though the fe-
minary of Armagh was but one of thofe numerous colleges
erefted in Ireland. But the labours of the Irilh clergy were
not con.lned to their own country. Their millionancs were
Tent to the continent. They converted heathens ; they con-
firmed believers ; they eredled convents ; they ellablilhed
fchools of learning; they taught the ufe of letters to the
Saxons and Normans ; they converted the Pidls, by the
preaching of Columb-kill, one of their renowned eccle-
liailics. Burgundy, Germany, and ether countries received

their inftruftions : and Europe with gratitude confefiTed the
fupcrior knowledge, the piety, the zeal, the purity of the
" Idand of Saints." Sucli are the events on which Irilh
writers dwell with an enthufiaftic delight. The firll Chrif-
tian niiflionaries feem to have induftrioully avoided all un-
necelFary violence to the ancient manners of the Irilh. Their
poets they favoured and protetled ; the remains of the
Druidical order were not perfecuted ; and although divine
vengeance was thundered againil the worfliippers of the fun,,
ftars, and winds, it is evident that fome Pagan fuperilitions
were overlooked with too great indulgence, for they fubfill
at this day in Ireland : fires are lighted up at particulate
times, and the more ignorant Irifli Hill drive their cattle
through thofe fires, as an efl"e(5lu-jl means of preferving them
from future accidents." Such is the ahftradl given by Le-
land, in his preliminary difcourfe of the introduction and:
ellabliihment of Chrillianity. Dr. Ledwich, however, not
only gives a different account of thefe, but even calls iu-
qi'.eftion the exiilence of St. Patrick, regarding him as aii'
ideal perfonage. He fuppofes, and with great appearance
of reafon, that Ciirillianity, which had been brought to
Gaul by Pothinus and Irena^us, difciples of Polycarp, who-
had been himfelf inllructed by John the Evangelill,, from
Gaul reached Britain, and from Britain was carried to Ire—
land, in the third or fourth century,., as early as the fup-
pofcd time of St. Patrick, or even earlier. It feems a
Ih-ong circumflance in favour of this opinion, that the Iridi
Chiilhans, or the Saxons converted by them, did not ac-
knowledge the Roman pontiff till long after the reft of the
Chrillian world ; which would not have been the cafe, had
their inflruttion proceeded from one fent in;;r.cc!iatt;ly from
Rome to convert them, as Patrick is fa, J '. .If

fuch a perlbn as Patrick really preached l !,._>-

land, it feems at lead to be certain that liv. .' .iLs

affigncd to him are monkifli inventions, bii: iiiat his cpif—
copal dignity, and many other circumllances recorded, are-
without foundation. Cohmiha appears to have been the
founder of the Irifii monaluries ; and, like the Scotch, the
Culdee fedt was prevalent amongil them, and was not com-^
pletely overthrown until pope Adrian, in the plenitude of
his prefumption, bellowed Ireland on Henry II. in 1155".

See CULDEES.

Ireland was divided into five feparate kingdoms,- and in
each of thefe were powerful and factious dynailies. All
indeed acknowledged one monarch, but his power was re-
markably weakened ; and if the people were not wretched,
it was becaufe the evils of their political conllitution vvere.-
in fome meal'ure correiled by the reverence paid to rcligicii
and learning. As the armies colledted by fuclv govern-
ments are temporary, they are ill calculated for refilling a .
foreign invafion ; and fuch was found to be the cafe in Ire-
land. Bede mentions, that, iu 6S4, the general of Egfrid,,
king of Northumberland, made a dcfcent on Ireland. But
inflead of mentionirg any gallant refillancc made by the
natives, he infinuates 1*1131 they trudcd more to prayers than
arms ; .and in the plaintive dyle of compafGon laments the
miferable havock of a people, inofTeniive, and ever molt
friendly to the Englidi. But Ireland experienced a dill
more formidable invafion, when the Danes, Norwegians, and
other Scandinavian adventurers began to rove in iearch of.
new fettlemcnts. Thefe were called Normans,, EUerlings,
or Oilmen, and alfo Galls or foreigners. Their piratical
expeditions commenced about the end of the eighth cen-
tury, and whillt they infeded England and France, Ireland
did not efcape. Their firfl invalions were made in fmalL
parties for the fake of plunder, and were frequently re-
puliied. By degrees the iiiv,-;sicri, cither by force or ti-caty,.

obtained

IRELAND.

obtained Tome tniall fcttlements ; and at lenfrth Turgefuis,
a warlike Norwegian, in 815, landed with a powerful
armament, and committed every kind of outrage. Having
reduced tlie inhabitants to llavery, after a rcfidence of 30
years, he was proclaimed monarch of the kingdom ; but
at length Melachlin, prince of Meath, contrived to fei/.e
uptm the tyrant in a time of apparent peace, and the Danes,
•furprifed by a fudJcn iiifurredion, were maffacrcd or dif-
perfed. A new colony, however, arrived, and were allowed
•to fettle in fome maritime towns. Thefc gradually
ilrengthened themfelves, and maintained their independence,
though frequently engaged in wars with the Iri(h princes,
and repeatedly overcome in battle. The nioft celebrated
of thefe engagements was at Clontarf, near Dublin, in 1012,
when the Irifli were fucccfsfnl, but loft their monarch,
■Brian Boiromhe, at the age of 8S, and his fon Morchard.
After this event Ireland continued to be diftracted by civil
wars, and the funation of the people was as wretched as
■can almolt: be conceived ; fo that the ifiand was rendered an
cafy prey to any daring invader.

It has been alreatly noticed that the clergy of Ireland
vci-e of the Culdec fed, by which the Romaii pontiff was
not acknowledged. This is indeed matter of controverfy ;
but it feems indubitable that they were very irregular, and
that it was an objed with the pope to bring them to obe-
dience. The pontificate, however, by the intcrelled zeal
of its numerous and aClive emiffarics, at length contrived to
txtend its influence even to tliis remote ifiand, alarmed the
Irifti clergy with fears of the irregularity of their ecclefiafli-
cal conftitution, and perfuaded them to fubmit to a reform,
modelled and diiSated by Rome Cardinal Papire, or
Papefon, came to Ireland as legate in 1148 ; and in 1 151,
or 1152, fummoiied a council, which was attended by about
3000 ecclefiaftics, and four palls were folemnly received
-from the pope by the prelates of Armagh, Dublin, Cafbfl,
and Tuam. At the fame time, it is faid that the celebration
■of Eafter was adjnfled according to tlie Romilh decifions,
■the celibacy of the clergy was enforced, and the pre-eminence
of Rome formally acknowledged. V/hether Adrian, at that
time pope, did !.:>t think this'fnbmifiion of the Irilb clergy
fufSclently eitablilhed, or, as an Englifliman, was willing
to gratify the Engliib monarch, though at the expence of
his newly-acquired dependents, he ilfued a bull in IT^J
conformable to the wifhes and purpofes of Henry, who, at
-the very commencement of his reign, meditated the fubjuga-
tion of Ireland, and fent his chaplain to fohcit the pope's
countenance. For fuch an invafion no jull pretence could be
afllgncd. Ireland was entirely independent ; and, though
■affiiiance had been afforded in a former reign to the fons of
Harold, yet there had been for many years notliing which
■could be reckoned holiile. It was afferted, indeed, that
Engliftimen liad bcc-n fold as flaves in Irelaird ; but thi5 was
-a crime in whicii both nations were equally involved, and
■which, therefore, could not be urged to jullify fuch an at-
tempt. The depravity and barbarifm ot the Iriih were,
bowever, iniiJ.l.'d on ; the honour of God was to be promoted
■ty their fubjugjticn ; and the pope was to receive the tribute
-of St. Peter's pence as the reward of his compliance. A
liull was accordingly ifi'ued, which, as Leiand obferves, af-
fords a flaocking inilance of the profligacy and impiety of
yapal nfurpatioii. Much has been faid of the depraved ftate
of the Irifii at this period ; but tiie accounts proceed fiojii
■a very fufpicions fourc, thofe whufc objeft it was to de-
fend tlie proceeding.'; of the Englilli monarch ; and it may
he quefiioned whether tUcy were really vvorle than their
jieqgbbnurs, or fo b:«l as thofe who have thus ftigmatifed
(tcnu Cut 14'hijtcvcr their inoral defcds might be, their

political ones were very great ; tliey were truly a divided
people. A monarch, little more than titular, depending on
his own abilities and vigour for power and influence, was
haralfed by faftion, and oppofedby powerful rivals ; whilil a
number of provincial chieftains, who afTumcd the title and the
rights of royalty, paid a precarious tribute to their fuperior,
and united, if they were difpofed to unite with him, as allies
rather than fubjetls. This was in a great degree the ftate
of France and fome other countries ; but in Ireland the
monarchical dignity was not hereditary, and was the fubjeft
of frequent difpute. Favourable as fuch a ftate was to the
wiflies of Henry, yet it was' long before he could avail
himfelf of the bull he had received. In France and England
he found full employment for many years ; and fcarcely had
he fecured his dominions before he was involved in that conteft
with Bccket, which kept him in a continual ftate of agitation,
The circumllance which led to the accompliftiment of his
defign, was the expuliion of Dermod, king of Leinfter, from
his dominions, and that prince's taking refuge in England.
Dermod, a man of a turbulent and oppreffive fpirit, had, by
his conduct, provoked the vengeance of Roderic O'Connor,
the monarch of Ireland, v.hilll his own immediaie depend-
ants deferted him in the hour of his diftrefs. Ht; applied to
Henry for aiTulance to recover his dominions ; but, whether
from the perplexity of his own affairs, or, as fir John Davics
fuppofes, a wifli to avoid the expence, this monarch did not
undertake the caufe, but gave licenfe, by liis letters patent,
that fuch of his fubjecls might pafs over into Ireland as would
at their own charge become adventurers in that enterprile.
Notwithftanding this permiffion, he did not for fome months
fucceed in obtaining fuccour ; but at length he prevailed
on Richard, carl of Pembroke, generally called Strongbow,
to efpoufe his caufe, promiling him his daughter Eva in
marriage, and with her the inheritance of his kingdom. And
on his return to Ireland, to prepare fcir Strongbow's arrival,
he engaged two Welfti leaders, Fitztlephen and Fitzgerald,
with their followers, on the condition of ceding to them the
town of Wexford, with a large adjoining territory, as foon,
as by tiieir afiiftance, he could be re-inftated in his rights.
The invafion of Ireland was therefore the atl of private
adventurers. Fif/.ftephen and Fitzgerald firft broke the ice
with a party of 390 men in 1 170. The earl Strongbow lol-
lowed them with i 200 more ; and their good fuccefs on the
fca coafts of Leinfter and Munfter drew over the king in
perfon, who landed at Wa"erford in 1172, with joo knightj
and about 4000 foldiers. Strongbow immediately furrendercd
to him the city of Watcrford, and did homage to him for
the principality of Leinfter, which he claimed in right of
his wife, the daiigluer of Dermod, whofe deatli had taken
place in the prccc-uing year. The neighbouring Iriih princes
in like manner fubmitted, and acknowi-jd.ed his authority ;
and even Roderic, after fome delay, thought it more pru-
dent to follow their example. Henry aflTumcd the title of
lord of Ireland, but his authority was very weak ; and,
within live months after his arrival, he departed out of
Ireland without ftriking one blow, or building one c aftle, or
planting line garrifon among the Irilh. Such was the con-
queft of Ireland by Henry II ; which, as it was un'iuitifiable,
fo was it inefficient. As fir .Iuh;i Davis obferves,"" though
king Henry II. had the title of fiivereign and lord over the
Irilh, yet did lie not put thole things in execution v/hich
are the true marks of Sovereignty. For, to give laws unto
a people ; to inftitute magillrates and officers over them ;
to puniih and pardon malefactors ; to have the fole autho-
rity of making war and peace, and the Lke, are true
marks of fovereignty, which ki".g Henry II. had not in
the Irilli couutnes : but the Iriih lo.ds did ftill retain a!l

IRELAND-.

tlicfe prerogatives to themfelves : for tHcy governed tlicir
people by tile Brolion L ' , . ■

ds Ihci

ir own ma

tlic year (2 to. H? bi-oiifrlit with him a cor.riieniblc fcrcr,
thoiijvh not perhaps fufficicnt for tin- con-.plcte reduilion ot
the ifland, even if he had remained m fiilHcient time to per-
form fo great an affion. This, Iiowevcr, he did not, for
li.> arrived in June and returned in September the fame year.
Tlie Irilh lords, for the moil part, fnbmitted themfclvcs to
him, as they liad done before to his father ; " wliich," fays
lir John D.-ivics, " was but a mere mockery and impolturc :
for his back was no foontr turned, but tiiey rc:urned to their
former rebellion : and yet this was rcpuUd a feeond con-
quelt.'' At this time twelve tonnlies were eflaMiflied in
Leinllcr and Munller, and fheriffs appointed for them,
and courts of judicature were alfo fettled in Dublin, foi:
the regular and effectual execution of the laws of England
in that part of the ifland which acknowledged allegiance
to the crown. Some callles were built upon the borders
of the Engliih colonies, but the king carrying back with
him the army he had brought, the former feltlers were
left to defend their poffeffions, and incieafe them in the beil
maimer they were able.

The long and t'.irbulent reign of HL'nry III. was diilin-
contrib-.ited guiflied by no remarkable change in the Hate of I
The families of iiurgh and Fitzgerald received a la!_^
cefiion ot power and terntiiry, and the clergy, though
thenifelvcs opprelTed both by the king and the pope, were not
d; hcient ,n turbulence and'prefumption. Edward I. an ac-
tiv monaieli, w.js too much engaged in rejiukiting th.e dif-
oidcrcd ihite »f England,, and in reducing ^Va!es and Scot-
land, to devote much attention to the aifairs of Ireland.
At the commencentent of his reign, the Englifh fettlers ex-

trates and officers ; they pardoned and punitlied all male-

faelors within their feveral countries ; they made war and

peace- one with another without controlment ; and this they

did, not only during the reign of Henry II. but afterwards,

in all times, even until the reign of queen Elizabeth." In

faft, the Irilh only acknowledged the fuperiority of Henry in

the fame way as the Welfli princes often did before their

fubjeClion ; and in the fame way as Henry himfelf did

homage to the king of France, as his liege lord for the vail

territories he held in France. Henry hiinfelf, in the treaty

of agreement made in 1175, acknowledged Roderic as king

of Connaiight, and in his commiirion to William Fit/.-

Adeline gave the Irilh lords the title and llyle of kings. It

is unnecelfary to enter into a detail of the petty wars be-
tween the Englidi fettlers and Irifh chieftains,' or of the
jealoufy entertained of the former by their foveroigns, who,
though prevented by family dillrelles from going over, fent
agents to watch and check them. Had Ireland been at
this time fubdued by a competent force, and the Englilh laws
introduced into every part of it, it wo'ild ha
to the quiet and happinels of all c'laffes ; but as it was, the
Enghfli fettlers added to the confulion. Their only objeft
appears to have been to acquire territories for themfcKvs ; and
few crolTed to Ireland except rude and barbarous warriors,
little, if at all, fuperior to thofe amongll whom they went.
In 1 18 J, Henry fent' John, his youngelt fon, whom he had
previoully m.ide lord of Ireland, to that country. This
young j)rince, being but i 2 years of age, with a train of

young noblemen and gentlemen to the number of 300, but perienced fome heavy loffes, and were nearly expelled from
not with any coniiderable army, arrived at Waterford, and was their fouthern pofleflions, but the Irifh were not united,
attended there by the Irifli chieftains, who, difunited among and the advantages gained in one year were often loft the

■d.
je ac-

themfelves, and terriliedby the reprefentations of his force,
flocked to Waterford to pay their refpedls and do homage.
Y)M the youthful courtiers about the prince were not calcu-
lated to conciliate ; they treated their vifitors with the ut-
moil fconi and contetnpt, and fo highly roufed their indig-
nation as to produce a general fpirit of refillance. The

original fettlers, too, were ill u fed, ar.d theEnglifli interell an IriQiman

was with great difficulty maintained in the towns which a])plication

they had fortilied. Henry found it neceffaiy to recal his govern r, u

fon, and the government of Ireland was committed to John giM:: ilu- t

de Courcy, a valiant knight, who had already acquired con- Inih iiih.;l'.

fiderable pofleflions in Ulfter. " From this time forward," reliding u u

fays that judicious writer fir John Davief, " until the 12th reft were 1. 1

year of king .John, (which was a fpaceof more than 30 years,) be adverle i

there was no army tranfmitted out of England to flinlh the probable tli

eonqued. Howbeit, in the mean time, the Englifli adventurers biia;iis had

and colonies already planted in Ireland did win much ground h.ive been L

upon the Irilh ; nam.ely, the earl Strongbow, having The king w

married tlie daughter of Mac Morrogh in Leinller ; the the petitiont

Eucies in Meath ; the Giraldians and other adventurers in and opprefli'

Munller ; the Audelics, Gernons, Clintons, R ilfels, ai-d influence w;

next, through the dilfentions of the conquerors. Many of
the Irilh were at this time anxious to fli.ire the protedion of
the Englilh laws, for, to the difgraee of the Englifli govern-
ment, tills ailvant.ige had been withheld, and whilit the mur
der of an En^litliman by one of the mere Iri/o, as they were
termed, wa

?d with the utnioft rigour, the murder of
was i'carcely deemed a pnnilhable offence. An
vas made early in this reign to Uflbrd, the chief

II ring the king 8000 marks, provided he would
.e enjoyment of the laws of England to the
.r.r,. Tile jjelitioners mufl have been the Irifli
liii .\':,i: '...1, called the " Englifli pale," for ihe
I'lLi .1 It till J to their own Brehon laws, as to
' a I M,,; .;i at a much later period ; though it is
It ;t tlie wiie policy of alTimilating «//ihe inlia-
Imtu now adopted, the objce'tion to it would
"s than at the time it was aftually attempted.
1., well inclined to comply with the- rcquell of
rs, but this did not fnit thofe, whofe vi-jlcr;ce

III would have been thus controlled, and wl-.ofe
s great enough to counteract the intended

other volunteers of fir John de Courey's retinue in Uifler; meafure. Individuals, however, of the Irifn race iced for,

and the Bourkes (planted by William Fitz-Adt !iiie) in and obtained charters of denization, particularly on their

Connaught. Yet were the Englifli reputed but part owners intermarriage with the Englilh. That fuch condudi

of Ireland at this time, as appears by the commiliion of the irritated the old inhabitants cannot be furpriflng. " A»

pope's legate in the time ot king Kicliard I., when by he long as they (the Irifli) were out of the proteiflion

had power to exercife his jurifditti;;H in England, Wales, of the law," fays lir John Davies, " fo as eviry Eiig-

and /A^' /irfr/j &/" /rf/rt/j(/ ill which John earl of Morton has lilhman might opprefs, fpoil, and kill them witliout co^--

power and dominion, as it is recorded by Matthew Pans.'' trolment, how was it poflible they flionld be other than

During this interval, not orly the Irifli chief'ains frequently oullav.-s, and enemies to the crown of England ? If the

revolted, but fome of the great Englifli fettlers affumed in- king would not admit them to the condition ot fubjects. how

dependeiic". This was particularly tlie cafe after the nc- could they learn to acknowledge and obey him as their fo-

cefiion of John to the Englifli throne, and the fupprelfion of vereign ? When they might not converfe or commerce « ilh

one of thefe was. the avowed objcft of his vifit to Ireland in. a.iy civil men, ucr cuter into any town or city without peril

IRELAND.

oT tlieir lives, wnikher (hould they fly but into the woods
and mountains, and there live in a wild and barbarous
manner ? If the Engli{h magiflrates would not rule them
'hj the law which doth punifh murder, and trcafon, and theft
■with death, but leave them to be ruled by their own loids
and laws, why fliould they not embrace tlicir own Brehon
law, which punilhes no offence, but with a fine or erickc ?
If the Irifii be not permitted to purcliafe eftatcs of freeholds
or inheritance, which might dcftcnd to their children, ac-
cording to the courfe of our common law, muft they not
continue their cuftom of taniftry, which makes all their pof-
feflions uncertain, and brings confufion, barbnrifm, and inci-
•vility ? In a word, if the linglilh would neither in peace
•govern them by the law, nor in war root them out by the
fword, mull they not needs be pricks in their eyes and thorns
in their fides, till the world's end."

Sir John Wogan, appointed to the government in the
year 1295, endeavoured to enforce the laws, and to keep in
order the turbulent nobles of Englifii extraction. For this
purpofe a parliament was fummoned more regularly than
luch afiemblies had hitherto been convened in Ireland. The
regulations made by it, however, though calculated to check
tlie diforders of the time, were either of little avail, or their
effeft of (hort duration ; and the country (till continued in a
-diftrafted (late. The weak government of the fecond Edward
left the great lords at full liberty to purfue their refpcc-
tive fchemesof private interell, when an invafion bv Edward,
the brother of Robert Bruce, now eftabliflied king of Scot-
land, fupported by the chieftains of Ulller, reduced them to
the greatefl diftrefs. Bruce was even crowned king of Ire-
land at Dundalk, and proceeded into Munfter, carrying dc-
vaftation wherever he went. His troops, however, walled
away by pellilence and famine, were reduced to a fmall num-
ber, and in a battle, which he too eagerly fought, lie was
flain the third year after his landing in Ireland. On his de-
feat, matters reverted to the old channel, and fo continued
through the f.icceeding itign, until the appointment of
Lionel, the king's fecond fon, to be cliief governor in 1361.
Before notice is taken of his proceedings, it will be necef-
fary to obferve, that in the reign of Edward II , Maurice
Fitz-Thomas of Defmond, being chief commander againll
the Scots, began that extortion of coin and livery, which
is called, in tlie old ilatutes, a damnable cujlom, and the
impoting and taking of them declared high treafon. Thefe
words imply that he and his army exafted food for them-
felves and their horfes, and money at pleafure, without
any ticket, or other fatisfaclion. And this was, after
that time, the general fault of all the governors and com-
manders of the army in Ireland, though fome were more
cruel in the cxaftion than others. '< Befides," fays Davies,
" the Ent^^ifli colonies, being difperfed in every province
of this kingdom, were enforced to keep continual guards
upon the borders and marflies round about them ; which
guards, confiding of idle foldiers, were hkewife impofed as
a continual burden upon the poor Englilh freeholders, whom
they opprefled and impoveriflied in the fame manner. And
'hecaui'e the great Eiiglidi lords and captains had power to
impofe this charge, when and where they plcafed, many
of the poor freeholders were glad to give unto thefe lords a
jrreat part of their lands, to hold the reft free from that
extortion ; and many others, not being able to endure that
intolerable oppreffion, did utterly quit their freeholds, and re-
turned into England. By thefe means the Englifii colonies
grew poor and weak, though the Englifh lords grew rich
and mighty; for they placed Irifti tenants upon the lands
relinqBilhed by the Enghfli ; upon them they levied all Irilh
«xa6tiuas ; wuh them they married, and foftered, and made

golTips ; fo 33 within one age the Englifh, both lords an4
freeholders, became degenerate and mere Irilh in their lan-
guage, in their apparel, in their arms and manner of fight,-
and all other cuftomsof life whatfoevcr."

Lionel, fcon after created duke of Clai-enre, was, in right
of his wife, pofleded of a confiderable territory in Ireland,
and liis livll objeft feems to have been to recover parts of it
from thofe who were now called rebeh. His military pro-
ceedings v.-ere of no great moment, but he applied himfelf
with zeal and diligence to the reformation of the Englifii
fettlers. A pai-liament was fummoned at Kilkenny, which
was more refpeftable and numerous than any preceding one,
and the refult of the deliberation of whicli was that ordi-
nance, known by the name of the Statute of Kilkenny ;
this was in \T,<!>-i. The great objeft of this ilatute was to
reduce the Englifii colonies to obedience of the Engluh law
and magiftiates. " The preamble of it recites," (to ufe
the abllract given of it by Dr. Leland,) " with a decifion
not without colour, hut yet too general and indifcriir.inate,
that the Englilh of tlie realm of Ireland, before the arrival
of the duke of Clarence, were become mere Irifii in their
language, names, apparel, and manner of living ; had re-
jefted the Englifii laws, and fubmitted to thofe of the Irifii,
with whom they had united by marriage alliance to the ruin
of the general weal. It was, therefore, enabled, that mar-
riagej nurture of infants, and goflipzed with the Irifii, fiiould
be cor.fidered and puBifiied as high treafon. Again, if any
man of Enghfii race ftiall ufe an Irifii name, the Irifii Ian-
guage, or the Irifii apparel, or any mode or cuftom of the
Irifii, the aft provides that he fiiall forfeit lands and tene-
ments, tintii he hath given fecurity in tlie court of chancery
to conform in every particular to the Englifii manners.
The Brehon law was pronounced to be a pernicious cuftom
and innovati! n lately introduced among the Englilh fubjeCls,
It was, therefore, ordained, that in all their controverlies
they fiiould be governed by the common law of England.:
and that whoever fiiould fubmit to the Irifli jurifdidion, was
to be adjudcfed guilty of high treafon. As the Englifii
had been accuftomed to make war and peace with the bor-
dering enemy at their pleafure, they were now exprefsly
prohibited from levying war upon the Irifii without fpecial
warrant from the ilate. It was alfo made highly penal to
the Englifii, to permit their Irifii neighbours to graze their
lands, to prefent them to ecclefiaftical benefices, or to re-
ceive them into monafteries or religious houfes ; to entertain
their bards, who perverted their imaginations by romantic
tales ; or their news-tellers, who feduccd them by falfe re-
ports. It was made felony to impofe or eefs any forces
upon the Englifii fubjedl againft his will. And as the royal
liberties and franchiles were becom.e fanftuaries for male-
faclors, exprefs power was given to the king's fiieriffs to
enter into all franchifes, and there to apprehend felons and
traitors. Laftly, becaufe the great lords, when they levied
forces for the pubhc fervice, atled with partiality, and laid
unequal burdens upon the fubjefls, it was ordained that
four wardens of the peace in every county Ihould adjudge
what men and armour every lord and tenant fiiould provide.
The ftatute was promulged with particular folemnity ; and
the fpiritual lords, the better to enforce obedience, de-
nounced an excommunication on thofe who fliould prefuine
to violate it in any inftance." After obferving that thefe
inllitutions did not apply to any except the Englifii fettlers,
Dr. I.eland goes on to remark upon the want of equity
and good policy towards the Irilh. " Extenfive views, li-
beral fentinientj, and a generous y.eal for public happinefs
would have prompted them to fome meafures for conciliating
the affedlions as well as for fubduing the pe^lous and pol-

fcih. .

IRELAND.

fefRons of the Iiifli ; woiilJ have led tKem to demon (Irate
that they were the proteftors and bencfaftors, not the arbi-
trary mailers of ihofe Iridi natives wliom they held in fub-
jedion ; and to convince tlie inoft obllinate infurgents, that
an honourable fiihmiirion to the king of England was the
only means of refcuing them from the miforiei of their own
petty factions and tyrannies ; a glorious exchange of the
rudenefs, tiie diforders, and dii'^rclFes of anarchy for the
peace, the dignity, and the valuable advantages of focial
and civil hfe."

The next attempt thit was made to reduce Ireland was
by Richard II., who, in 1394, went there with an army of
4000 men at arms, and 30,000 arcliers, attended by a num-
ber of dillinguifhed noblemen. The prefence of fuch an
army induced all the chieftains to nuike lubmifTion in a
formal manner, with which Richard was contented. By
this expedition he did not extend the En^hlh jnrifdiclion,
nor add to Uk revenue ; and he had no fooner departed tlian
the Irifli lords laid afide their mailis of humility, arid fcorn-
ing the weak forces which the king had left behind liim,
began to infeil the borders, and in defence of tiiefe, Mor-
timer, the king's lieutenant, and heir apparent of the crown,
was (lain. To revenge his death, Richard went to Ireland
a fecond time with a great force; but during his abfeace,
an infurredlion took pbce in England, which terminated in
his depolition. During the reigns of Henry IV. aiid V.
nothing was atte.npted beyond the defence of the Ei^glidl
pale, including four counties, viz. Dublin, Kildare, Mtath,
and Louth ; and during the early part of the reign of
Henry VI., fo much had the Irl(h, and thofe Englilli who
had adopted tlieir cullonis, increafed in llrenglh, that even the
defence of thofe cour.tries was become a matter of great
difHculty. Towards the latter end of the reign of Henry
VI., Richard, duke of York, was appointed cliief go-
veriior, who, rfiough he gamed httle advantage over tiie
Irifli, fucceeded in attaching to himfelf not only the lords
of the pale, but others of Enghfn race, numbers of whom
engaged warmly in the fupport of his claim to the crown.
An attachment to his defcendants long continued to influ-
ence the Anglo-Irifli, as was confpicuous in the reign of
Henry VII. Durmg the period of the civil wars, the
ftate of Ireland v/as very bad, in confequence of the neglecl
of the Englifli government ; and the exaftion of coin and
livery, whicli grew excefllvc and intolerable. Such was the
violence of faflion, that the earl of Defmoiid, the moll
powerful nobleman in Ireland, was feized and beheaded
under the pretext of offences which were generally com-
mitted with impunity. In 1474, the earl of Kildare, being
lord deputy, formed an aflociation of the principal noble-
jnen and gentlemen within the pale for its defence againft
fudden invalion, called the '•' Brotherhood of St. George,"
and this continued till tlie tenth year of Henry VII. This
prince, as foon as he found leifure to attend to the affairs
of Ireland, was determined to break the power of thofe
lords who, by their infiuence in the country, had hitherto
managed eyery thing as fnited their own private views. For
this purpofe he fent hr Edward Poynings as lord deputy,
itcompanied by an Englilh chancellor and treafurer, and
Englifli judges. In a parliament held at Droghcda, by this
deputy ia 1495, moil of the ftatules of Kilkenny were
rrvived and conlirmed, with many others tending to icilen
the influence of the great lords, and to reform the niauncrs
()f the pale. Amonglt others was a Ilatute, which has iince
been the fubjed of much difcuffion, under the name of
Poynings' law. T'his enabled, that no parliament fljOuld be
held witiiout the king's previous; permilTion, and that no
afts fhould be pafled until they had been previou/ly fub-
^Voi. -XIX.

mitted to the king and his council in England, approved
by them, and returned under the great feal of tliat realm.
Some alteration was afterwards made in the mode of pro-
paring and tranfmitting the bills, but the effci't of this law,
wliicli was to render the Irifli government more dependent on
England, continued until the reign of his prelent mijeily,
king George III. At the time, and long after, this
law was conlideredby the Englifh fettled in Ireland as a de-
firable check on the chief governor*, who had frequently
fnmmoned parliaments, and given aflent to various acts,
not only without communication with the fovereign or Iris
Englifh council, but even contrary to his interelt, and ti>
lerve their own private purpofes. The vigorous admini-
flration of tb.e earl of Kildare cfFeftually preferved the pale,
and though an ignominious tribute, which had been long
paid to many Irifh chieftains, was not yet withdrawn, the?
hoflihties of fuch chieftains were oppofed and challifed.
The f'.iperiority of the Englifli government over the --ufhol!
of Ireland was once more aUerted, and even iome of the
moll ferocious chieftains became the avowed friends of the
Englidi power. On the other hand, the old Enghfli fet-
tlers had becor.e fo conneflcd with the Irifh as to be
fcarcely dillinguifiiable from them ; they adopted their lan-
guage and culloms, and were even more adverfe to the
government than the native Iridi. During the early part of
the reign of Henry VIII. no material change took place in
the llate of Ireland, which Kildare, with fome little inter-
ruption, continued to govern. Tlie great poffefllons of
this noblemjn, and his connexions in Ireland, ofpecia'ly
with the lioufe of Defmond, another branch of the Geral-
dine family, and wi:h the great Iriih fcpt of O'Nial, gave
weight to his govern2;ent, whilfl his alliance to fome pow-
erful Englifh famihes Itrengthened his iirttrell at court.
Francis I. of France, having, however, fent an agent to
tamper with Defmond, with a view to diflrcfs Henry, and
this having been difcovered, Kildare was ordered to arrefl
that nobleman, but was either unwilling or unable to efFeft
it. This difpleafcd the king and involved him in difficulties,
and the rafnnefs of his fen having involved him in open
rebellion, all the members of his family were put to death,
except a youth of twelve years old, who efcaped to Italy,
and was protected by cardinal Poie, notwithflanding the
king's efforts to deftroy him.

Whilil thefe difturbances took place in Ireland, the king,
influenced by very unworthy motives, though his conduCl
was attended with.'the moll happy effeft.s, had thrown ofT
the yoke of the pope, and had been declared by parliament,
and by a convocation of the clergy, " fupreme head, on
earth, of the church of England." His new queen was
partial to the reformation, and Cromwell, his prime minilter,
was ac.live in promotnig it. Henry was refolved to extend
Ins new power to Ireland, and Browne, archbilliop of Dub-
lin, a creature of Cromwell's, was zealous in promoting his
views. Ire'and, however, was much lei's prepared fur inch
raeafures than England had been. The contmual liolbhties
in which all parties were engaged, prevented the progrels of
knowledge and civilization, even within the Englilh pale, and
the clergy, cfpecially in remote parts, were amongfl the
moil ignorant, and confequently the mofl bigotted, par-
tifans of Rome. A decided oppofition was therefore gi- en
to the acknowledgment of the king's fupremacy, iieadcd
by the primate, and encouraged by the emilTaries of Rom.e.
Fear indeed induced the parlmment to pafs tlie propofed a£t,
Browne havhig pronounced tliofe, who made any difiiculty
of concurring with him, to have no right to be reg.T.rdrd
or treated as loyal fubjecls ; but great reliltance wr,s made '
to the carrying of it into effeCl. Lord Leonard Grey, tlw»
^^ G deputy.

IRELAND.

deputy, who had reduceil the power of the Gcraldines, now
Ihewed equal adlivity in i'lippreffiiig the advocates of Rome,
and by a great vidory over O'Nial and liis aflociates at
Bellahoe, put an end for a time to open reiiftanee. The
fupprefiion of tlie inonadcries was carried into effed, and
the moil powerful and turbulent chieftains appeared earned
to exprefs their attachment. to the crown. Sir Anthony St.
X.eger aflTumed his charge as governor in 13:41, with the
faireft prefages of tranquiihty and public happiuefs. A par-
liament fuminoned by him declared Henry king of Ireland ;
this title, now firfl affumed, was acknowledged by O'Nial,
and the other chieftains by indenture, and they at the fame
time renounced the papal authority in the fulled manner.
Various regulations were pafTed for the government of
Munfter, where the laws of England, thougli formerly
eftabhflied, had been difufed for zoo years. St. Leger alio
prevailed upon O'Nial, O'Brien, and the head of the
Burkes called Mac William, to go into England, and pre-
fent tbemfelves to the king, who conferred on them the dig-
nity of earls, and granted unto them their feveral countries
by letters patent. He alfo granted to each a houfe and
lands near Dublin, that they might, by frequent retidence-
there, learn obedience and civility of manners. The reign-
of Edward VI. .was chiefly occupied in endeavours to
introduce the reformed liturgy, which was eflecled in
Dublin and fome other places, but was very generally difa-
greeable. On the acceffion of Mary, popery was rellored-
■without any difficulty, except that occafioned by the aliena--
tion of church property in the preceding reigns ; but the
regulations which the change required occupied much time
and attention. The diftricls of L.e\x and Ophaly, wliich.
had been before reduced, were now made (hires under the
names of the Queen's and King's counties, and the native
Irifli were, in general, not adverfe to a government wluch
favoured their religion. The reign of Mary, however, was.
(hort, and her fuccelTor Elizabctli was friendly to the re-
formation. Before we proceed to notice the more interell-
ing tranfadlions of this long reign, it will be ufeful briefly
to conlider the ftate of the country. The inliabitants have
been clalTed in four divifions : i. The native, or, as they
were contemptuouOy called, the mere Irifli. 2. The de-
generate Engll.fh, or thofe of Englifh defcent who had in-
termarried with the Irifli, and adopted their cuftoms and
language, fo as to be fcarcely ditlinguifliable from them.
They were alike governed by the Brehon law, for an ac-
count of which fee the article Breiiok ; ^nd alike ufed the
mode of fucceSion called Taniftry, for which fee Taxistry.

3. The-Englifli of blood, fome of whom were poflelFed of
large eftatcs, and though the lituation of the country did
not allow of much refinement, yet their occaGonal inter,
courfe with England, or with the Englifli conftantly coming
over, enabled them to keep up an exterior appearance of
Englifh manners. ThcfL- chiefly rcfided within the paJe.

4. The Englifti of birth, fent over to fill the principal offices
of Itate, and who generally acquiring property in the
country, their defcendants were coDlinually forming an ad-
ditisn to the 3d clals. Thefe, who might have been called
mere Englifh, as they were ever difpofed to facrifice' the in-
tereft of Ireland to that of England, were the perfons cou.^-
tenanced and affilted by the Engliflj government. Spenfer
the poet, who rcfided in Ireland for fome years in this
»eign, has dcfcribed feveral of the Irifh cultoms in his dia-
logue on the ilate of Ireland ; and, though it mu'.l be re-
membered that he faw every thing through the eye of pre-
judice, yet a quotation or t\yo may enable us to form a more
correct idea of the licentioufnefs of manners of the Irifh
«liieftains. Whatevir opinion, we may forpj of the impo-

licy and injudiue of the Engltlh fettlers and govenmieiit ors
many occafions, it mull be acknowledged that the Iriih.
laws and cu'.loms were favourable to a lavage wildnefs of.
manners inconfiilent with the happinefs of fecial and civil
life. After noticing the barbarous manners of the Gailow-
glafTes or infantry, of the Kernes or predatory cavalry, and,
of t!ie horfe boys, Spenfer aifo defcribes two clalTes of mea
who contributed very much to the dilTolutenefs of the chief-
tain:, t-is. the Bards and the Carrows " Thefe Irifh bards,"'
fays he, " are fo far from intlrucl.ng young men in moral
diicipline, that they tbemfelves do more deferve to be fliarply
dilV;p!ined ; for they feliom nfe to caoofe U:no themfclves.
the doings of good men for the arguments of their poems,
but whomfoever they find to he moll licentious of life, moit
bold and la-.vlefs in his doings, moft da.^gerou- and def-
perace in all parts of difobedience and rebellious difpofi-
tion, him they fet up and glorify in their rhymes, him
tliey praife to the people, and to young men make an ex-
aJTiple to follow." Then,havi!:g defcribed the youth of one
of thefe chieftains, he adds "in which,, if he ihall find any
to praife- him, and to give him encouragement,, as thofe
bards and. rythmen do for little reward, or a fliare of a
flolen cow ;, then waxeth he moft in'olent, and half mad
with the Idve of lumfelf and his own lewd deeds And as for.
vi-ords to fet forth fuch lev.'dnefs, it is not hard for them to
give a goodly and painted fliow thereunto, borrowed even
from the praifes which are proper to virtue itfL-li. As of.
a moll notorious thief and wicked outlaw, who had lived,
all his lifetime of fpoils and robberies, one of their bards
in his praife will fay. That he was none of the idle milk-
fops that was brought up by the fire-fide, but that mofl of
his days he fpent in arms and vahant enterprizes, that he
did never eat his meat before he had won it with his.
fword ; that he lay not all night Hugging in a cabin nnder
his mantle, but ufed Commonly to keep others waking to.
defend their lives,, and did light his candle at the flames of
their houfes, to lead- him in the darknefs ; that the day
was his night, and the night his day ; that he loved not to.
be long wooing of wenches to yield to him, but where he
came, he took by force the fpoil of other men's love, and.
k-ft but lamentaaon to their lovers ; that his mufic was not
the harp, nor lays of love, but the cries of people, and the
clafliing of armour; and finally, that he died not bewailed,
of many, but made many wail when he died that dearly
bougiit his death.'" At the fame time, in anfwer to a quel-
tion refpefting thefe poems, " Whether they be any thing
witty or well favoured as poems iliould be," this excellent,
judge replies, " Yea truly, I have caufed divers of them
, to be trauilated unto me, that I might underiland them,
and fiu-cly they favoured of fweet wit and good invention,
but fkilled not of the goodly ornaments of poetry ; yet
were they fprinkled with fome pretty flowers of their na-
tural dewce, which gave good grace and comelinefs unto
them, the which it is great pity to fee abufcd, to the
gracing of wickednefs and vice, which, with g^od vfage,
would fcrve to adorn and beautify virtue." Thefe bards
probably had as great efiedl in roufing a fpirited oppofiticn
to the Englifh as the Welfh^ bards, whom the policy of
the firfl Edward led him mofl iniquitoufly to deftrcy. As
to the Carrows, they are " a kind of people that wander
up and down to gentlemen's houfes, living only upon cards
and dice, the which, though they have little or noihing of
their own, yet will they play for much money, v/hicli, if
they win, they walle mo;l lightly, and if they lofe, tiicy
pay as flenderly, but make recnmpence with one lleaMi or
another, whofe only hurt is not, that they tbemfelves are idle
lofffls, but that, through gaming, they drav.- others to like
5 lewdnefs

1 R £ L A N D.

lewdnefs and idlenefs. And to thefe may be added another
fort of like loofe fellows, which do pafs up and down
amonjjll gentlemen by the name of jolters, but are indeed
notable rogues, and partakers not only of many Healths,
by fetting forth other men's goods to be ftolcn, but alfo
privy to many traiterous practices, and common carriers of
news, with delire whereof you would wonder hov/ much
the Irilh are fed."

Almoll the whole of the two firfl claiTes, and the greater
part of the Englifh of blood, were zealouily and blindly
attached lo the doftrincs and difcip'iine of the cliurch of
Rome, in which they had been educated, and were there-
tore eafily iniiigated to fupport Philip of Spain, a Catholic
prince, to whom they had once been fubject againlt their
Protellant miftrefs. In 1560, the firll parliament in this
rjign was afTembled for the purpofe cf rc-eilablilhing
the queen's fupremacy and the reformed worfhip. The
houfe of commons confiiled of only 76 members, from
thofe parts where the Englilh intereil was ilronged, yet
the change was not eflcclcd without much clamour and op-
pohtion. Laws, however, were pafled, relloring ecclefialli-
cal jurifdi&ion to the crown, enforcing the ufc of the com-
mon prayer, and obliging all fiibjecls to attend the public
fervice of the church. But though the deputy fucci-eded
■with parliament, the meafures were very unpalatable. " The
numerous partizans of Rome inveighed againlt the hereticiJ
queen, and her impious minillers. The clergy wlio re-
fufed to conform abandoned their cures; no reformed mi-
nillers could be found to fupply their places ; the churches
fell to ruin ; the people were left without any religious
■worlkip or inftrudion. Even in places of mod civility, the
ftatutes lately made were evaded or neglected with impunity.
The ignorant were taught to abominate a government,
which they heard configned to all the terrors of the divine
vengeance ; were exhorted to itanj prepared for a glorious
opportunity of aflerting the caufe of rehgion ; and afTured
of effeiStual fupport, both from tlie pope, whofe authority
had been profaned, and from the king of Spain, now par-
ticularlv offended at E!iz>beth.''

Befides the diforder occafioned by thefe efforts to force
upon the people a religion they deteiled, much uneafmefs
was occafioned to the government by the relllefs turbu-
lence of Shane or John O'Nial, the molt powerful chief-
tain in Ireland. Sir Henry Sidney, to whom Elizabeth
entrukled the government for many years, and who de-
ferved her confidence, fucceL-ded in attaching to him fe-
veral inferior chieftains v.hom O'Nial had injured, and with
their aid completely fubdued him. But fcarcely was the
northern dilturbance allayed, than another broke out in
the fouth, headed by the earl of Defmond, which was of
longer continuance. Sir John Perrott, prefident of Muniter,
an office lately mltituted, not only fuppreffed the rebellion,
but enforced fuch a itrict execution of Englifli law, as to
give an unufual appearance of peace, indultry, and civility,
to the whole province. Peace, however, was of (liort con-
tinuance, and an attempt of Sidney to raife a tax by order
of council, without authority of parliament, excited a nioft
determined oppofition on the part of the nobility and gentry
of the pale. Tiiefe difcontents were encouraged by the
cmili'arics of Philip II.; a body of Spaniards landed in
Kerry, who acted in concert with Defmond ; and a pro-
tracteil warfare was maintained, which, as ufual, terminated
in favour of the Englifli. The enormous demefnes of Def-
mond were forfeited, and divided amongit a number of Eng-
lifh Undertaken, as they were called, who eutered into a
Ilipulation to plant a certain number of Enghfli families on
their cflatesj in proportion to tiie number of acres, a llipu-

lation frequently ncgleAcd to tlie great injury pf the fcttlff-
mcnt. Amongll others wlio received portions, were fir
'Walter Raleigh, who had ferved witii reputation for bravery,
though not without the Ham of cruelly, and Edmund
Spenfer, the poet, who has introduced feveral allufions
to Ireland into his Fairy Queen. In 1 584, fir John Per-
rott was fent over as chief governor, and as war and in-
furredtion feemed to be then extinguiftied, he applied him-
felf to the general extenfion of Enghfh law witli confiJer-
able fuccefs. He nominated flierilfs for the coimties of Con-
naught, and alfo for feven new counties inftitutcd in Ulller,
with other nccefTary officers ; but his plans for more cx-
tenfive improvement were thwarted m England from ill-
timed cco.nomy, and notwithllanding all his exertions, a par-
liament, fummoned by him in the following year, rejected
almoft every meafure propofed to them. Tlic ojiprefTion of
the natives by the Enghfli fcttlers, which Pcrrot in vain en-
deavoured to reprefs, fupplied new caufes of difconteni ;
and this active governor v/as at length obliged to leave
Ireland. A inore general fpirit of inlurrcdlion than at any
former period was now excited, and Elizabeth found it
neceffary to make uncommon efiorts, left England flioald
be placed between the forces of Spain collected in the
Netherlands, and their naval flrength and armaments fla-
tioned in the harbours of Ireland. The mifconduft of fuc-
ceffive gevernors, efpeciaily of Elizabetii's favourite, the
earl of EfTex, who had an army of 20,000 men, incrcafed
the danger, and before the rebels were fubdued, a Spanifii
army took poffeflion of Kinfale, and a nuncio arrived from
the pope to iiiiligate the friends of Rome to make every
exertion. The abilities and exertions of Biount,.lord Mount-
joy, lord deputy, and of fir George Carcw, prefident cf
Munfter, afhited by confiderable reinforcements from Eng-
land, at length effected the fnrrender of the Spaniards, and
t'le complete reduction of all the lords and chiefs, who,
until then, had ruled in tlie idand, after a war which lafted^
about feven years. Ehzabeth did not live to fee this event,
the final capitulation not having been figned until a few
days after her death, though before the news of i: had
reached Ireland.

The reign of James I. was one of at leafi; comparetivp
tranquillity. All violent oppofition to tlie authority of tiie
Englifh government and crown was put an end to. " Tlie
fpirit of "irifh refiftance," to ufe tlie exprefTions of fir John
Davics, " was brayed, as it were, in a mortar, with ^ths
fword, famine, and peltilence altogether." Both the degene-
rated Enghfh and the native Irifii were alike overcome. At
the fame time the power of the judges and of the Engli/h go-
vernment was extenlively fixed, the Irifh laws and culloms
were aboliflied, and the Enghfh laws eftablilhed in all cafes,
without exception, through the whoL- ifland. Numerous co-
lonies were alfo fent from England and Scotland, efpeciaily
from the latter, to occupy the forfeited ellates, and feven
entire northern counties were allotted to undertakers, which
was called the " Plantation of Ulller," a meafure which
was certainly attended by the introduction of indallry and
order into that province. With a view to flrengthen the
Protellant party, great care was taken that thefe fettlers
fliould be Protcltants, and they were chiefly Scotch Prefby-
terians, or Englilh Puritans, the latter of whom found their
fituation at home uneafy, from James's zealous attachment to
their adverfaries. For tiie fame purpofe, many new borouglis
were ereCled, fo as to give a majority in parliament to the
fame party, which they could not otherwije have acconi-
pUlhed, as the county members v\ ere likely to be almoll all
Papills. It wauld have been at this time a wife and liberal
policy to have completely united tlie two countries, fo as to
; G 2 have

IRELAND.

have but one parliamert, which might have been eafily of-
fefted at that time. This would have rendered fuch extra-
ordinary proceedings entirely unnecefTary, and would in all
probability have prevoiited much of the mifchief wliich af-
terwards occurred ; but the fettlers were conliJered as a
colony, dependent on the mother country, to whofe intercft
they were to be fubfervient, without pi-efuming to interfere
in any but the petty regulations of their own ifland, and all
but the colony were regarded as fccret enemies, who could
not be too carefully watched, or too llriftlv kept in fubjec-
tion. In confequence, the diftinftions which had fubfitlcd
amongft them were in a great mcafure done away, and they
united in defence of a religion to which they were equally
attached, and of rights which they conceived -to be equally
invaded. Sucii was the prevailing fentimcnt, when, after an
interval of tw?rily-fiv:n years, a parliament, fummoned by
Cliichefter, the deputy, met in i6r^. The recufants, (as
tliey were called, from their refufal to acknowledge the
king's fupremacy, and to attend the cflabhihed v^-ordiip,)
were prepared to difpate every ttep, and were numerous in
both hoiifes. Such indeed was their refillnnce, that, al-
■ though the bifliops in the upper, and the new borough
' rncmbcrs in the' lower houfe, gave government a majority, it
was found necelTary to prorogue them until the following
year, when acts for acknowledging the king's title, for
fettling upon him a revenue, and for confirming the northern
attainders, were palFed. During the remainder of this reign,
and for the early part of the fucceeding one, the two con-
tending parties often (liewed their rancour without proceed-
ing to extremities, whihl the period of pence was employed
by fome in aftive exertions for the eftablifhment of manu-
factures, and the estenfion of cultivation. In 1633, lord
Wentworth, better known by his later title of earl of Straf-
ford, commenced his adminiftration. He treated Ireland
•with feverity, as a conquered country, the fubjecls of which
had forfeited the rights of men and citizens, and depended
folely on the royal grace. The recufants and the Puritans
were equally offended by his meafures ; yet, by artfully ply-
ing one party againlt the other, he contrived to manage'a
parliament which he fummoned, and to perform many afts
of feverity with a vigour beyond the law.

At length the time arrived when Ireland was to be once
more involved in war and bloodfheJ. The impeachment of
lord Strafford before the Englifh parliament was one of the
firtf fteps to the overthrow of the royal authority. The fe-
vere reftriftions impofed on the Cathohc party, which, as
before obfervcd, included almoll all the inhabitants, except
the new fettlers, led them to watch for an opportunity of
revenge ; and the dillraded ftate of affairs in England' af-
fording a favourable opportunity, a general infurrctlion was
planned, and carried into exccu'.ion on the 23d of Otlober
1647, an event productive of the moll baneful conftquences
to the peace, union, and profperity of Ireland. This civil
■war, or rebellion, as it is juftly called, even admitting the
palliations that have been urged, was begun by the native
Iri(h, and they were afterwards joined by moll of the Ca-
tlmhcs. Happy would it be for the country if tlie afts of
violence then committed could be for ever buried in oblivion.
The writers on both fides are charged with partiality by
their opponents ; yet what they admit refpeciing their own
. parties is enough to (hew that there was on both fides much
to blame, and much to lament. For eleven years Ireland
was a fcene of confufion, there being no lefs than five dif-
ferent parties, xjf whom it has been'faid, that each, in the
tourfe of the %var, at one time or other, fought againll the
fa6Hoa with which it had formerly fi led. At length, in
165;:, Cromi^-ell affumed the com nand of the parhamcntary

army, to which he brought a cbpfiderable reinforcement,
and foon completely reduced the whole ifland. The latid^
which had belonged to thofe who had been killed, or who
were deprived of their pofiefuons by force of arms, wrre uow
given to new coloniils,. many of whom had been officers in
the victorious army. Limits were affigned to the Irifh, be-
yond which they were not to come, and thefe continued ta
be ftric^ly enforced till the reftoration. TheProtettant and

" EngUdi interell was now m.ore completely ellabhihed than at
any former lime ; but though the Catholics had loll the
power to injure, they retained their aniraofity. At this \k-
riod, indeed, the interell and power of the old native Iriih,
aii a diftinft clafs of inhabitants, was entirely broken, tiieir
numbers being from that time much exceeded by thofe of

■ the old and new inhabitants of the Britiih race.

On the relloration it was hoped that the king would have
overturned all the me;ifures of Cromwell ; but he confirmed
all the grants, and the ntiiatiou of the Catholics was little,
if at all, amev.dcd. The duke of Ormond, who had great
influence in Irilh affairs, was a fteady Proteftant ; and what-
ever might be the king's private wiflies, no fleps were taken
in favour of the oppofite party till near the conchilion of
his reign, when his brother the duke of- York appears to
have had great influence over him. On tlse acceliion of
James II. the Romifh party in Ireland were infpired witii
the moll extravagant expeftations ; they fancied themfelvcs
already rellored to the ellates of their ancellors, and pof-
fefled of every advantage to be derived from a king of their
own rehgion. " At length," fays Mr. Newenham, " the
infatuatedjames, yielding to the impolitic counftls of men
who, perhaps, might have governed a religious fraternity
well, but who were utterly ignorant of the government of
an empire ; and taught to regard the Irifli Roman Catholics
as fit inllruments for the acco:nph(lmient of his vifionary and
defpotic projetts, gradually raifed, invigorated, ;uid encou-
raged them. By the obfequiou: forbearance, or conllraiued
acquiefcence of Clarendon, and the indefatigable exertions
of the zealous and plenij;otent Tyrconnel, they were once
more prepared to renew the terrible conflict ; and animated
by no ordinary combination of forcible motives, recurred to
arms ; after incautioufly co-operating with their bigoted fo-
vereign, in p?rfecuting their Proteftant countrymen without
meafure and without remorfe ; and th'.:s, in fome degree,

jullifyiiig that fevere retahation which they themfelves were
foon after to experience.

Eheu,

Quam temere in nofmet legem fancimus iniquam.

But England was not then, as on the preceding occafionr
paralyzed by internal comm.otions. The prince who had
afcended the abdicated throne was an experienced general,
and a found politician. The vifionary .lames was grer.ily
overmatched. The Irifli Roman Catholics were, in confe-
quence, completely vanquifhcd ; dripped of political pov<er;
hurled from every poll of truit and emolument, and almoit
entirely difpoflefled of their remaining lands. The work of
vengeance, however, was not yet finilhed, nor could it per-
haps have terminated thus, confiilently with the weaknefs
and wickednefs infeparable from human nature. The Jrifli
Protellants, Hill horrified by the remembrance of the fero-
cious maffacre of 1641 ; recollecling the havoc and mifery
of the long war which fucceeded that event ; dreading a re-
petition of the tyrannical meafures, the rclentlefs, and, fi>r
the moll part, unprovoked perfecution from which they had
been recently refcued ; and a renewal of thofe bloody fcenes
which they had jufl furvived ; yielding, in Ihort,' to the
united impidfe of revenge and fear, and thereby hurried be-
ti yond

IRELAND.

. j"or.d the bounds of political honour and prudence, reforted
ill the following reign, when tiiey were riiher encouraged to
,.do fo, to every expedient which Ictjiflative ingenuity could
fupply, however likely to prove ultimately detrimental to
.tliemfflves, with a view of red\icing their inveterate enemies,
the Roman Catholics, to abfolute and irremediable pohtical
impotence. A code of defenAve and preventive ftatutes,
being the ilamp of the paffions by wliich it was originated,
was in the end compiled: a code which was not merely
.limited to the precUillon of hollilities on the part of the
Roman Catholics, but extended to the abolition of their
venerated religion, which, in Ireland, had fcarcely ever
been fairly combated by the only weapons that ever
(hould have been employed againft it, the pens or tongues,
and attractive examples of Proteilants : a code which im-
peded the progrefs of the former in the patlis of in-
duih-y ; thwarted every fpecies or laudable ambition by
which they might have been actuated ; placed them on the
footi:ig of aliens in their native land ; expofed them to vex-
atious outrages and fpoliation ; reduced them almoll to the
condition of ilaves ; obftrufted matrimonial alliances between
them and the Proteftants, from whence, it is probable, the
happieil efiefts might have flowed ; and, worfe than all,
held forth incitements to filial contumacy, to a violation of
one of the commandments of God ; and introduced amongit
them principles of duplicity and t/eachery. A code, which,
while it oppreffed, and feenied to overwhelm the Roman
Catholics, facilitated theobtrufion of thofe jealous meafures,
thofe commercial reftraints which had long been the effedl
of retaining one of the faireft portions of the globe in a
flate of poverty and political iniignificancc. The madacre
of 1641, which had been induftriouily exhibited in the moll
.horrifying colours, together with the cruel perfecution ex-
perienced during the (hbrt reign of king James in Ireland,
both iHIl fredi in the recollection of the Proteflant?, necef-
farily heightened their animolity to the utmoll j while
repeated difcomfitures and difafters, and aggravated oppref-
fion, together with the accumulated mifery produced by
Ihis revengeful code, certainly inconfiiient with the prin-
ciples of found policy and true rchgion, naturally rendered
the hatred of the Roman Catholics virulent beyond ex-
ample. An unparalleled combination of irritating, mad-
dening circumftances fomented, on both fides, the mod ran-
corous malignity. The idea of a Protellant in the mind
of a Roman Catholic, and that of the latter in the mind of
the former, now became cloftly alTociated with every idea
that could engender wrath, malice, and vengeance in the
heart of man. Each abhorred the other ; each longed for
the extirpation of the other." — "This among connti-ymen,
among the friendly, cheerful, and hofpitable people of Ire-
land, among Chrillians, among thofe who looked torward to
eternal happinels through the mediation of the fame Saviour,
among thofe who adored the fame Trinity, among thofe
who agreed in all the effential points of religion, the main-
tenance cf a few different fpeculative articles, and the ob-
fervance of a few different rites, confeffedly inoperative
in focial life, and confequenlly unworthy of fcrious notice,
being unhappily combined with oppofite intcrells, being
coeval and concurrent with the moit energetic principles of
d:fcord, ferving as the tefti, fymbols, or diltinflive charaders
af two parties invcterately and unappeaiably hoilile to each
other, became at length, what in their natural unconnedlcd
Jlatc they could never pofTibly have become, alimentary to
the moll vehement deteitation."

Th >ugh we cannot agree with the refpedable writer of the
preceding paffagc in all his remarks, cfpccinlly in thofe which
tixm t« think lightly of the difference between the Protcltant

and Catholic faith ; yet it, on the whole, contains fo jiifl and
candid a reprefeiuation of the unhappy dillerences between
the parties, and is evidently written with fuch a delire of
conciliation, that we have copied it without change, anxioufly
wifliing that all the gentlemen of Ireland, of every fed, fau-
the matter in the fame light, and were equally defirous of
improving pail evils to preleiit harmony.

The events peculiar to Ireland, excepting the penal code,
jufl remarked on, will not require much notice during ti.e
four reigns fucceeding the revolution. The uniform policy
was to keep Ireland in a ib'eof dependency, and to preveiit
her manufadures or commerce interfering with thofe of Eng-
land.

Encouragement was indeed given to the linen manufadure,
and it proved a fource of great benefit to the country, but
the woollen manufacture was kept down, and the rcftridiori
on commerce (hewed a moll unwarrantable jealciufy. As the
dependence of Ireland on England was never loll light of, fo
fome occafions occurred in which the parliament of the latter
diredly exerted its authority. In the reign of William acts
were paffed, by which Ireland was hound. In the year
169S, Mr. Molyneux publilhed a pamphlet, entitled " The
Cafe of Ireland being bound by Ads of Parliament in Eng-
land, ftated," in which he called in queftion their right to
do fo, and his fentiments were known to be thofe of the
In!h parliament and people. This book was condemned
by the Englifh parliament, which addrefied the king on the
pernicious affertions it contained, and on the dangerous ten-
dency of the proceedings of the Irilh parliament, and pro-
mifed to give his majeily their ready concurrence and aflill-
ance to prelerve and maintain tl-.e dependence and fubordina-
tiou of Ireland to the imperial crown of this realm. Wil-
liam promifed on his part to fullil their wiilics, and notwith-
Itanding the difcontent of the Irilh people, fuch w;>s their
divided (late, and iuch the apprehenlion each party enter-
tained of the other, that they were oUiged to fubmit.
Another caufe of controverfy occurred in 1719, in conl'e-
quence of an appeal being carried from the Irilh to the
Englifti houfe of lords. The barons of the exchequer,
who had carried into effect the decree of the Engliih houfe,
were imprifoned by the Irilh one, but the difpute terminated
in a nev/ ad, by which it was enacted, " that the kingdom of
Ireland is fubordinate unto, and dependent upon, the im-
perial crown of Great Britain ; and that the king's majeily,
by and with the confent of the lords and commons of Great
Britain, has full power and auihority to make laws and
llatutes to bind the people and the kingdom of Ireland."
Soon after this, iu 1723, a circumffance occurred, which
deferves notice, both on account of the example it let, that
the united, determined, and perfevcring voice of a people
muil be ultimately fuccefsful, and on account of the adivc
part taken bv the celebrated dean Swift, then refideiit iu
Dubhn. This was the well known affair of IVccJ's half,
pence. A patent had been granted to a Mr. Wood, to fupply
Ireland with a certain quantity of copper halfpence and
farthings for 14 years. It v/as alleged in Ireland, that
this coin was greatly inferior in value to what it was
made to pals for. Tne parliament of Ireland addreffed
the crown againll the mcafure of fending the coin ; and
during their foUow^ing biennial recefs, great compLiints
continued to be made both by individuals and by pubhc cor-
poration.";. It would appe.ir that though the badncfs of
Wood's hal.'"pence was the pretext, the difpute was, in reality,
a qucilion of rights and independence. Dean Swift contri-
buted much to the pubhc difcontent, by a feries of letters
figned A Drapicr, for difcovering the author of the fourth
cf which, a reward of 300 pounds was o&red. As fuch

precautions

IRELAND.

-precautions liad been takon, that no eviuencc could be pro-
cured againlt: the author, the printer was indifted, but the
grand iury, inllead of finding the bill, approved the publica-
tion. "The ferment was fo great, that if miniilers had pcr-
fevered, a new civil wai- would probably have arifen, thoujjii
it, like all preceding ones, would have only contributed, in
all probability, to rivet the chains of Ireland inore firmly.
As it was, the patent was cancelled, and the ferment allayed.
At this time the complaints of the people, on other accounts,
Ti-ere loud, of which dean Swift takes particular notice in his
" Short View of the State of Ireland ;" he compares this
kingdom, in v\'hich a few placemen from England eiijoycd
plentiful falaries, to an hofpital, in wliich all the houlhold
-officers grow rich, while the poor, for wliofe fake it was
built, are almoft ftarving for want of food and raiment.
Such are the principal events in Ireland, in the interval
between the revolution and the acceffion of his prefent ma-
jefty to the throne in 1760. The Catholics were under tlie
■difabilities already ftated, but the pen--il lav.s againll them
were feldom, if ever, enforced ; and as the dillance of time
increafed, the irritation occaiioned by former events was
confiderably abated. Many of that body acquired wealth in
the way of' trad?, and the nobility and gentry enjoyed their
eilates in quiet. The Proteftants a!fo gradually loll their ap-
prchenfions, and were taken up with the contelts againit
Britilh fovercignty, which about this time g-dve a continual
intereil to the proceedings of parliament, where fome able
men dilHnguifhed themfelves by their oppofilion to govern-
ment. This parhament was unchanged during the life of the
fovereign, and met every focond year ; and as the prefent
mode of vacating feats was unknown, when a vacancy hap-
pened by death, the greatell exertions were ufed by the con-
tending parties, and the eleftion was ufually decided by the
majority of the houfe. The Irifh government was pecu-
iiarly circumftanced. It was neceffary that every aft ot par-
liament Ihould have the fanction both of the Britilh privy
council, /. e. of the Britilh minillry, and of the Irifh par-
liament. It was therefore neceffary for the former to be able
to influence a majority of the latter. To do this, j)laces
and penfions were "belloweJ on thofe, whofe powers of elo-
quence, or whofe parliamentary intereil made them fervice-
able ; and befides this, the miniitry were obhged to gratify
the leading fadion, by complying with fuch meafures as
were for their privrite advantage, although inconfiftent with
found policy, and tlie true interett of Ireland. Hence a num-
■ber of parliamentary grants, which have been juftly IHg-
matized as jobs, and hence the undetermined condudl of the
Britilh minillry refpetling Irilh meafures, even on occafions
not long preceding the Union. The leading party in the
Irifii parhament mull be gratified, bccaufe otherwife the
public bufinefs would be at a (land. The lord lieutenant
was not rcfident, c.Kcept during the parliamentary feffion ;
and the management of affairs was, at other times, en-
trulled to lords julliccs, generally the primate, the chan-
cellor, and the fpeaker of the houfe of commons ; the two
former invariably Engliflimen, in whom confidence was
chiefly placed, and the lall, a man always pofleffed of great
parliamentary influence from his talents and connexions.
The firfl; Hep to a change was the rendering parliaments
o£lennla), which was moved by G. D. Lucas, and paffed in
1768, Tiie lord lieutenant now became cnnllantly refident,
and the feflions were held every year. The ipirit of the
Irifli parliament increafed ; feveral men of great talents
fprung up, and whilll the Britifli mir.illry were engaged in
their unhappy contell with America, they were obliged to
yield to tlie people of Ireland firll a free trade, and after-
wards a repeal of the ftatuteg which rendered Ireland de-

pendent. The volunteers, a body originally armed for the
defence of the country againft French invafion, probably
contributed to thefe mealures by the terror they occafioned
to the minillry, whilft the agitation in Enijland towards the
clofe of the American war, and the unfettled ftate of ad-
miniftriiticn between the refignation of lord North, and the
appointment of Mr. Pitt, prevented that determined oppo-
lition which would have been made in a more fettled Rate of
affairs. In 177S the grievances of the Roman Catholics
began to receive attention, and that body was reftored to
many privileges, of which they had been harfiily deprived.
This was the commencement, and fince that time all the
moll haraffmg difabilities have been removed, though fome
ftill remain, which are frequently the fubjedt of parlia-
mentary difcuffion. The events of the lall 20 years are too
recent to be enlarged on without that partiality from which
human nature is fcaixely ever exempt, and the detail would
be perhaps unfuitable to a work of this general nature.
Nolwithftanding the mifery occafioned by the rebellion of
1798, and the low Hate of many branches of trade and ma-
nufadlure, Ireland has rapidly improved within that period,
efpccially in agriculture, and (hould it be bleffed with internal
peace and union, it will foon, under the follering care of the
legiflature, rife to a great degree of profperity, and effentially
contribute to the welfare and happinefs of the IJrAted K'wgdcm.
See Union. Beaufort's Memou-. Pinkcrton's Geography.
Spenfer. Cox. Davis. Holhnglliead. Leland. Curry.
Newenham's State of Ireland, &c. &c.

Ireland's Eye, a fmall illand in the Irifli fea, north of
the hill of Howth, in the county of Dublin, Ireland, about
a mile from the main land

Ireland, Neiu, an ifland in the Pacific ocean, which is a
long flip of land ftretchii;g from N.W. to S.E. about 270
miles, and feparated from Ne'W Britain (which fee} by a
channel through which Capt Carteret paffed in 1767, who
gave its name to this ifland. This navigator found the
nation very holliie, baling lances headed with flint. Their
faces were flreaked with white, and their hair befprinkled
with powder of the fame colour. They are black, and faid
to be wooily-beaded, but without the tliick hps or flat nofe
of the negro. Some of the canoes of this ifland were 90 feet
in length, formed out of a fingle tree. Bougainville alfo
vifited this country, and obferved here the pepper-plant, aud
that Angular infecl, the walkmg leaf ; among i:s numerous
birds was the great crowned pigeon. To tlie wcfl of New
Ireland, and approaching New Guinea, a fuccefficn of little
Archipelagos is found ; in which are the Portland ifles, the
Admiralty ifles, the Hermit and Exchequer ifles ; all of
wh.ich prefent one principal ifl.ind, the centre of the group,
of which the circumference is formed by a number of flat
iflets linked together by reefs. The principal ifland of. the
Admiralty ijhtids (which fee) is mountainous. The in-
habitants are not very black. Their phyfiognomy is agree-
able, and differs but little from that of the Europeans ; they
appear little fociable, and thieves ; they have chiefs who ex-
ercife great authority ; they are armed with darts headed
with a volcanic glafs. They wear at the extremity of the
natural parts the fliell " bulla ovum ;" and are otlierwile
entirely naked. The women have only a garment about the
waifl. They hve chiefly upon cocoa-nuts, of which thefe
ifles have abundance. Their hair is curly, and of a black
colour, which they fometimes redden with ochre mixed with
oil ; many parts of the body are alfo thus painted, and efpe-
cially the face. In thefe illands it was once hoped to find
La Peroufe.

The archipelago of Hermits is fcarcely 14 leagues in cir-
cumference; it produces Cythcrean apples, ".Ipondia cy-

therea,"

{. R E

Uiereaj" and many fruits of diflcrent fiieoies of " Eugenia,"
all good to eat. The natives appear more mild and pacific
that! thofe of the Admii-alty ifles, thoiij>h they feenn to be
more robiirt. They are wliully nakod, ncrt even wearing the
fllell. All thefe iflands, and thofe about them, arc covered
with trees. Labillardiere. Pinkcrton. The moil fouthcrly
point of New Ireland is fituated in S. lat. 4" 59'. E. long.
152° 17'.

luEi.AXD, one of the Bermuda iflands.

I RELLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ; 25 miles
E. of Hydrabad.

IRENiEETS, in Bhgraphy, a native Greek, probably of
Afia, and bifhop of Lyons, in Gaul, in the fccond century.
The time of his birth, and the prccife place of his nativity,
cannot be fatlsfadorily afcertained. Dodwell refers his
birth to the reign of Nerva, A D. 97, and thinks that he
did not outlive the year igo. Grabe dates his birth about
the year 108. Dapin fays that he was born a little before
the year 140, and died a martyr in 202. Tillemont thinks
that he was born about the year 120, and died in 202. It
is generally allowed that he was educated in the principles
of the Chriilian religion, and that he was a difciple of St.
Polycarp ; and it has been fuppofed that he came to Rome
with his mailer, in the time of Anicctns, about the year
IJ7, and from thence palTcd into Gaul. He was firft
prefbyter of the church of Lyons, and fucceeded Pothinus,
after his martyrdom in the year 177, as bifliop of that
church. Tertullian mentions him as one of the mod: con-
fiderable writers of the Chriilian church, and fays of him
that he was " a diligent inquirer of nil forts of opinions ;"
weaning, probably, that he had well ftudied the fentiments
of the heathen philofophers, and of heretics, as well as the
principles of the Chriilian religion. It has been commonly
iaid that Irenxus died a martyr ; but frcm the filence of
Tertullian and Eufcbius, afid others, concerning :hc manner
of his death, it is j':ftly argued (fays Lardner) by Cave,
Bafn.ige, and Dodwell, that this fuppofition is not well
foufided, and that he clofed his life in the ordinary courfe
of nature. He was the author of many works, of which
r.one are now extant belides his five books " Againfl He-
refies," and fragm.ents of fome oilier pieces ; and thofe five
books, written by h.im in Greek, now exift only in an an-
cient Latin verfion, excepting fome fragments preferved by
Eufeb'iis, and other Greek writers who have quoted them.
In this large work " Againil Herefies," Irenxus has iTiewn
that he was well acquainted with heathen authors, and the
abfurd and intricate notions of heretics, as well as with
tiie fcriptures of the Old and New Teftnment, which he
iias freq':ently and copioufly cited with peculiar and very
diilinguilhed refp;tt. In his writings " we have full, ex-
prefs, and abundant tedimony to the four gofpels, the afis
of the apoftles, and twelve of Paul's epiilles. The oraiffion
of the epiitle to Philemon may well be afcribed to its brevity.
He knew the epiiUe to the Hebrews, but v/as not fatisfied
that it was Paul's. As for the Catholic epillles, we have
exprefs quotations of the firll of Peter, and the firft and
fecond of John ; and the rcafon of not quoting the third
may be well allowed to be its brevity. But to the epiille
of James, the fecond of Peter, and the epi^Ue of Jude,
there are none, or very obfcure references, hardly any that
can be reckoned material. Neverthelefs, on account of a
general pafTage concerning the writings of the apodles, it
may be queilioned, whether he did not alfo Icnow the
epiftles of James and Jude. The book of the Revelation is
exprcfsly afcribed to John, the difci|:le of the Lord. His
telliir.ony for this book is fo (Irong and ful), that, confi-
dcring the age of Irvuxu,*:, he fcems to put it beyond all

I R E

qutdiun, that it is the work of John the apodle and cvan"-
gelill."

Irenxus appears to have been very humble and modcR,.
and agreeable to his name ( formed of nfwr, /.cjcf) a lover
of peace. Tliis is manifcll in his letter to Victor, on oc-
cafion of the controverfy about the time of keeping Ealler.
Although his writings may not be free from imperfeCHoiis,,
he has given fuch j/roofs of learning, integrity, and good
fenfe in "the maiuj that a.l good judges muil cfleem him an-
ornament to the fed to which he belonged. The works of
Irenxus were firft publiflied at Bafil l)y Erafmus, in 1526,
in folio ; and they have fincc undergone various impreflions.
The moft valuable of thefe are that of Grabe, publifiied
at Oxford in 1702, folio ; and that of Maffuet, a Benedidinc
of the congrcg-ition of St Maur, publiftied at Paris in
1710, folio. Fabricius. Cave. Dupin. Lardner, in his
Works, vol. ii.

IRENARCHA, »;w^X'h compofed of u;nr., peace, ami
aix'^:, prince, from y-^yj., command, a military officer in ti e
Greek empire, whofe bufinefs was to provide for the peace,
fccurity, and tranquillity of the provinces.

In Juilinian's code it is mentioned, that irenarchs are fer.t
into tlie provinces to maintain the public peace, by puni(hi:ig
crimes, and puting the laws in execution.

Befides this there was another irenarcha in the cities, to
whom belonged the preferving of peace, and quelling fcdi-
tion among the citizens. This officer was fometimes called
pnefeUus uriis.

The emperors Theodofius and Honorius fupprefled the
office of irenarchx, on account of their abufing their truft,
and diftreffing and perfecuting the people, inllead of main-
taining peace among them.

IRENE, in BiogiT.phy, emprefs of Conftantinople, born
in the rear 752, was an Athenian orphan, but being dif-
tinguifhed by her great accomplilliments !he was married,
at the age of 17. to Leo, fon of the emperor Conllantine \ ,
This prince afterwards fat upon the imperial throne as
Leo IV. and at his death, in 780, left his wife guardian of
their fon, ConilantineVL then but 10 years old. During,
his childhood, Irene moft ably iind affiduoudy difcharged, in-
her public admi.niftration, the duties of a faithful mother ;
and her zeal in the reftoration of image?, has given her the
title and honours of a faint, which (he lliU holds in the Greek-
church. As the young emperor attained the maturity ot
youth, the ftruggle for power between him and his mother
was carried on with the utmoft ardour. He liftencd to
his favourites, who fliared his plcafures, and were am.biticus
of his power, and was convinced of his right, and of iiis.
ability to reign, and determined to reward the fervices of
his mother by a perpetual baniflimcnl to the ilTe of Sicily.
She, on the other hand, £iiw through his projcas in time
to fruftratCr for the prcfont, his plans. Tiie conteft, how-
ever, was not over ; and the foldiers determining for the
prince, he was proclaimed lawful en-iperor, and his mother
was difmilTed to a life of foIitude._ Here I'he excited a.
powerful confpiracy againft Conllantine, and, in 797, not
only dctln-oned him, but moil barbarondy caufed him to be
deprived of his fight. After this die entered Condantir.oplc.
in- a chariot of date, attended by feveral pairiciaus as her
Haves, and afl'umed the reins of empire. " But thefe pa-
tricians," fays Gibbon, " were for the moft pr.rt eunuchs;
and their black ingratitude jullitied, on this occafion, the
popular hatred and contempt. Itaifcd, enriched, cntrufted,
with the firft dignitieo of the empiie, they bafely confpired
againft their benefadlrefs : the great trcafurer Nicepliorus.
was fecretly inverted with the purple ; her fuccefi'or wm.
introduced into the palace, and crowned at St. Sophia by

the

1 R E

tlie venal patriarcli. In their firft interview, flic recapitulated
with dignity the revolutions of her life, gently accufed the
])erlidy of Niccphorus, infinuated that he owed his life to
licr iiiifiirpicious clemency, and, for the throne and (reafurcs
which (he had religned, folicited a decent and honourable
retreat. His avarice refufed this niodelt compenfation ;
and, in her exile in the ifle of Le/bos, the emprefs earned
a fcanty fnbfidence by the labours of her diftaff." In this
forlorn condition flie died in the fucceeding year. Her
zeal for orthodoxy, and her liberidity to the church and the
poor, have, in the eyes of ecclefialliciJ hiftorians, nlmoil
wholly obliterated her favage cruelty and injullice towards
her fon. It is univerfally admitted that (he was endowed
with a llrong underllandiiig, and with great talents for go-
vernment. Univ. Hift. Gibbon.

IRESINE, in Botany, is derived from iijo,-, tvool, be-
caufe this plant, when it bears truit, is covered with a fort
of woollinefs. Ei^'i^iivi; was the appellation of an olive-branch
entwined with wool, fuch as was cullomary for the Greeks
to hang up in their houfes. in order to avert famine. — Linn.
Gen. 52 1. Schreb. 687. Mart. Milh Did. v. 2. Browne
Jam. 35S. Swartz Obf 376. JufT. 88. Lamarck Did.
V. J. 292. Illudr. t. 813.— Clafs and order, Dicccm Pen-
ian.-ina. Nat. Ord. HoJeraceit-, Linn. Amaranlht, Jull'.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal Perianth of two leaves, very fmall,
■acute, (hilling. Cor. Petals five, fclTile, lanceolate, erect ;
iietlary of five fcales, the (lamens being interpofed. Slum.
rilaments five, crcit ; anthers rou!idifli. Female, Cal. and
Cor, like the mule. P'tjl. Germen ovate, fuperior ; (U'e
none ; ftigmas two, roundilh. Perk, none, except the
permanent calyx. Sc;ds few, downy.

Eff. Ch. Calyx two-leaved. Corolla of five petals. Male,
Neftaries feven. Female, Stigmas two, feffiie. Seeds
woolly.

Obf. Profefibr Swartz has remarked that he never found
this plant but with hermaphrodite flowers. He is of
opinion that the plant defcribcd by IJrowne might be a
diftinft fpecies with dioecious flowers. Swartz alfo fays
that Irejtnc is fo clofely allied to Celojia, that it almott ap-
peal's to be a fpecies of this latter genus.

I. /. celofw'tdes . Linn. Sp. PI. 1456. (Amarantus
panicula flavicante gracili holofericea ; Sloan. Jam. v. i. 142.
t. 90. f. 2.) — A native of Virginia and the Weft Indian
iOands, particularly Jamaica — Root perennial. Stems varying
in height from two to ten or twelve feet, jointed, furrowed,
divided at the top. Branches oppofite, a little fpreading.
Leaves oppofite, on foot-llalks, lanceolate or nearly ovate,
acute, fmooth. Panlcks terminal. Fhivers in a fort of
fpike, fmall, ovate, whitifh, fcaly at their bafe. Filaments
shorter than the corolla ; anthers yellow. The calyx re-
fembles a capfuh, inclofing one or more black fliiningyTrj/j.
A white wool is protruded from betv/een the fegments when
the time of flowering is paft.

We fufpeft that another fpecies of this genus, with nar-
rower leaves, is found in Jamaica.

IRETON, Htvny, in Biography, a celebrated com-
mander and ilatefman of the parhaincntary party in the civil
wars of Charles I., was dcfcended of a good family, and
brought up to the profefiion of the law. In the conte'.ls
of the period in which he flourjfhcd, Ireton i>ined the par-
liament army, and by his fuperior talents, and the iiitereft
of Cromwell, whofe daughter he married, rofe to the high
office of commiflary-geneial. At tlic famous battle of
Nafeby he was wounded and taken prifoner. By his addrefs
he foon obtained his liberty, and had a great (hare in all
thole political tranfatlions which threw the parliament into
4te power of the army, and afterwards changed the confti-

\ R I

tution from a raonarcliy to a republic. His cotfticilsliad great
influence with his father-in-law ; and his education as a lawyer
caufed him to be employed in drawing up many of the pub-
lic papers of his party. From Ins fuggeftion, Cromwell
fecretly called, at Windfor, a council of the chief otScera,
in order to deliberate concerning the lettlement of the na-
tion, and the future difpofal of the kir.g's perfon, and he Lad
a principal hand in fraining the ordinance for the king's
trial, at « hich he fat as or.e of the judges. Throi:gh his
inftigation Fairfax put to de^th, by martial law, Lucas a!:d
Lifle, taken at the fiege of Colchefter. Tl js unufual fcvc-
rity was loudly exclaimed againft by all the prifoners. Lord
Capel reproached Ireton witli it ; ar.d challenged liim, as
they were all engaged in the fame honourable cnufc, lo excr-
cife the fame unpaitial vengeance upon all. Ireton accom-
panied Cromwell to Ireland in 16*59, ^"'^ '" ^^^ foHowirg
year was left by him in ihat illand as lord-deputy. Having
fiinlhed his military career with the capture of Limerick, he
was feized with a pefti'.ential difeafe in that place, of which
he died in November 1651 ; fincerely lamented by the re-
publicans, who revered him as a foldier, a ttatefman, and a
faint. According to Hume, he was " fierce in his nature,
though prob.-ibly fincere in his intentions ; he propofed, by
arbitrary power, to eftablifh Lberty, and in the profeciitioii
of his imagined religious purpofes, he thought himfelf dif-
penfed from all the ordinary rules of morality, by which
inferior mortals mull allow themfelves to be governed."
And again he was " much celebrated for his vigilance, in-
duftry, and capacity, even for the llrift execution of juilice^
in that unlimited command which he pofiefied in Ireiaud."
He was obfervcd to be inflexible in all his purpofes, and
it was believed by many that he was animated with a fincei-e
and paffionate love of liberty, and never could have betm in-
duced by any motive to fubmit to the fmalleft appearance of
regal government. In gratitude for his great public fervices,
the parliament voted an eftate of 20C0.^ per ann. to his family,
and honoured him with a magnificent funeral at Weftmir.-
fter Abbey, a circumflance which, if he could have forefeen,
fays Ludlow, " he would certainly have made it his defire
that his body might have found a grave where his foul left
it ; fo much did he defpife thofe pompous and expenfive
vanities ; having erefted for himfelf a more glorious monu-
ment in the hearts of good men, by his affeftion to his coun-
try, his abilities of mind, his impartial jnilice, his diligence
in the public fervice, and his other virtues." Ludlow's
Memoirs. Hume Hift. Life of Cromwell in the Biog.
Brit.

IREW, in Geography, a town on the S.E. coaft of tha
ifland of Timor. S. lat. 8 ' 45'. E. long 1 26" 3'.

IRGANONG, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana ; 2
miles S.E. of Saler Mouler.

IRGISKOE, a town of Rufiia, in the government of
Saratov, fituated on the Irgis, which runs into the Volga,
near Vol(l<: ; 96' miles E. of Volfl<.

IRI, a towqi of Africa, in the kingdom of Congo.

IRJAB, a town of Candahar, taken by Timur Bee in
1 39S ; 46 miles S.E. of Cabul. N. lat. ^^ ' 50'. E. long.
69- S'.

IRI ARTE Ic.NACio, in Bkgraphy, a Spani(h painter
of landfcapes, of whom Murillio faid, that he would only
afcribe the beauty of his works to divine infpiration. He
was fecrctary to the academy at Seville, where he died, in
1685.

IRIDES, in Botany, the i8th natural order in JufTieu's
Syllcm, and the 8th of his 3d clafs. It is equivalent to the
F.nfatx of Linnajus, which latter appellation is properly, in
our opinion, retained by Mr. Gawler (now Ker), in his

illnftration

I R I

jlluftration of this order ; fee ExsAT.i:.— Its characters are
thus given, the character of the clafs being monocotyledonous,
va'tth Jlamem :njlrl:d into the calyx o>- corolla.

Corolla, which Jufiieu terms calyx, fuperior, coloured, tu-
bular at tlic bale, its limb in fix more or lefs deep fegments,
equal or unequal. Stamens three, infertcd into the tube,
oppofite to three alternate fegments of the flower, their
filaments dilliaft, or rarely united into a tube embracing the
ftyle. Gcrmcn inferior ; with a fingle ftyie and three-fold
ftigma. Capfule inferior, of three cells, and three valves,
with many, generally roundifli, feeds.

Root either fibrous, tuberous, or bulbous. Stem moftly
herbaceous, leafy, rarely almolt wanting. Leaves alternate,
flieatliing, moftly fword-fliaped. Flowers growing out of
iheaths, either folitary, or many together, which (lieaths often
conilil of two valves.

Tiie leading genera in Linnaeus aiid Juflieu are Sifyrir.chwm,
Ins. Fx'ia, Glni/ioliii, ^nlbolyza, Crocus, &c. uh.icli Mr. Ker
has greatly fubdivided. See litsPEiMNTHA and Gla-

IRIDIUM, 1:1 Chemijlry, is a fimple fubftance, and a
metal. It was difcovered by Mr. Smithfon Tennant in
1803, and an accou-t of it was pubiiffied in the Phil. Tranf.
for 1S04. i*^ appears that, previous to its publication, the
fame difcovcry was made, to a certain d^gre;-, by Defcotils,
x-jhicii was afterwards taken up and enlarged upon by
Fourcroy and Vanquelin.

Mr. Tennant found that the fmall black fcales exifting in
crude platina, and which are left after the nlatina has been
diflblved, contained- two metals wliich had not been pre-
vioufly noticed. (See Pl.atina.) He fubjccted tlie above
fiibllancc to the alternate aClion of potalh and muriatic acid,
by which means lie obtained tv.o fohitions. The black fcales
ar? heated to rcdnefs in a f;lver crucible, with their own
weight of potaih. When the heated mafs has water added
to It, the potafli dilTolves in combination v.-ith one of the
metals, the folution being of an or^.nge colour. The refi-
duum being treated with muriatic acid, a folution is
obtained, which at liril is blue, then becomes olive green,
and ultimately of a red colour, confiiling of the acid united
to the oxyd of tiie other metal. By tliis alternate treatment,
the oxydof ofmium, the other metal alluded to, is diffoived in
the potaih, and the o.^;yd of iridium in the muriatic acid. The
acid folution, on being evaporated to drvnefs, affords cryllals
of an octahedral form, which is, no doubt, a pure muriat of iri-
dium. The folution of thefe cryftals is of a deep red colour.
When a plate of zinc, or any other metal, having a greater
alTmity for oxygen than itfelf, is placed in the lolution, a
black powder is precipitated, which, on being heated, be-
jcomcs v.-liite, and puts on metallic lu(tre. Tliis metal, like
gold and platina, has fo little attraction for oxygen, that it
may be obtained by cxpofing the cryll.ils of its muriat to a
ftrong heat. In this ftate it is deemed pure iridium. It is
a white metal, having the appearance of platina. Owijig
to its great infufibilitv, we are not acquainted with fo:ne of
it's phjdical properties, fuch as its fpecilic gravity and mal-
leability. It has not been fufed by Mr. Tennant nor tiie
French chemifcs. It has, however, fince been made to
afiume the liquid form, b)' means of the very intenfe heat
produced by the large Galvanic batterj- lately exhibited at
the Royal Inilitution by Mr. Davy. This heat was fo
■great, that at the fame time the earths alumine and zirconia
were fufed, and charcoal was volatilized.

It forms malleable alloys with feveral of the metals, a
•prefumptive proof that it is itfelf malleable. Mr. Tennant
found that it'did not combine with ari'cnic, but that it eafily
■united with lead ; from which, like the uoble-mcta!', it may
^ Vol. XIX.

I R I

be feparated by cupellation. It forms malleable alloys witk
copper and filver. Its alloy, with gold, differs htlle from
pure gold, even when the iridium is in confiderable quantity.
It appears to Hand next above gold and platina in its affinity
for oxygen. It may be inferred, from the change of colour
in the acid folution, that it admits of at lead tv.o (iages of
oxydation. When the metal is in its pure ftate, it is not
aitted upon by any acid except the nitro-muriatic, and even
this acid, according to Fourcroy and Vauquelin, dilfolves
ou!y ^^^dlhs its weight. Its cmibir.ations with the other
acids, and with combullible bodies, have not been attended
to. See O.s.Miv.M.

IRIJU, in Geography, a river of Guiana, which runs
into the Atlantic, N. lat. o c8'. W. long. 51 .Jo'.

JRINON. See Iki.s.

IRIS, in Anatomy. See Eye.

Iki.s, Prolapftis, or Procidentia of, in Surgny, denotes a
protruhon of a piece of the iris through a wound, or ulcer-
ated opening in the cornea, after the efcapc of the aqueous
humour. To this dileafe feveral writers have applied the
name of ftaphyloma; thougli, in all probability, the influence
of Scarpa will in future confine the latter term to a morbid
thickening and projection of the cornea itfelf, a cafe which
will be defcribed in its proper place. See Staphyloma.

The prolapfns of the iris is p.-oduced by fu h wounds and
ulcers of the cornea as penetrate the anterior chamber of the
aqueous humour, and fometimes by blows, which have been
fo violent as to rupture the tranfparent membrane invelling
the fore-part of the eye. If the lips of a wound of the cor-
nea (as, for inftance, thofe of the iiicifion practifcd in the
extraction of the c.ataraft, or in opening an hypopium) arc
not immediately put into reciprocal contact, fo as to keep
the aqueous hu:riour from running out of the anterior cham-
ber, as fail as it is fecreted, the iris, drawn by the current
of this fluid towards the wound in the cornea, is urged be-
tween the lips of the iiiciiion, and, becoming elongated,
projects upon the preceding membrane in the form of a
fmall tumour. The fame accident happens, when the globe
of the eye receives a blow, or is too much compreffed with
a bandage, while a difunited wound of the- cornea exifts.
In fuch a cafe, likewifc, the prolapfus of the iris might be
produced by a violent fpafm of tlie mufcles of the eye, ex-
ceffive and long continued voiniting, or repeated coughing,
A prolapfus of the iris arifes even more frequently from
ulcers which extend through the cornea, than trom wounds
of that membrane ; and Scarpa alhgns as a reafon for this
fact, the lofs of fubllaiice always attending the former cafes.
The little fwelling mull of courfe be of tl.e fame colour as
the iris, namely, brown or grey ; and its bafe is furrounded
by a fmall opaque circle, formed by the cornea that has been
for fome time uLerated or divided.

U feldotn happens that more than one prolapfus of the
iris prefents itfelf in the fame eye, fince it does not often
occur that the cornea is ulccraied or wounded in more than
one place. However, we nuiil not imagine that the iris is
never protruded in feveral places at once ; Scarpa has feen
three diftinct procidentix upon the fame cornea, in confc-
quence of three feparate ulcers of that membrane.

Small as the tKmour may be, (and, indeed, it is fome-
times not larger than a fly's head,) it is neverthelefs apt to
give rife to very feverc (ymptoms. Nor are wc to wonder
at this circumltance, as the iris is fupplied with numerous
blood-velTcls and nervous filaments ; and that part of it
which is protruded mull fuft'er excelTive irritation, as well
from the friction of the eye-lids, as from the aitioii of the
air, tears, and other matter upon it. Cefides, it is a fa£t,
that the pnyecting piece of the iris inflames and fwells foon
3 H after

R I S,

after its protnifion, and coiifeqiiciitly it fufTors a great deal
more from the comprcflion and irritation. The patient at
firft complains of a pain like that of a thorn in the eye, and
)3 alfo afterwards affliflcd with an iineafy fcnfation of tight-
i!cis or conllrirtioii of tiie organ. To thofc complaints are
foon added an inflaintnation of the conjnndtiva and eye-lids,
a difch?.r;j;e of irritating tears, and an inability to hear the
light. I'he protruded piece of the iris iinavcidaiily drags
towards it the reft of this membrane ; and hence the fliape of
tiie pupil is changed from round to oval, and its fituation
undergoes an approximation to the wound or ulcer, through
which the prolapfus of the iris has taken place.

When the difeafe has prevailed a confiderable time, the
intenfity of tlie pain, inflammation, and other fyinptoms, is
fometimes leflened, inllead of incrcafed. Scarpa informs us
of fuch an example in a man, fifty years of age, -.vho for
ten weeks had liad a prolapfus of the iris twice as large as a
millet-feed. Tl;e patient bore the difeafe with the utmoft
indifference, being merely troubled with a flight chronic
rcdncfs of the cou'iundliva, and a difficulty in moving the
eye ball with freedom. The little tumour felt to the finger
hard, and almoft callous.

In the treatment of this difeafe, fomc praftitioners have
recommended pulhing the iris back again into its natural
fituation, by means of a whalc-bone probe ; and, in cafe of
this being found difficult of accomphiliment, they have ad-
vifed the wound or ulcer of the cornea to be dilated as far as
ncccffary, in the fame manner as the Ihifture of a ftran-
gulatcd hernia is divided, for the purpofe of enabling the
furgeon to reduce the protruded bowels. Others have
fuggefted, irritating the projedting portion of the iris, in
order to make it contraft and return into its proper place
again ; and, with the fame intentipn, it has been propofcd
to expofe the eye fuddenly to a very vivid light. The ex-
perienced and judicious Scarpa, however, fets down all ihefe
methods as inefTeftual, if not dangerous ; for, fays he, ad-
mitting that we could, in any of llicfe ways, replace the
iris, without lacerating or hurting it, ilill there would con-
tinue in the wound or ulcer of the cornea an opening,
through which tlie aqueous humour would efcape^ and carry
out with it again a fold of the iris.

It cannot be denied that a prolapfus of the iris is a mod
unpleafant kind of accident ; but yet, as we are utterly un-
poflefled of any means whereby we can ftop the efcape of
the aqueous humour through certain wounds and ulcers of
the cornea, we ought, according to Scarpa, to coniider the
prolapfus of the iris a beneficial occurrence, and preventive
of the total deflruftion of the eye, inafmucli as tiie pro-
truded fold of this membrane, adling like a plug, prevents
the entire lofs of the aqueous humour, which foon coUefts
again in the anterior chamber, and liinders a further pro-
trufion of the iris, by feparating this membrane from the
cornea, and re-eftabliiliing the equilibrium between it and
the other humours of the eye. Hence Scarpa reprobates
the foregoing plans as ufelefs and dangerous.

The principles laid down by this eminent furgcou tend to
eftablilh two chief indications, in cafes of recent prolapfus
of the iris : one is to diminiili the extreme fcniibility of the
piece of the iris projefting out of the cornea ; the other is to
effcft a gradual deftruftion of the protruded portion of the
iris, to fuch a depth as will render the wound or ulcer
capable of healing, but not fo deeply as to break the adhe-
fion which the iris lias contracted to the bottom of the
lircach in the cornea.

Both thofc indication! may be fulfilled by touching the
projcfting part of the iris with tho anlimonium iruriatuin,
or, witb what si ftill preferable, the argcntum lutcatum.

An affiftant, Handing behind the patient's Lead, is to keep \
the upper eye-lid raifed with Peilier's elevator ; and the pa- J
tient is to hold his eye as ileady as poffible, by fixing it on i
one objeCl. While the affillant raifes the upper eye-lid, Jthe j
furgeon is to deprefs the lower one with the index and middle
fingers of liis left hand, and with his right touch the pro-
truded piece of the ii-is with the argentum nitratum, cut in
the ihape of a crayon. The cauftic fliould be preficd upon
the centre of the little tumour, fo as to form an cfchar of
tlie proper depth. The pain fufFered at this inilant is ex-
ceedingly fevere ; but it quickly fubfides, as foon as the eye |
has been bathed with warm milk. Tlie cauftic expeditioufly |
deftroys the fenfibility of the protruded part of the iris,
and the efchar prevents the effects of the friflion of tlie eye-
lids, and hinders tie air and tears from caufing any irrita-
tion of the projecting portion of that membrane. Hence
the pricking and painful tenfion, previoufly felt in the eye, . ■
are diminiftied ; as likewife are the ophthalmy and fecretion' i
of fcalding tears.

The benefit thus produced lafts only as long as the efcliar
continues adherent to the tumour formed by the iris. Im-
mediately the flough is detached, all the annoying complaints
again come on, though in a fomewhat mitigated degree, in
confequence of the projecling part of the iris not being quite
fo prominent as it was before the cauftic was applied. The
efchar frequently feparatcs on the fecond or third day : but
whenever it happens, the painful fymptoms recur ; and the
fuigeon"s duty is to ufe the argentum nitratum again with-
out delay. The application is in this way to be repeated,
until the protruded part of the iris is deftroyed fo deeply,
that it can no longer hinder the wound or ulcer of the cornea
from healing.

The employment of the argentum nitratum mull not be
continued, after the prolapfus of the iris Las been fuf&ciently
depreffed ; as we learn from Scarpa, that fuch a plan would
bring on all the pain and inflammation again in an aggravated
form. When the little tumour has been levelled as much as
the indication requires, the caullic is not to be applied
again ; and the furgeon is fimply to introduce between the
eye and eye-Lds a collyrium, containing fulphate of zinc
and mucilage of quincc-fecds, and afterwards infimiate a
fmall quantity of the following ointment under the eye-liJs>
every morning and evening ;
I^ Adipis fuilhe 56.
Tutis ptt.

Bol. Armen. fubtilidimc pulv. a a 3i>
Calcis hydrarg. alb. Jj. Mifce.

This ointment mufl be at fii'fl weakened witli twice or
thrice its quantity of lard.

When the foregoing applications are not too ftimulating,
the ulcer is gradually diminiftied, and generally quite healed
in about a fortnight.

As the union, which takes place in the courfe of the treat-
ment, between the protruded piece of the iris and the internal
edges of the wound, or ulcer, of the cornea, always con-
tinues after the cure is cotripleteJ, the pupil muft for ever re-
main of an oval fliapc, and a little inclined towards the ci-
catrix ir. the cornea. This muil happen even when the
treatment L;u been as fuccefsful as poffible. It is pleafing,
Lowevcr, to learn from the experienced Scarpa, tLat fuch
alteration in the fituation and pofitionof the pupil caufes little
or no diminution of the power of feeing the mcift minute
objeds, and occafions much lefs impairment of the fight
than might be fuppofed, unlefs it unfortunately happen
that the fear in the cornea is in the middle of it. 15e-
fidts, we are alfo allured by the faiuc dillinguifbed furgeon,

that

IRIS.

tliat the po\rcr of dirccrniiig things is the L-fs injured, inaf-
much as the pupil, which was in the beginning of the dif-
eafc narrow and oblong, becomes afterwards more capaci-
ous. This faft is Hkcwife confirmed by Richtcr in his Obf.
Chir. fafcicul. i. p. So.

Scarpa has found the preceding treatment more fuccefsful
than any other, not excepting tlie method of cutting off
tlie protruded part of the iris with a pair of fciffors. This
lall plan, he thinks, is only advantageous when the iris is
ilrongly adherent to the internal lips of the wound or ulcer
of the cornea, or when the prolapfus has exided a long
while, and the projcfting portion of the iris has become in-
durated and callous, while its bafe, conftrided by the edges
of the wound, or ulcer of the cornea, not only adheres to
them, but has put on the appeanince of a kind of pedicle.
Scarpa, indeed, has fecn one inllance, where the little tu-
' mour fell off of itfelf in confequence of the comprefhou made
upon its neck by the edges of the ulcer of the cornea.
Inis, Imp;rforate. See Pupil, Clofun of.
Ibis, in Botany, ipi,- of the ancient Greeks, fo named
from the various, and fomewhat concentric, hues of the
flower, which give an idea of the rainbow. Tlie modern
Greeks call it x,-iior, and the Txxr'ks fufsn, both which words
are fynonymous with our Illy, and the French lis, or J!.'ur-de-
lis— Linn. Gen. 27. Schreb. 36. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. i. 224.
Mart. Mill. Diet. V. 2. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. i. 1 15.
Sm. Fl. Brit. 41. .Tuff. 57. Lamarck. lUullr. t. 33. G.rrtn.
t. IJ. — Clafs and order, Trlandria Monogyn'ta. Nat. Ord.
Enfate, Linn. Irides, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cal. Spathas of two valves, feparating the
flowers, permanent. Cor. in fix deep fegments, united into
a tube by their narrow bafes ; each oblong, obtufe ; the
three outermoft reflefted, three inner erect and moft acute.
Slam. Filaments three, awl-fliaped, lying on the reflexed
fegments of the corolla, and not half fo long ; anthers
vertical, oblong, ftraight, deprefTed. Fj/l. Germen inferior,
obljvg ; ftyle fimple, clofely enfolded by the tube of the
corc4ia ; ftigmas three, each with a petal-like, dilated, ob-
long appendage, keeled on the infide, furrowed at the outer,
lying over each ftamen, two-lipped, the lower lip fmall and
notched, upper larger, cloven, flightly reflexed. PerU.
Capfule oblong, angular, of three cells and three valves.
Scetls fevcral, large, more or lefs comprefied and angular.

EfT. Ch. Corolla in fix deep fegments, alternately re-
flexed, fuperior. Stigmas with a petal-like two-lipped ap-
pendage.

Obf. Botanifls have differed about the really efficient part
of the ftigmas of the Iris. The whole pctal-hke expanlion
was fuppofed by Linnxus and his followers to be the adlual
ftigma, or at leaft they had no precife idea of the exclulive
action of any particular part. The late Abbe Cavanilles
conceived the pollen to be received into a tubular opening
between the bafe of each ilamen and the extremity of the
ilyle, and there to perform its office. Kolreuter and
Sprengel, with much more probability, believe the upper or
inner furfacs of the fn.all lower lip of the petal-hke expan-
fion, which is glandular in that part, to be the real fligma,
and the latter has curioufly explained the mode in which bees
convey the pollen to this fpot. See Sims and Konig's An-
nals of Botany, v. 1.412. The ilignia of feveral fpecies
of Moraa comes very near that of Iris, and there has al-
ways been fome ambiguity between thefe two genera, which
we fhall endeavour to remove vv'hon we come to Mi)n.T;.\.

Iris is a large and very natural genus. Tournefort fub-
divided it into feveral by the roots, which in fome fpecies
are tuberous^ in others bulbous. Some moreover have tlie

upper furface of the reflexed fegments of the corolla fmooth,
wliilll in others tint part is beautifully bearded.

In the Specii's Plaiitanim of Linnjeus are 22 fpecies ; in
Syft. V"eg. ed. 14. twice that number, Thunberg, who
wrote a diifertation on this genus, having greatly augmented
it. Pallas difcovered many new fpecies in his Siberian tra-
vels. Willdenov.' has 54 in ail. Mr. Ker diilers from thj
latter in the arrangement of many of them, eveii Lir.niean
ones, which he removes to Morxa, and he is fuliowtd i:;;.
plicitly by Mr. Dryander in the new edition of the Horlus
Ketvenfis. The whole are divided into four fettions.

* Root iLick, /'Aid, horizontal. Fh-zu rs bcmdicfi.

Of this the common Englifh /. Pjaidacorus, Engl. Lot.

t. 57.S, lefs accurately figured in Curt. Lond. fafc. 3. t. 4,

is an example. It grows in watery places, flowering iii July,

and like every known Iris is perennial. The_y?a':y«- is bright

. yellow, ilreaked with darker lines.

* * Root thicJ:, foUd, horizontal. Flo'wers leardnl.

To this feftion belong many of our garden kinds, as /.
fiifiana. Curt. Mag. t. 91, or Cha'cedonian Iris, fo remark-
able for its large flower, elegantly pencilled with black : /.
cri/lijta, Sm. Spicil. t. 13, found in America : as well as the
well-known Isjariegcifa, famhucina, jlorcntma, and gcrmanica,
natives of the Ibuth of Europe.

* * * Root hiobby. Flowers beardkfs.

This contains only /. tuherofa, V.. Grxc. Sibth. t. 41,
Curt. Mag. t. 531, known by its quadrangular leaves a:-id
Angularly dark flower.

* « * * Root bulbous. Flowers beardkfs.

Here are found the pretty /. Xiphium, Curt. Lond.
t. 6S6, which decorates many a cottage garden with its fwcec
blue and yellow bloffoms : /. p.vfica. Curt. Mag. t. i, more
delicately coloured : and, to fome perfons, exquifitely
fcented, though to others it is fcentlefs ; and /. Sifyrinchium,
Fl. Grac. Sibth. t. 42. Redout. Liliac. t. 29. The laft is
referred by Mr. Ker to l^Ionca.

Iri.s, in Gardening, contains plants of the fibrous, tuberofc,
and bulbous.rooted, flowery, herbaceous, ;;eicir.i.!l kiicls ;
of which the fpecies cultivated are very r ■■':(•.

following are fome of the principal ; tl 1. 1-

mila) ; the Chalcedonian iris (I.fufiana) ; ^f,-;

(I. florentina) ; the twi'ce-flowering iris . 1. I.-.(!-)r,.j ; tiv:
leaflefs iris (I. aphylla) ; the variegated iris (I. variegatal ;
the German iris (I. germanica) ; the clder-fcented iris (J.
fambucina) ; the brown-flowered iris (I. fqnalons) ; the
crefled iris (I. criilata) ; the trilid-petalled iris (,1. trieuf-
pis) ; the bulbous-rooted iris (I. xiphiumi ; the common
yellow, or water-iris (I. pfeud-acorus) ; tlie flinking iris (I.
fcetidiffima) ; the Virginian iris (I. virginica) ; tlie various-
coloured iris (I. verficolor) ; the pale-yellow iris (I. ochro-
linea) ; the fpring iris (I. verna) ; the Perfian iris (I. per-
lica) ; the grafs-leaved iris ( I. graminea) ; the fpurious iris
(I. fpuria) ; the Siberian iris (I.fibirica); the Martiiiico
iris (I. marlinicenfis) ; the peacock iris (I. puvonia) ; and
the fnake's-head ii-is (l. tuberofa ).

The firll of thefe forts has varieties with white flo^vrs ;
with flraw-coloured flowers ; with pale-blue flowers ; wi;!j
blulh-coloured flowers ; with yellow variable flowers ; and
with blue variable flowers.

The ninth fort has likewife varieties with bhie ftaadan's
and purple falls ; with pale-purple flandards ; with whi>c
ftandards ; and with a fmaller flower.

The eleventh fpecies alfo varies greatly in the fhapc of the
larger petals, a,=! well as in the colours, as blue, purp4e, yel-
low, white, and fpotted.

And the twelfth fort furnifhcs varieties with blue flowers ;
with violet-coloured flowers ; with white flowers ; with pur- •
5H2 pic

1 R I

pie flowers ; with yellow Sowers ; wfth blue ftandard pe-
tals and white falls ; witli blue ftandards and vcllow falls ;
with ftriped iiowers ; the broad-leaved with blue flowers ;
the broad-leaved purple ilowcred ; the fweet-lcented blue
flowered ; the fweet-fcented purple flowered, witli varie-
gated frteet-fceiited flowers, and tlic double flowered.

The nineteenth fort, or Perfian iris, is greatly eileemed
for the beauty and extreme fweetnefs of its flowers, as well as
for its early appearance in the fpring, being generally in per-
fection in February or the beginning of the following month,
according to the llate of the feafou. And Martyu notices
that, " like the hyacinth and narcifliis, it will blow within
doors in a water-glafs, but llronger in a fmail pot of fand,
or fandy loam, and tliat a few flowers will fcent a whole
apartment."

Method of CuUur;. — Moft of the forts may be readily in-
creafed by parting the roots, or feparating the o!F-fets from
the bulbs, and planting them out in the fituations where
they are to flower ; the fn-it fort in the autumn, or very
early in the fpring, and thi latter in the clofe of fiimmer,
when the loaves decay, managing them in the fame manner
as other bulbs'. As they increafe and fpread rapidly in their
roots, tliey fhould be divided and taken off" every two or
three years.

New varieties of the different forts may be raifed from
feed, by fowing it in the autumn in a bed of light fandy
mould. The plants come uj) in the following fpring, and in
the autumn may be tranfpLuited wh.ere they are to grow.
They .flower a year or two afterwards in this climate.
• The bulbous-rooted forts fncceed bell in fuch foils as are
of the light, fandy, loamy kind ; but will fucceed in any
that are dry.

The lall fort anfwers mo.1 perfe£l!y in fuch afpefts as are
towards the ejft, the roots being prevented from going too
deep in the ground.

As the fecond fort is liable to be injured by fevere winter.'?,
a few fliould be planted in pots to have proteftion. This
fort is well fuited for forcing, in houfes for the purpofe.

When planted in the open ground, it requires a rather
dry foil and fituation to fucceed in a proper manner.

The Cape forts fhould be retained in the dry flove, and be
propagated and managed in the fame manner as other bul-
bous-rooted plants of the fame kind.

All the forts are proper for affording variety in the bor-
ders, chimps, and other parts of p'eafure grounds ; and
fome of the more tender forts among potted plants of fimilar
growth and habits.

Iris, in the Mattna Mcdka. The Jr'ts Jlarentlnn, Flo-
rentine orris, or iris, is a native of Italy, and flowers in
June ; it was cultivated in England by Gerard in 1596, and
is now conllantly propagated by the florills ; but the roots
wf the orris produced in 'his country have neither the odour,
nor the other qualities of thofe of the warmer climates ; fo
that for medicinal ufe they arc commonly imported from Leg-
horn. In its recent flate, the root is extremely acrid, and
when chewed, excites a pungent heat in the mouth, of feve-
ral hours' duration. When dried, this acrimony is almoft
wholly diflipated. Tiip ta'le is flightly bi-.tcr, and the fmell
is agreeable, approaching to that of violets. No effential
oil has been hitherto obtained from this root ; but fpirituous
tin£lure.5 of it contain more of its virtues than watery infu-
fioiis. The frefli root is a powerful cathartic, and for this
purpofe its juice has been employed in the dofe of a dram and
upwards in dropfies. It is now chiefly ufed in its dry ftale,
and rank' d is a pcftoral or expeftorant ; though there is no
evkkace of its expeftorant powers ; and therefore it is now

I R I

confidercd as valuable 0!ily for the pleafantnefs of the per-
fume, and the flavour which it communicates.

The Ills pfirl-acorus, palujlris, or pahflris Inter,, Acarjs
adulterimis, yellow water-flag, or yellov.- water flower-de-
luce, is common in marflies, and on thcbruiksof rivers, and
rendered very confpicuous by its large yellow flowers, which
appear in the beginning of July. It had formerly a place
in the Lond. Pharni. under the name of " Gladio'us luteu?."
The root has no fmell, but an acrid fliyptic taite, and its
juice, fnuffed up the Boftrils, produces a burning heat in the
nofe and mouth, accompanied with a copious dlfcharge from
thefe organs ; and hence it is recommended both as an err-
hine and fialagogiie. This root is fuch a powerful aflringent,
that it has been ufed inlhead of galls in the making of ink,
particularly in Scotland. For this pui-pofe the common
people cut fome of the roots into thin jliLC?, and either boil
or infufe them in water till the liquor is highly tinged whh
blue ; they then pour it clear off : and putting into it the
blade of a knife, or any other piece of iron, they rub it hard
with a rough white pebble, common there, and by degrees
the hquor becomes black : they continue rubbing it till it is as
deep a black as they require, and it is a tolerable good ink.
(Phil. Tranf. N^ 117.) This root has alfo been ufed for
the purpofe of dyeing black ; and from this quality it has
been fdccefsftilly employed as a medicine for the cure of
diarrhoeas. When given with this intention, the root
is to be well dried ; for the frefli root and its juice
are ftrcngly cathartic, infomuch that eighty drops of
the latter produced repeated evacuations, after jalap,
gamboge, &c. had failed, and by continuing its ufe in
an increafed dofe, it cured an inveterate dropfy. He:ice
Bergius favs, " virtus recent, hydragoga, pungens : Ji^-
cat. adflringens." The exprefied juice is likewife laid
to be an ufeful apphcation to ferpi:;inous eruptions
and fcrophulous tumours. (Woodv. Med. Bot.) The
root of this plant is recommended by Brookes as a remedy
for the tooth-ache.

lui.s, Rahtbow, in Phyfiohgy. The word is Greek, ifr?, fup-
pofed by fome t« be derived from uiu, J fpcak, I tell, as beii g
a meteor, that is fuppofcd to foretel, or rather to declare,
rain. See Rainbow.

Ini.s is alio applied to thofe changeable colours which
fometimea appear in the glafles of telefcopes, microfcopes,
i<c. fo called from their fimiiitude to a rainbow. The fame
appellation is alfo given to that coloured fpeclrimi, which a
triangular prifmatic glafs wi 1 projeft on a wail, when placed
at a due angle in the fun-beams.

Iris is aUo a name given by fome authors to a peculiar fpe-
cies of fprig cry Hal, remarkable for its giving the rainbow
colours in refleftion. This, however, being a property more
or lefs found in all the kinds of fprig cryftal, and thefe much
refembling one another, it became applied to fprig cryftal in
general ; and iris, inllead of being the name of a peculiar
fpecies, was underllood as a fynonymous terra for common
cryflal.

I HIS Marina, the Sea-ralniow. This elegant appearance
is generally feen after a violent llorm, in which the fea-water
has been in vaft emotions. The celeflial rainbov/ has great
advantage over the marine one in thebrightnefsand variety of
the colours, and in their dillinftnets one from the other ; for
in the fea-rainbow there are fcarcely any other colours than a
duflcy yellow on the part towards the fun, and a pale green
on the oppofite fide. The other colours are not fo bright or
diilinft as to be well determined, but the fea-rair.bows are
more frequent and more numerous than the others. It is not
uncommon to fee twenty or thirty of them at a time at noon-
day. Obferv. fur VAfss, p. 292,

Ihis

I R O

This Plants, Pcinf-id, xwNalural Hijlory. In Dr. Grew's
Catalogue of the Rarities of Grediam College, p. 274, he
Oieiitions a petrified iris-root ; a iloiie fomewhat flat, but ra-
diated frop.i the central pitli, the polilhed end of which, when
wetted, (hewed thcfe radiations very fine : this extraneous
foffil probably belonged to the coralline tribe, ir.ftead of being
a rcoi. In Dr. Leigh's account of tiie fodil plants, found
in the coal-pits at Burnley in Lancalhire, he mentions iris :
long narrow leaves, refembliiig thofe of flags, and fo called
in geuer«l, are common in coal ftrata ; thcfe kinds of leaves
in the grit-ftone quairics in DerbyOiire are often called
fwords, iVom the rcfemblance of their impreflions in the ilone
to the fiieatli of a iword.

IRISH Sea, in Geography, the name of that part of
the Atlantic ocean, which is between the coalls of Ireland
and Great Britain.

Irish Terms. See Terms.

IRKINEEVA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Toboiflv ; 160 miles E.N.E. of Enifeilk.
N. lat. 5S 50'. E. long. 96 .

IRKUTSK, a town of Ruffia, and capital of a go-
vernment, to which it gives name, on the Angara, near the
lake Baikal, the fee of a Greek archbiiliop, and a place of
confiderable commerce ; the caravans which trade to China
paffing through it. N. lat. ^t/ 4'. E. long. 95°.

IRKUrSKOT, a governmeMt of Ruffia, containing all
that pa;t of Siberia which lies beyond the 107th degree of
eaft longitude ; bounded on the N. by the Frozen fea,
on the E. by the N. Pacific ocean, on the S. by Chiiiefe
Tartary, and on the W. by the governments of Kolivan and
Toboidv. It is the mod extenfive, but lead populous of a'l
the Ruffian governments, and is divided into the four pro-
vinces of Irkutflt, Nertchinft:, Yakutlk, and Ochotfe, fo
called from the four principal towns.

IRMA-HiSSAR, a town of A.latic Turkey, in Nato-
lia ; 40 miles S.E. of Callamena.

IRNEE, a town of Hiudooflan, in the circar of Mahur ;
38 ir.iles N. of Mahur.

IRNERIUS, in Biography, fometimes called Wernerius,
a celebrated jurid of the twelfth century, was probably born
at Bologn;;. Ke firft taught philofophy in that city, and
acquired much diflintlion by being the firft who opened a
fchool for leisures in the Roman law in Italy, after is in-
terruption by the invafionsof the barbarous nations. He alfo
com.pofed gloffes upon the Roman law, not only upon the
Code and Inftitutions, but upon the Digeft. lie obtained
great reputation by his labours ; and the nam.e of Werne-
rius, in a plea of the couiuefs Matilda, in 1113, itands
before that of any other of the lawyers. The fame cir-
cumlance is found in the pleas of the emperor Henry IV.
from the year II 16 to 1118, which proves that he attend-
ed the court of that monarch m his profeflional capaci-
ty. In 1 118 he accompa ied Henry to Rome, where
he was em^^loycd to perfuade the Romans to the ekftion
of the anti-pope Burdin. He died about the year IT50;
and is faid to have introduced the degree of dodlor into
the univerfities. Bayle.

IROM, E'if-n, Germ. Fer, Fr. Farum, Lat. Fcrro,
Ital. Jcren, Swvd Jernet, Dan. Vas, Hur'g. Hierro, Span.
Ja!az9, Rufl". Firro, Port Z^n^o, Gr. 7nD (Bharzel,
or Varxel), Heb. Mars, Alchem.

The ufe of this metal is of very hijh antiquity, though
no* fo remote, there is reafon to believe, as that of either
■god, filver, or copper. The inferior brilliancy of its colour
may, perhaps, inlomc degree, account for this circumllancc ;

I R O

as well as the gre.iter /kill required to obtain it from its ores,,
and convert it to the purpofes of art. It is mentioned fre-
quently in the pcntateuch ; and was, in the time of the cele-
brated writer of that hiilory, employed for the fabricatioa
of fwords, knives, and various other (harp-edged iullru-
ments. We may form fomc eflimate of the value that was
then attached to it, from an exprefiion in the eighth chapter
of Deuteronomy, where Mofcs tells the Ifraclitcs, in his
dcfcriplive eulogy oftl'.c Land of Promife, that it is "aland
whofe itones are iron, and out of whofe hills" they in-ay
" dig brafs." A circrmilance, illuftrative of the fame faft,
at a later date, is furniilied about 400 years fubfequeiit to
that period, when Aciiilles propofed a ball of iron as one of
the prizes to be diilrJbuted to the vidors at the games infti-
tuted in honour of Patroclus. [Vtuc'>:, t.) The art of
working it appears, in the courfe of a few fucceeding cen-
turies, to have arrived at confiderable perfection ; for, accord-
ing to the information of Herodotus (Clioxxv.), a faucer
of the metal, very curioufly iiilayed, was prefeuted by
Aly attes, king of Lydia, to the Delphic oracle, which, he
fays, " is of furprifing workmanlhip, and as worthy of ob-
fervation as any of the offerings preferved at Delphi." The
durability of iron, and its ii^cil'penfible affillance in the pre-
paration of every other metal, make it one of the moil va-
luable polFeffions that has been beq:eathed to the ufe of civi-
lized man. " Without it," obferves Fourcroy, "agricul-
ture could uQt have exiiled, nor could the plough have
rendered the earth fertile. The philofopher, while he
iludies the progreis of the human underilanding, and com-
pares the fortune and Rate of the difl^^rent nations edabliflied
en various portions of tlie Curface of the globe, will remark,
that their iron-works feem, iii fome meafure, to be propor-
tioned to their intelligence, to the advancement of reafon
amongft them, and the degree of perfeftion to wliieh the
arts have arrived. When we ccnfider it in this point of view,
as the agent by which men, in the variety of its ufes, and the
numerous wants it fuppl,c;s, acxpure enjoyments whicli would
be unknown to them if tliey did not polieis thefc produds of
their induftry, iron mull fingularly contribute to extend their
ideas, to multiply their knowledge, and to conduft their
fpirit towards that perfeftibility, which nature has given no
lefs, as the charaiter of the human fpecies, than as the
fource of all the adv.-mtages it can enjoy." Syft. vol. 6.

Iron is a malleable and dudliie metal, of a blueifli-white to-
lour ; is fufceptible of a very high polifli, and of the fpcci-
fic gravity, according to the tables of Mufchenbroeck, Swe-
denburg, and Bridon, of from 7.600 to 7.895, and even
3.166. It is foluble in moll acids, and precipitable from its
combination with them, by various re-agents, which will be
hereafter pointed out. With tiic Pruflic acid it forms that
beautiful pigment known in commerce, and the arts, by the
name of PruJJlan blue ; and in a variety of other ways, con-
ftitutes tiie bafisof many valuable preparations. The conv
biiiations under which it is exhibited to us in nature are de-
tailed in the foilowmg leClion.

§ I. Ores of Ir or...

Sp. 1. Natiwe iron. Gcdiegcn-eifai. Fernallf. Ferrum 71a-
tivum.

Its colour is fteel-grey, paffing to filver-white. Occurs
only in a ramofe form ; the mattes alluded to by Brochant
and others being now confidered of meteoric trigin. Surface
glillening. Internally it is intermcd ate between glitlening
and glimmering ; and its liillre mctalli c. Frailurc hackly.
It is rather foft, is completely malleable, and flexible with-
out being elaiUc. Sp. gr. 7.8,

A fpe.

IRON,

Saxony,

A fpccimen from a mine near IKanudorf,
yielded, according to Klaproth,

Iron (ji.y
Lead 6.0
Copper I.J

The varieties w'liicli contain nickel are meteoric.

It is found in detached maffes, «hich are ufually covered
with an oxyd of a brownifii colour.

The places of its occurrence are Kamfdorf and Eiben-
ftock, in Saxony ; Oulle, near Grenoble, in France ; and
fomc' others.

Sp. 2. Irot: Pyrites. Schtvefelklcs. La Pyr'tL- Siilfu-
retife. Fmum Mineralifatum Pyrites.

This very abundant mineral is divided by Werner into
five fiibfpecies, common, radiated, capillary, hepatic, and
cellular.

S'.ibfp. I. Common Pyrites. — :Colour bronze-yellow, pac-
ing foinetimes to gold-yellow. Occurs maffive and dilFe-
minated. It is very frequently alfo cryilallized. Its forms
are the cube, either perfedl or truncated, the ofiahedron,
dodecahedron, and fometimes, thougli very rarely, the icofa-
hedron. The cryftals are in general fmall ; except the cube,
which is middle-fized. Their furface is either fmooth or
ftreaked, and varies from glimmering to fplendent. Inter-
nally it is fliining or gliftening ; and 'its luflre metaHic.
Fraclure even ; fometimes conchoidal. It is hard, brittle,
rather eafily frangible, and heavy, Sp. gr. -from 4.600 to
4.831.

Expofed to the blow-pipe, rt exhales a ftrong odour of
fulphiir, and burns with a blueiAi flame. It afterwards
pafies into a globule, oljedient to the magnet, of a brownifh
colour ; and treated with glafs of borax, communicates to
It a tint of a dark dirty green. It appears to be «ompofed
of about 52.5' fulphur, and 47.5 iron.

"Its occurrence is aluioft uuiverfal, both with reference to
geographic arrangement, and the mineral formations in which
it is prefented.

Sufefp. 2. RaSiated Pyrites. — Colour bronze-yellov,', of a
paler hue than the preceding ; pafling fometimes to brafs-
yellow. Surface tarniflied. Is found maffive and reniform,
alfo uniform, globular, and cryftalli/.ed. The (hape of its
cry Hals is cubic, and oGlahedral -, the latter being fometimes
truncated on the angles. The external luftre varies between
fplendent and gliftening. Internally it is gliftening and
glimmering. Fradlure ufnally radiated ; fometimes uneven
and fibrous. Fragments uniform. Occurs in coarfe and
large-grained diftincl concretions, alfo lamellated and co-
lumnar. It is hard, brittle, very eafdy frangible, and heavy,
but lefs fo than the foregoing fubfpecies. Emits a ful-
phureous odour when ftruck, or rubbed. Sj>. gr. from 4.698
to 4--7>-

Before tlie blow-pipe it exhibits the fame appearances as
common pyrites, and is conftituted of about 54 parts of ful-
phur, and 46 of iron.

It is confiderably rarer than tlie preceding, and is found
in veins, particularly thofe which contain lead or filver.

The places of its occurrence are, amongft others, Corn-
wall and Derbyfhire, in England; Arendal, in Norway ;
and K\ various diftric^s of Suabia, Saxony, and Bohemia.

Subfp. 3. CdpilL'.ry Pyrites -Colour bronze-yellow, in-
clining more or lefs to fteel-grcy. Occurs in very firie ca|)il-
lary cryllals. Luftre (hining or gliftening ; metallic. Brit-
tle, and in a fmall degree flexible. The fmallnefs of its

cryftals preveiTts a more particular account being given .j\
its character.

Its chemical properties are the fame as thofe of common
pyrites.

It is never met with but in very fmall quantity, and is the
moft rare of all the varieties of pyritic iron. It is moft:
ufually accompanied with quartz, lead-glance, or galena, and
fluor and calcareous fpar.

Is found at Annaberg, Schneeberg, and Johanngeorgen-
ftadt,in Saxony ^ at Andrcafoerg, in the Hartz ; and other
pIsces on the continent of Europe. The capillary pyrites,
ajcording to Klaproth's analyfis, is net 'an iron-ore, but
nickel, mixed with a fmall portion of cobalt and arfenic.

Subfp. 4. Hepatic Pyrites. — Its colour is intermediate
between bronze-yellow and Reel-grey, paffing fometimes en- "
tirely to the latter. On expofure, the frefli fra£lure changts
to a brown. It is found maftrve, and under a variety of
other forms, as ftaladitic, cellular, &c. alfo cryftaUized.
The iliape of its cryftalline arrangement is prifmatic, pyra-
midal, and tabular, each with fix fides. Lullre glimmering,
inclining to gliftemng ; metallic. Frafture even, pafling fome-
times to uneven and imperfectly conchoidal. Fragments in-
detcmunate, {liarp-edged. Hard, rather incliukig to foft,
brittle, eafily frangible, and heavy.

This fubfpecies is faid to contain arfenic. It decompofes
very eafily on expofure to air, which renders it very difficult
to be retained in mineralogical collections.

It occurs only in veins, and in thofe principally which
contain red filver ore, galena, blende, common pyrites, and
fparry iron-ftone. The earthy minerals that acccompany it
.are, for the moft part, quartz, fulphat of baryt, and calcare-
ous and iluor fpar.

It is found in Uerbyfliire ; at Joachimfthal in Bohemia ;
Annaberg and Freyberg in Saxony ; and in various parts of
Sweden, Norway, and Siberia.

Subfp. J. Cellular Pyrites. — Colour bronze-yellow, a
good deal inclining to- fteel-grey. Tariiifhes by expofure,
and then becomes of a grey tint. Occurs maffive ; but its
moft common appearance is cellular. Cells drufy on the
furface. Luftre gliftening. Frafture conchoidal. Frag-
ments fliarp-edged, indeterminate. Brittle, and in a flight
degree flexible.

Its occurrence is in veins, where it is accompanied, accord-
ing to the ftatement of profeflbr Jamiefon, with hepatic and
common pyrites, lead-glance, fparry iron-ftone, nickel,
iron-ochre, brown-fpar, heavy-fpar, fluor-fpar, and quartz.

Is found at Johanngeorgenftadt, in the eleftorate of
Saxony.

Sp. 3. Magnetic Pyrites. Ma^netlics. La Pyrite nutg'
netique. Ferruin mineralifatum vingneticopyritaceum.

Colour copper-red, inclining much to bronze-yellow, and
even to pinchbeck-brown. Tarnifties on expofure, becom-
ing then brown. Occurs maffive and dilTeminated : has
never been found under any other form. Internal luftre
gliftening, or (liining ; metallic. Fraclure uneven, and fome--
times imperfedly conchoidal : whea the latter, it has a
luftre bordering on fplendent. Fragments indeterminate,
rather blunt-edged. Intermediate between hard and femi-
hard. It is brittle, eafily frangible, and very heavy. Is
attrafted by the magnet. Sp. gr. 4.J16.

Treated by the blow-pipe, it emits a flight fulphureous
odour, and melts with great facility into a greyifh-black
globule, which is attratted by the magnet, and colours bo-
rax black. It is compofcd of 36.5 fulphur, and 63.5 iron. •

It occurs only in the clafs of rocks denominated primi-
tive J and there only in beds. The minerals which ufually

accompany

IRON.

accompany it are galena, magnetic iron-ftone, arfenical
pyrites and tin Hone ; with alfo quartz, garnet, ftrahlllein,
Ijonibiendo, &c.

Its geograpliic diftribution is ratlier cxtenfive. Amongft
many other inftances, the followinsr may be enumerated ;
Moel Eiion, in Caernarvonfliire, Nortli Wales ; Geyer,
Brcilenbrunn, &c. in Saxony ; Bodenmais, in Bavaria ; and
i:i different parts of Norway and Siberia.

Sp. 4. Magnetic Irou-Jlonc. Mtigtute'iffiijltm. Le fer
nmgndiqiie. Furnm trn^ncs.

Werner divides this into two fubfpccics ; namely, com-
liion magnetic iron-done, and magnetic iron-fand.

Subfp. l.—Magmtic Iron-Jlone. — Colour iron-black, in-
clining fometimea to perfeft black, and fometimcs to fteel-
grey. Occurs mafii.c, dilTeminated and cryftalli/.ed. The
form of its cryftals is the cube, pcrfeA or truncated ; the
oftahedron, wltich is alfo fomctinies varied by truncation ;
the garnet dodecahedron, and the reftangular four-fided
prifm, terminated by four planes, placed on the lateral
edges, as in the hyacinth. Thefe cn'ftals vary much in
fr/.e. The dodecahedrons and octahedrons have tl-eir faces
fmooth ; but the planes of the four-lided prifm are tranf-
verfely llreaked. Luftre externally (hiuing ; internally va-
rying from glimmering to fplcndent. Frafture fmall and
fine-grained, uneven, approaching fometimcs to fmall con-
choidal, and imperfeft foliated. Fragments indeterminate,
rather fliarp-edged. Occurs fometimes in granular diilintt
concretions. It is femi-hard, paffrng to hard ; brittle ; wiicn
in crydals difiicultly frangible, and heavy. Sp. p'v 4. 2CO
to 4.9_?f). It is attraded by the magnet ; and is itfcU alio
magnetic.

Before the blow-pipe it bec6mes brown, and imparts a
dark-green colour to borax. It is fuppofed to be an oxyd
of iron, nearly in a Hate of complete purity.

This fpecies is very common in primitive mountains, efpe-
cially in thofe of gneifs and micaceous fcliillus. In thefe
fituations it arranges itfelf in beds ; but fometimes compofes
the entire mafs of dillinft mountains. The fletz, or fccon-
dary formations, as they are term.ed, are not free from it.
It occurs in greenllone at Taberg ; in hornblende in S mo-
land, and in bafalt near Eifenach. It is ufualiy aiToclated
with common hornblende, garnet, and granular limellone.
Sometimes with adlinote, aibell, S;c. ; but is mofl- fre-
quently found in the vicinity of magnetic pyrites, arfenical
and copper pyrites, and common pyrites.

It is found in one of the Shetland ifles ; in Bohemia,
Hungary, Saxony, Italy, France, Switzerland, Siberia,
and South America. Is very abundant in Sweden, where
it is employed for the manufafture of the iron imported to
this country for the fupply of the Sheffield market.

Subfp. 2. Iron-Jand. — Colour deep iron-black, which
paCes fometimes to afh-grey. Occurs in angular or roundifh
grains ; and alfo in fmall ofiahedral crydals. Surface rough
and feebly glimmering. Internal ludre fhining, metallic.
FraAure perfeft conchoidal. Fragments indeterminate,
fharp-edged. Streak greyifh-black. Semi-hard, brittle,
ealily frangible, and heavy. Sp. gr. 4.600. Strongly at-
traiS«d by the magnet.

Its chemical charafters are as the foregoing fubfpecies.
It occurs in the beds of rivers ; and alfo imbedded in tlie
rocks of bafalt and wackc.

Is met \vitii in the river Elbe, near Schandau, in Saxony ;
imbedded in floetz-trap, in Bohemia ; and is found alfo at
St. Domingo, Guadaloupe, in Norway, France, the Tyrol,
Greenland, &c.

Sp. 5. Iron-glance. Eifenglanz. he fcr fpecuhhe. Fer-
rum m':iKrd'i/ati:ni Jp.culare.

This is alfo divided into two fubfpccics ; common iron
glance, and micaceous iron-ore, or, as it is called by pro-
feffor Jamefon, iron-mica.

Stibfp. T. Common Iron-glance. — Co\ovlt deel-grey of
greater or lefs inlenfity, and fometimcs rcddi(h. It occa-
iionally pades into iron-black. Surface very often tar-
nidied, and beautifully iridefcent. Occurs mafiive, diHl--
minated, and cryftallizcd. The form of its crydals is
various. The mod common is the rhomboidal parallclopi-
pcdon ; the cube, formed by the truncation of a double ihree-
fidL-d pyramid, and having three triangular faces indead of
two of its angles oppofire, and oftagonal plates bounded
by linear trapeziums, fix in number, inclined alternately to
different fides. Planes of the crydals fometimes fmooth,
and fometimes dreakcd. Externally it varies from glim-
mering to fplendent ; internally from glillcning to fplendcnt ;
ludre metallic. Fraclure compact and foliated. The com-
padl varieties are uneven, and fometimes fmall conchoidal^
The foliated have a fourfold reftangular cleavage. Frag-
ments ©ftaliedral or pyramidal ; fometimes indeterminate.
Edges rather blunt. Generally unfeparated. Gives a deep
cherry-red dreak. It is hard, opaque, brittle, more or Ici^s
eafily frangible, and heavy. Sp- gr.. J.oi 16 to j.2i.S. It
is magnetic, but lefs fo tiian the preceding fpecies.

Before the blow-pipe it is infnfible, alone; but becomes
white wlien heated en charcoal ; and yie'ds a dirty yfllow-
co;nuredfcoria, with borax. Stated by Kinvan tocontain
frn-n r.; <.o "-'? per cent, of iion.

' spears to be confined to primitive, and iL.i

■.ion mountains. It has ne%-er been found in
I : : .; wy formation. Its occurrence is in beds and

vein ., u!:..r.' it is ufualiy accompanied with magnetic iron-
lion?, common pyrites, compact red iron-done,, horndone^
and quartz.

Sweden fields it very abundantly ; as alfo does Norway.
Some of the fined fpecimens are from the ifle of Elba,
where the ore is faiJ to have been, worked for upwards of
thi-ee thoufand years. It occurs in Bohemia, Saxony, Swit-
zerland, France, England (in Lancadiire and Cumberland),
Hungary, Sjuth America, Siberia, &c.-

The Eni'li'Ti Ineeimens occur in cavities in compaft red
iron-done. Th .. • \\i are ufualiy fmall;, and the ludre
of their ii.: 1 , : \ ..I.irly fplendent..

Subfp. J / . ■,., .'—Colour iron-black, paffing fome-
timcs to doel-^rcy, and fometimes to deep-red. The latter
is rather the colour of it, when held under the form of
thin plates, between the eye and the light. Occurs maffive,
dideminated, and crydallized. When the latter, it appears
in thin tables with fix fides. Surface f nooth and fplen-
dent. Internally it is alfo fplendent, and its luflre metallic.
Erasure perfeft curved foliated ; cleavage fimple. Frag-
ments fometimes indeterminate, and fometi.mes tabular.
The madive varieties occur in granul;;r didin''t concretions.
Thin plates of it are tranduccnt. Its tlreak is deep cherry- -
red. It is femi-hard, brittle, very ealily frangilile, and heavy.
Sp. gr. 4.5c to J. 07.

Before the blow-pipe it exhibits the farn? apucar^nces as
the preceding fubfpecies, except in commi...ica:i.;g an olive-
green tinge to borax. Tlie proportion of iron whicli ilyiekis
is from 7c to 80 per cent.

It is exclufively confined to primitive mountains, and for
the mod j)art to thofe of a newer formation. It is found,
like iron-glance, in beds and veins, and is accompanied witiv
other ores of the metal : calcareous and fliior fpar, quartz,
liorndone, &c.

Its geographic diftribution is rather cxtenfive. It occurs

ne;u: ijuukcld, in rertbihire ;.at Darlmuor, in Devjnihiic ;

4 111

I R O N.

■in one of the Shetland ifles'; in Norway, Sweden, Ruffia,
I'mnce, i(le of Elba, and many diftrifts of Germany.

Sp. 6. Red Iron-Pnc. Rith-cifen-Jlan. La mine de fer
roij^e. Ferrum ochraccum riibrum.

Werner has divided this into four fiibfpecies, which pro-
fcfTor Jamefon, in conformity with the principles of the
Wernerian nomenclature, has denominated red iron-froth,
ochry-red iron-llonc, compadl red iron-ftone, and red he-
matite.

Subfp. I. Red Iron-froih. — Colour deep cherry-red,
fometimes blood-ied and brownifli-red, and even inclining Kj
fteel-groy. Ufiially friable. Occurs fometimes maflire and
diflTeminated ; and is compofed of fcaly parts which foil con-
*derably. Luftre between ghmmering and glillening ;
femi-metallic. Is greafy to th.e touch, and moderately
heavy.

Expofed to the blow-pipe alone, it blackens without
ir.eltinpf, and commnnicates a bright green colour to borax.
According- to H.iny, it is conllitnted of

Iron 66.

Oxygen 28.5
Kilex 4.25

Aluraiiie 1.25

It occurs fjcT.erally in veins in primitive and tranfition
mountains, accompanied with other ores of iron, copper
pyrites, quartz, barytic fpar, S:c.

Although a rare variety of this metal, it is found ratlier
plentifully in the neiglibourhood of Ulverflone, Lancailiire,
and is alio met with in Cornwall. It occurs too in Norway,
the Hartz, Saxony, Silefia, Salzburg, Hungary, and South
America.

Subfp. 2. Ochry-red Iron-fione, or Red Oci;v.— Colour
varies between blood-red and brownifh-red. Occurs fome-
times maflive and difTeminatcd, fometimes fuperlicial, or
coating other ores of the metal, but mod ufually friable.
Lullre faintly glimmering, or dull. Frafture earthy. Frag-
ments indeterminate, blunt-edged. Feels meagre. Soils
more or lefs ftrongly. Is not very brittle. Eaiily fran-
gible, and rather heavy. Sp. gr. 2.952.

It is rarely found alone ; being generally accompanied
with other fpecies of iron-ore, and particularly with com-
j'.aft red iron-done, and red hematite. It occurs in veins ;
and is dillribnted nearly as the two following fubfpecics.

Subfp. 3. CompaS red Iron-jlone. — Colour between
brovvniili-red and dark ileel-gicy, paffmg fometimes to
blood-red. Occurs maflive, difllminated, and in various imi-
tative forms, as reniform, cellular, c^c. It is fometimes
found cryllallized, and appears cither in cubes, or four-
lided pyramids, the latter of which are truncated on their
fummits. The cube is found both perfetl and truncated.
Surface of the cubes fmooth ; of the pyramids rough and
dull. Internal lullre between glimmering and dull ; femi-
Hietalhc. Fradure for the moil part even. It fometimes,
however, pades into coarfe-grained, uneven, and large con-
choidal. Fragments indeterminate, rather fliarp-edged.
Streak blood-red. Between hard and femi-hard. Some-
what brittle, and more or lefs cafdy frangible, heavy. Sp. gr.
3.423 103.76.

It affumes a darker colour before the blow-pipe ; but is
infufible, even with the afliftancc of borax. This re-agent,
however, is tinged of a ycllowifli-green by it.

Occurs in beds and veins with red hematite and the pre-

ceding fubfpecies ; and is alfo accompanied with quartz,
red-jafper, and hornftone.

It is found very abundantly in Lancafhire ; in the HartZ,
Saxony, Bolwrnia, Heflia, Siberia, and France.

It is frequently fmelted in this country ; and principally
in thofe works which fabricate the variety of iron defcribed in
the fuceeeding part of this article, under the name of for!;e-
p';g. The richer ores, in fact, are incapable of yicld-ig
the moil highly carbonized defcriptions of iron ; partly,
perhaps, becauie they contain too little earthy matter to
afford a fufRciently plentiful cir.der ; and partly becaufe
their reduction is too immediite.

Subfp. 4. Red Hiinalhe. — Colour intermediate between
brownilh-red and fteel-grey ; pafling fometimes intirely inta
one or other of them, and even into blood-red. It is from the
latter variety that the name of hematite (from ki,.- ',far:giiis,)
is derived. Occurs mafilve a: d re^iiform; alfo ftaLidiiic, glo-
bular, uniform, &c. Externa! fut face rough and glimraernig
Internally glillening, paffing into glimmering , luftre femi-
metailic. Frafture always fibrous. Fragments ufually
wedge-fliaped ; fometimes fplintery and iiideterminatc. In
angulo-granular diftincl concretions. Streak a briglit blood-
red. Hard, inclining to fjmi-hard. Rather diinciikly fran-
gible. Brittle, and very heavy. Sp. gr. 4.74 to 5.00J.

It exhibits the fame chemical characlers as the foregoing
fubfpecies, and yields in the large way about 60 per cent, of
metal.

According to the recent analyfis of M. D'Aubuifibn,
who has publiflied a very intereiting memoir in the 75lh
volume of the " Annales de Chiraie," on the chemical con-
ititution of certain iron ores v.hich appear to have water
as an eflential ingredient, this mineral is compofed of

90

Peroxyd of iron

Silex

Eime

Volatile matter

Lofs

The fpecific gravity of the fpccimens liere fubmittcd to
examination was 4.8. Another fpecimen, the fpeciiic gra-
vity of which was j.o, yielded the following refult :

Peroyxd of iron - 94

Silex - - 2

Vi'atcr - - 2

Lofs - - 2

Each of the above prefented a trace of maiigancfc,
the latter a fimilar evidence of hme.

Its geog;noltic fituation is finiilar to the laft.

Lancaihire yields it very p'entifully, as well as tlie neigh-
bouring parts of Cumberland. It is found, too, in coufi-
derable abundance in Saxony ; and in Bohemia, France,
Silefia, the Hartz, Siberia, &c.

It is one of the moll common varieties of iron ore, and
is very frequently employed in the fmclting furnace.

Sp. 7. Broiun Iron'jloiie. Brown Eifenjletn. La mine
defer brune. Ferrum ochraceum Irunum.

This, like the preceding, is divided into four fubfpecies,
which ho.ve the fame leading dillinftions. They confift of
brown iron-froth, ochry-brown iron-ftone, compaCl brown
iron-ftone, and brown hematite.

Subfp.

IRON.

Subfp. I. Bro^n Iron-froth. — Colour varying between of tlie imitative forms before fpaken of. It is fometimes
clove-brO'.vn and fteel-grcj'. Occurs maffive, fupc-ilicial, and found in pfcudo-cr) Hals of a pyramidal fnape, «Tlli lis acute-
frothy. Is compofed of fcaly particles, which are gliden- angled fides. Suiface fometimes fmooth, and fometimes
ing, and have a metallic luftre. Fr?gments indeterminate, rough and drufy. Lullre fliining or glillening. Internally
blunt-edged. Intermediate between friable and folid. Soils it is from glimmering to gliftening ; intermediate between
ftrongly. Feels greafy to the touch. Is very foft, light, filky and rclinous. Fradlurc fibrous, paffing fometimes to
and fometimes even fwimming. fmall conciioidal. Fragments ufually fplintery or wedge-
It blackens before tlie blow-pipe without melting, and fiiapcd ; rarely indeterminate. Occurs in diltinft concrc-
communicates a )ellowifh-green colour to borax. tions. Streak yellowifli-brown. Opaque. Semi-hard.
It is g-enerally found coating compad brown iron-ftone, Brittle. Very eafily frangible, and heavy. Sp. gr. 3 789

and brown hematite.

One of the Shetland iflands afibrds it ; and it occurs alio
in Saxony, the Hartz, Norway, Carinthia, Bareulli, Car-
niula, and Stiria.

Subfp. 2. Ochry-bro-jun Iron-J!one. — Co\om ye'Iowift-
brown, inclining to ochre yellow. Occurs maflive and dif-
femina'ed. Between folid and friable. Fratture earthy.
Internally it is dull. Fragments indeterminate, blv.nt-
edged. Soils coiiCderably. Is more or lefs coherent, ai.d
keavy.

Imparts an olive-green colour to borax.

It accompanies the otlier fubfpecies ; and is found in
Norway, Saxony, Bohemia, Bavaria, and Salzburg.

Subfp. 3. Compid Dro'wn Iroii-Jlone. — Colour clove-
trown of various intcnfities, pafiing fometimes to yellowilh-
brown. Occurs mafiive, difTeminated, and in various imi-
tative forms, as Raladitic, rcniform, cellular, dendritic, &c.
It fometimes, aifo, appears in pfcudo-cryllals, of which the
cube, rhomb, and lens have been particularized. Madre-
pores and corallines, too, have it frequently for their bafe ;
as well as otiier extraneous foiTiiS. Internally it is dull, or
very rarely glimmering. Fratlure ufually even, fometimes
earthy aud fmall-grained uneven, and conciioidal. Frag-
ments indeterminate, edges more or lefs blunt. Streak
bright yollowidi-Brown, bordering on ochre-yellow. Is
fep.ii-hard, inclining to hard. , Rather brittle. Ealily fran-
gible, and heavy. Sp. gr 3.4771 to ^.^^i.

It darkens before the blow-pipe, in confequence of the
lofs of oxygen, and becomes magnetic. Borax receives an
olive-green colour from it.

The proportion of its ingredients, as ftated by M.
D'Aubuinbu, ill the 75th volnmi of the " Annafes de
Chiraie," is as follows :

Peroxyd of iron - 84

Peroxyd of niangaucfe I

Siltx ' - - 2

Alumine

Volatile matter - 11

Lofs - - 2

The fpccific gravity of the fpecimcn from Vicdelfos was

3-t-

It is always accompanied with fomc of the other fub-
fpecies ; and frequently with quartz, calcareous and heavy
Ipar, and pyrites.

Occurs in Mainland, one of the Shetland ifles ; the
Hartz, Saxony, Silefia, Bohemia, Suabia, the Tyrol,
France, 'Carinthia, &c.

Subfp. 4. Brotvn Hemalhe. — Its colour, internally, is
clove-brown, which pafics to yellowifh-brown, and brownifh-
black. It is exhibited under a great variety of other (hades,
aiJ bhieifli or iron.black, pinchback-brown,bronze-ycllow,and
fometimes iridcfccnt. Occurs rarely inafiive ; jjfualjy in feme
• Vot. XIX.

103.9,-1.

It blackens before the blow-pipe, but docs not melt.
Wiih borax it enters into ebullition, and produces a dirty
yellow-coloured cestspound.

Its coniHtuent parts, according to M. D'AubuifTon,
v.-hofe analyfjs were generally repeated two or three times,

are as below ftated :

Fro>,

Frn:n

Be

..-.-..I,

crn.

V;. ricKos. ■

Pcrcxyd cf iron

79

82

Peroxyd of manganefe

S.lex

3

Volatile matter

i'5

J4

Lofs - - -

I

The fpecific gravity of the former was 3.8, and of the
latter 3.9. The fpecimen from Vicdeffos afforded a flight
trace of alumine.

It occurs in theneweft primitive, tranfition, and fecondary
mountains ; but moft frequently in the two latter, where it
is found hning cavities in veins or beds. Its ufual attend-
ants are black and fparry iron-done, calcareous fpar, brown
and heavy-fpar, ar.d fometimes, tlioagh rarely, quartz.

It is found in Voightiand, the Fichtelgebirge, Franconia,
Ileffia, and Nafiau.

This fpecies, which is fo very abundantly diftributed in the
Gern'.an ilite', is of rare occurrence either in Sweden, Ruflia,
i\';;rv>ay, or England. In the former, it furnilhes materials
for very exter.iive iron-works ; and the wiought-iron pro-
duced from it is very valuable.

. Sp. 8. Sp.-irry iror.-f.one. Spatheifenjliin. Le fer fl<a-
th'iq-ii. FerniK: ochruceum fpauformt.

Colour yellowiiTi-grey, which pafles into yellowini-brown,
clove-brown, and blackiih-brown. It tarniflies on cxpofure
either to the air or heat, and then becomes brown or black,
and fometimes iridefcent. Occurs mnlTive, diffeminated, and
cryilallized. Its cryllals are either rhombs, lenfes, oftahe-
drons, or garnet-dodecahedrons. They are feldom large
or very fmall ; commonly middlc-fizcd and fmall. Their
furface is fometimes fmooth, fometimes drufy, and a little
rough. Internally it vt.ries from fplendent to glimmering ;
111 II re pearly. Fraclurc foliated. Cleavage triple. Fragments
rhomboidal. Occurs in granular diftind concretions. Tlje
light-coloured varieties are tran/lucent, efpecially on tha
edges: but the dark-coloured opaque. The former give a
greyilb-white ftreak ; the latter a yellowifh-brown. It is
ftnii-hard, inclining fometimes to fpft. Rather brittle.
Eafily frangible, and moderately heavy. Sp. gr. 3.300 to
3.810.

It blackens before the bloiv-pipe, and enters into ebulli-
tion with borax, to which it communicates a dirty yellow
colour. It always effervefces more or lefs with acids.' Ac-
cording to Bergmans, it is compofed of

3 1 Oxyd

IRON.

Oxyd of iron
Oxyd of manganefe

Carbonic acid
Water

but it is liable to great variation in t!ic proportion of its
ingredients. In a recent examination by Collet-Dcfcotils,
the following refult was afforded :

Fragments of quartz - 2o^

Red oxyd of iron - 4^-45

Brown oxyd of manganefe i.So

Lime - - .J 2

Magnefia - - i.t.S

Carbonic acid, water, and lofs 44.67

a compaft fraftare, was femi-hard, approaching to hard, anA
of the fpccitic gra\'ity of 3 .6. It confiUcd of

Peroxyd of manganefe - - 64

Silex - - - - 13

Volatile matter - - 14

Lofs (occafioned by an accident '
dryii.g fome carbonat of mano
Bcfe on the filler)

!t inT
^gu- ^

Annales de Chimie, t. 75.

Confiderable difference is very likely to exift in the chff-
rv.icA contlitution of this mineral, and the total abfence of
iron, in tlie prefent cafe, may certainly be regarded as rather
an extraordinary circumftance. Indeed, Werner's judgment
is much too accurate to admit the fuppoiition, tliat the varie-

■ ties which have come under his infpcftion were dcftitute of

100. it; but from the very preat produce of manganefe in tlie-

above analyfis, and the general cliErufter of tlie fpecies, in

Annales de Chimie, t. jS. imparting a violetrblue colour to borax, there can be little

The fpecific gravity of the fpecinien analyfed in this cafe doubt that this, if not both fub-fpecies of black iron-ltone.

properly, ores of the former metal.
Subfp. 2. BL-ici Hematite. — Colour inclining more to fteel-
grcy than the preceding fub-fpecies. Occurs mafTive and
reniform. Internally it is glimmering ; luilre femi-metaUic.
Frafture delicately fibrous, paffmg into even. Fragments
wedgc-lliaped. Occurs in granular diilincl: concretions. In
other refpefts agrees with the preceding.

Before the blow-pipe, both the members of this fpecies
melt with borax into a violet-blue coloured glafs. No exaft
analyfis has yet been made of the black hematite ; but its
chemical conilitution is in all probability very much fimilar
to that of the former fub-fpecies.

Black iron-itone is found in primitive and fletz mountains,
accompanied with brown and fparry iron-!lone and quartz.

It occurs at Naila, in Bareuth ; Rafchau, in Saxony ;
HclTia, the Upper Palatinate, and the Hartz.

Sp. 10. Clay iron-Jlons. Thoneifeiifte'in. Le fer argileux.
Ferrum ochraceum argillaceum.

Tliis widely diilributed, and highly valuable mineral, is
divided into feven fub-fpecies ; reddle, columnar clay iron-
ftone, lenticular clay iron-ftone, jafpery clay iron-ftcne, com-
mon clay iron-i\oue, iron kidney, or kidney-fhaped iron-ore,
and pea ore, or pea-fhaped iron-ore.

Subfp. I. RediiU.—to\om light brov.r.ifh-rcd. Occurs
only maffive. Principal frafture flaty, glimmering. Crofs
fracture earthy, dull. Fragments tabular, fplintery or in-
determinate. Streak lighter than tlie fraflure furface, and

3.693 ; and its colour was brownifh-yellow

It occurs in primitive and fjcondary mountains ; in the
former, in veins; in the latter, in beds.

It is found fparingly in Britain ; and not very abundantly
in Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Siberia, Bohemia, and
Saxony. At Schmalkalden, in HefTia, however, there is a
^ed from aj to 30 fathoms thick ; and in different parts of
Wedphalia, Siiria, Carinthia, &c. it is very plentiful. A
whole hill, in the province of Bifcay, is compofed of it,
which is faid to have been worked for feveral thoufand

an ore of iron, and the metal produced
from it is confidered to be peculiarly favourable for ftecl-
making ; but whether this is any thing more than a mere
prejudice, feems greatly to be queftioned.

Sp. 9. Black Iron-June. Schwann eijhijlem. La mine lie
ftr noire. Ferrum ochraceum nigrum.

This is divided into two fub-fpecies ; compaft black iron-
ftone, and black hematite.

Subfp. I. Compaa Blach Iron-Jlone — Colour between
blueifh-black, and dark fteelgrey. Occurs maffive, and in
various imitative forms. Surface dull, or faintly glimmering.
Internally it is bordering on gUflening, and its luilre femi-
meta lie. Frafture commonly conchoidal, fometimcs un-
even. Fragments indeterminate, fharp-edged. Streak fhin-
ing, but unchanged. It is femi-hard, brittle, eafily frangi-
ble, and heavy. Sp. gr. 4 076, according to Wiedemann.

This mineral had for a long time been clafTed as an ore of more fhining. Soils ftror.gly, and may be written with. It
manganefe, and was removed to the prefent genus from is foft, and very fcft, fcclile, eafily frangible ; ftrongly ad-
fome particular diftinftions that were pointed out by Werner, herent to the tongue, meagre to the touch, and moderately
between the compaiS grey manganefe ore, of which it had heavy. Sp. gr. 3. 1 391 to 3 931.

ufually been confidered a variety, and the fub-fpecies now It decrepitates and blackens at a red heat, and, in a more
under examination. M. D' Aubniffon, however, in the elevated temperature, melts into a kind of pumice of a grecn-
eourfe of his late rcfearchcs, has fubjefted a fpecimen of it ifli-grev colour.

to chemical analyfis ; and inllead of finding, iron to be its It moll generally occurs in the newer clay flate ; and Is
principal ingredient, has afcertained it to be almofl wholly found in Thuringia, Saxony, Silefia, Salzburg, HeiTia, and
compofed of manganefe and filex. This would, perhaps, be Siberia.

a fufEcicnt authority for transferring it to the latter genus It is fcarcely ufed for any other purpofe than drawing.
?.gain ; but as the Wcrnerian claflification has been uni- Subfp. 2. Columnar Clay Iron-Jlonc. — Colour brownidi-red,

■ " red. Oc

5 angular.

formly adhered to in the prefent article, it has been deemed
bell to continue its enumeration here, and accompany the
account of it with the particulars of M. D'Aubuiii'on's
inq'^iry.

The fpecimen he examined came from Rafchau, in Saxony,
and V7as of a blueifh-black colour mixed with grey,

pafling fometinies to cherry red. Occurs mailive, and m
pieces which are more or iefs angular. Surface rough and
dull. Internaliy dull, and frafture earthy. It mofl ufually
occurs in columnar diilinft concretions. Streak blood-red.
It is foft, very eafily frangible, brittle, meagre to the touch.

It

It had. adheres flightljj to the tongue, and is moderately heavy

IRON.

Tt blackers before the b'.ovv-pipe, and imparts an olive-
^ecn colosr to borax.

It is but rarely met with, and appears to be, in fome in-
ftances, of pfeudo-voicanic 'origin. Its occurrence with por-
celain jafper, and other minerals which are evidently of that
crafs, L'ives conlidcrable colour to the idea ; but there are
cafes, as the one obferved by Reufs in Bohemia, where it
appeared in tie centre of a mountain of clay-flate, that are
equ?.lly oppoiite in their evidence.

It is found in the ifleof Arran, at Sobrufan, Hofchnitz,
Delau, and near Prohn, in Bohemia ; at Dutvveiler, in Saar-
■briicken ; and Amberg, in the Upper Palatinate.

It yields too fmall a proportion of metal, even where the
mineral is fufRcitntly abundant, to be at all worked as an ore
of iron.

Subfp. 3 . I^enliailar Clay Ironjlone. — Colour brownifh-red,
varying to reddi;!! and yellowilh-brown, and greyidi-black.
Occurs maiTive. Interaally it is (Irongly glimmering, feme-
times g'liftening, and al.vays femi-metallic. Frafture fine
earthy, and fometimes flaty. Fragments indeterminate,
blunt-edged. Occurs in dillinft concretions, which are fre-
quently lenticu'ar, but fometimes granular. The ftreak
varies with the colour of the fpecimen : generally lighter.
It is ufually foft, fometimes very foft, and femi-hard. Sedlile,
inclining to brittle ; very eafily frangible, and heavy.

Its compofition, according to Lampadius, is
Of oxyd of iron 64.

Alamine - 23.

Silex - - 7.5

Water - - 5.

Lofs

The black varieties, which occur only in th? canton of
■Berne, are faid to yield go per cent, of iron. The red ore,
which is found very abundantly in Bohemia, affords 60 per
rtnt.

It is diftributed in tranfition and fletz mountains, and
generally unmixed with other minerals.

Befides the fituations already noticed, it is met with in
Suabia, the Netherlands, Bavaria, Franconia, and France.

It is fmelted as an ore of iron, and the brown varieties of
It, which contain from 30 to ^^ per cent, of metal, are much
valued on account of the excellent quahty of the metal that
is produced from them.

Subfp. 4. Jafpery Clay Iron-Jlone. — Colour brownifh-red .
Occurs maflive. Internal luftre dul, bordering on glim-
mering. Frafture flat concboidal ; fometimes even. Frag-
ments rhomboidal, alfo cubic and trapezoidal. Lighter in
the ftreak. Soft, brittle, eafily frangible, and heavy.

It has, hitherto, been only met with in a bed which be-
longs to the fecondary or fletz formation, between Vienna
and Hungary.

Sublp.r. Common Clay Ironjlone. — Colourlight yellowilh-
grey, inclining to alh-grey, and pafling into blueilh and
ueel-grey, yellowilh, reddifh, and clove-brown, brick-red,
and brownifh-red. Thefe colours, particularly the lighter
ones, undergo a change on cxpofure to the air, generally
becoming darker. Occurs maftive, and in a variety of ex-
traneous forms, efpecially of (hells and vegetables. In-
ternally it is dull. Frafture earthy, fometimes conchoidal
and flaty. Fragments indeterminate, blunt-edged ; foft ;
rather brittle ; adheres a little to the tongue; is more or lefs
eafily frangible ; meagre to the touch, and heavy. Sp. gr.
from 2.936 to 3.471.

Expoleti alone before the blow-pipe it-blackens, but does

not melt. With borax it enters into a fort of ebullitioH,
and produces a glafs of a blackifh olive-green colour. It
varies confiderably in the proportion of its ingredients.
Some fpecimens of the mineral yield as much as 40 per cent.
of oxyd oi iron, whiHl others do not afford more than 20
pir cent., and many even lefs than that. Th?! following,
which will contribute to fliew this, are the refults cf fome
analyfcs by Richter and I^ampadius,

Oxyd of iron 20.1 339 39. 42. J

Oxyd of manganefe 1. 1. 1 3.

Silex - - 19.9 23.9 5. 13.8

Aluiiiine - 30.2 13. 40. I J. 6

Magne.'ia - " 6. "

Carbonic acid - 28.8 28.1 27.1

Water - 9.

Sulphur - ,.

This fubfpecies is a very abundant ojje, and occurs in bcd«
in the fecondary cr fletz formation.

It is found very plentifully in difFerent parts of England
and Scotland ; and is alfo met wjth in Weftphalia, Bohemia,
Silefia, the Upper Palatinate, Poland, RufTia, Siberia,
Ita'y, and Norway.

Subfp. 6. Ren'tfarm Iron ore. — Colour yellowifh-brown,
varying in intenfity in the fame fpecimen. The centre is the
lighteft, and not unfrequently includes a fmall kernel of an
oclirc-yellow-tint. Occurs in mafTes from the fize of a wal-
nut to that of a man's head, which are moll commonly im-
bedded in clay or fhale. Fraftured towards the furface,
even ; in the interior fine earthy. Fragments indeter-
minate, rather Iharp-edged, Internal luftre dill ; externally
glimmering, femi-metallic. It is compofed of concentric,
lairellar, didintt concretions, inclofing a nodule, which is
often loofe. Surface rough ; external layers foft ; thofe of
the centre very foft ; brittle ; eafiiy frangible ; adheres to
the tongue ; is meagre to the touch, and moderately heavy.
Sp gr. 2.574.

It does not melt before the blow-pipe, when heated alone ;
but enters into fufion with borax, and communicates to it a
dirty yellow colour.

Occurs in the newefl fletz rock.-;, imbedded in the argil-
laceoiis ftrata that are incumbent on coal.

It is found abundantly in Derbyfhire, and fome of the
neighbouring counties ; in Scotland, Norway, Denmark,
Bohemia, Silefia, Tranfylvania, France, and Siberia.

The greateil proportion of the iron raanufafturcd in the
midland dillricls of England, as well as in many parts of
Scotland, is obtained from the two foregoing fubfpecies.
The metal v.-hich they afford, too, is, generally fpeaking,
of the belt quality. This is principally referable to the
liberal fupply of earthy matter in their compofition ; for,
without 3 fufficient production of fcoria, or cinder, in the
blall-furnace, the highly carbonized, and confequently
tnoft valuable, varieties of iron cannot be formed. Thefe
fubjefts will be more fully difcuffed in a fucceeding feftion
of the article.

Subfp. 7. Pijifcrm iron-Jlone. — Colour yellowifh-brown,
of different fhades, pafTing fometimes to black;(h-browri.
This is its internal appearance. Externally, it varies ac-
cording to the nature of the ftratum in which it is im-
bedded, being reddidi, yellowifh, and liver-brown, and
even yellrnvifh-grey. Occurs in fmall fpherical grains.
Centre of the grain dull ; luftre incrcafing towards the fur-
face to gliftening. Internal frafture fine earthy ; exter-
nally, even. Fragments indeterminate, fomc«hat (liarp-
; I 2 edged.

R O N.

e%ed. Occurs in concentric, lamellar, diftiiifl concretions.
Streak )ello\vifh-bro\vn. It is ferai-hard, pafiing to foft.
Not very brittle; eafily frangible. Sp. gr. 5-207.

It exliibit?, before the blow-pipe, the fame appearances
as the lall fubfpecies. Subjoined are tiie refults of two
analyfes of it ; the former by Vauqiielin, the latter by
MiJliiiirhof :

Iron

Oxygpa

/iiurnine

Silex

Water

This mineral is fuppofcd by WLrncr to occur in the fe-
t-oad fletz lijne-ftone, and in clay-beds.

It is found in France, Switzerland, Franconia, HeiTia,
Siiabia, tlie duchy of Wirtemberg, and Dalmatia. In the
latter country, it is f^d to be ufed by tiie inhabitants inllead
«f lliot.

The greater part of the Fren<!i iron is extrafted from
this fubfpecies. It yields, in the large way, from 30 to 40
per cent, of metal.

Sp. 11. Bog iron ore. Rafer.eifivjlzhu Lc fir liinoneux.
Ferrttm ochraceum cefpit'it'ium.

Werner divides this into three fubfpecies ; morafs ore,
fwamp ore, and meadow ore.

Subfp. 1. Morafs ore. — Colour yellowifh-brown. It is
fometimes friable, and fometimes approaching to coherent.
When the latter, it occurs mafiive, corroded, and in grains.
The former varieties confill of dully particles. Luilre dull.
Fratlure earthy. Fragments indeterminate, blunt-edged.
Soils confiderably. Is meagre to the touch, and light.

Subfp. 2. Swamp ore'. — Colour dark yellowifh-brown,
fometimes pafTing to yellowifh-grey. Occurs corroded,
veficular, and amorphous. Luilre dull, fometimes {lightly
glimmering. Frafture earthy, pafiing to line-grained, un-
even. Fragments indeterminate, blunt-edged. Streak light
yellowilh-brown. Very foft ; feftile. Eafily frangible,
lind moderately heavy. Sp. gr. 2.944.

Subfp. 3. Mtado'iv ore. — Colour, when frefh broken,
blackidi-brown, paffing fometimes to yellowirti-brown, and
brownilli-black. Occurs maffive, in grains, tuberofe, per-
forated, and amorphous. Externally it is rough and dull.
In the interior it varies from fliining to glimmering ; luilre
refinous. Frafture conchoidal, pafiing fometimes to 1 mall-
grained, uneven, and earthy. The conchoidal varieties
have the brightell luilre. Fragments indeterminate, blunt-
edged. Streak light yellowilli-brown. Soft ; brittle.
Very eafily frangible, and heavy.

Bog-iron ore in general blackens before the blow-pipe,
without melting. It enters into ebuUition witli borax, and
produces a glafs of a dirtyiJli yellow colour. The only
member of the fpccies that appears to have been fubjefted to
analyfis is the meadow ore : and it is conltituted, according
<o the information of M. D'Aubuiflbn, of
Peroxyd of iron 61

Pirox^'d of mangancfe 7
Silex 6

Aluminc 2

Volatile matter 19

Pholphoric acid 2.y

Liiue, fulphur, andlofs 2.j

100 Aniialcs de Chimic, t, 75.

The volatile matter, which fo conllantly forms a part of
the refults quoted from this chemill, almoil exclufively con-
fills of water ; and it v;as with a view, indeed, of afcertain-
ing the proportion of this ingredient, that his analytical
labours were principally commenced. He fuppofes it to be
an effential conllituent of the different minerals he ha.-; ex-
amined, and propofes to arrange them under the clafs of
hjilrats.

The prefent fpecies is fmeltcd in fome of tlie countries
that afford it, and yields, in the large way, from 30 to 35
per cent, of metal.

It occurs in the neweil formations, and is conceived to be
continually depDlitcl in marlliy places, from the evaporation
of the water that has held it in folution. The preceding
fubfpecies are products of this procels at different flage."; ;
and the order in which they are arranged is indicative ol the
date of their formation.

It is found in different parts of the Highlands of Scot-
land, the Hebrides, Orknies, and the Shetland iflaiids.
Poland and Prufiia contain confiderable quantities of it ; as
alfo do Brandenburg, Courland, Livonia, and Lithuania.
Its occurrence is more frequent in the northern than in the
fouthern countries of Europe.

Sp. I 2. Blue iron earth. Bhne etfenerik. Le fr terrcux
hleu. Ferrum ochraceum caruhum.

Before it has been expofed to the air, its colour is greyifh-
white, but afterwards becomes indigo-blue of different
fliades, and fometimes fmalt-blue. Occurs mafiTive, and
diffeminated ; and is compofed of dull, dully particles,
wliic4i are friable and cohering. Soils flightly. Feels
meagre, and is moderately heavy.

Before the blow-pipe, it becomes of a reddib-brown, and
afterwards melts into a brilliant black gk bule, which tinges
borax of a deep yellow. It is readily loluble in acids.
Bergmann had fuppofed it to be a native Prujfan-blue ; and
it has received a place in many mineralogical fyllems, under
that name, from the fame belief: but an analytical examina-
tion of it by Klaproth feems to prove it to be a compound
of phofphal of iron and aluminc.

It occurs in nells in clay-beds, among.^ bog-iron ore,
and incruding turf and peat.

It is found, under the latter circumflances, in the Shet-
land iflands ; it alio appears in Icclar.d, Saxony, Silclia,
Swabia, Bavaria, Poland, Siberia, Ruflia, and Sweden.

Sp. 13. Pitchy Iron ore. Efcnpecherez. Ftr phofphate.

Colour pitch-black, paffing fometimes into blackifh-
brown, and even deep reddifh -brown. Occurs maffive.
Surface earthy, and dull. Internally it is ghltening ; lull.'-e
refinous. Frafturc foliated, conchoidal, and foinetim.es
line-grained, uneven. Fragments indeterminate, tolerably
fliarp-cdged. Opaque ; femi-hard ; brittle. Not very
eafily frangible, and moderately heavy. Sp. gr. 3-956.

It melts eafily before the blow-pipe, and forms a black
enamel. According to Vauquelin, it confilU of
Phofphoric acid 27

Oxyd of iron 3 i

Oxyd of manganefe ^ z

Is found near I.,imogcs, in France.

Sp. 1 4. Green iron earth. Griine eifenerde. he fer tcr-
reux -vert. Ferrum ochraceum •vlncU.

This IS divided into two fubfpecies; friable green iron
earth, and coherent green iron c rih.

Subfp. I . Friable green iron earth. — Colour fidcin-green.

Occurs niafSve, aiid dilferainated j and«oalills of particles

6 whiw b

I R O N.

»-liic!i are without luftre. Fragments indeterminate ; foils ;
is foft, and very fofr. Sometimes friable. Meagre to the
touch. Eafily frangible, and moderately heavy.

Siihfp. 2. Cohfren! gnat iron eiuth. — Co\mit rather darker
than the laft fubfpecics. Occurs maffivc, and corroded.
Irile;nally dull. Fracture fine earthy, palTing into even,
and fometimes into fplintery. Fragments indeterminate;
foft. Rather brittle, and inclining to heavy.

Before tlic blow-pipe, it becomes firil red, and then of a
dark brown ; but does not melt. It tinges borax of a. yel-
low colovir, inclining to olive-green. No exaft analyfss has
been made of thi:. fpecics ; but it i<; fuppofed by Werner to
have iron and phufphoric acid for its principal ingredients.

It is a rare mineral, and has hitherto been only found at
Brauiifdorf and Schneibcrg, in Saxony, where it occnrs in
veins : in the former place, accompanied with quartz and
pyrites ; and in the latter, with quartz and native bif-
mnth.

Sp. I). Cubi-orc. JVurfcler'::: Per arfmiiate.

Colour olive-green, of difTerent degrees of intenfity.
Occurs maffive, difleminated, and cryftallized in fmall and
very fmall cubes, which are fometimes flattened and trun-
cated at the angles. Planes of the cry (lals fmoofh and fplen-
dent. Internally it is gliltening, and its lullre between
pearly and adamantine. Fradure imperfect foliated. Frag-
ments indeterminate. Occurs in granular dilUnft concre-
tions. It is tranflucent ; foft ; brittle, and gives a llreak of
a ftraw-yellow colour. Sp. gr. 3.000. It appears fome-
times m the form of a reddilh-yellow powder, which is thinly
diilributed over the furface.

, Before the biow-pipe it fwells up, and emits an arfenical
odour ; melting afterwards into a grey metallic globule,
fliglitly tinged with yellow. From the analylis of Ciiene-
fix, it appears to be compofed of

Arfenic acid - - 31.

Oxyd of iron - 45.,-

Oxvd of copper . - y.

Rile'x - . - 4.

Water of cryllallization 10.5'

It occ'jrs in veins, accompanied with fome ores of copper,
quartz, mica, and fcldfpar.

The only places that have, hitherto, afforded it, arc the
mines of Carraiach and Muttrell, in Cornwall.

Until the account pubUdied of this mineral by the count
de Bournon, and Mr. Clu-nevix, in the Pliilofoplilcal
TraiifaClions for iSci, it was niillaken for an arfeniat of
copper.

§ 2. AJfay and Analyfis.

Since the metal contained in every ore is of fo much
greater fpecific gravity than any other of its accompanying
ingredients, it will be eafy to form a tolerable idea of tiie
value of an iron-ore by the weight of a given l)ulk.

Previoufly to working any iron-ore it tliould be very mi-
iiiitciy analyfed, both in the humid and dry way. By the
humid procefs we flud afecrtain the exact proportions of its
conilituents, without which it would be a mere work of
chai ce to attempt to cxtra£l the iron in the metallic form.

When we are acquainted with the nature of the earthy
matter in combination with the ore, we know with the
grcatefl certainty what fubilances we ought to add in tlie
crucible, for the purpofc of eliminating the metal. All fiicli
fubilances are coiled fluxes, merely becaufc they form fullblc

compounds with the earthy mat^r of the mificral. It is to
this treatment of a fmall quantity of the ere that we give the
name of affaying.

The procefs by which the component parts are afcertained,
confills in fubjecting a fmall quantity of the ore in line pow-
der to the action of an acid, and fometimes to an alkali.
By this means the whole is dilTolved, and the difierent mate-
rials of which it is compofed are feparately precipitated by
different chemical re-agents. The procefs, however, varies
confiderably with the nature of the ore to be examined.

Iron ores, as fubjecls of analyfis, are divided into three
heads ; namely, fulphurets, oxyds, and falls.

The firll are diilingiiillied b"y tlieir gen. ;;:,:. . ' -.r,
but more particularly by the fuffocating ti. 1 ;

acid gas, vv-hicli they afford by being heatL J o

open a;r. The fecond confift of iron uiiitid \win o>.\ j;(_ii,
and are by f^u- the moll common of all. Nearly the wliole
of the iron-ores in ufe are of this kind, contaimng alfo dif-
ferent proportions of earthy matter in their compoiition.

The third divilion comprehends fuch as conllli: of the oxyd
of iron combined witli fome acid, and hence are called I'alts.
The principal varieties of thefe are the phofphats, fulphats,
arlVniats, and carbonats.

The apparatus em])loyed in the humid analyfis will be a
lamp fitted up with different-fized (liding-bearers, a filver cru-
cible, and fmall portable furnace, with a fand-bath, and one
of water, for drying precipitates ; capfules of glafs and
porcelain ; precipitating glaffes, funnels, and filtering paper.
For reducing the ore to powder, a mortar of hardened lleel
will be lirfl neceffary, and afterwards one of agate, to grind-
it very fine. Accurate weights and fcales will be highly
requifite, witli cups of filver or platina.

The re-agents wanted \\\\\ be fwlphuric, muriatic, and
nitric acids. Pure potadi, foda, and borax, in the folid
f)rm. Solutions of the lame, and alfo the pure aqua ammo-
nia. The fully latui.itcd carbonats of all the alkalis, and the
fubc.irbonats of the fame. The triple prufl'.at of potafh
and iron ; and, when mt rely ufcd as a tell, prufTiat of lime'
wi;l anfw.jr. The anal vll fliould, alfo, have in his poflefiiou
po ..,.•)■- IT l.l.iuonsof all the feparate fubllanees of which"
t;,e ii iii.i-.l :, fuppofed to eonfilt, for the purpole of com-
paring real rcfults with tliofe obtained in Ins experiments.

If the ore to be analyfed be a pure fulphuret, 100 grains,
or any other given weight, may be reduced to powder, ob-
Icrving to weigh it after the operation, to fee if any of the
mortar has been abraded, which, wiien the ore is very hard,
is to be expefted ; and the inereafed weight mufl in that
cafe be noted down.

Let this powder be boiled with nitric acid in a long narrow-
beaked glafs vcffel, which Ih.ould be very thin at the bottom,
to avoid cracking. By tiii. n.eihod the fulphnr of the ore
will be converted lit - i: 1 ,> ij ; part of the nitric acid
v.-ill be dccompo! . . - • i,- remainder fly off, I'o that

the refulting flui-i v . . ; , ,, ...; eonfilt of the iron diffolved
in fulphuric acid.

To this folution add the muriat of barytes, till a precipii
tation ceafes to take place. When the precipitate has fub-
fided, and the fluid is become perfedly clear, gently pour olT
the liquor, which is a folution now of iron in the muriatic acid.
Let the precipitate, confuting of fulphat of baryies, be re-
peatedly wafhed with hot dilliiled water, till the liquid gives
no precipitate with intrat of filver, and afterwards add the
wafhings to the fluid firlt poured off. After this white
powder has been dried on the Iteam-bath, which is an appa-
ratus conllructed for this particular ufe, let it be weighed,
and for every 100 grains of the fiibflance allow 21.3 ot ful-
phur. To the liquid parts wluch contain the oxyd of iron,

add

I R O N.

add a clear folution of the fiib-carbonat of potadi. Let it
boil for a little time, ar.d the oxyd of iron will fubfide.
AVafli it and dry it a'tabovT, afterward"^ weighing llie prodcO.
The quantity of oxygen in the oxyd of iron thi^s obtain-
ed, mav be known by the quantity of iron ob'ained
from it in theprocefsof alTaying, which \vc (lia!l afterwards
give. If the' ore'conliil of oxygen and iron only, it may,
without any previous treatment, be referred to the dry pro-
cefs. Wiien, however, earthy matter is combined with it,
the humid analyfis (hould be reforted to, which requires a
different mode of proceeding to that already given.

Let lOo grains of the ore be reduced to a fine powder, as
above directed, obferving to weigh it afterwards, for the
purpofe of afcertaining whether any of the materials of
the mortar be mixed with it. The matter fo added, if
it be acquired from the agate mortar, may be deemed
pure files.

To this powder add 300 grains of dry potafh, in a filver
crucible, capable of holding about fix or fcven ounces.
Pour to the mixture a very little water, jud fufficient to
moifte.i the whole. Apply a gentle heat in the firft inftance,
to prevent the mafs from fwelHrg too much, and gradually
increafe the temperature till the crucible is red-hot. The
mafs will now be in a ftate of fufion more or lefs perfect, ac-
cording to the quantity of filex contained in the ore. If,
from a great proportion of alumiiie being prefent, the fufion
fhould be very imperfedl, more potafh mud be added, and
the heat continued and raifedaahigh as the crucible will bear.
When the crucible, with its contents, are fufficiently cooled,
let both together be put into a capfule of porcelain, and
nearly filled with dillilled water. The whole Ihould then be
fet upon a faiid-bath, r.nd boiled for fome time, taking care
to ftir it very frequently. Tiiis will detach the matter ad-
luM-ing to the crucible, and if any filex remain una61ed upon,
it will be dilTolvcd by the potalh.

Let the whole be now faturated with muriatic acid, and
even added a little in excefs ; and then gently boiled till all
the hquid is evaporated. During this, the mixture mud be
conftanlly ftirred ; and particularly at the time the mafs
is becoming dry.

To this refiduum let a large quantity of diftilled water b^
poured. All the fub (lances foluble in the acid will be now
taken up. If it contain filex that will be left at the bottom.
Let the whole be decanted into a narrow tall glafs vefiel, to
fuffer the filex to fubfide. Carefully pour off the clear
liquor, and then add freih hot diililled water, and continue
to do fo till the fluid does not caufe a precipitate with nitrat
of filver ; obferving to fave all tlie wafliirgs which are acted
upon by that tell. Tlie remaining water may now be evapo-
rated from the filex, and the powder, being heated red-hot
in a crucible of filver or platina, fhould be then weighed.
If it be pure, it will be of a delicate white colour, not adhering
to the fingers, as is the cafe with fome of the oilier earths.

The folution containing the remaining fubftances fltould
be evaporated to as fmall a quantity as poffible, fo that the
fluid remain liquid and clear. To this let a faturated folu-
tion of the fubcarbonat of potafh be added, and afterwards
boiled a few minutes. By this means, the whole of the in-
gredients will be precipitated together, and when all of
them have perfectly fubfided, decant off the liquor, re-
peatedly wafhing it with hot water. The firft decanted li-
quor, with the wafhipgs, may be thrown away. Laftly,
evaporate the remaining water, till the fohd matter is ot a
pulpy confidence. To this, in a capfule of good porcelain,
add a folution of pure potafli. The aluniine will be thus
.diffolvcd, while all the other fubilances will remain un-

touched. Let this fluid be poured off, and frefh water
mingled with it, to take away all the alumine. Then, to
the p.ixture containing the alumine, add not only as much
r i ■. : -■ will faturate the potafli, but alfo a quantity fufScient
• c'.i'lMvc ihe alumine, when the liquid will be quite cle?r,
li::..ily, to this pour in carbonat of ammonia, till no more pre-
cipi'.ate falls down. The precipitate, when wafhed and dried
as above direfied, and heated to rednefs in a filver crucible,
may be confidered as pure alumine.

The refiduum from wl'.ich the alumine vras lad taken
is now to be difTolved in fulphnric acid, diluted with a large
quantity of water, the acid being flightly in excefs. This
folution may contain magnefia, iron, and probably manga-
nefe. If iime were prefent, it will be left infoluble at
the bottom of the vefTej, in the ftate of fulphat of lime.
The fmall portion of this fubliance difTolved by the Huid,
may be precipitated by the addition of alcohol. The pow-
der, when coUefted and dried at a dull red heat, mu(t
be weighed; allowing for every 100 parts 42 of pure
lime. The fohition from which the lime wss feparated,
mud next be faturated with a folution of the neutral carbonat
of potafh. In a few minutes the iron will be precipitated
in the ftate of oxyd, while the magnefia and mangancfe will
be difTolved by the carbonic acid. The iron niuil be fe..
parated, dried, and weighed. If with the folution containing
the magnefia and manganefe a folution of hydrofulphuret of
potafh be mingled, the latter will be precipitated in the form
of a fulphuret ; and this being waflied and heated till the
fulphur is driven off, the oxyd of manganefe will be left in
fufficient purity.

Tlie magnefia ftill held in folution maybe precipitated br
adding a fufficient quantity of pure potafli. Tiie produtt
muft h< heated to rednefs, and weighed. The weights of the
different fubftances being added together, will, if great care
has been ufed, be within one or two per cent, of the quan-
tity originally fubmitted to experiment. If the deficiency
be confiderable, fome miftake mud have been made, and it
will be neceffary to repeat the analyfis.

In the examination of falts of iron, nothing more is re-
quifite than to difengagethe acid with which the iron is com-
bined. The arfeniat of iron, for example, muft be boiled
with potafh, which will feparate the arfcnlc acid, and leave
the oxyd of iron but very little acted upon. The arfenic
acid may be afterwards precipitated by nitrat of lead ; allow-
ing for every 100 parts of the arfeniat of lead, when dried,
33 parts of arfenic acid.

If the ore be a pure carbonat, to ico grains in powder,
add an equal quantity of fulphuric acid, in a glafs vefTel
which can be placed over a lamp. Heat the mixture for
fome time, ftirring it with a glafs rod. The carbonic acid
will be thus expelled, and its quantity will be indicated by
the lofs of weight fufiained. Care fhould, of courfe, be
taken that the heat be not too great, otherwife the evaporation
of fluid matter may create error in the experiment. The iron
may be afterwards treated as in the analylis of the earthy ores,
and its quantity afcertained, by the methods there defcribed.
Having learned the exaft proportions of the ingredients
united in the ore, we may, with fome degree of certainty,
proceed to the afTay by the crucible and fluxes. If the ore
confid of oxyd of iron fimplv, nothing more is neceflary
than to introduce it into a crucible with about half its weight
of charcoal powder, and any fubdance fufceptible of vitri-
fication, fo as to keep off the air. This may be either
pounded glafs, or equal parts of lime and clay. But perhaps
the bed fubftance that can be employed, is the mod fufible
part of the blaft furnace cinder, which is the leaft coloured
with oxyd of iron. This may be employed in quantity

amounting

IRON.

"ting to about half the weight of the mineral to be

1 iio eartliy iron ore muft be treated accoiding to the re-
u.k of the humid aiialyfis ; fucli earth being added as a flux,
as will make the mod fufible compound with that found by
analyfis to be prefent. Tlie carbonaceous matter may be
from y to i the weiglit of oxyd of iron.

The furnace bell calculated for thefe experiments is called
an aflay furnace, and is capable of producing a great lieat.
See Furnace.

The crucibles fhouid be very fmall, not capable of holding
more than three fluid ounces ; and they fliould be provided
with covers turned to them in a lathe before they are
burned. The aflay may be deemed finifhed when the whole
is in a ftate of fulion, and the metallic button feparated,
which, being weighed, will give t!ic/>iT ««/j_j.- of iron in
th; ore.

§ 3. ReJuRlon of Ores, and ManufaFiurt of P'lg.'tr.^n.

Although iron in its pure ftate is almoil an infufible fub-
flance, it is capable of alTuming the hquid form, by being
combined with other matter. With fulphur it forms a fufible
mafs, of which we ftiall treat hereafter. It is alfo rendered
fufible at a temperature fomething higher than that required
to melt copper, by being combined with about -J-th of its
weight of carbon. It is to this compound in different pro-
portions that the name of pig. iron is given, and it is fo de-
nominated, becaufe it is call into mafies of a femi-cylindrical
fhape, called //f J-.

The fufibility of this compound of iron and carbon,
enables us to extract the metal from the ore to the greateft
advantage. It is now comsion, particularly in our own
country, to obtain the ircn in this form, previous to making
it into bar, or malleable iron. Formerly call metal was not
much in ufe, except for the manufadlure of bar-iron and
fteel ; w'hile in the prefent day, a much greater proportion
of it is confumed in that ftate than in any other ; and the
majority of our furnaces, too, are folely employed for this
branch of manufafture.

The procefs by which pig-iron is obtained from the dif-
ferent iron ores is called ymfAinj; and the furnaces employed
for the purpofe are caUed fmelt'tng, or hlajl furtiaca. See
BL.\ST_/ar«arir, and Blowing.

The ores of iron require different treatment in the fmelting
procefs, according to the quantity of heterogeneous matter
with which the metal is combined.

In all the ores the iron is in the ftate of oxyd, and would
at leaft require a ftrong heat in contaft with combuftible
matter for their reduction. In moll, the oxyd of iron
is combined with a confiderable proportion of earthy matter,
and they are then denominated iron-Jloms. Thefe may be
generally divided into two claftes ; the one cal ed argilla-
ceous, from abounding with excefs of alumine, or clay ; and
the other calcareous, from lime being their principal earthy
conftituent. Tlie forner of thefe iron-ftones is by far the
mod abundant in this country.

But, befides the earthy matter and oxygen in this clafs of
metallic minerals, many of them contam fulphur, which is
doubtlefs combined with the iron in the ftate of pyrites.
Arfenic and manganefe are alfo fometimes united with them.
Of the above, the arfenic and fulphur are extricated, pre-
vioufly to fmelting, by the procefs called roajling. For
this purpofe, the ftone is ftratified with refufe pit coal, and
burnt in large heaps in the open air. The heat is fufficient to
diffipate the greateft part of the above volatile materials,
leaving behind the earth and oxyd of iron ; and alfo the
manganefe, when the ore abounds with that metal.

In the procefs of fmelting, two things are abfolutcly
efliential to the fcparation of the iron. Firft, the metal itielf
muft be rendered fluid, whicii will then, by its great fpecific
gravity, defcend to the loweft parts of the furnace, and
iome other compound muft, at the fame time, be eliminated
in a liquid form, fo as to float upon its furfacc, and defend
it from the influence of the blaft. If the ore confifted of
iron and oxygen alone, the carbon of the coke would com-
bine with the oxygen ; and an excefs of carbon would alfo
unite with the iron to render it liquid at that temperature ;
but here would be a deficiency of the fluid vitreous matter
neceffary to the defence of the iron from the oxygen of the
blaft. Hence it will be necefl'iiry to employ fon-.e fi:brtance
with fuch iron-ore, which fliall be capable of forming a hquid
fcoria, or cinder, for the prefervation of the carburetted iron
when once obtained. So far as obfervation has dictated, it
would feem that the cinder cannot be too perfeftly fluid.
The principles on which the fufibility of the cinder depends,
are not fimply confined to the materials ufed in the fmelting
oi iron, but refer to all compound fufible matter with which
we are acquainted. It may be obferved, in general, and,
indeed, almoft without exception, that the fufibility of an
alloy of two metals is fufible at a temperature much lefs
than the arithmetical mean between the fiifiiig points of the
metals themfelves. For inftance, an alloy of lead and tin
is more fufible than either of the metals compofmg it, and a
fimilar mixture of copper and lilver may be ufed as a folder
for either filver or copper feparately. This property is not
lefs confpicuous in the earths. None cf them in their pure
ftate can be fufed in our hotteft furnaces ; nor fcarcely
with a ftream of oxygen gas ; aithougli certain proportions
of ihcm are, together, fufible at the heat of a moderate
air-furnace. Lime p.nd clay, when feparately taken, may be
conf.dered as incapable of fufion at any degree of heat,' yet
produced in furnaces ; and lliU, in certain proportions, they
are too fufible to be made into even bricks or crucibles. It
will appear, from thefe facls, that the iron-mafter cannot
pay too much attention to the fubjeft of the relative fufibi-
lity of the earths in jifterent proportions. Moll of the iron-
ores of this country are argillaceous ; that is, confift, befides
oxyd of iron, of a fmall quantity of filex or flint, and a large
proportion of clay. LiT.eftone has always been employed
for fuch ores, and, by combining with the clay and flint, as well
as with a fmall portion of the oxyd of iron, forms a fcoria or
cinder, cafily capable of fufit^n. Since, however, the pro-
portions of thefe earths in the ore cannot be uniform, the
quantity of limeftone to be added ought to vary accordi:ig
to circumftances. We may hence infer, that if the fufibility
of the cinder depends upon the particular proportions of
the earths prefent, the iron-maker ought to poflefs a very
perfect knowledge of the relative fufibility of difl^erent com-
binations of thefe bodies, and being at the fame time aware
of the component parts of the ore to be reduced, he will not
be at a lofs what ftiould be added in the furnace, for the
purpofe of producing the moft fufible cinder. But it will
be proper here to obferve, that the earths prefent, however
accurate may be their proportions, will not of themfelves
form a cinder of fufficient fufibility, without the united aid
of the oxyd of iron. This fuft will be very familiar to thofe
who have had experience in the ufe of fire-bricks. Clays
which are free from that ingredient do not burn of a red
colour ; and hence the white appearance of fire-bricks is a
tolerable teft of their geodncfs. But thofe, on the contrary,
which exhibit a rednefs on being fired, are eafily fufed, and
unfit, confequently, to be ufed in thofe fituations which are
expofed to great heat. The proportions i:f lime, clay, and
oxyd of irou, necefiary to conftitute the moft fufible com-
pound)

IRON.

jound, lias not/ as we have yet heard, been direftly afcer-
tained by experiment. An inquiry, undertaken w'ith this
view, would, however, be of great importance to tlie iron-
iTiafter. It might be efFeftcd in two ways ; firft, by mixing
•different proportions of the materials employed ; and, fo-
condly, by a direct analyfis of the moft fufible part of the
blaft-fnrnace cinder, and that with which the bcft and moll
carbonated iron has been produced. The cinder v,-hich
Jufes at the lowed temperature will be beil known by its
-frafture after cooling. It may, in general, be deemed good
in proportion to its earthinefs when folid, and particularly
iliould the outer cruil appear glaffy and tranfparent. A
reafon may be given for this appearance, by reference to
fome fadls announced by fir J.nties Hall and Dr. Hope, in
accounting for the opacity of the whin-done. They found
that when common flint-glafs, wliicli is Kiore lufihle than
;the blad-fiirnace cinder, was allowed to cool flowly, the
niafs became opaque, and put on a ftony appearance.
They hence conceded, tliat the whin-done might have been
tranfparent, and have poflefled a gl.ifTy frafture, had it been
cooled i-apidly. The inference to be drawn from this will be
obvious ; for the more fufiblc the cinder, the longer it is in
■cooling, and confequcntly the more opaque. What
ftrengthens riiis idea, too, is, that the exterior of a mafs of
binder is more tranfparent, almoft condantly, than the inte-
-rior ; and the centre of that in particular, under which the
bed iron is made, having a ftony frafture, with a thin vitre-
ous flicU furrounding its outfide. In beginning to work
.any new ore of iron, ihe firll Hep is to analyfe it, both in the
dry and humid way. By the iird, we get'the jjfr rentage of
iron in the one ', and by the fecond, we become acquainted
■B'ith the quality and proportions of its earthy matter. The
next ftep is to analyfe the coal to be employed, for the pur-
pofe of afcerlaining the quantity of carbon it contains, and
alfo the nature and proportions of its earthy refidua. Thefe
fails being clearly mai!e out, there will be nothing neceffary
"but to add to thefe materials a proper mi.Kture of fuch fub-
■fiance as will m.ake the mod fulible cinder. If the ore be
iargiUaceaus, or, in other words, if clay predominate, lime is
to be the material employed. Indeed, ores of this defciiption
.are fo very common, that lime ha.s been thought the only
/ubftance to be ufed, under all circumdances, for the pur-
pcies of a flux ; and fo completely ignorant have the iron-
makers been of tlie philofophy of the procefs, that it has
■even been attempted to be added when the ore has already
-abounded with calcareous ingredients.

Keeping in view the principles we have juft laid down,
the management of tbe calcareous ore will be equally ca^'y
-with the mode of working the argillaceous ; fince, in fuch
.cafe, we have only to employ clay for the flux indead of
lime. But the bed method would, perhaps, be, if the com-
ponent parts of an argillaceous and a calcareous ore were
fufficiently well known, to mix the two together in proper
jroportinns.
- Whatever may be the fubdance employed, whether it be
iimeftone for an argillaceous ore, or clay for a calcareous ore,
it diould be very minutely analyfed, as thofe fubdanccs are
'fcarcely ever found in a date of purity. The lime (honk!, if
•poUible, be the Ibell linicllone. At all events, the magr.efian
jVratum Ihou'd be avoided, fince that fubdance tends mi:ch
-to iefltn the fulibility of earthy compounds. Some fubdanccs,
to which we give the name of clay, frequently confirt of a
Isrge proportion of fome other earth.

Auother thing to be attended to, alfo, is the ftate of oxy-
idatioii in which we find the iron-ore.

If it be highly oxrdated, more of the carbonaceous matter
«riil .fee required for its reduction, and in all probability a

longer time; but, befides this, a greater quantity of the
oxyd of iron, will combine with the earthy matter, which,
although it may contribute to the fufibility of the cind.v,
a large portion of the iron will be loft. On the contrary,
when the iron is in a low ftate of oxydation, the whole of
the iron may be apt to combine with the carbon, and the
earthy matter may not get a fufficient quantity of the
oxyd to render it, in a proper degree, fuiible. In fuch
cafe, it would be neceffary to add fonle oxyd of iron, wliick
might more eafily vitrify and enter into the compofition of
the cinder.

The coal employed in the fmelting of iron, for the pur-
pofe of being coked, is commonly laid in heaps in the open
air, and afterwards fet on fire. , When the combufiion has-
gone on to a certain degree, the fire is checked by covering
it with dud and preventing all poffible accefs of air. For
farther particulars, fee Coke.

It is effential that the coke diould be harder than it can
generally be made in the open air without corUiderable
v\ ade ; and we recommend, therefore, the method employe<l
in making the cokes for melting fieel. The coal, which is
very foit, is piled up in ovens of the fliape of an creA
frui'uiii of a cone. The air is let in at an aperture near
to the bottom, which is contradled in fize as the coinbuftion
becomes rapid, and ultimately clofed. The whole mafs
will at this time have acquired fuch a degree cf heat, as
not only to drive off all the volatile matter, but to render
the coke extremely hard. There is a confiderable faving
in this mode of coking, and the coke is not only more com-
padl, but better adapted for the generahty of ores of iron.

In fmelting the argillaceous ore, the proportions of ths
roafted ore, and the limedone, are governed entirely by the
coke employed. The latter is always a fixed quai.tity,
and the ore and limedone are varied according to the quality
of the iron to be made and the working order of the fur-
nace. In proportion as more or lefs of lime and ore are
added to the dandard quantity of coke, the furnace is faid
to carry a greater or lefs burthen.

It would be u.Q-lefs to give any precife proportions of the
ore and limedone to a given quantity ol the fuel, iince they
are found to vary with the nature of the coal in uk- ;
and, wh.it is not a little remarkable, the proportions will
frequently vary in two furnnces working with the fame
coal, and even in the fame furnace at different limes.

The burthen of the furnace will alfo vary with the-
quali'y of iron to be made, that is, as it is required to con-
tain more or lefs carbon. In making the dark-grey iron
called N' I, and which contains the greateft proportion of
carbon, the burthen mull be lefs than that required to make
the lefs carburetted iron, commonly called white iron, or
forge.pig. '

To give a general idea of the proportions of the ma-
terials, we fliall prefent in detail, the quantities ufed at a
blad-furnacc, making in general good melting iron, which
is of an intermediate qua'ity between N I and the forgr-pig.
The ore is argiUaceou.s, containing about 27 per cent, of
iron ; the coal rather foft, but having a good proportion
of carbonaceous matter ; and the limedone good, being of
the flic ly kind before fpoken of The furnace is about 45
feet high, and I2.§ feet diameter in the v.'ideft part. It
works with a bright tuyere, and receives from the blad
about 2500 cubic feet of air in a minute, through a cir-
cular aperture of 2^ inches in diameter.

The average charges of coke per Jhift, as it is termed,
or in the fpace of 12 hours, are 50 (each 2^c-:ut.), or nearly
feven tons. The calcined ore for good meiiing iron is about
the fame quantity j and for forge-pigj or the lead carburetted

variety.

R O N.

vsriety, fix of ccke to fevcn of ore. The limeRone iin-
bi.irnt, undw the fame circunnihnces, is to coke as four to
eleven ; and, for melting metal, retains a lirr.ilar ratio. Witli
t'le above charge per day, that is, for 12 hours, this fur-
nace maiies On the average about 40 tons of melting iron
per week.

Some furnaces cany fo little burthen as not to yield
niore than 14 or 14 tons weekly; wl::!ll other;;, particularly
in Scath Wale?, produce, with the fame ftzcd furnace, as
much as 60 and even 70 tons in an equal time. The burthen
of thefe furnices is very great, the ore to the coke being in
fome cafes as i j to 7 ; and the quality of the iron is
ur;iforraly inferior. Sinoe the cavity in the furnace is con-,
ftantly kept full of the above materials, it may eafily be
conceived that the whole muft be in many intermediate
ftages, from the fully melted iron to the unchanged ore.
At the point where the greatell heat is produced, which
v.iU be a little above l!ie level of the blaft, every thing
capable of fufion will be affuming the liquid form. We
cannot, however, for a moment fuppofe, that the iron at
this point is in a (late of oxyd, fince it would of ntjceflity
Leall vitrified, and enter into tlie com.pofition of the cinder.
If the iron, even in its carburetted form, were to remain
long at fo great a temperature, and within the influence of
fo much oxygen, it would firft lofe all its carbon, and ulti-
mately pafs into the (late of vitreous oxvd. As, however,
the oxygen of the blaft rifes in the furnace, it comes in
contaft with the carbon of the coke, and is very foon con-
verted into carbonic acid gas. That point in the furnace,
therefore, where the whole of the oxygen has entered into
combination with carbon, may be denominated the com-
mencement of cementation, or the point where the oxyd
of iron is liril deprived of oxygen, and ultimately faturated
or cemenleil, as it is termed, with carbon. From this point
to the top of the furnace the procefs of cementation is
going on with different degrees of rapidity, proportionate
to the temperature. It is found by experiment, that if a
piece of iron-ore, particularly any of tlie oxyds that con-
tain but little earthy matter, be expofed in a clt:fe veiFel
in contaft with carbon, it will firll lofe tlie whole of its
oxygen, and afterwards become fo faturated with carbon,
as to be capable of fufing into the bell pig-iron. Hence
it appears that the reduciion of the ore, fo far as relates to
the deoxydation and carbonization of the iron, may take
place at a temperature below fufion, and without the mafs
of ore changing its form. The ore expofed to the car-
bonaceous matter in the cementing part of the furnaa?,
muft' as completely undergo a fimilar change as if it were
in the clofeft vefiel ; for the oxygen is excluded by the
prefence of carbonic acid gas. When the carboni-,icd,
but yet folid, iron, in the form of the ore, falls below the
cementing poinf, or perhaps Ihort of that, it begins te fufe.
The earthy matter of the ore, being in contaft. with lime,
begins alio to affume the liquid form ; and wliihl the melted
metal is expofed to the oxygen of the blall, a fmall por-
tion of oxyd of iron is produced, which will enter into
the compofition of the cinder, and thus tend to increafe its
fufibility. The liquid iron now crops into the chamber
of the fumace called the hearth ; and the liquid cinder,
behig of lefs fpccific gravity, floats upon its furface, com-
pletely defendirg it from the oxygen of the blaft. Hence
we fee that the column of the blaft-furnace may be divided
into three portions ; the upper portion, or cementing part ;
the middle, or melting part ; and the chamber, or liearth,
*'hcre the metal is preferved till it is in fufficient quantity
to be run out into pigs. The cementing portion is by far
Vol. XIX. ^

the mod extenfive, and will vary in ns extent ui-h the
ftrength of the bl.il^.

Sime the combuftion muft be in proportion to the quan-
tity of oxygen confunied in a given time, the heat of the
furnace will depend upon the quantity and velocity of the
air blown into it to a certain extent. If the blall ftiould
have too great a velocity, the oxygen would pafs through
a greater fpace in the furnace than is dcftrable before it
v>'a5 diCpofed of, and the cenientiug portion would be leflcned
in confcquence. On the contrary, if the velocity were too
liitle, the heat would be confined to the vicinity of the
tuyere, and the cementing, as well as the melting proceflcs,
would be retarded for want of heat.

When the blaft is fufficient to generate the nccefTary heat
for melting the cinder and the metal perfeftly, the extent
of the cementing portion will depend upon the height of
the furnace. 1 his gives us one very fatisfaclory reafon,
why a fm'nace is required to be higher for the ufe of coke,
than when it is heated with charcoal ; fince the carbon of
the latter enters into the compofition of the iron with much
more facility than that of the former.

According to experiment, it appears that the facility with
which carbon enters into combination with iron, in a clofi
veftel, is invcrfely as it?, aggregation or cohefion. Hence
it is found, that the carbon obtained from animal fubftances,
which is foft and porous, is bett calculated to convert iron
into a carburet.

It will appear from tlie laft obfervation, and from what
has been faid on the nature of coke, that the carbon em-
ployed for cementation fliould be mechanically difTerent
from that required to generate the great and permanent
heat neceiTary to the fufion of the materialsi The one
in the cementing portion fhould, therefore, if it were prac-
ticable, be furrounded with coke of the fofteft kind, while
the materials within the iitfiuence of the blaft, and occupying
the meltiug portion, fliould be fupplied with fuch as is
harder.

In making the moft highly carbonized iron, or what ii
called N^ i, it fometimes happens that a portion of the
iron unites with a great excefs of carbon, forming a fub-
ilance, which, when cold, appears in bright fliining fcales.
It is found to poflefs moft ot the properties of plumbago,
differing from that fubltance only in containing lefs car-
bon. This carburet is no doubt in the liquid form in the
furnace, and, being of much lefs fpccific gravity than the
iron, floats upon its furface. It is fo much more infufible
than the metal, that before the iron enters the moulds of the
pig-bed it is feen fwimming at the top in the fcaly form
before mentioned.

This fubftance is called by the v.orkm.en L'l/h ; and when-
ever it appears, is a certain fign that the furnace is working
on the beft fort of iron. So furely, indeed, is it the cafe,
that N I, or the moll highly carburetted metal, has le-
ceis'ed the epithet of ii/hy, becaufe i-iju is the common
attendant on its produclion.

The moil remarkable and anomalous circumftance pre-
fented in the fmclting of iror, is the difference in quantity
and quality of the iron made in winter and in fummer, whea
all other things arc equal. It is a fatl well afcertainfd, that
in order to n;ake the fame quantity and quahty of iron in
fummer as in winter, tlv; furnace will not carry fo great a
burthen, and, at the fame time, the means of generating heal
requires to be increafed.

Various opinions have been given to explain this curiou»

faft. Some have fuppofed that the proportion of the oxygen

was lefs in the atmofpliere in fummer than in winter. Otliers,

3 K th.t

IRON.

tfiat tJie excefs of moldure contained in the air in fummer
alH)ve that in the winter, might explain the phenomenon.
Whatever may be the caiife of this difference in the blaft-
furnace, the fame may equally be referred to common fires,
which, it is well known to every one, are much hotter in
winter than in fummer. If the Lavoifierian docln;;e of
ccmbuftion were true, we (hould not expedt that the power
of air to generate heat would vary with the temperature,
fince the fame caloric which h.id contributed to dilate the
oxy,^en in fummer, would be g-iven up when the oxygen
combined with the carbon. Unfortunately for that doc-
trine, however, we find that the quantity of heat generated
during the combination of oxygen, is direftly as the quan-
tity of oxygen, whatever may be its Hate, whether fohd,
liquid, or aeriform.

It appears from general obfervation, tliat the difference in
th^ quantity and quality of the iron made in winter and
fummer inay be, in a great meafure, referred to changes
arifing from variation of temperature. The average refult
of this atmofpheric influence is different with different blalt-
furnacc?, and, indeed, with the materials employed ; but in
general the quantity varies in winter and fummer from j th to
ith, befides the alteration of quality, which in fome furnaces
cannot be prevented by any change in the burthen.

If the whole of this difference depend upon the tempe-
rature cf the blaft fent into the furnace, we muft expedl to
find it either in the increafed rarity of the air, or in the pre-
fence of moifture, which exifts more abundantly in the atmo-
fphere in fummer than in winter ; or, perhaps, it may be
attributab'e to both thefe circumftances.

Soon after the conftituent parts of water were difcovered,
fome iron-mafters attempted to produce combuftion by blow-
ing fteam into the furnace. But, notwithflanding the great
proportion of oxygen exifting in aqueous vapour, their ex-
peftations were far from being realized, and the fcheme was
given up by them under a firm conviction that it never could
fucceed.

Tliis experiment, however, fervcd to {hew that no more
mifchief might be expetted from the vapour of wa'.er in the
atmofphere, than its merely excluding a portion of oxygen.
Conceiving it, therefore, to have no other influence in the
furnace, we will fubmit fome calculations to the reader, in
order to flijw the abfohile difference in the quantity of
oxygen fent into the furnace in winter and in fummer, and
to afcertain what fiiarc of the defeft may be attributed to
this circumftance, or whether the whole may not fafely be
referred to it.

We have much to regret that we are not in poffefiion of
more experiments as to the temperature of the air fent into
the furnace at different times of tlic year. The mere tem-
perature of the atmofphere is not fuiBcient for this purpofe,
frncc the air gives out much heat by compreffion in the blow-
ing cylinder. In a former part of this work, (fee Bl.\st-
furnace), a table of fome obfervations was given, on
which, as far as they go, reliance may confidently be placed.
In this table the temperature of the air was Hated when it
tnlered the blo-ving cylinder, and after it had been com-
preffed into a vault, from which it paffed into the furnace.
If we take the temperature on its entrance into the furnace
in winter at 50 , and in fummer at 100", the difference will
be 50', and the variation in the quantity of oxygen will be
inverfely as the increafed volume of the air. It is found
that elallic fluids are augmented in bulk by one degree of
Fahrenheit .00208 of the whole. Therefore, the quantity
cf ojcygen at 50' will be to that at 100^ as i 4- (100 —

50) X .00208 : I ; and the oxygen, confequently, i..
fummer will be .104, or little more than .j^-.th lefs than i;j
winter.

The defeft arifing from the relative quantities of moif-
ture contained in the air in winter and fummer will be very
tripling, except where the water-regulator is employed
inilead of the air vault or common regulator. (See Blast -
furnace.) When the air does not come in contact wit!-
any thing moift after entering the blowing cylinder, in order
to learn the quantity of water prefent, we have only to
afcertain the relative proportions of vapour- esi.'Hng at the
refpective temperatures of the atmofphere in winter and
fpmmer. It appears from a theorem, which we have founded
upon Mr. Daiton's ingenious experiments upon evaporation
and the force of vapours, tliat the quantity of water in
air at 32^ at which temperature we fuppofe it to enter the
furnace in winter, is equal to 2.04 grains in each cubic

foot. This, in weight, is ^^^' ; and in bulk, vapour being

to air at 32^ as 274 to ^(

eqv

d to

.04

of the whole.

or .0075'. '^'1'^ fummer air, which we take at ^^'', con-
tains 5.32 grains in a cubic foot; a quantity amounting in

weight to i^, and in bulk to-—, or .019 of the
524 274 ^

whole. The difference .01 1 J is the deficiency of common
air in fummer, arifing from the prefence of aqueous vapour ;
and makes the total variation in the quantity of oxygen be-
tween fummer and winter equal to .llf C = — ^ , or ^tli
^ ■'-' 200' *

nearly.

We here confider water as producing injury merely bj
difplacing a certain proportion of oxygen, and not being
prejudicial in itfelf, as is fuppofed by the generality of iron-
mafters. The reafon given for its bad effects does not ap-
pear intitled to much weight. The opinion commonly
entertained is, that the carburetted hydrogen fet at liberty,
carries off a greater quantity of heat than the nitrogen of
atmofpheric air. An effeft which, if even true, is inade-
quate to explain the appearances. When the air is received
into a water-regulator, as is the cafe in many blafl-fumace
works, a much larger quantity of moifture may be expefled
to enter the furnace, than with the ordinari- apparatus. In
the above calculation, if the air had been received over wa-
ter, we fl'iou'd find that its temperature in the receiving
veffel in winter and funim.er would be jo and 100". The
vapour in the former amounts to 4.67 grains in a cubic foot :
in the latter, to iS.gj grains in the fame quantity.

Hence, air at 100' will contain lefs oxygen than that at
50 , by .05 J of the whole; which is a little more than
,',th. This added to the lofs by increafed temperature
alone, will be .IJ9, or nearly 15th.

We may from this conclude, that the extra-quantity of
moillure admitted by ufing the water-regulator, will at any
rate increafe the difference in the amount of oxygen from
-gth to gth, or thereabouts ; which, in all probability, will
more than counter-balance the good effefts arifing from its
uniform preffure. There does not appear to be, in the
prefent ftatc of our knowledge, any means of effeftually
remedying this evil. Some good might accrue from ad-
mitting the exterior air as cold as poflible, and rot allowing
it to come in contaifl with water after entering the blowing-
cylinder. This may be done to a certain degree, by caufing
5t the

IRON.

tlu' air to afcend from a deep pit, by a pipe communicating prongs of a 'common fork made by this procefs can "hi

with the blowing cylinder. This contrivance, however, welded together with the greateft facility. Pig-iron, until

fiiould be alaid aliJe whenever the air of the atmofphcre lately, has been confidered a much more complex body thai

becomes colder than the average temperature of the earth. experience has warranted. We have lieard of its being fup.

With regard to the defcft aril'mg from increafe of vohime of poled to contain filex, or, according to Mr. Davy, filicum,

tlie air in the fummer months, the heat caufed by the fric- to which it owes fome of its crude qualities. But the pro-

tion of the blowing piilon will be found to contribute much cefs juft mentioned is fufficient to refute the afi'ertion. Iron

to the evil. The air by this means gets an additional elaf- mailers, even at this day, however, will talk about oxyge:i.

ticity, and if the faFne quantity of air be thrown into the ated pig-iron, meaning that wliich is loall carbonated ; but

furnace it mud be effeiSled by dccreafmg the prefTure of the it mull be clear to every one acquaii.tcd with the chemical

biaft, or by increasing the aperture of \.\\e nofe-pipe. If the qualities of thofe bodies, that the profcnce of carbon and

compreiTion of the air could be effeded by any means which oxygen in a liquid mafs is perfrftly impoflibie, as they are

would avoid the friclion of machinery, it would no doubt incapable of exilling together uncompoiinHed at any fuch

be a defidei-atum in the procefs of blowing. It will appear elevated temperature. Hence v.-e muli regard pig-metal

from thefe facls, that in fummer, when the quantity of air as a compound of iron and carbon only. Manganefe may

is deficient from increafe of volume, and from the prefence periiaps fometimes be prefent in it, when particular ores

of water, that a larger quantity of air fhould be made to are employed for fmelting, but its union mull be confidered

enter the furnace, partly by increafing the velocity, and as accidental.

partly by ufing a r.ofe-pip: of greater diameter. If the To make pure iron, therefore, we have, from thefe con-
deficiency were made up by the increafe of prelTure only, clufions, only to extricate the carbon. This may be done,
the velocity would be too great for producing a maximum in fmall mafles, by llratifying the articles in a clofe veficl
of combuftion. where it is immediately wanted, independent with fome fubftance containing oxygen. The poorer iron
of the mechanical evil it would be liable to produce. If, ores, which are free from fulphur, are ufed in powder for
on the other hand, the apcrtu.'-e of the nofe-pipe were in- this purpofe ; and after the 'materials have been expofed
creafed in fumm.er, to make the quantity equal to that of to a heat juft Ihort of the fufion of the metal, the air being
■winter, the air would enter in a ilate of greater rarity, and completely excluded, the carbon will become difTipated,
the combuftion would, from this caufe, be of lefs intenfity. and the iron left in a Hate of purity. See Casting and
This circumllance alone, perhaps, is fufficient to prevent Fouxdery.

a comolete remedy of the evil, and will go far to explain . _, . - „. . . ,j u r , o r

the difference between the fraftions refulting from calcula- f +• Converjon of Ptg-tron into malleaUc Iron, and St.-cl.
tion and experiment. I. Bar, or wrought Iron — Iron, as obtained by the re-

We fhall conclude our account of this ^department of duftion of its ores in the blaft-furnace, contains, as we have

iron-manufadlure with fome general obfervations upon the before ftated, a certain proportion of carbon, which renders,

nature and properties of pig-iron, as it is applied to different the metal unfit for the various purpofes of forging, but

purpofes. conllitutes its principal value as applicable to the ufe of

When the iron has combined with its full dofe of carbon, the founder. To deprive it of this ingredient certain pro-
conilituting what is called in the trade, grey, or fmooth- celTes are gone through, the ob'iecl of which is, by the con-
faced iron, and alfo N' i, it is admirably fitted for making current action of heat and air, to difiipatc the carbon under
the lighter and finer fort of callings, fuch as grates and the form of an elaftic compound. The kind of iron chofen
other ornamental work. It is from iron of this quality that for the converfion is that denominated by manufafturtra
the caft-iron cutler)- is manufaftured, fince no other would forge-pig. It is the loweft quality made for the purpofes of
run fufficiently fluid for articles fo fmall as the prongs of art; and, in confequence of its being combined with a fmaller-
forks, and the bows or rings of fciffors. This iron, how- dofe of carbon than any other, which thus caufes it to bear
ever, is not the bcl for larger caftings where ftrength and a lefs price in the market, is doubly preferable for the end
Imrdnefs are defirable ; as in large wheels, for example, required.

beams, pillar?, railways, &c. The metal employed for The price of pig-iron is almoft excluGvely determined by

thefe purpofes contains a lefFer proportion of carbon than the quantity of carbon which is in combination with it.

the former, and is generally called melting-iron, or N 2. The varieties ufually diftinguidied are N i, ofherwife

That fpecies of pig-iron, however, which is combined with called gi'ey, fmoothfaceil, or /i/Zy, metal; N" 2 and 3,

the fmalleft dofe of any, is a'moll exclnfively employed for znA forgt'pig. The proportion of carbonaceous matter pre-

making malleable iron, and is called, for that reafon,yc/r^(r- fent in thefe varieties is differently ilated by different eX".

pig. We have given, in the next feclion, an account of the perimentahfts. Clouet makes the highefl proportion to

proportion of carbon prefent in the different varieties ; and amount to ith ; but from the refults obtained by Mr. Mufiiet

it will appear from thence, that of all the combinations of in combining iron direS/y with the dofcs of charcoal requiutc

iron and carbon, ftecl contains the leaft, and grey, or N I, fo produce its various fub-caiburets, ^-'^th appeiued to be the

pig-iron, the moft of any of the compounds we are yet maximum. Of this, the following table, pub iihed by him

acquainted with. in the 13th vol. of the Philofophical Magraine, will afford

As a proof that pig-iron only requires to lofe its carbon the necelfary proof,
to become malleable, we have at prefent in this country Soft call-fleel - - - - - - s\-e

manufaftures upon a large fcale, for converting call metal Com.mon ditto ....-- -^{^

goods, fuch as nails, cutlery, &c. into iron perfeClly mal- Same, but harder .... - ^'5

jeable, without even changing the figure given to them by Ditto, too hard for drawing . . - '.-

cafting. Nails produced in this way arc fo malleable, even White caft-iron (fame as before callcd_/o»^i'/r^) ..'
when cold, as to bear the hammer, and are capable of being Mottled caft-iron (N^ 2) . . - - i^
bent to a right angle in a r;ff. Black caft-iron (N' i.) - - - • .^

But a ftill ftronger proof that this metal alTumcd the The firft ftep in the procefs of decarbonization, according to

form of iron u from the great keat it will bear. The the more common mode of operating, is to expofe the iron in a

3 K 2 furnace^

IRON.

Jurnnee, called by fome a refinery, hut by others, to diftinguidi
-4t from one hereafter to be defcribed, a run-out furnace. It
confifts of a velTel open at the top, imbedded in Hone or
brick work, about two feet tliree inches long, two feet
^vide, and ten inches deep. This is generally, in part, con-
llrudlcd of cad iron ; and, when fo made, has an outer cafe
about two or three inches diftant from the ii.ner one, which
is condantly fupplied with a dream of cold water to pre-
vent the apparatus from melting. The iron to be decar-
bonized is placed in this receptacle, and kept in a continual
ilate of fufion for three or four hours by the aid of a
coke fire, which is heaped to a confiderable height above
the level of the vefTel, and extended proportionally on the
hearth that furrounds it. The fize of the hearth is motlly
about three yards in length, and from two to three wide,
and is completely covered by ;he funnel of the overhanging
chimney. Bellows of confid^^rable lize are employed to carry
on the procefs ; and the current of air which iffues from
them is directed immediately on the furface of the iron by
one or more tuyeres. Thefe tuyeres arc double, like the
cafe, and continually cooled by the application of the
fame means. When the decarbonization is completed, the
metal is let out at an opening in the fid.. v.Iiich has been
kept clofe during the operation by a flopping of fand. It
flows into a groove about 18 inches wide, and fix or feven
feet long, conftrufted of ftone in the floor that furrounds
the furnace. The bottom of the veffel is fo placed as to
be nearly on a level with the floor ; the only elevation given
to it being what is merely fufficicnt to let the iron run
out with facility. A confiderable quantity of vitreous oxyd
is formed during the procefs ; and the lofs in the weight
of metal, which is Hated to amount to from ^tli to ith, is
principally referable to this circumftance. The total quantity
of carbon which the iron contains originally is not elli-
iriated at more than ^'5 th ; and yet the approach of it to
the pure date, or, in technical language, to the date of
bar or wrought Iron, after this operation, is very inconfi-
derabie.

The cake of metal procured by thefe means is broken
into lumps of a convenient fize, and fubjeded, in a furnace
of another defcription, to a procefs known in the art by
the name oi puddling . The furnace, which is alfo didinguidicd
by the fame term, is a variety of tlie reverberatory ; and at
the immediate point where the flame firikes upon the
hearth, a fliallow concavity is worked out, in which the
melted iron is expofed. Oppofite to it is a door, and through
this the metal is kept in continual agitation, by means of a
fort of rake, for the purpofe of exhibiting frefli furfaces
perpetually to the influence of the air. Water is likewife
occafionally throvi'U in, which in fome degree contributes
to the decarbonization. With the lofs of carbon, the iron
alfo lofes its fufibility, and about the middle ftage of the
operation appears in the form of fmall detached lumps,
which fcarcely feem to exert any affinity for each other.
At length, however, by much llirring, and frequently prefiing
them together, they cohere into a pulpy niafs ; and being
gathered into pieces of a convenient fize, are carried under
rollers, where, after pafTuig through four pairs, in fucceffion,
of a gradually diminifliing guage, they are produced into
plates feven or eight inches wide, and three feet or more
ja length. Confiderable quantities of matter are fqueezed
out in the rolling, which principally coulid of a vitreous
kind of oxyd. This is, for the mod part, to be referred
to the adlion carried on in the furnace ; but fome portion of
it is, in all probability, created by the combudion of fmall
pieces of fluid metal, which, engaged amongft the particles
«f the puddled mafs, are hurled through the air in a date

of vivid inflammation, by the comprellive viol,"i)ce of the
rollers. The total lofs thus fudained is edimated at from
±l\\ to |th. The plates obtained by this treatment have a
very incompact appearance ; and if attempted to be worked
in the date they are then prefentcd under, would crumble
almoll wholly into fmall granulated lumps. To impart to
them the necedary clofenei's and folidity, they are again.
heated in another kind of furnace, asd beaten forcibly with
a heavy hammer, which is raifed by machinery.

Previoufly to being thus treated, they are broken up into
cakes of fmall fize, and placed upon circular fiabs of done
from 8 to 12 inches in diameter. The fize of the cakes is
in a great meafure determined by a particular efiert of the
lad pair of rollers that they are paflcd throtigh : ribs, of a
diamond fliape, girding either one or both of them, on the
whole extent of their furface, which leave a deep indenta-
tion on the plates, fo as to render them eafily frangible in
that direftion. The height to which thefe cakes are piled
on the cirCTilar flab juil fpoken of, is generally about 12
inches ; and when lo prepared, they are placed on the hearth
of a reverberatory furnace, which differs but little in form
from that employed for puddling, except in being flat at the
bottom indead of concave. The furnace is denominated a
hailing furnace ; and the piles of metal, pies or halls. They
are continued in this fituation until they have arrived at 3
welding heat, and are then removed by large tongs under
the droke of the hammer. Near to the place a fmith's
forge is kept in blad, where long bars of iron are alfo urged
to tlie welding point ; and, after the firft droke or two of.
the hammer, united to the lalied mafies, to afford greater
convenience in turning them. The mafies are beaten out
into ingots of about three feet in length ; and the bar lad
mentioned being fepai-ated, they are divided deeply by
an inftrument termed a fet, to facilitate their being after-
wards broken ; and the procefs is then completed. They
are in this ftate called blooms, and have yet to under-
go another operation, for the purpofe of being madji
into bars or plates. Much lofs is fudained by the lad
treatment, and principally from the fame formation of oxyd
as was noticed in the preceding cafe. The quantity thus
lod, added to the wade occafioned in the blocmcry, which
comes next to be defcribed, is ufually confidered as equal
to \X.\\ of the metal obtained by puddling; which v.'ill make
the total deficiency, by all the operations, as nearly equi-
valent to \^. The ingots or blooms, which are received
from the hammer, after being broken, over a fmall wedge-
fliaped block of iron called a tup, are placed in a fpecies
of reverberatory, very fimilar to the balling furnace, and
denominated a blooming furnace, or hloomery. They are
here heated to welding, and then fubmitted to the requifite
predure under rollers, which are cither plain or grooved,
according as the iron is wiflied to be obtained in plates or in
bars. This completes the whole of the procefles neceffary
for making the bed malleable iron ; and it refults from the
obfervations which have been premifed, that, in order to pro-
cure one ton of it, five-and-thirty hundred weight o{ forge-
pig is previoufly required.

Two other modes of operating are at prefent in ufc ; one
of which omits the puddling, and the other, that part of the
foregoing procefs that concerns the fabrication fef blooms.
In the former, iron is expofed to the heat of a charcoal fire,
in a fpecies of furnace prccifely fimilar to the one before de-
fcribed as a refinery, or run-out furnace ; and is continued in
that fituation, until the metal is thouj^ht to be fufficicntly
decarbonized. It is very frequently dirred during the
operation ; and when brought into nature, (to ufe the tech-
uical expreffion,) is colleftcd into mafies^ and removed by

tongs

IRON.

tongs under a large hammer, dsnominated, ns applied to
this parti .-iilar ufc, z Jlamphi^ l.ammfi; wiierc it is beaten
into cakes, which are afterwards broken up, and treated in
the balling furnace as before defcribed. This is the old
mode of working, and the iron obtained from it is by many-
conceived to be of very fupcrior quality. The heat pro-
duced is confidcrably inferior to that afforded by coke in
the run-out furnace ; and the iron is lefs furrounded by tlie
fuel than in the cafe ju'.l mentioned. The prcfont charcoal
fire is properly a refinery, and not t!»e one which is ufed
merely as a prchminary to the proccfs of puddling. Here,
the indinefs of decarbonization is at once completed ; and
the refulting metal is in the fame (late of purity as that
yielded from the rollers, after it has been puddled by the
other method. Balling and blooming follow in regular fuc-
ceflion, and plates or bars are produced exaftly as before.

According to the fccond mode of treatment, in which
llooming is omitted, the maffes obtained from the bttlUng fur-
nace are reduced under the hammer into the form of lohd,
cubical blocks ; and vvh.en their temperature is tsio much
lowered to be capable of any farther working, they are again
heated in a fire called a chafery, which is urged by a power-
ful pair of bellows, and fcarccly differs from a common
fniiih's forge, except in being lai-ger, and the cokes upon
It being helped up to the unufual height of at leail two feet.
In this fituation they are raifcd to the point of welding, and
afterwards hammered out into ingots of a flattened (liape.
Iron bars are united to them very fliortly after they are
brought from the laV.ing furnace, to afford a greater facility
of management, in the fame manner as was defcribed in the
making of blooms ; and thefe, as before, are detached, when
the ingot is fufRciently formed. The iron produced in this
way is- not confidered fo good as that afforded by either of
the other proceffes, and is employed, for the moll part, in
the commoner fervices of art. Repeated rolling, or ham-
mering, is the only means of imparting the ribrous texture
fo neceffary to good bar iron ; and as this treatment is lefs
frequent in the prefent mode of operating, the deficiency of
value in the material obtained may very probably be referable
almoll exclufively to this circumilance.

The above include the whole of the important variations
that are prefented in the manufadure of bir iron. Other
fhades of difagreement may be traced in different works ;
but they are of a nature too trifling and unimportant to merit
any particular enumeration. The art is ftill in its infancy ;
and the light of chemical fcience, by being brought to a
focus here, cannot fail to difclofe many impiovements in the
prefent modes of procedure, which will greatly abridge the
expence now incident to this valuable branch of national
itiduftry. That the mere abftraftion of about 4 psr cent- of
carbon fhould require a facrifice, in effecling it, of above
40 per cent, of iron, appears monftrous beyond example :
and as thofe who are connected with the art become more
fcientific in their views, we (hall unqneilionably find that it
will be much more economically accomplilhcd.

When iron has been completely freed from carbon, and
has acquired its highell degree of malleability by repeated
hammermgs, it is by far the moll tenacious of all the metals,
and is capable of being drawn into the fined wire.

The tenacity of iron, as well as of all the reft of the
malleable metals, varies confiderably according to its foft-
nefs. After iron has been kept in a red heat tor fome time,
and fuffercd gradually to cool,' it becomes remarkably
changed in pouit of foftnefs. By being hammered, drawn
into wire, or rolled, it increafes in hardnefs to a certain ex-
lent j but, at the fjme time, partly lofes its malleability.

By this mechanical treatment, when cold, its ftrcngth er
tenacity increafes ; and it may betaken at one point, when
it will require a far greater weight to break it, than if it
were hammered cither more or Icls.

All the experiments yet publiflied relative to the tenacity
of iron, and the other metal% arc on this account very de-
fcdive. The writer of this article has fcen an iron wire,
when newly annealed, break with a weight of 50 pounds ;
but, after being drawn through two holes of a wire plate,
bear above twice that weight, without fullaining injury.
Iron, when properly annealed, will bear more bending
backwards and forwards before it breaks, than in any other
Uate : but the llrcngth, or that power which refifts a weight,
exerted longitudinally to break it, is jointly as the lail pro-
perty and its hardnefs. Hence the reafon why its llrength
is increafed with a certain degree of hammering. The fpe-
cific gravity of malleable iron, according to Briffon, is
7.7SS; that of pig iron being 7.207. Iron, in a Hate of
purity, requires fo great a heat for its fufion, that the bell
crucibles are nearly ready to mcU w'ith it. It has, however,
been fufed, and call into an ingot. It is faid to liquify at
158" of Wcdgewood. Its malleability is greatly increafed
by heat ; and by raifing it to a very high temperature, it be-
comes exceedingly foft, mid may be brought fo near to ab-
folute contad with another piece fimilarly heated, that th-.-y
unite firmly together. This procefs is called ivelding. Its
great affinity for oxygen, when heated to a welding point,
would very loon reduce it to an oxyd, if it were not for thii^
vitreous matter fufing upon its furface ; and it may be (liH
more completely defended, by dipping it in powdered g^afs
or fand. See Difcription of Plates at the end of the ar-
ticle.

2. Steel. — This fubftance, which is a compound of iron
and carbon, but in lefs proportion than that of pig iron, u
of fuch dillinguifhed importance in moll of the arts, that no
other fubftance could be fubdituted, capable of fupplying
its united properties of hardnefs, tenacity, and clallicity.
After the pig iron is totally deprived of carbon, and be-
comes malleable, the metal can be re-impregnated with that
fub'.lance to a certain extent, without loling much of itS-
malleable property.

It is curious to remark, that although we have made iron
of excellent quahty in this country, for all the nice purpofes
to which it is capable of being applied, yet, in attenipting
to convert it into Heel, we have always failed ; the lleel
being red-fliort, and otherwife bad. It, of late, however,
has been fo great a defideratum to obtain flcel from Britifh
ore, in confequence of our want of communication with
Sweden and Riiffia, that feveral efforts have been lately
made to bring about this defirable object, and not altogether
without fuccefs. We may yet entertain a hope, therefore,
that the time luill arrive, when we fhall not be dependent on
other countries for this ufeful commodity.

The only Heel at prefent, on -.viiich pcrfeft reliance can
be placed, is made from i'ome of tli-- bell marks of Swedilb
iron. The bars are ihmpcd with certain letters or charac-
ters, well known to the fleel-makers ; and fome of them
have preferved their charadlcr for making good lleel during
a long feries of years.

The fize of the bars varies from 3 inches broad and i inch
thick, to about 2 broad by '^^ thick.

Nothing more is necefl'ary to impregnate the bars of iron
with caibon, by which they become Iteel, than to ilratify
them with powdered charcoal in a clofe veffel, called a ce-
menting pot ; expofing the f.uiie to a degree of heat as little
ftioii of what would fwfe vue ilwl as uoffible.

The

IRON.

The furnace in which the procefs of cementing bar iron is
performed is called a converting furnace.

The pots are made of a peculi?r ftone called fire-ftone,
from its joint property of not being liable to crack by the
heat, and its little diipofition to enter into fulion. It is a
fine grit, and occurs abundantly in the neighbourhood of
Sheffield. The interior of thefe pots is in dimenCons from
12 to 1) feet long, and from 2 feet to 30 inches fquare.
Every furnace contains two of them ; and they generally
hold about 5 tons of iron each. The metal is [Iratitied with
the charcoal dud, in fucli a way that each bar may be com-
pletely covered; and the laft ftratum, which fliould be
thicker than the reft, is kept clofe with a mixture of clay
and fand, fo as to prevent the charcoal beneath it from en-
tering into combuttion with the outer air.

The fire is then gradually applied, and the exterior fur-
face of the pots conftantly enveloped with flame, till the
whole mafs has become of the heat required. This heat is
kept up for a confiderable time, fo that from the commence-
ment of firing to the maximum is about feven days. The
fame fpace is afterwards required to allow the mafs to cool.
This rule, however, is not fufficient to tell when the ce-
mentation is pcrfed. A hole is generally left in the front
of the furnace, paffing through the wall to the interior of
the pot. One or two bars are laid with their ends pro-
jefting into the opening, which is loofely filled with pow-
dered charcoal. When the procefs is fuppofed to have
gone on long enough, one of thefe bars is drawn out and
examined.

All bar iron miift, owing to the manner in which it is
made from the pig. contain a fmall portion of oxyd of iron,
as well as fome remains of iron not completely deprived of
its carbon. The long continued heat which this procefs re-
quires, cannot fail to caufe an union between the oxygen
and carbon, accidentally cxifting in the bars ; and we may
expect, in confequence, that an elaltic fluid will be formed,
which muil be either carbonic acid or the carbonic oxyd ;
but fmce the oxyd is in the ftate of finery cinder, we fliould
ratlicr conceive it to be the latter ; and we believe experience
warrants the conchifion.

This elaftic fluid, when the metal is fo near the fufing
point, caufes the furface of the bars to be covered with
bUfters, which are a fure fign that the cementation is com-
plete : and it is from the number and fize of thefe bhflers,
that the v\orkmen know when to ceafe adding fuel to the
furnace.

Steel is made of different degrees of hardnefs, by giving
it more or lefs carbon ; and this is effected by keepmg up
the heat a longer time, ftill having regard to the quantity
and fize of the blifters.

The flieel ufed for coach-fprings contains the fmalleft
quantity of carbon ; a fomewliat greater proportion is re-
quired for table knives, fork.-;, carpenters' tools, and agri-
cultural implements ; and the largcft dofe of ;;11 is wanted
for tiles, which can fcarcely be too hard, if the Heel be
fufTiciently malleable to work.

Steel, in the Rate it comes from the cementing furnace, is
called hlijfereil Jieel, from the appearance we have juft de-
fcribed. It is not ufed but for common purpofes, although
formerly we had no other kind. The bars of iron being
formed under the forge hammer, and produced in a country
not remarkable for the excelleuce of its machinery, the
metal is found to abound with numerous feams and Ihells,
which good workmanfliip might in a great meafurc avoid.

This evil is, however, very happily remedied, by making

the bliftered-fteel into what is called f:iar-Jlcel, and cajl-
Jleel.

Shear-fteel has derived its name from the advantage with
which it has been appLed in the manufaclure of flicep-lhears.
Its admirable property of welding to iron, without the other
quahtiesit poffeffes being injured, renders itof great importance
in all cafes where the body of the edge-tool is conftruded of
iron, and the edge m.ereiy fteel.

From having been firil made at Newcaille-upon-Tyne, it
has alfo been called Kcxcajlle Jleel. The apparatus ufed for
its manufadure confilis of a pair of bellows, or other blow-
in^r machine, and a fire place fin.ilar to that of a fmith's
hearth, but upon a larger fcale. The hammer for drawing
the bars is larger than a tilting hammer, but fmaller tlian the
one employed at an iron forge.

In order to make fliear-fteel, a number of bars of the bed
bliftered-fteel are laid together, and temporally faftened. In
this ftate they are introduced inlo the fire, and heated to a
welding temperature ; after v. bich they are firmly united by-
means of the hammer, and drawn. At a fecoud heat thefe
raaffes arc beaten down into bars about i^ inch broad
and iths of an inch thick. By this procefs the loofe parts
and feam.s of the bars are clofed together, and the fteel is
rendered fufceptible of a pohfli, of which before it was not
capnble. But thefe are not the only advantages. The ad-
ditional hammering fo far improves its mallcabihty, that the
tenacity it enjoys is much greater, while its hardnefs is very
httl- lefs.

This fteel is particular'y adapted for fprings of every de.
fcription,'ahd for all edge-tools requiring great tenacity ra-
ther than hardnefs.

Caft-fteel is entirely free from the mechanical defefts which
belong to bliftered-ileel, a:id even, in fome degree, to fliear-
fteel ; fince it confifts of the latter variety completely fufed,
and caft into ingots.

The furnaces employed for this purpofe fliould poffefa all
the advantages which can be given to air-furnace.^, on account
of the great heat requifite for the procefs. (See FuRXACE.)
The crucibles, in which the fteel is melted, are made of
Stourbridge clay, mixed with a fmall quantity of powdered
coke, which makes them lefs liable to crack in the heating
or cooling ; and, at the fame time, gives to them a confider-
able degree of ftiffnefs in the fire, when raifed to the very
great heat required. Thefe crucibles are fumiftied with
covers, which are of rather more fufible clay than the body
of the veffel, and, on that account, are foon partially vitri-
fied ; by which means they become clofely luted at the time
the fteel is at a temperature fuificiently high to be deftroyed
by the oxygen of the atmofphere.

The fuel employed for melting fteel, confifts of the hardeft
cokes, and in all cafes where long continued and high tem-
peratures are neceffary, cokes of this defcription fliould aU
ways be employed. Two advantages attend the ufe of ihem ;
for although the foft cokes produce a very great heat during
a fiiort fpace, yet the length of time required for melting
fteel would oblige the workman to charge the furnace too
often ; fo that he would ultimately get a greater heat by^the
permanence of the hard coke ; and the fpecific gravity of
the latter is fo much greater than the foft, that the fuel is
more condenfed, and hence, allowing for the difference of
cohefion, will give more concentrated heat, if the fupply of
air be fufficient.

The crucibles are of a fi^e fufficient to hold about ^olbs.
of fteel ; and, in general, each will bear charging three

times, or even foil

ome woui(

found ftiU 1

onger

than that, if the fires were continued ; but they are feldom

kept

IRON.

Jsept in more I'nan twelve hours in tlie day, and this will not
allow of more than three heats. For the beft poflible caft-
ftcel, the bars of the beft bliftered-fteel are broken into fmall
pieces, it beint;, on coining from the cementing furnace, fiif-
ficiently brittle fur this purrofe. An inferior kind of ca'\-
fteel is made from the fcraps, which confill of tlio wafte of
the manufaftories. The heat required to melt ftecl is very
great ; and inverfely as the quantity of carbon combined
with it. Before caft-fteel making was brought to great
perfeftion, the quantity of carbon given to it was greater,
in order to effeft its more eafy fufion. The crucibles and
furn-.cef, however, are now fo much improved, that the
fteel can be melted with much lefs carbon, and it is, in con-
fequence, fo l':rul, to ufe a technical piirafe, as to weld with
iron, and even to be capable of u'.ii:ing two pieces of it to-
gether.

After the ftsel has become fufficiently fluid, it is poured
into call-iron moulds, which form it into ingots of an ofta-
gonal iliajje ; and are about 30 inches long, each weighing
about 3olbs. Formerly, the great fecret of making cart-
Heel 'ras faid to confill; in ulin^ fome peculiar flux. No fub-
ftance, however, from what has been obferved, can increafe
the fufibility of the fteel, hut an additional dofe of carbon,
which is improper after a certain quantity has been united
with it. Th ■ only fubftance, 'herefore, which can be em-
ployed to any advantage, muft be fome fufiMe vitreous
matter, capable of floating upon the furface of the metal,
and defending it from tlie contaft of air.

The flux at prefent ufcd, and the moll proper for this pur-
pofe, is the blaft-furnace cinder. But pounded glafs, or
any vitreous fubilance which fufes a little before the metal
melts, will anfwer equally well.

The ingots of call-fteel, as well as the bars of bliftered-
fteel, and (hear-fteel, are drawn into rods ready for forging
into various articles, by a piece of machinery ca'Ied a tilt, or
tUting-miU. (See Tiltixg-mill.) By this hammer, the
caft-fteel can be drawn down to the iize of ^ inch fquare. But
in reducing fmaller than that, it would be liable to be injured
in its fabric. It is drawn into rods of fmal'er fize by hand,
for the purpole of making gravers, and watch-makers'
tools : and for ftill more delicate articles, it is manufac-
tured into wire. Tiie bliftered-fteel will not bear drawing to
a fmall fize, on account of the loofenefs of its texture.

Steel is of a mean fpecific gravity between wrought and
pig-iron ; and, like the former, it increafes its property in
this refpeft by hammering. Like iron, too, it becomes
fofter on being annealed, but never becomes fo foft as that
metal. When of good quality, and at a certain degree of
hardnefs, it is ftronger than iron ; that is, when ftretched
longitudinally by a weight ; but, by fudden bending or twift-
ing, it is more liable to break ftiort. In working it with the
hammer, it will not bear fo great a heat as iron ; fince the
temperature iron and its combinations fuftain without melt
ing, is inverfely as their dofe of carbon.

This property of bearing heat, is, however, in a ftill lefs
ratio in caft-fteel. This is owing to its having entirely loft
its fibrous form in the melting. Hence there is lefs danger
in heating it after it has been hammered.

In welding fteel to iron, or fteel to fteel, the fire ought to
be very frre from fulphur, or other extraneous matter ; and
the heated parts of the rods fliould be frequently fupplicd
witheithcr fand, or fand mixed with the fcalcs which comcfrom
the hammered iron. This fufes upon the furface and keeps
off the air. See Forge.

The moft fingular property which belongs to fteel, is that
of its hardening by being heated red-hot, and cooling ra-
pidly. Tliis change is greater tlic hotter the fteel, and the

colder the fluid into which it is plunged. (See Cutlekv.)
Water, in general, is employed for this purpofe ; and fpring-
water is better than any other. If the water abound with
animal or vegetable niat'er, the hot fteel cools more (lowly.
Tiii« is occafioned by a film of the matter in folution form-
ing and remaining upon the lurface, and, being a bad cou-
diidor of heat, prevents the ftecl from cooling. File-
makers fay, that the fait which is inevitable in their harden-
ing water, makes the fteel harder, and they fometimes put
fulphuric acid into it for the fame purpofe.

In hardening ftecl in thin plates, fuch as faws, parti-
cularly when of caft-fteel, quenching in water would caufe
them to crack, and make them fo hard as not to be ufeful.
They have, in confcquence, recourfe to fome fubftance which
is not fo good a conduilor of heat. Oil, with tallow, bees'
wax. and rcfin difTolved in it, is generally employed for thefe
articles. ( See the article S.vw. ) If the fteel be heated red-
hot, it moilly returns lo its original ftate. This, however,
is fometimes not the cafe with thin plates of caft-fteel. In
giving various degrees of heat from the hard ftate, it be-
comes more foft and lefs claftic. See Cutlery.

This curious and valuable property which it pofleftes might,
at firft view, appear to be caufed by an increafe of denfily ;
but the fpecific gravity of hardened fteel is lefs than before
it is hardened. It h.as been faid to depend upon a certain
cryftalline arrangement of its particles ; but this is a mere apo-
logy for ignorance. The moft plaufible theory we have heard
of IS mentioned in one of Dr. Darwin's notes to his " Botanic
Garden,'' and was the idea of a very ingenious friend of that
celebrated author. This theory was equally appHed to the
fingular property poflefled by the glafs toys known by the
name of Ptina Rupert's Drops. It is as follows. Whtn
the heated ileel or glafs is plunged into water, the exterior
ftratum becomes fo hard and folid, as not to be capable of
ftirinking ; and every fucceeding layer is to a certain degree
placed in the fame fituation. When caloric leaves a body
flowly, it contraAs in its dimenfions, until itafTum.es fome-
thing near its original volume. But if any force prevent
the parts from approximating, the molecules will attradi each
other with a power equal to the repellent energy of the calo-
ric that caufed the expanfion. So foon, however, as the
outer ftratum is broken, the whole of the others aje dellroy-
ed in fucceftion. This is moil glaringly the cafe with the
glafs drops before fpoken of, and, to a certain extent, with
unannealed glafs, and hardened fteel.

With refpeclto the latter, hov.'ever, it is confined to large
maflTes, and particularly of caft-fteel. The rollers employ-
ed by jewellers and others are of call-fteel, and are very
liable to break in the hardening, although about half the
mafs in the middle is pure iron. They do not always crack
at the time, but at different periods afterwards, and fre-
quently, when no violence is apphed to them, fome have
been known to fly fix months after being finiflied. Some-
times they break with great report, and what ilrenglhens the
above opinion as to the caufe is, that the figure of the roller
is frequently changed from a round to an elhptical ftiape, .
For farther particulars, fee Steel.

^ 5. Chemical Properties.
AVhen a piece of pohflicd iron is expofcd to the air/
it foon lofes its luftre ; a.d if the atmofphere be humid,
it becomes covered with red fpots called rujl. Wiien
it is cxpofed at 400 degrees of Fahrenheit, it changes
to a yellow colour. The temperature being incrcafed,
the coL)ur gradually turns to a brown, and at the heat
of about 600 it becomes of a beautiful blue tint. This
change of colour arifes from the combination of oxygen ;

the

IRON.

tlif quantity Increafing with the temperature. If the
fiirface be defended by a coatinjj of chalk and a folution
oFglue, no change of colour takes place when the heat is
applied. In the art of blueing fteel, advantage is taken of
this method to make tiic blue ornamenrnl.

In a liigher ten^.peratui-e the furfacc becomes covered with
a fcaly cruft, which is compofed of oxygen and iron ; and in
the heat of a fmith's forge, it combines with oxygen fo
rapiJIy as to burn, throwing off fparks in bright corrufca-
tions. If fmall iron wire be expofed in pure oxygen gas,
the end being ignited with a bit of greafed cotton, the metal
etiters into briliiant combuftion, and a globule of melted
matter is formed at the end of it. The iron fo burnt lofes
all its rnetallic properties, by combining with the oxygen ;
snd diu-ing this change the phenomena of burning take place.
The globule is fo brittle as to be capable of being reduced
to powder, and is called the black or vitreous oxyd of iron.
Iron has fo great an attraftion for oxygen, that it decom-
pofes water even in the cold. When filings of that metal
are mixed with water in a veflel connefted with a pneumatic
apparatus, an el.iilic fluid is evolved, which is found to be
hydrogen. The iron lofes its metallic luftre, and ultimately
is converted into the black oxyd before fpoken of.

If this mixture be in a retort, and the boiling heat ap-
plied, tbe iron combines with tlie oxygea of the water with
much greater rapidity ; and, of courfe, a much greater
quantity of hydrogen is eliminated. This method has been
employed to obtain the black oxyd of iron, which was
formerly called Marital EtUops. Iron dccompofcs water with
very great rapidity, when the fulphurie or muriatic acid is
prefent. The acid takes up the oxyd as it is formed by
the agency of the water, and a new furface is conRantly
prefented. A large quantity of hydrogen is in this procefs
difengaged, and it is by the prefent method tliat this gas is
procured for filling aeVoilatic machines, and for other pur-
pofes. If the oxyd which is taken up by the acid be pre-
cipitated by an alkali, and dried inflantly, it will exhibit a
fimilar appearance to that obtained by the aftion of water
alone. When firft feparated it has a green appearance, which
it owes to the prefence of water ; "and this being difTipated
by heat, it is left of a dark-grey colour. This oxVd, formed
by either of the above procefTes, is c.nlled the prot-oxvd of
iron, becaufe it is combined with the firf, or fmalleft dofe of
oxygen. According to Prouft and Lavoifier, it confills of
73 of iron, and 27 '>f oxygen.

If the prot-oxyd of iron be expofed to the air in a red
heat for a !eng»h of tin.e, it affumes a red colour, and con-
ftitutes t':.- fubil-nce known in the arts by the names crocus
and cokothar. This change of colour is found to have been
caufed by its combinirg with an additional dofe of oy.ygen,
and the product is denominated the peroxyd, confili-.g, ac-
cording to P.-ouft, of J 2 iron, and 48 oxygen. From the
beil chemical authorities, it ajipt-ars that iron tmites with
oxygen only In two fixed proportions, conftituting the prot-
oxyd and the peroxyd ; although it has been held by fome
that there are more varieties.

■If a bar of iron be heated red-hot, and a flick of fulphur
applied to it, a fluid fubllance will drop from its end, which
is found to he compounded of fulphur and iron, and in che-
miftry is called fulphuret of iron. The fufion of fulphur and
iron-fihngs, in a crucible, gives a fimilar produift. The at-
traction between thefe fubltances is fo great, that their union
in nature is very common.

Iron-filings, mixed with fulphur, and made into a pade
with water, in a certain time become very hot and even pro-
duce flame. The mixture is fometimcs buried underground
to produce an artificial volcano. This phenomenon, how-

12t

ever, does not depend upon the immediate combination of
the fulphur walh the iron. The water, which is a confider-
able agent, is decompofcd ; the oxygen uniting with the
iron to form an oxyd of iron, and with the fulphur to form
the fulphui-ic acid, while the hydrogen combines with an-
other portion of the fulphur producmg fulphuretted hydro-
gen, which occafions the flame in the experiment.

When iron-filings are heat"d with ful]:)hur, even where
oxygen is not prefent, at a little (hort of the temperature of
rcdncfs, they combine and produce flame. We are indebted
to the afTociated Dutch chemills for this faft, as well as a
fimilar experiment with fulphur and copper.

The artificial compound of fulphur and iron, from the
experiments of Prouft, is compofed of 62.5 fulphur
37.5 iron

The native fulphuret is found to contain a greater pro-
portion of fulphur. When heated in a clofe veflel, fome of
the fulphur fublimes, and may be coUefted in a proper ap-
par.atus. By this treatment, it is reduced to the ilate of
common fulphuret, and lofes 20 per c.nt. of its weight. It
is hence compofed of 50.6 fdphur
49.4 iron

According to fome experiments made by Mr. Hatchett,
however, thefe proportions are not regular in fpecimens
where the cryilalline form varies. This ingenious cliemill
has found a native fpecies agreeing in the proportion of its
conllituents with the artificial fulphuret. It is what has
been called magnetic pyrites ; and is by this ted of the mag-
net diiiinguiflied from the common pyrites, which does not
pofi"efs that property. It has alfo another pecidiar charac-
ter. If dilute fulphurie or muriatic acid be poured upon
it, a rapid aftion takes place, and fulphuretted hydrogen is
evolved. This is not the cafe with the fuper-fulphuret till
it has been expofed to heat, when it lofes its excefs of ful-
phur. The common fulphuret of iron h.-.s bjen employed to
make artificial magnets. Mr. Hatchett found mat not only
the fulphurets, phofphurets, and carburets, were feparati-ly
magnetic ; but fufpecls that certain proportions of all ihcfe
may conftitute a maximum of magnetic virtue.

It is highly probable, that the iron is the only fubllance
poflefling magnetifm ; and that the facility with which thefe
compound fublhuices become magnetic, may arif? from thj
greater eafe with which the particles of iron afluuie the pecu-
liar arrangement on which this curious property depci'.ds.
That fome arrangem.ent, though perhaps equally myftericus
wnth cryftallization, may be the caiife of magnetifm, there is
much reafon to believe. By mixing iron-filings with melted
refin, and inclofing them in a brafs tube, if a magnet be
brrught near to the tube, while the mals is Hill liquid, the
whole, when cold, will become a magnet. During the touch-
ing of a piece of fteel to make it magnetic, there is little
doubt but that a new and peculiar di'pofition takes place
amongft tiie particles, notwithftanding the fohd ilate of the
n-.etal. The particles of bodies appear to be free to motion
in the folid form. We find that iron combines with carbon,
while both bodies are in that ftate ; and what is ftill more
curious, the compound aft'umes a ditferent cryftalline flruc-
ture, according to tlie proportions of the two bodies. Oxy-
gen appears, in fome inftauce.«, to alter the intern.al arrange-
ment of fohd bodies. If brafs, for example, were to be
kept in a damp room, but more particularly where the fun-.es

IRON.

of acids are prefent, the metal, although previoudy very tena-
cious and duftilc, becomes fo brittle, as not to bear bending
to a right angle ; at the fame time that the broken furfaces
exhibit a cryllalline frafture That fpecies of form, there-
fore, under which magnctifm cxilts, may be brought about
by various means. All iron iuftrumcnts, kept in one pofilion
for a length of time, become magnetic ; cfpecially if that
pofition coincide with the magnetic meridian. We regret
that fo little is known on this mtercfting fubjeft ; and for
farther particulars refer to the article Magnetlsm.

Iron combines with feveral of the metals forming alloys,
none of which have very ilriking or ufeful properties The
alloy of iron ai.d gold has been examined by Mr. Hatchett,
who found that 1 1 parts of gold to i of iron formed a malle-
able alloy, remarkably ductile, fo as to roll into plates, and
be capable of being ftampe^l into coin. The colonr was of
a pale yellowifh-grey, and it was of the fpecitic gravity of
t6.88j. The molt fmgular property of this alloy it its
increafe of volume by combination. iSefore the union, the
bulk was 2799 > ^'^^ afterwards, 2843. The very contrary
is the cafe with moft of the other alloys of metals, and agree-
ably to Berthollet's doctrine of affinity, we find that the
mean fpecific gravity of bodies by experiment, is greater
than the arithmetical mean, direftly as the affinity of the
bodies. We (hould, therefore, in this inftance conclude,
that either the affinity of the metals is trifling, or that the
above law is not general.

The alloy of pure iron with platina has not been effefted
from the great infufibility of the two metals. Dr. Lewis
alloyed caft iron with platina, as well as flee!. The fpecific
gravity of this alloy, contrary to the lall, was greater than
the arithmetical mean. It was very hard and tenacious,
poiTeffing fome degree of duAility.

After being kept ten years, it was little tarnifhed.
Iron is eafily alloyed with filver. In equal parts they
form a compound of confiderable duftility, of the colour
of the latter metal, but much harder ; and is attra£led by
the magnet. The metals feparate, in fome degree, when
kept in fufion ; but, according to the experiments of Mor-
veau, not completely ; the filver retaining fome of the iron,
and the iron fome of the filver, by which its quality, as a
metal, is much improved. Iron is not eafily combined
with copper in large quantity. We find, however, that
thefe metals are capable of uniting, and the alloy is, in fome
degree, magnetic. Indeed, in forming certain inftruments
of brafs, where the magnetic needle is employed, they are
frequently defeftive from this circumllance. To free cop-
per entirely from iron, it fhoulJ be rediCTolved in an acid.
The oxyd, after precipitation, fhould be diflblved in aqua
ammonia, and the alkali then diftilled from it. This being
afterwards treated in a clofe vefTel with fome inflammable
matter, the metal will be obtained pure. The alloys of tin
and iron, and that of iron with zinc, may be formed by
mixing clean iron-filings, or turnings, with thofc metals
while in a ftate of fufion. Thefe compounds are not of
any ufe. Iron may be foldered with feveral of the metals.
Copper, gold, and filver, unite to it with great facility ; but
require the preferce of borax to keep off the air.

The moll permanent folder for iron is the carburet of
rhe fame metal, called N i, pig-iron. The pig-iron lofes
fome of its brittlenefs, and the malleable metal becomes
much harder. It does not appear improbable that fteel
might be formed by uniting thefe two fiibltances together
in certain proportions.

We have next to treat of the falts of iron, or its combi-
nations with acids.
Vol.. XIX.

SulfBat of /ran.— Sulphuric acid does not combine with
iron in its metallic form ; in conformity with the general law
that no acid unites with a metal till the latter is previoully
oxydated. Iron is but fiightly aited upon by this acid in
the cold ; but with a degree of heat far fhort of boiling,
the iron takes from it a portion of oxygen, converting it
into the fulphurous acid, which efcapes in the form of gas.
The iron, thus oxydized, combines with another portion,
and forms the fulphat of iron.

When water is added to the iron and the acid, a much
more rapid aftion takes place. The metal feizes the oxygen
of the water ; hydrogen is evolved ; and the acid unites with
the oxyd forming the fait in quellion. When the produd
obtained by this means is more than the water can difTolve,
it affumes the form of green cryflals, which, when feparated,
are the fame with thofe known in commerce and the arts
by the names ol green iiitriol and copperas.

In the aftion of iron upon the concentrated fulphuric
acid, it appears anomalous, that the metal fhould not be
oxydized with more facility by thii acid, when water is fo
rapidly decompofed, the elements of which have fo flrong
an attraction for each other. It may appear equally flrange
that the water is not decompofed when the acid is not pre-
fent. When it is recoUeded, however, that the oxyd of
iron is not foluble in water, nor fulphat of iron un the acid,
it will appear very clear that the two fubflances are both
effential to the effect ; the acid promoting the decompofi-
tion of the water by taking away the oxyd, and the water
taking up the fait, which would be equally obftruftive to
the procefs.

This fait is not commonly obtained by the above procefs.
The fulphuret of iron, above defcribed, already confifls of
two of its elements, namely, fulphur and iron ; the oxygen
and water of cryllallization bemg alone wanting to com-
plete the fait under inquiry. For this purpofe, the natural
combination of it, or pyrites, is firfl roafled, and then expofed
in large heaps under (heds. Thefe heaps are frequently
moiftened with water, by which, together with the prefence
of the air, the iron and the fulphur become oxygenated,
and cryflals of the fulphat begin to form. The water,
which is thrown on from time to time, diflblves the fait,
and runs into large refervoirs, which are alfo under flieds,
to prevent the rain falling into them. This folution, how-
ever, does not contain the fait in a fit flate for cryllallization,
being too highly charged with oxygen. The liquor is trans-
ferred into large boilers, and pieces of old iron put into it,
which, by taking up the excefs of oxygen, change the folu-
tion from a red to a green colour. When the evaporation
has gone on to a certain point, the fait cryllalhzes, and the
green cryflals being feparated, are fit for fale.

When the cryflals are obtained from a clear folution, and
are well defined, exhibiting tranfparent rhomboidal prifms,
the fpecific gravity of which is 1.8, the fait may be
deemed in a flate of purity. It dilfolves in |thi its weight of
boiling water, and twice its weight of water at 60'. When
kept dry, it is not liable to change in the air ; but if moif-
tened it becomes covered with red fpots by the abforption
of oxygen, and if it be diflblved in water, it returns to the
flate in which it exillcd before boiling with the metallic
iron. When the cryflals are heated, tlie fait at fit ft fufes,
then affumes the form of white powder, by lofiiig its water
of cryllallization. At a red heat the acid begins to fly off'j
and ultimately a fine red oxyd is left buhind. It is in thii
way the crocus of commerce is prepared.

According to the analyfis of Bergmann, this fait is cora-
pofed of

SL Acid

IRON.

Acid

Protoxvd of iron
Water '

According to Kirwan :
Acid
Oxyd
Water

It is dccompofcd hy tlio alkalies and alkaline enrtlis ;
and by all the falts forming infoluble compounds with ful-
phuric acid.

Oxy-fulphat of /roB.— This fait confifts of the fulphiiric
acid united to the pcroxyd of iron. Its folution in water is
cf a deep reddifh-brown colour. It is infufceptible of cryf-
tallization. Hence, the green cryftals feparated in making
copperas are perfectly di linft in their nature from the fait
which is left in the remaining liquid. When the fiilphat
is expofed in a ftate of folution for a length of time, it
affumes a red colour, and is converted into this fait ; fo that
we never find the common fulphat in mineral waters, but the
oxy-fulphat. This change may be more fpeedily brought
about by heating it wi^h nitric acid. A quantity of nitrous
gas is evolved, and, according to Mr. Davy, ammonia alio ;
the former from the decompofitiou of the acid, the latter
from the decompofitiou of both the acid and the water.
The fluid gradually afl'iimes a deep brown colour. It has a
ftrong aftri'ogent talte, much rtfembling the juice of floes.
When this '.llis formed without the addition of water, it is
exceedingly heavy, and concentrated, and of a deep brown
tint, approaching to blacknefs. If concentrated fulpluiric
acid be poured mto it fuddenly, it lofes its brown colour,
and becomes of a clear white, having the confiftence of thick
cream. It is fo foluble in water, that when evaporated
flowly, inrtead of cryftallizing, it affunies the form of fyrup.
If too much heat be applied, however, the oxyd either pre-
cipitates, or it affumes the form of a fub-falt, and becomes
infoluble.

Since the oxy-fulphat differs from the fulphat in the pro-
portion of oxygen only, feveral fubftances reconvert it into
that fait, by abftraiSing the excefs of oxygen. If it be
kept, for inllance, for fome time in a clofe-llopped bottle
with iron-filings, the metal becomes oxydized, and the
whole is ch.iiiged to the fim.ple fulphat.

Gay-LuCfac has lately fhewn that the quantity of acid in
any metallic fait is in proportion to the quantity of oxygen
in the metal. (Memoires d'Arcueil, t. ii p. IJO-) Hence
no additional acid is required in converting this fait into the
fulphat.

Tin, and feveral other metals, produce the fame effeft.
The excefs of oxygen may iiillantly be taken away by paff-
irgfulphurettedhydrogengas through the oxy-fulphat. This
gas reduces the oxyd exaftly to a minimum of oxydation, to
the ftate of pvotoxyd ; and hence the reafon why this gas
does not precipitate iron from its folutions.

The oxy-fulphat may becafily feparated from the fulphat ;
the former being foluble in alcohol, which the latter is not.

From the method required lo form this oxy-falt, it will
appear that there are feveral fnbllances which may be em-
ployed to give their oxygen to the fulphat of iron. Of tliefe
are the nitric ar.d oxy-muriatic acids. And by pouring a
2

folution of gold in^o a folution of this fulphat, the oxy-
fulphat is produced, and the gold becomes metallic.

Dr. Thomfon enumerates feveral triple falts, formed by
the fnlphuric acid with iron and other metals.

1. Sulphat of iron and copper.

2. Sulphat of iron and zinc.

3. Sulphat of iron and nickel.

The former of thefe fometimes exifts in the blue vitriol of
commerce, which is a very great evil to colour-makers.
The iron precipitates with the copper, and deftroys the
beauty of the latter. In order to afccriain whether iron be
prei'ent in blue vitriol, difTolve a fmall quantity in a wine-glals,
and add aqua ammonia till it fmells ftrong of the latter.
The oxyd of copper will be diffolved, and the oxyd of iron
left at the bottom. By ftai:ding for fome time, the pre-
cipitate becomes yellow and very confpicuou-i. It is even
faid that fome of thefe falts have triple bafes. The two
hitherto obferved are as follows ;

1. Sulphat of iron, zinc, and nickel.

2. Sulphat of iron, copper, and nickel.

Sulphite 0/" /»•&«. — Berlhollet has given us an account of a
compound of iron with the fulphurous acid. When iron is
expofed to the adlion of this acid, it becomes fpeedily oxy-
dized ; but what is fingular, not at the expence of the
waterras is the cafe with the fulphuric acid ; but it appears-
that the acid is decompofed, the oxygen luiiting wi;h the
iron, while the fulphur combines with the fait. Hence
this fulpliat of iron is always contaminated with fulphur.
The fulphurous acid has a'lefs afHnity for iron than the
fulphuric ; and if the latter be added to the fulpliat, its acid.
is difengaged in the form of gas.

Kitrat of Iron. — The nitric acid has very violent aftion
upon iron, and an abundance of the red fumes of nitric
oxyd are difengaged. The fame thing in fome meafure
takes place with this acid, as has been remarked with regard
to the fulphuric. If it be more than a certain flrength the
ailion is feeble, until a certain portion of water is added.
The fame explanation will anfwer in both inftances. The
nitric acid does not diffolve the nitrat at firft formed, the
prelence of which interrupts the future progrefs of the
operation. When the folution is made with much water
the iron is oxydized to a minimum, and the fait formed is
the proper nitrat. It is of a pale green colour. The vefTel
in which this folution is made fliould be kept in water as
cold as pofTible, elfe it will abforb too much oxygen, and
pafs to the oxy-nitrat.

Oxy-nitra! of Iron. — When iron is afted upon by the kfs
diluted acid, and with heat, the fait formed is the oxy-nitrat.
The folution is of a deep brown, refembling the oxy-fulphat.
It has a flrong aftringent taftc, and turns vegetable blues
red. When the folution is boiled the oxyd is partially pre-
cipitated ; nor will it afterwards diffolve in the nitric acid.
This has furnifhed one means of feparating iron from other
fubftances in the analyfis of minerals.

We are indebted to Vauquelin for a method of obtaining
this fait in a cryftalhzed ftate. The method he recommends,

to keep the black oxyd of iron and ftrong nitric acid

together for a length of time, till the cryftals appear. Ti
have an acid tafte, and are d "' '
is that of a four-fidtd prifm.

deliquefcent. The

upcar. 1 11
form of th.

The alkalis precipitate the oxyd of iron from this fa!* of
a fine yellow colour, and yield a produft which is valuable
to painters.

Muriat of Iron. — The muriatic acid, like the fulphuric
and nitric, ails feebly tipon iron, except jt be diluted to a
certain extent with water. It differs from the latter, and

agrees

IRON.

agrees with die former, in not being decompofed ; but
merely lakes up the oxyd formed by the oxygen of tlie
water, tlie hydrogen being given out in the llatc of ga-<.
The foKition is of a green colour ; and, on evaporation, it
affords cryflals prefenting the fame appearance. Mr. Da-y
has given us feveral ufeful fafts relative to this fait. It
was emoloyod by him to great advantage in making fome
eiidiometrical experiments. He found that a folution of it
abforbs a large- quantity of the nitric oxyd gas, which, in
thii fituation, is bettei fitted for abforbing oxygen than
by mixing the two gafes together. By abforbing this
gns it alTumes a brown colour, and acquires an aflringent
talle. Wlien the compound is heated, it appears that the
gas is decompofed as well as a portion of water ; fince the
iron becomes more highly oxydized, and ammonia is formed.
Mr. Davy recommends an infallible method of formirg
this fait, by adding muriatic acid to fulphuret of iron. The
fulphuretted hydrogen prevents the mnriat from becoming
«xy-muriat, which has not the property of abforbing the
nitric oxyd. Muriat of iron is very fol.'.ble in water and
in alcohol. It is decompofed by the alkalis and alkaline
earths, and all falts, the bales of which form infoluble com-
pounds with muriatic acid ; fuch as lilver and mercury.

Oxy-murlat of Iron. — The muriat of iron, like the fulphat
and ailrat, is co;iverted into the oxy-muriat by the oxyd of
iron pafiing from the ilate of prot-oxyd to that of pcr-oxyd.
It (lowly undergoes this change by expofure to the air ;
and rapidly, by the agency of thofe bodies which afford
oxvgen with greater facility, as the nitric and oxy-muriatic
acids. The folution is of a deep brown, but does not afford
cryftals by evaporation. It has a powerful, aftringent ta!le,
and a peculiar odour. When this fait is diftilled it affords
oxy-muriatic acid, leaving in the retort the prot-oxyd of
iron.

If the heat be applied rapidly, the fait fublimes ; not in
the tlate of oxy-muriat, but of muriat of iron.

There is alio a triple fait formed by the muriatic acid
with iron and ammonia. This may be prepared by adding
iron-tilings to muriat of ammonia. It may either be ob-
tained in cryftals by evaporation, or it may be fublimed.
In the la'ter (late it is known in medicine by the name of
F lores Martls.

Phofphal of Iron. — The phofphoric acid has little aftion
upon iron ; but the acid unites with the prot-oxyd, and
forms this compound.

It is prepared by adding a folution of fulphat ef iron to
a fluid mIxTure of phofphat of potafh. The fait precipitates
in the form of a blue powder, which is infoluble in water,
and does not lofe its colour by expofure to the air.

The fubdance known by the name of native Pruflian
blue, is a phofphat of iron ; but, what is remarkable, it has
little colour when dug out of the earth, becoming deeper cm
expofure to the atmoiphere. A cryftallized fpecimen, lately
brought f'-om Brazil, has been analyfed by Vauquelin, and
is compofed of

.Acid 2 1

Protoxvd 45
Water ' 34

Oxy-phofphat ofIron.—T\\\s fait is formed by taking ad-
vantage of fome oxy-falt of iron and phofphat that is
fo uble ; as, for inftance, by adding together the oxy-ful-
phat, or oxy-muriat of iron, and the phofphat of foda or of
potalh, a white powder will be precipitated, which is the
oxy-phofphat of iron.

This fait is infoluble in water, but diffolves in the muriatic
or fnlphuric acids ; from which it may be precipitated, un-
changed, by pure ammonia.

Siib-oxy -phofphat of Iron. — The fait above defcribed is not
decompoled by the alkalis like the metallic falts in general.
The alkali combines with a portion of the acid only, leaving
the fait with an cxccfs of baiV, which is the fub-oxy-phofphat
of iron. This fub-oxy-phofphat does not dlffolve in water,
or fcarcely in acid ; but it has the fingular property of
diffolving in aliiumen, or the white of eggs : and if an
alkali be prefent, which is the cafe with the albumen in
the fcnim of blood, it affumes a reddifli-brown colour, and
is fuppofed, therefore, to be the principal colouring matter
of the red blood of animals.

Filial of Iron. — The liquid fluoric acid attacks iron, or
rather takes its oxyd, which is formed by the oxygen of the
water, while hydrogen gas is evolved. It has no ftriking
properties, or any which it may be important to deftribe.

Borat of Iron. — This fait, being infoluble in water, is
obtained by mixing folutions of borat of foda and fulphat
of iron together. It appears in the form of a yellowifh
powder, and melts into glafs before the blow-pipe.

If the oxy-fulphat of iron be employed., an oxy-borat will
be obtained.

Carhonat of Iron. — When iron-filings are mixed with the
liquid carbonic acid, and fuffered to remain for fome time,
the water will acquire a perceptible ta!le of iron. If it be
expofed to the air, a precipitation takes place, either from
the gas flying off, or from the fait ^ffuming the ftate of
fub-carbonat. The precipitate is of a yellow colour. This
fait is frequently found in mineral waters, to which it gives
a peculiar odour. The water, by Handing a little while,
is not fenfible to any of the teils of iron ; but a yellow pre-
cipitatt is found at the bottom of the veflel.

When a folution of neutral carbonat of potafh is added to
a folution of fulphat of iron, a large quantity of iron is
difTolved by the carbonic acid, -giving to the fluid a ftrong
inky talle.

This fait is alfo found native in the folid form, of which
we have already fpoken in the mineralogical part of this
article.

The common rull of iron, formed by expolmg iron to the
air, may be proved to be a carbonat of this metal by its ef-
fervefcence with acids. It is, no doubt, from the fohibility of
this fait, that iron becomes fo perilhablc by expofure to the

The fub- carbonat of this fpecics, according to B>.-rgmann,
is compofed of

34 acid
76 oxvd

It appears from fome .xpcriments of Eucholz, that the
native carbonat, by heating red-hot, becomes magnetic.

Acetat of Iron. — The acetic acid, when of moderate
ftrength, added to iron-filings, caufes the iron to be oxy-
dated by the dcconipolition of the water, while the hydro-
gen is fet at hberty. The folution has a fweeiilli, though
inky tafte, and emits the odour of vinegar. The beil way
of forming this fait is by mixing acetat of lead and fulphat
of iron together. The fulphat of lead bccotres infoluble,
and the acetat of iron remains in the liquid. Mr. Daw ob-
tained this fait by tligtiling the fulphuret of iron with acctie
acid. It afforded to him cryflals in fmall prions.

O.xy-acelat of Iron.— U the oxy-fulphat of iron be ufci

inltead of the fulphat with the acetat of lead, the fulphat

3 L 2 of

IRON.

of lead is precipitated, and an oxy-acetat is held in folution
of a beautiful reddilh-brown colour. This fait does not
afford cryfta's. It has the fmell of vinegar ; and, when in
folution, affords an excellent teft for arfenic. The arfenic
forms an info'.uble compound with the iron, of a brilliant
orange tint. Tiie pyrolignic acid, which is an impure
acetic acid, unites v\nth iron, and yields a very cheap acetat
of iron, which is ufed by dyers and calico printers as a
mordant.

Succinat of Iron — When the folutions of fuccinat of pota(h
or foda, and fulphat of iron are mixed together, a brownifh-
red infoluble precipitate is formed, which is the fjccinat of
iron. The foluble fuccinat may hence be employed to
feparate iron from other fubftances.

It is compofed of

Acid and water 61.5'
Oxyd - - 38.5

The exalat, tartarat, cUrat, malat, iciizoat, and fuhcrat of
iron, are but little known. They are all, however, foluble
in water.

Gallat of Iran. — When the gallic acid is added tc any
folution of iron, the oxyd being at a minimum of oxydation,
a fine purple precipitate will be produced. If the acid
be entirely freed from tan, the purple colour is much more
confpicuous. The pure gallic acid, therefore, is much
better as a teft for iron, than the mere infufion of galls.

The tan may be feparated from this acid by means of
gelatine, which does not precipitate the gallic acid. By
this treatment a folution may be obtained colourlefs and
limpid.

If the gallic acid be added to a fait of iron, in which
the oxygen is at a maximum, the precipitate is a very com-
plete black ; but the oxyd foon feparates, and falls to the
bottom in the form of a red powder. This property renders
thefe falts of iron unfit for making writing ink. When the
oxyd is in the ftate of prot-oxyd, the combination is per-
manent ; and although it is not fo black when firft ufed,
it foon becomes dark by expofure to the air. We may
hence learn, that while ink is in ufe, it (hould not be kept
expofed to air ; fince it paffes to the ftate of oxy-gallat, and
the oxyd will fall down.

Prujftat of Iron. — When the triple pruffiat of potafii and
iron is poured into a folution of the latter fubttance, the
oxyd being at a minimum of oxydation, a white powder is
precipitated, which is the pruffiat of iron. If this powder
be expofed to the air, it changes to a blue ; and in this ftate
IS called the oxy-pruffiat of iron.

Oxy-prujfiat of Iron. — This fait is formed by the fume
foluble pruffiat being added to the oxy-fulphat of iron, and
conftitutes the beautiful blue pigment, known by the name
of Prujpan blue. It is generally, however, adulterated with
alumine. See Prussian Blue and Prussic Acid.

Arfeniat of Iron. — The native arfeniat has been already de-
fcribed in the mineralogical part of this article. Arfeniat of
potafli, or ammonia, being added to the fulphat of iron, an
infoluble powder precipitates, which is the artificial arfeniat
of iron.

Oxj-arfentat of Iron. — The arfeniat of iron, in common
with all the other falts of this metal, combines with an extra
dofe of oxygen, conftituting the oxy-arfeniat. The pre-
cipitate formed by the arfenic acid and the oxy-acetat of
iron is of a blueifh-white colour.

The oxy-arfeniat of iron, from the analyfis of Chcncvix,
is compofed of

Acid

42.4

Oxyd

- 37-2

Water

20.4

Arfenite of Iron. — The arfenious acid, or the common
white arfenic of commerce, forms with iron peculiar com-
pounds, which have been but httle examined. It does nol
take the oxyd of iron from the fulphat, but decompofes the
acetat, forming with the protoxyd a fubftance of a greenith-
yellow colour ; the precipitate from the oxy-acetat being of
a bright orange. If either of the acetats contain the leaft
portion of the fulphat of iron, it prevents the precipitation
of the arfenite.

Chromat of Iron. — See Chroiie.

Moft of the other acids combine with iron ; but they form
compounds which are but little known. Certain alkaline
falts aft upon iron, and produce triple compounds, which
have not received a particular examination. When the ni-
trat of potafh is fufed in contaft with that metal, the acid is
decompofed, and the iron oxydized to a maximum. This
melted mafs, after the acid is completely difGpated, is of
a red colour. If, before it becomes deliquefcent, which
takes place from the prefence of the alkali, it be thrown into
water, the alkah diffolves a quantity of iron, forming a fo-
lution of a deep fplendid purple tint. The colour remains
permanent for fome time, if the air be excluded ; but, if ex-
pofed in an open veffel, it changes quickly to a green, and
the oxyd ultimately precipitates, leaving the liquid cleai-
and Golourlefs. The precipitated oxyd is of a deep red
colour.

Defcription of Plates.

Plate I. fig. I, a plan of an iron forge ; fig. 2, an ele-
vation of the fame, ^xi fig. 1. A i"; a water-wheel, which
gives motion to the ftamping hammer E ; G, the mill-dam ;
H, the tail water courfe ; I is a fmall water-wheel,
to give motion to the blowing machinery; 1^, fig. 1, is an-
other water-wheel, which works the hammer 0, for drawing
the balls, &c. into bars ; K is the mill-dam for fupplying all
the wheels.

Q, in^/fjr. I, is a refinery, technically called ^ fimry ;
in fig. 2. is the elevation. It is blown by the double blowing
cylinders, e, e. R, the ehafery for heating the m.affes of
iron a fecond time after hammering ; S, S, plans of balling
furnaces, and fimilar to the puddling furnace.

Plate II. _^. I. is a front view of the finery, as feen
fig. 2. Plate I. ; fg. 2. being a fide view. K, the hearth
on which the pig-iron and charcoal is placed ; G H, the
chimney ; f, the air-pipe ; g, a cock to regulate the blaft ;
/}, a leathern pipe conneftiag the main-pipe with the nofe-
pipe ; /, fg. 3, an enlarged view of the tuyere-iron, into
which the nofe-pipe i is inferted, and which enters the
hearth at a, fig. i.; m and n are two iron pipes, terminating
in, and forming a part of the tuyere-iron. The pipe m
communicates with a ciilern of water, which conveys a
ftream of cold water, for the purpofe of keeping the tuyere-
iron cool, and which is difcharged at n, into the ciftern 0,
fig. 4, where the whole of this apparatus is feen. The fur-
nace called the run-out furnace is very fimilar to the finery.
The hearth of the finery is fuiroundcd with caft-mctal plates,
having a cavity under the bottom plate, to throw water
from time to time to keep the bottom plate cool. The run-
out furnace differs from this, in being furrounded on three
fides with water. This furnace, and its ufe, has al-
ready been defcribed. The ehafery is alfo fimilar to the

finer)',

IRON.

finery, except in tke hearth being more like the fmith's
forge.

Fig. 5. exhibits tongs for taking the balls from the fur-
nace to the hammer ; and /f^. 7. an iron ladle, employed to
throw water into the puddling furnace, to oxydate the
iron.

Fig. 8. the face of th? (lamping hammer, which is made
to be taken out occafionally.

Fig. 9. the face of the hammer employed for drawing out
the bars : b is the part ufed to extend the bars in length
with more expedition ; the part a being employed for
fmoothening or finilhing the bar.

Figs. 10. and 11. are different views of the balling fur-
nace : a is the fire-grate ; b, the hole where the fuel is ad-
mitted ; d d, the roof made of fire-brick ; c, the door
through which the balls are admitted; sxiAbb, the hearth
on which the balls are laid to be heated, by the flame which
13 carried by the draught of the chimney G. This furnace
is bound on all fides by bars of iron, fecured by bolts.

The puddling furnace is fo nearly Cmilar to this, as not
to require a feparate diawing. The hearth is more concave
oppofite the door, for the purpofe of containing the metal
which is liquid, previous to its alTuming its malleable (late.
The door of this furnace, for heating the balls, confifts of a
frame of wrought iron, containuig fire-bricks, to prevent
the efcape of heat. It (luits and opens upon the hole, by
being attached to the end of a lever ; its weight being coun-
terpoifed at tke other end. Seejf^. i. Plate IV. where
R is the lever ; b, the door ; and f, the part by which it is
raifed.

The door of the puddling furnace confids of a folid piece
of cad-iron, about 3 inches thick, having a fmall hole
through it, for the purpofe of infpecling the procefs, and
introducing the puddling inftruments.

Plate III. fgs. I. and 7. are views of the reverberatory
furnace, ufed by the call-iron founders, for melting large
quantities of metal at once. This furnace, like the lall, is
heated with flame from its fire place a, the fuel bemg in-
troduced at B ; c d K 3. doping hearth, on which the pigs
or other pieces of metal are laid ; b, the door where it is in-
troduced ; and g, the chimney. The melted metal runs
down to the part 0, where it is accumulated, and is let out
at f; or a door may be opened at e above, and the melted
metal carried out in ladles, to be poured into the moulds.

Fig. 2. is a feclion of a cupola, in which a is the interior
of the furnace containing the metal and cokes ; e, the tap
hole;, b, the nofe-pipe ; d, a leathern pipe connefting the
air-pipe, which comes from the blowing cylinder, with the
fame ; e, a (Inp-cock to regulate or turn off the blafl.

It generally confifts of four plates of caft-iron, firmly
bolted together ; the interior being lined with fire-brick.
Tliis furnace is generally employed for the bed kind of
work, and will melt many charges in a day, according to
the nature of the metal expofed in it.

Plate YV.Jigi. I. and 2. are two views of forge-hammer
machinery, ercfted by the celebrated Smeaton. A is the
water-wheel; H, a fly-wheel ; D, wheel-work to open the
ftiuttle by a little at once, for the purpofe of adjulling the
quantity of water; F, a cog-v/heel to give motion to the
wheel G ; at the other end, I, are a number of cogs, which
lift the hammer K, _fig. 2, by paffing under its fliaft, or
helve, as it is fomctimes termed ; L, a large beam of wood
inferted into the pod M, and paifing horizontally over the
hammer. Into the pods, M and N, is inferted a piece of
a(h-timbcr 0, againd which the hammer K drikes in its
afcent, and by its elafticity re-afts upon the hammer, and

gives it a greater defcending Telocity than would be pro-
duced by gravity alone. Q is a number of heavy pieces of
metal laid upon the beam L, to increafe its vij inertia, and
will, in confequence, receive lefs motion from the hammer.
(See Mill-Work and Water-Wheel.) The hammer
here defcribed has been much improved, fo far as regards
the fpring at 0.

That already mentioned in the plate is much preferred.
The whole of it is made of cad-iron, and its weight is about
3J cwt. It ads fimply by its gravity ; its extra force,
therefore, over the common one, confifts in its greater
quantity of matter. It is made exceedingly malTive near
the centre of motion, by which means its centre of ofcilla-
tion is thrown nearer to that point, and it confequently de-
fcends with greater velocity. Although this is an advan-
tage with refpeft to the number of drokes in a given time,
it is a difadvantage in another way ; fince the centre of ofcil-
lation is alfo the centre of percuflion, or the point where
the greateft ftroke is made. Could the velocity be obtained
without this evil, the advantage would be material. See

TiLTIXG-MlLL.

Iron, in the Materia Medico, is faid to have greater virtues
than any of the other metals, which is not to be wondered at,
as being the only one that is in a manner foluble in the human
body. All the other metals, whether hard or loft, poifonous
or falutary, nay even fluid mercury itfelf, fwallowed in their
crude date, pafs out of the body again unaltered ; but this
is not the cafe with iron, its crude fihngs are often taken as
a medicine, and are always fo much ailed upon by their
juices, as to produce confiderable effetts. It is fo eafily
wrought upon out of the body alfo by fire, and by different
mendruums, that it becomes an aperient or aftrmgent, as it
is differently treated ; and is, under proper management,
greatly fuperior to all other medicines in chronic cafes.

Iron or ileel, that is, the ftrrum or chalyhs, may be em-
ployed indifferently, as CuUen fuggefts, in the preparation
of the rubigo ; but he thinks that, upon the whole, the
preference is due to the iron in ite foft malleable ftate, or in
that which is called " forged iron." As iron, fays this me-
dical writer, like all other metals, in its fohd and entire ftate,
is not aftive with regard to our bodies, without being cor-
roded or diffolved by faline matters, he is of opinion, that
it is rendered adlive only by being combined with acids. It
has indeed been common to give the entire metal, brought by
filing into a fine powder, and with very good effefts, as a
medicine. But this he does not confider as an exception to
his general rule ; becaufe he is perfuaded that there is con-
dantly prefent in the human llomach a quantity of acid ca-
pable of diffolving iron ; and as a proof of it he alleges
that he never knew iron given in its metaUic or flightly cor-
roded ftate, without producing a blacknefs in the dools,
which affords a prefumption of a previous folution of the
iron in acids. As this combination with acids is ncceffary,
phyficians and chemifts have diverfified this combination in
a variety of ways ; Dr. Cullen obferves, that he has not
known a preparation of iron for the purpofe of medicine,
that has not been prepared by a combination with acids, or
by bringing the iron into a (late that rendered it readily fo-
luble by the acid of the llomach, and Dr. Lewis very pro-
perly remarks, that Pruffian blue, though truly containing a
quantity of iron, as it is not foluble in any acid, is the lead
promifing of all the medicinal preparations.

Its virtues internally were not unknown to the ancients ;
Diofcorides attributes both an aftringency and aperiency to
it, and prefcribes it in hxmorrhages. He alfo recommends
its ruft, or crocus marlis, in fuppreflions of the mtnfes;

though

IRON.

though he, on the other liand, prefcribes wine or water, in
which red-hot iron has been quenched, as an ailringent in dy-
fenteries, diarrhoeas, and weaknelTes of the ftomach.

Iron combined willi acids becomes an ailringent fub-
ftance ; and liencc its great medicinal virtue is caufcd by its
tonic and llrengthening quahties ; for by increafing tlie tone
of the vefTels, it incrcafes tlieir vigour and aftivitv. It pro-
duces a flight and gentle irritation of the fibres, the eft'ecl of
which is to conftringe the fenfible organic parts upon which
it acts, and fo increafe their force ai:d ehillicity. Iron par-
ticularly aCis upon the libres, and the vefli Is of tlie ilomach
and inteftines; hence it prodi-.ces exo-llent effefts in all
difeafes which proceed from laxity and inaftivity of the di-
gellive organs. Such are crudities, bad digeilion, accom-
panied witli diarrha;a, flatulencies, flatulent colics, &c. &c.
in difeafes which proceed from the former, as many hyfte-
rical, hypochondriacal, melancholic affedions, intermittent
fevers, tertians and quartans, &c. In thofe cafes iron
quickens the circulation and railcs the pulfe ; renders the
blood more florid, and as it were expands and rarefies the
juices, promoting, when they are deficient, and reflraining,
ivlien immoderate, the fecretions that are made from tlie
blood, as perfpiration, urine, and the uterine purgations.
By the fame corroborating pov/er, which renders it fer-
viceable in promoting deticient, and rellraining red.mdant
difcharges, where the fnpprellion or flux arifes from debility
and relaxati-<n, it increafes, on the contrary, fluxes, and
coniirms ob'lruaio::s, when they proceed from tenfion, ri-
gidity, or fpaHnodic tlrirtures of the veflels. Where either
the circulation is quick, or the habit plethoric, by increaGng
the velocity of the blood, and the plethoric fymptoms, it
produces heaviiiefs, dulnefs, vague heats and flnlhings, or
kindles more dangerous fevers or inflammations, or burfls
fome of the over-diftended fmall vefl"els. In fome coKftitu-
tions, where iron is proper and fa'utary, particularly in
hyilerical and !iyj)ochondriacal cafe?, and where the fl;omach
is very weak, it is apt at lirft to occafion great ficknefs and
perturbation : to remedy thefe inconveniences, Sydenham
advifes, to begin with very fmall dofes, and to adminifler it
for a while at bed-time, in conjunction with a flight opiate.
In other crcumftances, it is commonly taken in the morning
and afternoon, and moderate exercil'e ufed to promote its
aftion. In all cafes the dofe fliould be fmall and repeated ; a
grain, or half a grain of the metal diflolved, or in a fokible
date, is generally a fufficient dofe. Its eO'eds are known
bv nidorous eructations, and by the alvine faces being tinged
oi a blick colour.

Stahl, and feveral other modern chemi:Is and phyficiars,
acknowledge only the to:ic and ftreng'hening qiialities of
iron. The cafes in which iron has jirodiced a refolving and
aperient efTea are tliofe, in which the obilrutiions, and the
defed of fecretions and excretions, have proceeded from
weaknefs and rehxation of the fibres and of tlic veflels, rather
than from a craffitude of humours, as in the chlorofis, in
fome kinds of jaundice, and other difeafes of the fame
fort.

The fame preparation, as Dr. Lewis has judicioufly ob-
ferved, may fometimes exert an aperiei.t, and fometiraes an
ailringent, power, accordmg to the flate of the body to
which they are applied. E.g. If a retention of menfes de-
pends upon a weaknefs in the vefllls of the uterus, chaly-
beate medicines, by invigorating the force of the veflels,
■ may cure the difeafe, and may therel>y appear to be aperient ;
and, on the contrary, in a mcnorrhagia, when the difeafe
depends upon a laxity of the extreme veflels of the uterus,
iroa exhibited, by rcftoring the tone of thefe veflels, may

fliew an ailringent operation. However, it is probable,
that in the cafes of fuppreflion depending upon a conflriftioii
of the extremities of the veflels of tide uterus, the fame
tonic powers may not be fo properly employed. By conii-
derations of this kind, the inutility or propriety of the me-
dicinal preparations of iron may be determined. In cU
cafes of aftive hemorrhagy they muft be hurtful ; and
in cafes of hemorrliagy from exteri al violence. Dr. Cullen
would judge them to be ul'eiefs, if not hurtful. In cafes of
a general flaccidity, as it is frequently marked under the
title of " Cachexy," and in all cafes of evacuations from
laxity, whe'her fa iguine or ferous, they are likely to be
the mofl; effectual remedies. The good effects of the prepa-
rations of iron, as Dr. Cullen apprehends, have been often
mifled by their being given in too fmall dofes. The faline
preparations, in large dofes, are ready to irritate the fto-
mach ; and for tliis reafon, and fome others, it muft be al-
ways proper to begin with fvnall dofes, and to increafe them
by degrees; but he has often found, that no great benelit
IS to be obtained but when large quantities, either by tlie
fize of the doles, or by the long continuance of them, have
been tlirown in. He fays, that he has found the finiple rnll
as effeftual as any other preparation, and the Ilomach has
borne it better than any other. He begins with a dofe of
five grains, but gradually increafes it to what the ilomach
eafily bears. Some are faid to have given it to the quantity
of fix drams in one day ; but he has hardly found any fto-
mach that would bear the third pare of that quantity with-
out much ficknefs. He thinks that the ftomach bears it bet-
ter by joii.ing witli it fome aromatic.

I'he preparations of iron that have been in more frequent
ufe, and fi.me of w'lich are at prefent continued under dif-
ferent names, are, i. The crude filings reduced to an impal-
pable powder ; tl-.is is an excelieut form for adminillering
iron in female diforders, in which the body is weak,
languid, and full of acidities ; the dofe of the filings is from
two or three grains to a fcruple or more. 2. " Mars faccha-
ratus," which is the filings candied with fugar, by diffolving
two parts of fine fugar in water, and boiling it down to
a candy ccnfiftence, and adding, by httle and httle, one part
of the clcanfed filings in a kettle over a gentle fire ; the
veflel being continually fhaken, that the filings may be crufted
over with the fugar. In order to prevent the mixture from
ri;nning into lumps, a little ftarch is previoufly mixed with
the fugar, in the proportion of a dram to' a pound. 3. " Li-
mati:ra Martis pr-.Eparata," or " Chalybis rubigo prspa-
rata," is formed by moiftening the filings with vinegar or
water, ai>d expoi'iiig them to a moiil air, or occafionally
moiftening them afieih, which foon change in great part into
rufl ; this mil may be feparated from ttie uncorroded part,
by grinding and waihing over the fine powder with water.
This is given in the fame dofe as the crude filings.

This preparation, wliich was denominated " chalybis ru-
bigo prasparata" in the London Pharmacopeia of 174^, and
" ferri rubigo" in that of 17S7, is now called " ferri car-
bonas," or carbonate of iron. It is formed of fulphate of
iron, eight ounces ; fub-carbonate of foda, ten ounces ; and
a gallon of boiling water. DifTolve the fulphate of iron aud
fub-carbonate of foda feparately, each in four pints of water ;
then mix tlie folutions together, and fet by tlie mixture,
that the precipitated powder may lubfide ; having poured off
the fupernatant liquor, wafli the carbonate of irOn with hot
water, and dry it upon bibulous paper in a gentle heat.

There are two oxyds of iron, both of which are com-
bined with acids, and form different modifications of the
fame fait, a dilUndlioiithat ought to bepaiticularly regarded

IRON.

in medicine ; tliey have been named, from their colour, black
ami red oxyds ; tlic former, which is black, or (if formed
as in the prefcnt inflance, by precipitation from water)
greeiiifh, coMfills of iron 7^, and oxygen 2", according to
Lavoifier. It may bi- formed in varimis ways : as by expo-
fure of a pafte of iron-fihngs and water to the air ; by heat-

ing together one part of red oxyd of iron, and two parts of
i-fihngs ; and by adding a folution of alkaU to one of
green fulphate of iron, and drying the precipitate q'.iickly

without expofure to air ; and it is kept as a feparate article
in the Edinburgh Pharmacopeia, under the name of " Ferri
oxydjm nigrum piirificalum." The latter, or red oxyd,
conliils, according to Proufl, of iron 52, oxygen 48, and in
its relation to black oxyd is compofed of 66.5 of that oxyd,
and 33.5 of additional oxygen. Some chemiils have fup-
pofed the exiilence of other gradations of combination of
iron and oxygen, but the above are all that are generally
admitted, or that require particular notice ; this latter is
alfo kept in the Edinb. Pharmac. under the name of " oxy-
d.im ferri rubruni." Salts contaiiing the black oxyd, on
expofure to air, pafs to the ftate of red oxyd, by attrafting
oxygen from it, and in the procefs of drying, the fame
change happens here to the oxyd in the fub- carbonate, which,
at the time of its firft precipitation, is a black oxyd. The
fame fubftance, more impcrfeClly prepared, conllituted the
riift of iron {ferri rullgo) of the former Pharmacopeia, for
which, in all tiie pro-jeUes into which i: entered, this preci-
pitate is now fubltituted. The red oxyd of the Edinburgh
college is the old " Colcnthar vitrioli," and formed by ex-
pofure of common fulphate of iron to a llrong heat, fuf5-
cient to drive over its fulphuric acid, when the red oxyd re-
mains behind, as in the procefs which was formerly in ufe
for obtaining that acid. Sub-carbonate of foda is preferred
for tlie precipitation to that of potafh, on account of the
greater folubihty of the fulphate of the former than of the
latter alkah, and the confeqiient facility with which it may
be wallied away. Tlie fait is a fub-carbonate, but as only
one of the compounds is kept, the relation is not cxpreiTed.
The dofe of the " ferri carbonaa" is from two to ten
giains.

4 " Mars fulphuratus," prepared by mixing iron filings
viith twice their weight of flower of brimftone, and as much
water as will make them into a pafte, whicii in a few hours
fwell up, and is then pulverized, and put into a heated cru-
cible to deflagrate, ar.d kept conllantly llirring with an iron
fpatula, till it falls into a deep black powder : this powder
urged longer in the fire, becomes red, and is called,
5. " Grocus martis aperiens et aftringens." 6. The fait or
vitriol of iron, " fernim vitriolatum," called "Sal martis."
This is now difufed. See Crocus Martis.

This is the " ferri fulphas," fulphate of iron, of the Lond.
Pharm. of 1809 ; and is compofed of iron and fulphuric
acid, of each by weight eight ounces, and four pints of
water. The fulphuric acid and water are mixed together in a
glafs veflel, and the iron is added : then, after the effervefcence
has ceafed, the folution is filtered through paper, and eva-
porated, fo that cryllals may form as it cools. The water is
afterwards poured away, and the cryftals are dried upon
bibulous paper. Upon a large fcale this fait is formed from
native fulphuret of iron (pyril.'s) by moiilening, and ex-
pofing it to the open air. The fulpliate of iron is afterwards
diffolved in water and cryilallized by evaporation. Sulphuric
acid will unite either with the black or red oxyd: the firil
of thefe is the fait here intended for internal ufe, and upon
this point great itrefs ought to be laid ; as the lall is the
ftate in which the fulphate of trade is ufually found, and
v.'r;b, ftir medxal purpofes, is a very dillinct and inferior

thing. Its cryftals are tranfparent rhomboidal prifms, of a
light green colour ; its tafte is aftringcnt and llrong, and it
reddens vegetable blues. One part is foluble in two of cold,
and in three-fourths of boiling water. It is infolnble in
alcohol, in which menftrunm the red fulphate is foluble,
and this affords a method of afcertainiug the exiftence of the
latter with the former, as alfo of feparating it. On expo-
fure to air it is gradually converted into red fulphate : it
confifts, according to Kirwan, of acid 26, iron 2S, and
water 46, parts. Heat drives off the water of cry ilallizHtion,
and the fait remains white ; if urged farther, it drives over,
the acid, and leaves firfl a red fulphate, and at laft: a redoxvil
of iron. The dofe of the " ferri fulpiias" is from one
to five grains. 7. " Tinftura martis in fpiritu falls," P. L.
1745, " Tinelura ferri muriate," P. L. 1787, or " Tintlura
ferri muriati," tindlare of muriate of iron, P. L. 18:9.
This is formed by pouring the muriatic acid, in the propor-
tion of a pint, upon half a pound of carbonate of iron
in a glafs veffel, and Ihaking it occafionally for three day?' :
then fetting it by, that the faicts, if there be any, may fub-
fide ; pouring off the fclution, and ndiiing three pints of
reftified fpirit. This fait appears to be an oxymuriate of
iron, the red oxyd of iron employed beco.ning, on its combi-
nation with the acid, black oxyd, and giving over its fuper-
abundant oxygen to the muriatic acid. This appears to be
its itate, becaufe fulphuric acid added to it detaches oxy-
muriatic acid, and heat drives over oxymuriatiG acid ; and
in the iatter inflance, although the red oxyd was ufed for its
preparation, the black oxyd remains- bthir.d. The fait, eva-
porated to drynefs, yields an orange-coloured m.afs, which is
uncryftaUizable, deliquefces on expofure to air, and is folu-
ble in alcohol. The tincture has a brownifh yellow colour, and
very aftringent tafte. 8. " Fl<>res martiales," P. L. 1745,
flowers of iron (fee Flore.s), "Ens Veneris,'' P. L. 1720,
" ferrum ammoniacale," P. L. 1787, or " fcrrum ainmonia-
tum," ammoniated iron, P. L. 1809, is compofed by inn-
mately mixing carbonate of iron and muriate of anmionia,
of each a pound, and fubliming by immediate expofure to a
llrong fire, and, lailly, reducing the fublimed ammoniacal u-on
to powder. This fubllance confills of red muriate of ir^jn,
mixed by fublimation with muriate of ammonia. It is orange-
colcured, with a fmell refembling faff^ron, is deliquefceut, and
foluble in alcoho'. The refidue, which is dcliquefcent, cor-
fi'.ts alfo of red muriate of iron, a-d was formerly kept
under the name of " lixivium martis." The dofe is from
three to fifteen grains. 9. " Tinflura florum martialiiim,"
P. L. 1745, " Tindura martis Mynfichti," P. L 1720,
" Tindura ferri ammoniacalis," P. L 1787, or " TinCtura
ferri ammonidti," tindlure of ammoniated iron, P. L. 1809,
is formed by digelling four ounces of ammoniated iron
in a pint of proof fpirit, and theu ilraining. Thi;* is an
elegant chalybeate, and may be given in dofes of a tea-
fpoonful. 10. " Ferrum tartari/aium," or tartari/.ed iron,
P. L. 1787 and 1809, called alfo " Mars folubihs," and
" Chalybs tartarizatus," c<jnfi!ls of iron, a pound, fupertar-
trate of potafs, powdered, two poundv, and a pint of water.
Rub them together, and expofe them to the air in a broad
glafs veflel fur eight days, tiien dry the relidue in a fand balh,
and reduce it to a very line powder. Add to this powder
a pint more of water, and expofe it for eight days longer ;
then dry it, and reduce it to a very fine powder. This is a
triple tilt, in which the iron is firll oxydated by being
moiilened and expofed to air, and then combines with tlie
fuperabuudant acid of the fupertartate of potafs ; and it is
therefore a tartrate of potafs and iron. It may be difTolvtd
in water and cryllallizcd. This ckg.int and ufeful chal) beate
may be given eiihtr in a iolld or litj^uid form, from (i-.e-

1 R O

grains to a fcruple. It has been ufually diftinguilhed in the
(hops by the name of its inventor, Dr. Willis. 1 1. " Li-
quor ferri alkalini," or folution of alkaline iron, is compofed
of 2{ drams of iron, two fluid-ounces of nitric acid, fix
fluid-ounces of dillilled water, and fix fluid-ounces of the fo-
lution of fubcarbonate of potafs. Having mixed the acid and
water, pour them upon the iron, and when the efFervefcence
has ceafed, pour off' the clear acid folution ; add this gradually,
and at intervals, to the folution of fubcarbonate of potafs,
occafionally fliaking it, until it has an"umed a deep brown-
red colour, and no farther eff'ervefcence takes place. Laftly,
fet it by for fix hours, and pour off the clear iulution. This
preparation was firil defcribed by Stahl, and calKd " tinftura
martis alkalina," and it is for the firil time introduced into
the London Phamacopeia of 1809, as affording a combina-
tion of iron diftinft from any other, and often apphcable to
praAice. It feems to be a triple fait, formed by the union
of nitric acid with red oxyd of iron, and with potafs. Dr.
Lewis has obferved, that alkaline folutions of iron are ill
adapted for medicinal ufe; and on that account, he fays, they
have been wholly neglefted in modern praftice. 12. " Vi-
num ferri," wine of iron, P. L. 1787 and 1809, " Vinum
chalybeatum," P. L. 1745, confifts of two ounces of iron-
filings mixed in two pints of wine. The mixture is fet by
for a month, occafionally fliaking it, and it is then filtered
through paper. Lewis Mat. Med. CuUen Mat. Med.
London Pharmac. 1809. See Chemical Properties ef luoN,
Chalybeate), and Mineral, &c. Waters.

Irox, Cafe-hardening of, a procefs by which a fuperficial
hardnefs is given to various articles made of iron. It is
found by experience that pure iron is not fufceptible of a
very fine pohfli, and that, when it is expofed to the air, it
very foon changes. All iron utenfils, therefore, fuch as fire
irons, and many other articles, having the appearance of
poliihed ileel, are cafe-hardened, for the purpofe of giving
them a finer polifli, as well as rendering their colour mtire
permanent. The goods to be cafe-hardened fhould be finidied
with the exception of polifhing, fince, if the procefs be well
managed, the moil delicate workmanfliip will not be injured.
A box of wrought iron muft be provided, which iis perfedlly
found in every part, having a lid of the fame metal, to fit
very tight. In this box the articles are to be fl;ratified with
powdered carbon, that of animal fubilances being the beft,
for reafons given in the article Irox, in the feftion on Steel.
The box being perfeftly filled with thefe materials, let the
lid be fitted on, and luted all round with a palle made of
equal parts of pipeclay and Calais fand. The whole is now
to be furrounded by bricks loofcly built up, a little higher
than the top of the box, leaving about four inches on each
fide for fuel. This may be done either upon a fmith's
hearth or in the open air. The moft proper fuel is the re-
fufe -cokes from any fires where pit -coal is burnt. The fire
being kindled, and the fpace filled up with this fuel, the heat
will be applied gradually, owing to the fmothered combuf-
tion. As foon as the box appears of a light red heat, let it re-
main about half an hour, or more time if the box be large, in the
fame temperature. The lid may now be taken off, and the box
inverted and its contents emptied over a ciftern of cold water.
If the box be fuffered to cool without being opened, the
goods will be perfcdlly white and metallic when taken out.
If they are now heated red-hot, and quenched in cold water,
they acquire the fame hardnels as if turned out of the box
red-hot into the water. If the articles are very delicate, fo
as to be injured by the air in heating a fccond time, they
may be preferved, by dipping them into a mixture of a fatu-
rated folution of fait (muriate of foda) with any vegetable
matter to give it a pulpy confiflence. During the time of
9

1 R O

heating it red-hot, the fait fufes upon the furface of the
metal, defending it from the oxygen, fo that after it is
quenched in the water, and bruflied, it will be perfeftly
clean.

The fize of the iron box fhould not be very large ; it is
better to do the work at two or three proceffes. Charcoal
is a very bad conduftor of heat, and if the mafs to be heated
were large, thofe articles near the fides would be over done,
by combining with too much carbon, while thofe in the mid-
dle would be too little carbonated.

People in the habit of cafe-hardening, have generally
fome feeret receipt for the procefs, on which they fet great
value. All, however, agree in ufing carbon, the only thing
neceffary : fome iidd to this falt-petre ; others fal ammoniac,
and other articles, to which they very knowingly attribute
their relative fuccefs. We can, however, afl^ure the moft
fage of thefe perfons, that if they make their box perfectly
air-tight, by the rules above given, ilratifying the articles
with animal carbon alone, they will, with proper heat and
time, produce the greatell pofTible eft'eft.

Animal carbon may be produced from mofl; animal fub-
fl;ances : among thefe are blood, hoofs, and leather. Thefe
fubilances Ihould be preffed into an iron pot, which can be
heated red-hot, covered clofe, with a fmall open tube infert-
ed into the cover. The volatile matter that efcapes may be
fet on fire, « hich will in a gieat meafure dellroy the fmell ;
or a receiver may be adapted, and the crude ammonia dillilled
off. When the volatile fubilances have come over, the re-
fiduum will be fine animal carbon, which requires only to be
reduced to powder.

This animal carbon is fo fitted for combining with iron,
that if it be made into a pulp with a faturated folution of
fait, and laid upon the furface of iron ; upon being heated
red-hot, and quenched in cold water with this coating upon
it, the furface will become hard. Any part of an iron ar-
ticle, not wifhed to be cafe-hardeneJ, may be prevented from
undergoing the i hang", by covering the pan with pipe-clay.

I R 1 N , For the blueing of, fee B 1 u El N G.

Iron, For the expanfion oj, by heat, fee Heat and Pyro-
meter.

Iron Chambers. See Chambers.

Iron, For the refining of. See Refining and Iron, § 4.
fupra.

Iron, For the converfion of, into fleel. See Iron and
Steel.

Iron Furnace. See 'Ri.Pi.&T-Furnace, and Iron, fupra.

Iron, harping. See Harping.

\KOTf.-Uquor, in Calico Printing and Dyeing, is a folution
of iron in the acetic acid, ufed as a mordant for certam colours.
It is employed as a fubftitute for the fulphat of iron, and is
preferred, in thofe proceffes, to the lall fait. The oxyd of
iron, which is the effential ingredient, is more eafily attraft-
ed by the Huff from the acetic than the fulphuric acid, and,
befides, the texture is not fo liable to be injured by the ace-
tat as the fidphat of iron. In order to make this fubllance
cheap, the acid dillilled from wood, called pyrolignic acid,
and now tound to be impure acetic acid, is uied as a fubfti-
tute for vinegar. See PvROLiGNic ^cid, and the lail fec-
tion of the article Iron.

Iron moulds are marks or ftains produced on fubilances,
particularly linen and cottou, by the oxyd of iron. The
affinity of thefe vejietable fubilances for the oxyd of iron is
fo great, as not only to take it from the furface of iron, but
from any acid with v,>hich it may be combined. We find,
hence, that very few acids are capable of removing iron-
moulds. From the well-known faCl that the attraftion of
acids for oxyds of metals is more feeble as the latter contain

more

I R O

more oxygen, we are enabled to account for iron-moulds
being eaiier to remove, as they are more recent. The ftain
foon acquires an orange-red colour, by abforbing oxygen,
and is with more difficulty extrafted. Various means are
employed by the laundrcflcs for removing flains of iron, the
moll general of which is the citric acid, commonly called
fait of lemons. The muriatic acid is frequently employed
by the bleachers, and it is by far the molt rapid and effec-
tual procefs ; but the great caution nccefi'ary, in fuddenly
wafhing the fpot after the ftain has difappeared, leffens its
utility fordomellic ufe. When the fpot is dipped into the
clear muriatic acid, the iron almoft inllantly disappears, and
it is at that inllantthe part fliould be plunged into a quantity
of clean water, and walhed as quick as polTible ; the wafli-
ing being continued for a confiderable time.

In order to render the oxyd of iron more eafily foluble by
any acid, let the part ftained be lleeped for fome time in a
folution of fuipluuet of potiilTi, or, what is more eafily ob-
tained, fulphr.ret of lime, riniing it afterwards in clean water.
The oxyd v-\\\ be deprived of lome of its oxygen, and may
be removed by almoft any acid, when it is fo dilute, even, as
not io injure the ftuff, however long it may remain in it.

It may be proper here to obferve, that the tartaric and ox-
alic acids remove iron-moulds equally well with the citric
acid.

When the fubftance iron-moulded is printed calico, and
of a buff colour, or any other colour in which iron is
employed as a mordant ; it will be found that, in removing
the iron-mould, the proper colour will alfo difappear. In
this cale there is no cftectual remedy.

Moll of the iron-moulds are produced in the walhing, for
want of fufficient c?.ution. In thofe utenfils in which metal
is at all neceiTary, copper or zinc (liould be employed inftead
of iron. With care, however, iron veffels may be fafely
ufed. When they are not in ufe, the furfacc of the iron
(hould, after being made clean and dry, be fmeared over
with oil or tallow, and rubbed dry at the time they are
ufed,

Inoi^-moulJj, yellow lumps of earth or Hone, found in
chalk-pits about the Chiltern, in Oxfordfliire, and elfe-
where, being in reality a kind of pyrites, or indigefted
iron -ore.

Ili0}ijhot, in Mineralogy, is a term applied by Mr.
Jamefon (Geognof. vol. iii. p. 47. 1 59.) to lucii rocks and
ftones as are coloured or clouded by the oxyds of iron.
Ferruginous is a more common name for this very common
appearance in the ilrata.

iKOS^ci, a Nautical Term, fignifying the decay of the
iron fallenings by its corrofion with the fea water, by which
the continuity of the parts is gnawed away by degrees,
whereby the veffel is not only rendered weak, but leaky.

ln.os-J/oiie, is that fpecies of iron ore which abounds with
a cnnliderable proportion of earth, fuch as lime, or alumine,
and is the ore moll common in this country. See luox.

The manner of getting iron-llone is divided into three
departments: i. Vtyji all -work : 2.3y ifll-J>its : and 3. By
open-ifork. The firil of thci'e methods is employed when
the Hone lies at a coiiliderabledepth. After finking a (liaft
to the lower part of the ilratum, the ground is excavated
in an horizontal dire&ion, leaving at intervals certain parts
Handing to fupport the roof of the excavation. The fpaces
between tliefe pillars are caWcd JlaJls.

The L-ll-pil is employed when the iron-Hone lies at fo.me
diflancc from the furfact, and where the ground is not fuffi-
ciently firm to admit of Hall-work. Thefe pits, when lirll
oj>ened, are narrow, butbeco.Tic wider below, affuming the
ihape of a bell. . .

Vol. XIX.

I R O

The third method, or the epen'^u.-ori, is made ufe of when
the ftratum containing the ftone is nearly baffeting, or is very
near to the furface. The earth is liiH removed, laying the
ftratum containing the ore bare, and the ftone is got out as
from an open quarry.

The argillaceous iron ores are generally called iron-floncs,
and abound iu many of the coal diftricls. In Mr. Farey's
Agricultural and Mineral Report on Derbyfliirt', vol. i.
p. 217, a lift of fevcnty-five places in and near that coimty
is given, where iron-llone has been dug, or where the rakes
of iron-done, as they are there called, liave been worked.

IiiON it'W, in Bolaiiy. S«e SiDEim.wi.uN.

Iron-wo;/", in a Ship, denotes ali the pieces of iron, of
whatfoever figure or fize, which are ufed in its conftrurtion ;
as bolts, boom-irons, which are compoled of two rings,
nearly refembling the figure of 8, nails, Ipikes, chains.,
and chain plates, block-ftrops, cranks, braces, pintles, and
goodgings.

IiiOK-ii'or/j, a name given to the cftablifiiments for the
manufadlure of pig-iron. (See BtAST-yurKt;*'? and Ikon.)
The moft proper fituation for iron- works is on the fide of a
lull, from which a perpendicular defcent could be formed
nearly equal to the height of the bb.il -furnace. The upper
ground by this means is on a levil with the mouth of the
furnace, where all the materials are introduced, and is there-
fore the fituatiofi where the ore is roafted, and the cokes
prepared ; the lower ground being the moll proper for the
rell of the works.

Where fuch local advantages do not exift, the materials
are drawn up on an artificial inclined plane, by appropriate
machinery.

IllON-w^r/, in Botany. See G.Vi.EOPSis and Sidekitis.

Ikon IJland, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eaft In-
dian fea, near the coalt of Siam. N. lat. 12 ^^'. E. long*
98'.

Iron Lough, a lake of Ireland, in the county of Weft,
meath, through which the river Inny paffes. It is about
five miles N.W. from Mullingar.

Iitox Movnlains, a chain of American mountains, in Te-
neffee, extending fram the river Teneffee to that of French
Broadtown, S.W. to N.E. and conftituting the boundary
between Teneffee and North Carolina, and reaching from
near the lead mines, on t!ie Kanhaway, through the Chero-
kee country, to the fouth of Chota, and terminating near
the fource of Mobele. This chain abounds with caverns and
catara£ls.

IRONDEQUET, a bay on the fouth fide of lake On-
tario.

IRONSIDE, Gilbert, in Bir.graphy, an Englifli pre-
late, was born at Hawkftsury, in Oxfordfcire, in 1588, and
educated at Trinity college, Oxford. Soon after he entered
upon holy orders, he obtained the reftory of Wiuterbarn,
in Dorfetiliire. At the reftoratiou he was made bifliop of
Brittol. He died in 1 67 1. He was author of " QuellioiM
on the Sabbath," and a fermon. V.'ood.

IRONY, derived from u^-.ny., difimiilalion, in Oratory, a
figure in fpccch, whereby we plainly intend fomething very
different from what our words exprefs ; as when wc feem to
praife a pcrfon at a time when we evidently rally and difcom-
mendhim.

Quintilian calls this figure iHverflojuimi, tllffinmlallon, and
iUiifion; and obi'erves that it may be known by the manner
ofthe pronunciation, or from the nature of the perfon or the
thing. The fubjefts of irony are vices and follies of all
kinds : and it has thus been uied by the moft grave perfoRs
on proper occafious. Socrates ufed it fo much as to acquire
the name of *:.•/. or the droll. It was alfo iiled by the pro.
3M plivt

I R R

pliet Elijah, t Kings, xviii. 27, by Solomon, F.cclef. xi. 9,
and by our Saviour himfelf, Mark, \ii. 9.

IROQUOIS. See Six Nations.

Iroquois, National Mufic. Claude Perrault. an un-
believer in the liarmony or counterpoint of, the Tincicnts,
tells us, in his " Phyfical EIFavB," that Louis XIV., near
the end of his reign, when fome of tlie Iroquois nation were
brought into France, wirtiing to ii'-ar tht-ra fnig, that he
might form fome idea of their mniic, many of them fang
their wild melodies in unifons and oclaves, ivhile others ac-
companied them in Li'rimting like pigs ; regularly, however,
marking the meafure by a violent jolt. And thus they at-
tempered the acute voices by the mixture of the grave
orunts and rhythmical pulfations of the others.

Perrault imagines, from the defcription which CnHlodorus
gives of harmony, or finging together, which tiie ancients
called j^iw^/ix/nj, that Roman harmony refembled that ot the
Iroquois.

IRRADIATION, fignifiesan emanation or fliooting out
of rays, or fubtle effluvia, from any body. See 1L.M.\.S'.\-
TION, R.'iY, Eppi rviA, and Qi^ality.

IRRATIONAL Nu.mbers, the fame ?& furJ numbm.
See Surd and Numbkks.

Irr.\tional Quantities. See Rational Quarititia.

Irr.\tionai, Sou!. See Soul.

IRREDUCIBLE C.\se, in y!!-ebra, h an expreffion
ariling from the folutiou of certain equations of the third
degree, which always appears under an imaginary form,
notwithftanding it is, in facft, a real quantity, but the reduc-
tion of it to a rational, or irrational finite expreffion, has at
prefent refifled the united efforts of many of the moll cele-
brated mathematicians of Europe. Every cubic equation
may be reduced to the form .»' -\- ax = b; and then, ac-
cording to the common rule.

See Equations.

Now, when a is negative, - - is alfo recrative ; and, there-
27

R R

when - is crreater than — , but wlien — exceeds -, you

4 ° .27 27 4 ^

cannot refolve the equation ; and, therefore, you rcqueft me
to fend you the folution of the equation x' — ^x = 10.
To which I reply, that you have not ufed a good method
iu that cafe, and tlrat your whole procefs is entirely falfe. As
to refolving you the equation you h.ave fent, I muil fay that
I am v»ry forry th:it I have already given you fo much as
I have done ; for I have been informed by a credible per-
fon, that you are about to publifli another algebraical work,
and that you have been boalting through Milan of having
difeovered fome new rules in algebra. But take notice,
that if you break your faith with me, I fhall certamly keep
my word with you, nay, I even affure you to do more than
I promifcd." (Dr. Hutton's Mathematical Dictionary, ar-
ticle Algebra.) Tartalea, however, notwithtlanding what he
fays iu this letter, was himfelf well aware of the difficulty in
qneftion, as appears from fome of his private memoranda :
and from that time to the prefent, which is near 300 years,
the fame impediaient remains, notwithllanding the repeated
attempts of many very dillinguillied mathematicians ; in
faft, there is great reafon to fuppofe, independently of the
failure of fo many ingenious attempts, that the formula is in-
expreffible in any other finite form, than that under which
it naturally arifes by the folutiou. See Equations.

Notxvithftanding, however, that no analytical folution can
be given to the cafe in queftion, every equation of this form
has three real roots, which are obtainable by other methods,
fuch as by means of a table of fines and tangents, infinite
feries, continued fraftions, and a new method, lately publilhed
by Mr. Barlow in the Mathematical Repofitory, wliich fcems
by far the readied and moft accurate of any that has been at
prefent difeovered ; the rationale of which is as follows ;

I. Every cubic equation may be reduced to the form i-'
+ n .r = + b, by the known rules in algebra ; but when
the equation is in the irreducible cafe, this ambiguous form
ceafes, and the equation becomes x' — a x =^ + b ; the
folution of which, by the following method, is the fame for
either fign of b ; only when b is pofitive, the root firft found
will he pofitive, and when b is negative, the root will be
negative alfo ; it will, therefore, be fufficient to confider the

fore, when — < — , the quantity
4 27

idcr the inferior radical, ^.^^^

b,

ihich — < — , as we have before
4 27

IS imaginary j

bee

ve- cannot ex-

traft the fquare root of a negative quantity ; and this is what
eonftitutes that which is g«nerally called the irreducible
cafe. This difficulty foon prefented itfelf to Cardan, after
Tartalea had communicated to him his method for the folu-
tion of cubic equations, which rule is now con;monly, though
very improperly, attributed to the former. Cardan informs
Tartalea, m a letter dated Auguft 4th, 1^39, that he un-
cerftood the folution of the equation *' -j- <; v = b, and

alfo oi x' — a X = b, when - > — ; but when - < -
4 27 4 27'

his attempts always failed ; and he therefore begged of Tar-
talea to clear up his difficulty, by fending him the folution
of the equation x' — qv — 10. Tartalea was himfelf per-
feilly aware of this difficulty, but he was by no means fa-
tisfied with Cardan's conduct, wliom he at that time fufpetled
to be about puhlifhing as his own the rules he had taught
iiiro ; and, therefore, inllead of giving him an explicit
anfwer, he writes to him in the following terms — " M.
Kieronime, I h.ivt- received your letter, in which you write,
iia: you uaderiland the rule for the cafe .b' — a.v = b,

Now, every equation of the form x'' ~ a x = b, may be
transformed to anot!>er dependent equation, in which tiic
CO. efficient of the fecond term (hall be unity ; that is, to

anotherof the form v' —V =r r. For make jr=-, then the

equation becomes —

w take ax'^ — i , or c =
ba\ .

and, coiifequently, ^z'

ce we have _y' — ^ = — - ; or putting -

= c, it becomes

jr' — y =z r, as required.
And the value of ^ being found in thi.s reduced equation,
we immediately obtain that of .v, in the original one, by

means of the expreffion x ■=■ — , or .v = j» .J a.

Now, the original equation being by hypothefis of the
irreducible form, the transformed ec^uationmutl DectlTarily be

fo

IRREDUCIBLE CASE.

foii:

■r 1 r 1 "^^ ^ ' ^ 2 \^ ?

lie ; and, conlcqucntly, — < — , or c < — ^— ^, or
4 27 9

c < ..?849i ; aflTuining this, thcivfore, as the maximum va-
lue of e, we find that the greatell value of y can never ex-
ceed 1.1549, nor can the Icall be kis than unity ; fo that all
pofTible values x>{ y lie between the limits 1 and 1.IJ49 ; and
if, therefore, we have a table containing all the values of c
to tbofe of y, between the above limits, wc (hall have by
infpeftion the folution of every equation of the irreducible
cafe, when converted into the form y' — y =z c \ and hence
alfo of every irreducible equation of the form .v ' — ax = h,
becaiile x ~ y ^ a.

The following is a table of this defcription, the value of j:
being arranged in the leading column, except the lalt digit,
which is found in the upper horizontal line, and the refpcftivc
values of c are found in the other columns, being exactly
the form that is ufually given to the common tables of loga-
rithms ; and the finding of any value of _)•, correfponding to
a given value of c, is performed cxaClly the fame as thit of
finding the natural number to a given logarithm. Thus, for
example, giving _)• ' — y =l .3S37 to find^y : in the table the
number correfponding to .38^69912 is 1.1543 ; tiiat h,y =.
I.I 543. It is obvious, therefore, that, from bare infpeCtion,
the val'ie of _y may be found true to five places of figures,
but thefe are extended to 8 or 9 places true, by taking pro-
portional parts as in logarillims ; thus, find the next greater
and lefs tabular number to that propofed ; and then fay,
as the difference of thefe is to .0001 ; fo is the difference
between the lead of them and the number propofed, to the
part which is to be added unto the leall value ij{ y ; and this
proportion may be fafely carried to four places at leaft, and
thus the value of y will be known to eight places. This
may be demonllrated as fi)llows : the proportional part that
is thus added unto y, is always lefs than .0001, and, there-
fore, lefs than the ^-i-^dth part of ji, and hence it may be
faid to be very fmall with regard to_)'. Now, I fay, that if
a and b be both very fmall with regard to a third quantity _y,
that the following proportion is very nearly true ; ix's.

(7T^' - y -^r a) - {y' - y) : (/T7)' - yTl>)

- (v' - y\ :: a : I ;
for, by rejefting all thofe powers of a and h higher than the
firll, this proportion becomes precifely

ily'- - i)" : iy^ - ^) b :: a : h ;
and fincc, in this cafe, <? and b are lefs than .0001, (or at leaft
neither of them ever exceed this,) by rejefting the fquares
and cubes of thefe quantities, we cannot have affefted the
fourth place of fij^uies in the rclult, and therefore the {)rij-

portioi) may always be depended upon to four places. An J
thus, tile following rule may be deduced for every irreducible
cubic equation, x- - nv ~ h ; viz..

Find

b ^/ a

the following table, and take out the cor-

refponding value of y ; then will y ,/ a =: r be the root
fought. Let us, for inftance, take the example propof-d
by Cardan to Tartalea ; namely, .v' — 9* := lo, to find x.

Here -— = ~| = .37037O.37-

Tab. 11. .37057828. correfp. n. i . 1 499'37037037 given n. ,
ne.xtlefs .3702S164 n. i.i498i37028i"64 lefstab.n.

As 29664 ;

Therefore J' — 1.14982991

08873 • 2991

= ,/ a

r = 3.44948973 as required.
-Required the value of v in the equation

,32396954;

Tabula n. .32398835, correfp. n.
Next lefs .323-0267, n.

and

'•-3.^9 .3239^9^4

As 28568 : I ;: 266.';7 : 9342

Therefore the value of _v is 1.I3389J42 ;
y s' 1 = i-i.^3''9342 X 2-6457JI3 =

2.999999999, as will be found by the operation ; which
anlweristrue to the 10th place, the real root being 3, as ii
obvious from the equation. It will be unneceflary to give
any other examples, as the fame method is purfued in a!}
caies, and the fame accuracy may be depended upon in the
refults. The reader who will trouble himfelf to coinpare
the rule here laid down, with any other that has been before
given by other writers, will foon be convinced of the im.-
menfe labour that is faved by the following table ; at the
fame time, that the number of figures in the refult are nearly-
double thofe that can be fafely obtained by the tables of
fines and tangents.

For the method of finding the other two roots after one
is obtained, fee E(^UATioxs ; for the folution of cubic equa-
tions by the tiifettion of an angle, fee Bonnycaftle's Trigo-
nometry ; and for the method by infinite fcries, fee Philol.i-
phical Tranfaiftioiis, vols. Ixviii. and Ixx.

S^:

TaUe

IRREDUCIBLE CASE.

Table for the Solution of the Irreducible Cafe in Cubic Equations.

01212S21
01414734
01619251

01824373
02030100

02236433

02443373
02650920
02859074
03067858

OC020003 1 0004001 2
00220363 100240433
C0421324J00441453
C062.2S86 1 00643075
C0825050I00S45299
oio278i6{oi048i26

03277210
03487 191

C36977S3
03908986
04120800

04333226
04546265
04759917
049741 8 2
05 1 89063

05404558
05620668

05837395
06054739
06270C00

1031 06491279

1032 06710477

1033 06930294

1034 07150730

1035 07371788

043)4502
04567602
04781316

04995643
05210584

05426141

056423 13
05859102
06076507
06294530

0759^466
07815765
08038687
08262232
08486400

08711192
08936609
C9162651
09389318
09616613

09844534

10073082
10302259
10532065
10762500

07615668
07838029
08061-014
08284621
08508851

08733705
08959185
09185289
09412620
=9639376

01251556
01455589
01660227
01865470

02071318

j 00080048
[00280588
] 00487294
00683472
00S85817
'01088764

C01C0075
00300675
00501876
00703679
00906084
01 1C9092

01271932
01476026
01680724

01886027
02091936

02277772 I02298451 62319136

02484834
02692501
02900778
03109663

01292314
01496469

0190659 1
02112,60

03319157
03529261
°3 739974
03951300
04163236

04375785
04588946
04802721
05017109
05232112

.-5447730
0566^964
05880815
06098282
06316366

02505573 02526319
02713302J02734109
02921639 02942507
03130585 03151513

03340140
03550305
03761080
03972466
04184464

04397074

04610296

0482413:

0503858

05253646

05469526
05685

06535069
06754391

06974331
07194892
07416073

06348209

07637876

C7860300
08083346
08307016
08531308

08756225
08981767
09207934
09434727
09C62147

03361 129

03571355
03782190

03993*^38
04205697

04418368
04631652

04845549
05060061
05275187

35490928

06578884
07698329
07018394

07239079
07460384

076823 1 1

07904859
08128030
08329417! 08351824
08553772 08576242

08778751
09004356
09230585
09457441
09&84923

09913032
10141769

•=.-7 '135
10601129

1C831753

0S8012S4
C902695 I
09253243
0948016!
09707706

01312702
01516917
01721736
01927160
02133191

02339827
02547070
02754921
02963380
03172447

03382124
03592411
03803308
04C14816
04226937'

04439669

04653014
0486697

00120108
00320768
00522030
00723893
00926358
01129^2 '

03403152

=3613473
03824431
04036001
C42481S2

04460976
04674382
04888402

05081546 05103036
05296733 05318286

05512534
05728955
05945990
06163642
06381912

08823822
09049552
09275906
09502847
09730495

09958729
10187592

10417083
10647204
10877954

05534150
05750630
05967727
06185441
06403773

07726771
07949444
08172739
08396658
8621200

01353497
01557833

01762773
0196831S
02174470

03424133
03634542
03845561
04057192
04269434

04482289
04695757
04909838
05124534
05339844

05555770
05772312
05989471
06207247
06425640

06644653
06864284
07084534
07305405
07526897

07749010

07971745
08195103
08419084
08643689

08846367 0886891

C0160192 00180243
00360973 I00381084
00562354IC058252
00764337100784569
00966923^00987215
on 701 12 CI 190464

01373903 '01394316
01578299101598772
oi7833oo'oi8o3833
CI 988906! 02009500
02195118:02215773

02401936
02609317
02817395
03026036
03235286

C24226

02630138

02838232

030469

03256245

03 445 1 46 03 466 1 66
03655661 [03676697
03866965 [03887838
04078388104099591
04290692 04311956

04503608
04717137
04931280
05146037
05361409

04524933
04738524
0495272S
0516754;
053S29S0

05J77397 05599030
05794000J05815695
06011221 I06052977
06229058 06250876
06447514 06469393

06666588 06688529
06S86281 069082S4
07 106593 ; 07 1 28659
07327526,07349654
07549080,07571267

07771256,07793597
07994053 1 0801 6367
08217473 J08239S49
08441516,08463955
08666184 08688685

08S91475
09072 1 59 1090.94772 09117392
09298576.09321252 09343935
09525627109548358 09571103
09753290 C9776091 09798900

09981587
10210513

(C440067
10670250

10004452
10233440
10463057
10693303

10027322
10256374
104&6053

0716363

0901063 10924179 10947301

08914039
09140018
09366623

09593 S55
09821713

10050199
102793 13
10500056
10737428
10970430

IRREDUCIBLE CASE.

Tabic for the Solutioa of the Irreducible Cafe in Cubic Equations.

y 1 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

! '

1

s

9

IO5I ! 10993565

11016706

II039854

,1063008

1,086168

" 109334

1,132507

,1,55686

,1,78871

n 202063

IO52I II225261

1 1 248465

1127,676

,1294896

,13,8116

"341345

1136458,

"387823

1 1^11072

"434327

i053|ii4575»S

114S0855

,1504129

H527409

1,550695

11573988

1,597287

1,620592

,,643904

,,667222

1054111690546

11713877

11737214

,,760557

,1783907

,,807263

,1830625

"853994

"877369

,1900750

1055 111924138

" 19475-3 1

ii970932jii99433*<

12017751

1204, ,70

, 2064596

,2088028

,211,466

121349,1

1056! 12158562

12181819

12205282

1222S752

12252229

12275711

12299200

12322695

12346,97

! 2369705

1057; 12393219

1 2416740 1 12440267

,2463800

1 2487340

,25,0886

'2534438

'2557997

1258,562

,2605,33

io58|i262S7ii

12652295112675886

, 2699483

12723086

12746695

,2770311

■2793933

128.7562

12841,97

1059

I286483S

12888486

12912,39

12935S00

12959466

1 2983 139

130068,9

i3o3°5o5

■3054197

■3077895

1060

I3IO1600 131253H

13149029

13 172753

13 196483

13220220

13243963

,3267712

1329,468

■33^5230

1 06 1

'3338998113362773

K^.^^C>Sy4

13410342

'3434136

13457936

1348,742

US°5SiC^

'3529375

'355-3201

1062

135-77033 1-^^°°^"'

13624716

,3648567

,3672425

13696289

13720,59

'3744036

137679,9

,3791809

.063

13815705113839607113863516113887431

13911352

■3935280

139592 r4

'3983 '54

I4007I01

'4031055

.ob4

I4055014I I40789S0I I4102953

,4126932

,4,509,7

14,74909

,4,989^-

,4222^11

,4236922

'4270939

.005

142949631 143 1S992

14343029

14367072
14607850

,439112,

I44i5'76

■4439238

144633=6
■4704341

I-W8738,
14728480

145 I 1462

1066

145-3 5>-5°i4>59643

145S3744

1463 1963

14656083

14680209

■4752625

1067

14776776:14800934

14825098

14849269

14877346

14897630

14921820

,4946016

■49702,9

,4994428

106S

150,864311,-042865

15067093

,509,328

,5115569

15,3981-

15164C71

'5^^533^

I521259S

I523C87I

1069

1526115, -

I5-285437

15309729

15334028

15358334

15382645

15406963

15431288

,5455619

15479956

T070

15504300

15528650

■5553007

15577370

15601739

156261,5

15650498

156748S6

15699285

15723683

1071

15748091

15772506

15796926

15821354

,5845787

,5870228

15894674

,5919,27

'59435^7

15918052

1072

15992525

16017004

I 604 I 489

16065980

,6090478

i6i,4983

■6139494

,6,640,1

1618S535

I62I1JG65

'°73

16237602

16262 145

16286694

16311250

16335813

,6360382

'6384957

16409539

16434127116458721

1074

16483332

16507930

'653^544

16557164

1658,79,

,6606424

1663106^

166557 10

,6680363 |i670502->

1075
1076

1672968S

167,4359

16779038

16803723

,68284,4

16853,12

168778,6

16902527

16927244
■7174770

1695.968
171C9559

16976698

1700,434

17026,77

17050926

17075682

,7100445

17125214

,7149989

1077

172243,3

,7249154

,7273962

17298776

17323596

1734S423

'7373257

17398097

17422943

'744779t

107S

17472655

1749752,

17522393

17547272

17572157

17597049

17621947

,7046851

,7671762

17696680

1079

17721604

17746534

17771471

1 7796415

17821365

■784632,

17871284

,7896253

17921229

i;o.j62i,

1080

17971200

1 7996195

18021,97

18046201

1807,220

,809624,

18121269

,8146303
i8?97ooi

,81713^3
18422,06

18196391

loSi

18221444

18256504

1827157,

18296644

,832,723

,8346809

1S371902

2844721&

1082

^^^472337

18497462

1S522593

■854773'

•8572876

18598027

18623,84

,8648348

,8673518

I 86966 I 5

1083

18723879

18749069

18774265

,8799468

18824677

,8849893

188751 16

,8900345

1S925580

1S950822

10S4

18976070

,9001325

19026587

,905,855

,9077129

19,02410

1912769S

,9,52992

19178292

19203560

1085

19228913

19254233

,92795,-9

19304892

'9330232

'9355578

19380930
,9634814

19406289

1943 1655
19685669

19457027

1086

19482406

1950779,

19533182

19558581

,9583986

19609396

19660238

19711106

1087

197365,'°

,9762001

1078-457

198,2921

,983839,

19863867

,98Si)?5o

19914S40

'9940336

I 996583 s

108S

19979135

200,686?

20042345

20067914

200934-J9

201,8^90

20144539

20170093

20195655

20221225

.089

20246797

2027237S

20297965

20323559

20349,60

20374767

2040 J3 80

20426000

2045,027

2047726c

1090

20502900

20528546

20554200

20579858

20605524

2063,197

20656876

206S2561

2070S253

20733952

1091

2075965-7

20785369

208,, 087

20S36S12

20862543

208SS28,

20914026

20939777

20965534

2099129S

1092

21017069

2,042846

21068630

21094420

211202,7

21,46020

21171830

21 197047

2122347c

212493C0

109^

21275136

21^00978

2M26828

21352684

2 '378,-46

2,4044,5

21430291

2,450,73

2,48206,

21507957

1094

21533S58

21559767

2,585682

2,61,603

2163753'

2,663466

2i68;407j

2 '7 '5355

2174,309

2176727c

1095

2179323S

2,819212

21845,92

21871179

2,897173

21923173

21949180!

21975,94

220012,4
22261776

2202724c

1096 2205^274

-22079313

2210536a

2213,4,3

22,57472

22,8353s

22209611

22235690

22287S68

1097 ?23>39^7

22340373

22366,85

22392304

2241S429

22444561

22450599

2249684.-

22522996

2:549154

1098 225753'*^
'099 2283733°

2260149,

22627669

22653853

22680044

22706242

22732447

22758657

22784875!

22811099

22863567

22S898,,

22916062

22942319

22958582

22994853

2302,130

23047413

23073703

11 CO 2 J 100000

1^126^0-^

2515261?

23178930

23205253

^i^i^S^-S

232579,9

25284262

23310611

23336567

IIOI 2, :i 363330

233S9730

23416075

23442458

2346SS47

23495243

235-21645

23548054

23574470

23600892

I 102 23627321

23653756

23680,98

23706647

23733,02

23759564

23786033 1

238,2508 23838939[ 238654781

IRREDUCIBLE CASE.

Table for tl,e

Solution c

f the Irreducible Cafe

in Cubic Equation<;.

y

0

I

^ 1

3

4 5

6

7

8

9

1 103

27901973

239'8474

239449S2

23971497

23998019

24024547

24051081

24077623

24104171

24130725

1 104

24157286

24183854

24210429!

24237010

24263597

24200192

24316792

24343400

24370014

24396635

1105

24423263!

24449897,24476537

24503185

24529839

24556499

24583166

24609840

24636531

246(13208

1 106

24689902 \

24716602^24743309;

24770023

2471)6743

24823490

24850204

24876944

24903691

24930444

1107
1 108

2495 7 204 1

25225171;

24983971;

252520041

25010745

25037525

25004311
25332544

25091105
25359404

25117905
25386270

25144711

25171525

25198345

25278S44

25305691

25413144

25440023

25466910

1 1 09 2^493 803!

25520703

25547609

25574522

25601442

25628368

25655301

25682241

25709187

2573614c-

1110^25703100

257900661

25817039

25S44019

25871001

25S97998

25924998

25952004

25979017

2O006037

1 1 1 1

26033063

26060096 ;

260S7136

26114182

26141235

26168295

2^195361

26222434

26249514

2627660U

1112

26303693

26330792,
26602156,

26357899
26639239

26385012
26656509

26412^31
266S3695

36439258
26710889

26466391
267380S8

26493531

26520677

26547830
268i.,728

ill 3

26574990

26765295

26792508

I 114I 26846954

26874 1 88 1

26901428:26928674

26955927

26983187

27010454

27037727

27065007

2709229+

1 115

27H9588:27i4088S|

27174194 27201508

27228828

27:56159

272834S8 27310829

27338176

273655^9

1116

27392890 27420257,

27447630127475011

27502398

27529792

27557192

27584599

37612013

27639434

1117

27666861,27694295

27721736J 27749183
27996512 J2S024027

27776638
2805 154S

27804098

27831566
28106610

27859040

27886521

27914009
281S9254

1 1181 27941503 27969004

28079076

28134152

28161700

I. i9'382i68.6, 28244^^4

28271959 28299541

28327129

28354724

28382326

28409934

28437549

28465171

1 1 20. 28492800 285204^5,28548077:28575726

28603582

28631044

28658713

2S6863S9

287 1407 1

287417O0

I 121 28769456

28797 1 59 28824868 ^28852584

28880307

28908036

28935773

28963516

28991265

29019022

Ti22i.2904()784

II23U9324787

29074555 12910233 1

2913-115
29408319

29157905
29436176

29185702
29464040

29213505
2949191 1

29241315

29269132

29296950

29352624 29380468

29519789

29547673

29575564

1 1 24 2960^462

2963 I 367 ; 29O59278 29687 197

29715121

29743053

29770991-

29798937

29826888

29854847

1125 29882813

29910785 j 29(;3S764, 29966749

29994742

30022741

30050747

30078759

30106779

30134805

II26 301628^8

30190877,30218924,30246977

30275037

30303103

30331177

30357257

30387344

30415438

1127^ 30443538 3047 1646 j 30499760: 30527880
1 1 28 , 30724915 1 30753090 ! 307S1 272 30809460

30556008
30837655

30584142
30865857

30612283

30640431

30668586

30696747

30978733

30S94066

30922282

30950504

ii29 3ioo6969'3io352i2 31063461 31091717

31119980

31 148250

31170526

31204810

31233100

31261390

1130 31289700,31318010 13 1346328 '3 1374652

31402982

31431320

31459664

31488015

31516373 I31544738!

J131 31573109 31601487 31629872131658264

31686663

131715068

31743480

31771S99

31800325:318287571

1132I3185719731SS5643 31914096 31942556

31971022

1 3 1999495
132284602

32027975
32313150

32056462

32084956

32113456
3239S835

■I33'32i4i964|32i70478]32i98999'32227526

I32256061

32341705

32370267

n34'324274io|32455992 '33484581 '32513177 I325417S0

.32570389

32599005

32O2762S

3265625S

32O84894

"3Ji327>3;3S

I3274218S 32770845 3279950SI32828179

32856856

,32885541

32914232

32942929

32971624

ii36^33ooo34f

33029064I33057789

33086521 133115260 331A4C05

1 33 172758

33201517

33230283

33259056

J 137 33Z''^7'^35

33316622

33604862

1 3 33454 15

I33633723

I33374215 33403022^33431830

; 33662592 33691467 1 33720349

•334(10657

334894S4

33518318

33547159

113S ^3 576007

L;3 749238

33778134

33807036,33835946

1 139: 33864862133893785

; 3392 27 1 5

33951652 33980595 , 34009545

34038503

34067467

3409O4381341254.5

1140 34154400 34183391

! 342 1239c

34241395 34270407 1 3429942f>

1343 2845 1

34357484

34386523 134415560

1 141 34444622 134473682

34502749

: 34531822 34560903 34589990^34619084

346481 85

34677293 '34706407

1 142 347J5J2S

34764657
35056318

347937.9^
I350S552'

^34822934134852083134881339

351 14732 i35i43949!35i73i74

,34910402
135203405

3493957'

34968747 J34997931J

114.

3502712

35 13 1643

3526088S

35290140

1 144

353 '939^

35348664

135377936 , 354072 16 I3 5436502 135465795

135495094

35524401

35553715

35583035

114

3561236

35641 6()7

1 3567 1038 3 5700386 1 35729740

35759102

13578847 1

35817846

3584722b

35876618

- ii4f

) 3590601-

35935417

359^4826; 35994243

36o23;)(,7

36053097

36082534

36tiic>78

3614143c

3617088T

■ 114-

114J

3620035

36229824
) 36524920

302693031 3628878b
36554467136584022

36318280
36613583

36347780
3664315'

3637728c
366727 iC

.^6406799
36703308

364363 li,

3646584(3
36761492

3649537<-

36731897

114c

) 3679 1 09j

56820704

36850321 36fS79944

36909574

369392 1 1

36968855

36998506

37028164

37057828

3708750c

37117178

37146864 3717655?^

37200255

37235961

37265674

37295394

3732512

37354855

n;

37384595

37414343

37444097 (3747385^

375°3^'^<^

37533402

3756318^

37592973

37622768137052571

^7682^8:

37712197

37742021

377718^1

3780168c,

37831 533 137861384

37891242

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I R R

• IRREGOr-ARE, Ital. in Ecckfuifl'ical Muf.c. Modes
are called irregular in canto fermo, when the compafs is ex-
tended beyond its iifual limits, or its regular fcale is in
fome unulual manner, violated.

A cadence, or tlofe, ufed to be termed irregular when the
harmony did not clofe on the key note. ( See Difappointed
Cadence.) But Ramrau has given tiiis title to a particular
cadence of his own fyllem, in which the fundamental bafc
rifes a 5th, or falls a 4th after the chord of the \ to the
4th of the key. See Cadenxe.

IRREGULAR, fomething that deviates from the com-
mon forma or rules.

Tims wc fay, in irregular fortification, an irregular build-
ing. &;c. See Building, Fortification-, Bastion, and
Place.

Irhegclar F'lirure, in Gesmetry, is that whofe fides and
angles are not equal. See Regular.

Ikre<:olars, in Grammar, are fuch inflexions of words
as vary from the general rule, or pattern.

Irregular, among the Cdfujjb, is applied to a perfon
■who is unqualified for entering into orders, as being a baf-
tard, maimed, &c. or to an ecclefiaftic, who is iuterdiAed,
fufpended, or cenfured, and by that means rendered incapa-
ble of holding a benefice, or difcharging any of the facred
functions.

Irregular Bodies, are folids not terminated by equal and
fimilar furfaces.

Irregular, in the ^rt uf Building, is applied not only
to the parts of an edifice which deviate from the proportions
eilabliflicd by antique monuments, and confirmed by archi-
tefts ; as when a Doric column is made nine modules high,
or a Corinthian eleven ; but alfo to the places and figures of
building?, where the angles and fides are made unequal,
as in moft of the ancient calUes ; where, without any nccef-
fity or confinement from the fituation, they effeftcd fuch
irregularity.

A column is alfo faid to be irregular, not only when it
deviates from the proportions of any of the five orders, but
when its ornaments, whether in the fliaft, or the capital, are
abfurd and ill cholen.

Irregular Li-ap, in Mufic. See Leap.

Irregular Ti;>nperamtnl, or irregular douzeaves, or fyf-
tems of twelve notes in the oftave, are fuch as have more
than twx) kinds of tempered fifths, or where the wolf, re-
fulting or bearing fifth, does not fall between i* G and [5 E,
as Mr. Farey has (hewn in the Phil. Mag. vol. xxxvi. p. 39
and 47. The fyftems of lord Stanhope. M. Kirnberger, Mr.
Hawke's douzeave, and many others, are irregular fyllems :
a former divifion of the fyllems of temperament ufed to be
into equal and unequal, but as there could be but one equal
temperament, fuch a divifion anfwercd little purpofe : the
equal temperament is a regular douzeave, wherein the wolf
is equal to each of the temperaments of the fifths, as (licwn
in the 6th fcholium, in Mr. Farey's paper above rtferred to.

Ii;RE«irLARZ)M/<?n»V Intervals, are fuch as, when cxprefied
in any notation by three very fmall other intervals, and ar-
ranged in a table, do not increale pretty regularly m each
of their three terms.

Irregular Meafuni^m Mining, are variable meafures or
ftrata in thicknefs, fometimes called Girdfs (fee that ar-
ticle) ; and according to Mr. William Martin (Outlines^
p. 171.) include alfo ftrata that take a different direction
in their dip from that of their attendant Itrata : in which
latter cafe, we apprehend, that obfervers have moftly over-
looked [omc/tiuU which ranges between the irregular ftrata
and their attcn4an: ilrata, aud have «i«tached and altered

' ■ • • I R R

their pofitions, or that the ftratula, or folia (of which this
author takes no notice), that often crofs beds of ftone ob.
lique to their ftrata-feams or way-boards, have been miftakcn
for the latter, as often has happened. Numerous inllances
of variable or irregular meafures have been noticed by Mr.
Farey in his Survey of Derhyniirc and its Environs, and are
particularized in his Agricultural and Mineral Report to
the Board of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 176. 238.276, &c.
Others have been obfervcd by Mr. James i\.eir, in Shaw's
Hitiory of StafTordftiire ; and in Mr. Weftgarth Fcriler's
Treatife on a feftion of llrata. They are indeed very im-
portant geological phenomena.

IRREGULARITIES in the Moons Motion. See
Moon-.

IRREPLEVIABILE Returnu.m. See Returnum.

IRREPLEVIABLE, or Irreclevksable, in Czmmoai
La-LV, fignifies what n ay not be replevied, or fet at large
upon fureties.

IRRIGATION, in J^rindture, the art of covering
meadow or grafs-lands wiili water, fo as to render them
more highly produftive and beneficial. It may be noticed,
that there are two methods of effecting improvements on
lands by covering them with water ;- our of vidi^h i^ by
applying it fo as to cover the furface wKin in tl,e itiite of
grafs or fward ; the other by communica';i:f; it tu the fiiil
of fuch grounds as have been broken by means of culti-
vation. The firft is the method that has been principally
introduced into practice in this kingdom, and which, by a
late writer: has been termed the " European praftice of
irrigation." But though the hiftory of the origin of this
means of imprevement is involved in mucli difficulty, and
not capable of being eafily traced ; it w-as probably intro-
duced at a very early period from eaftern countries, where
the practice of covering the lands with water, in order to
protect them from the injurious effefts of exeeffive heat, has
prevailed for ages ; yet by fome it is though' to have been
brought to the attention of the farmer in this country iii
another way, for the benefit of natural floods, to the gvaff-
lands which they occafionally over.<!owed, being evident,
and in fome inftances great, the means of producing arti-
ficial floods, and of fpreading them over lands, not liable
in their natural fituation to be overflowed, vi'orid become),
of ccurfe, it is fuppoicd, a defirable objeft.. And that as
the moil obvious effeit of floods, or the overflowings ol
rivers and brooks on the lands over which they ipread, is
that of depofitiug their feculent particles ; thereby operating
as a vehicle of manure ; it is Iikewife evident to c(minnHi
obfervatidii, that foul waters, as thofe of floods, let fall
their feciilii'cies, moll freely, in -d. JtagnautJIaie. Further,
that " it is ,iUo equally evident, that the ftate of ftagnation
of the wat'Ts of floods, or a ftate that approaches it, is
caufed by uune obftruclion of the current below the place
of llagnatic"; " And that "from thefe circumilances being
feeii, and tnev could not well be miffed by any one wlio
gave the fubjeft a fecond thought, the means of manuring
lands with ^vater, artificially, were given : in fituations it is
meant which would admit of the reqnifite obftruftions ''
And it is fur.her fuggefted, that " the bottoms, dips, or
valhes, which abound, more or lefs, in every part of the
kingdom, would naturally be the moll apt fubjecls for flood-
ing artificially with foul waters, on the principle of manuring
the land with their fediment." For on " a bank, or iAW.,.
being made acrofs the valley, below the part to be mar.uietl.
the rivulit which generally accompanies a valley of this
kind, cIijoi i.illy after heavy rains, the only time when flood-
ing on tins principle could be praftifcd, would of courfe be
obilrufted 5. and its waterS; fpyled, perhaps, with therichelt

particles

IRRIGATION.

particle? of arable lands, be fprcad over the bottom of the
valley, to an extent proportioned to the height of the bank,
and its own flatnefs : a valve or flood-gate being fixed in
the bed of the rivulet to let off the waters, when the ivliole
of their foulnefl'es were depofited : thus gaining a principal
advantage over natural flooding ; in which the grofler par-
ticles only are let full ; the finer, and perhaps moil valuable
efcaping to the river, and thence to tlie fea, before they be
precipitated or let fall upon the land." It is conceived
that on thefe principles, it is evident, fome of the meadow-
lands of the midland dillrids have formerly been flooded ;
and that it is not probable, that fo evident a method of im-
jwoving meadow-lands fliould have been confined to a par-
ticular dillria ; but may have been common to other parts
of theilland. And it is further Hated by the fame writer,
that the ancient method of meliorating grafs-lands, by the
means of jla^nant water, could no longer prevail, than until
the fuperior effefts of running water, on fuch lands, were
difcovered and afcertained. And that this important dif-
eovery muft have been made by o/^Jlrviilion, on the compa-
rative cfFefts of running and ftauding water, in the natuial
and artificial flooding fpoken of above ; and muft have been
afcertained by a long courfc o( experience : as it is not likely
that req/in fliould have had any (liare in ftriking out the
modern method of improving grafj-lands by running water.
For even now, when the reality of the improvement appears
to be fully eftab'ilhed, there fcems to be no full or fatisfac-
tory /l)eyv to account for it : th:)ngh many of th,; efi^efts
thus produced have lately been more clearly explained and
better underllood, as will be feen below. The -warmth,
communicated by running water to the grafs it flows over,
is one great reafon adduced for the good efFeft of running
water on this fort of land. But even after this difeovery
was made, and the effeft fully eftabU.'hed, it would be fome
length of time before the art arrived at its prefent high
degree of perfeftion. As it may, in its prefent ftate, be
fafely deemed the mofl; ufeful and fcientific operation, that
has entered into the common praftice of hufbandry. And
the memory of the inventor, or inventors, deferves the higheil
praife and admiration.

It has likewife been remarked, that the great degree
of verdure and luxuriance wliich almnil immediately iuc-
ceeds the occafional covering of grafs-lands with water,
fufficiently demonftrates the power which it poffefles in pro-
moting vegetation : and that it is a means of fertility that
has been employed for ages in more warm climates, with the
moll beneficial confequences in increafing the quantity of
vegetable produce. But tliat although it has been long in
ufe in other countries, and of late more particularly attended
to in this, the principle on which it produces its effefts are
not yet fully explained.

In confidering manure as the nourifhment or food of plants,
fome of the properties of water, that may be beneficial in
the vegetable economy v/hen abforbcd or taken up by the
fibroui roots of plants, have been mentioned ; and there are
other ways in which it may be advantageous in forwarding
the growth of grafs herbage when applied over the furface.
It is conceived that in climates where the heat is confiderable,
it may be of much utility, not only by keeping the fine
fibrouo roots of the grafs or other plants in a moiil patulous
ftate, the mod proper for tlie purpofes of abforption, but
in fuch a temperature or ihite of heat, from the cooling
effeil produced by the conftant evaporation that is taking
place near the furface of the ground, as is the moll fuitaljle
for their healthy and vigorous growth. It is probably in
this way that garden plants are principally benefited by the
appiication of water in ihe hot fummer feafons in our own

climate ; as when the waterings are not conftantly kept up
injury rather than good is moftly experienced. But that
another and more beneficial way in which grafs produce
may be immediately increafed, and the fertility of the lands
more permanently improved in this country by the floating
or covering them with water, is from the waters of the
rivers or brooks that are turned upon them, containing,
either in the fl:ate of folution or diffufion, a variety of dif-
ferent forts of enriching materials which they gradually and
evenly depofit upon the furface while they reft upon or flowly
flow over it. This muft, it is imagined, be the cafe in all
thofe inftances where the rivers or ftreamlcts cither ar i in,
or in their courfe flow through or over beds of chalk, marie,
or other calcareous ftrata ; as in their pali'age they become
higbly impregnated with the fine particles of thefe different
fubitances. And where they are fed by the fmall runlets
which receive the waters that proceed from the higher and
more elevated lands, they muft often, efpecially after heavy
rain, be loaded with a large proportion of fine rich ma-
terials of the animal, vegetable, or other kinds, which they
depofit in a regular manner in their tardy trickhng courfe
over the furfaces of the fields below.

It wou'd appear that waters thus impregnated produce
the moft beneficial effecls, particularly when not in flood,
ui on the lands that are the neareft to the fources whence
they become principally impregnated with their fertilizing
piinciples ; as when they have flowed to fome diftance they
liiive, in a great meafure, depofited and let fall fuch enrich-
ing fubftances, and are become too pure for affording ad-
vantage in the way of depofition. It is only in the time of
fliods that they can produce much utility in this way at any
great diftance. It was found by an able philofophical
writer, Dr. Darwin, that the water of the Derwent, though
it flows for fevcral milts near Matlock, through calcareous
ftrata, contained no impregnation of this fort on its reaching
Derby, although the fprings in that neighbourhood had a
la!"ge proportion of it in their compofition. And the fame
author has ingenioufly fuggefted another mode in which
water may prove ferviceable in floating grounds in this cli-
mate, which is that already ftatcd of protefting the grafs or
other plants from the too fevere effecls of cold diu'ing the
winter, or early fpring feafon. In this view it is obferved,
that the water of ilrong fprings, which in this country have
conftantly the temperature of forty-eight degrees of Fah-
renheit's thermometer, is to be prefen-ed to that of rivers,
where it can be procured in a fufficient proportion, as the
degree of cold in thefe is in the fame ratio with that of the
atmofphcre, till it declines to the freezing point, or that of
thirty-two. Though bot:h, when fpread out, forming a thin
fhcet of ice on the furface of the laud, are beneficial in de-
fending the roots of the grafs plants from too intenfe de-
grecs of cold, and of thus preferving them in a more healthy
condition ; and it is added, that thofe of fome forts of
grafles are fuppofed even to vegetate beneath the ice, as the
rein-deer mofs in Siberia moftly vegetates beneath the fnow,
in a degree of heat of about forty, which is the medium be-
tween that of the inferior furface of the diffolving fnow, or
that of thirty-two, and that of the common heat of the in-
ternal parts of the earth, vrhich is forty-eight ; and in this
manner the grafs produce in this cold country be confidcr-
ably increafed, fo as, under proper management, to nearly
double the ufual annual quantity under other circumftances.
In further illuftration of thefe principles it may be ob-
ferved, that the water iffuing from fprings wheie they
abound with particles of gravel, or a flaty, mouldering kind
of rock, containing a large proportion of calcareous earth,
are known from experience to be better adapted to the pur-

pofe

IRRIGATION,

pofe tlian that which arilcs from others that do not contain
fuch materials. The difference in the effects, often fo vifibly
produced, has been accounted for, from watering one field
from a fpring iffuing out of a chalky fiil, over thofe which
take their rile in another, fimilar in every rcfpeCt and manage-
ment,except that the water applied arifes in, or flows through,
a fwamp or morafs, compofed chiefly of peat earth, or proceeds
from fituations known to contain none of thefe fubftances.
However, the fad is unq\iellionably ellablilhed,' that the
water of rivers which run through comparatively level and
fertile countries, is not only better than that of fuch as have
their courfcs through mountainous, unproduftive trafts, but
fuperior to all others, as every different llrcamlet adds a new
accelfion of fertilizing materials, which, being difperfed over
the furface of the meadows, in their fine and attenuated
ftate, cannot avoid adding a confiderable degree of improve-
ment to the lands.

It is conceived by Mr. Marfhall, that if the art, as it
BOW Hands, were flruck out on principle, it mut^ have been
cm that of animal circulation ; to which the operation of
meliorating grafs-lands with water, through the means of
floats and drains, is perfeclly analogous. The floats are ar-
teries, conveying the circulating fluid to every part of the
fubjeft, imbuing every atom : the drains, veins, collecting
the fcattered fluid, and conveying it back to its natural
channel. But that, in lefs figurative language, the floats
may be conlidered as trenches, receiving, by the means of
flood-gates, as occafion requires, the water of a river, brook,
or rivulet, and conveying it along the upper margin, and
upon the tops of the natural or artificial fwells of the field
of improvement : — the drains, counter-trenches, ftretching
along the lower margin, and winding in the dips and hollows,
to receive the waters fpread over the furface by the floats.

Each fet of trenches, whether of floats or drains, bears
more or lefs refemblance to a tree, with its trunk and
branches : the branches of the floats increaflng in number,
and dmiuiifhing in lize, as they proceed from the river or
other fource ; thofe of the drains, on the contrary, diminilh-
ing in number, and increafing in fize, as they approach the
receptacle or place at which the water is to be difcharged.
And it is further remarked, that when the water is at work,
ar- it is properly enough termed, the entire furface, fup-
poling the operation to be pcrfeft, is covered with one con-
tinued flieet of livuig water, purhng (lowly and evenly over
t-very part, an inch or more deep. If the grafs be very
ftiort, the water is feen, and has a beautiful as well as a pro-
fitable effect : if not, it lleals, unfeen, among the herbage, or
(hews itlrlf, partially : it being impoflible, in praftice, to
render the (heet throughout of an uniform depth or thick-
nefs, as it mud naturally pafs off quicker in fome fituations
than otliers.

From this general idea of the method of watering grafs-
hinds, on the modern principle, it is clearly fliewn that a
dead flat, a perfeft level, is, of all others, the leall adapted
to the praftice. A pcrfcci level, however, feldom occurs in
nature ; inequalities, fuflicicntly to promote a circulation of
water on the turfy furface, may generally be difcovered, if
jjdicioufly fought. In the midland counties, Mr. Marfhall
has feen in the practice of a fuperior manager a beautifully
limple expedieiit pracfifed, to find out the inequalities of a
piece of ground nearly flat : which is that of covering it
with water, and prcferving the level by the means of level-
hng pegs, flumps or piles driven down in various parts to a
level with the furface of the water ; fo that, after the water
was let off, the level Hill remained. The parts laft covered
were, of courfe, the proper ground for the floats ; the parts
lall freed for the drains ; art being ufed, where wanted, to

Vol. XIX.

give additional advantage to the natural inequalities which
maybe prefent. But fituations in general (water-formed
lands excepted), abound, he thinks, fufficiently with ine-
qualities of furface : either natural, as the fwells and hol-
lows of lands, lying out of the way of floods, and having
never been ploughed : or artificial, as thole which have been
raifed by the ])lough into ridge and furrow : in this cafe the
ridges receive the floats, the furrows the drains : in that, the
plummet is the guide to the floats ; the water they throw
out, to the drains or cuts to be formed.

The fame writer adds, that, in the above diftrift, he has
feen the fide of a hill watered with rain-water, from a road
running along the top of it : the fame trench, in this cafe,
acting as float and drain, running a zig-zag along the face of
the (lope, the lower folds catching the water fpread out
by the upper ; and that he has hkevvife obferved feveral
inilances of ridges and furrows being watered from fimilar
fources. In thele cafes, whether the natuial defcent of
the lands was littla or great, the floats were opened upon
the ridges with clods of turf cut out of the trenches, placed
at diflances proportioned to the defcent, to check the cur-
rent fufficiently, to force the water out of the trench above,
yet leaving it a fiifRcient pafl'age, to fuffer it to carry down
a fupply to the parts below. He has alfo met with one or
more inilances in which ridges and furrows have been levelled
at an exceffive cofl, by paring off the turf, throwing down
the ridges by hand, and replacing the turf, giving the fur'
face one regular gentle defcent ; and this, notwithftanding
it is allowed by thofe who may be flyled mailers in the
art, that the quicker the circulation the more beneficial the
effeft. Upon the whole, it appears pretty evident, that
the operation, though fcientific, can feldom be rendered
mechanical. Straight lines and plain furfaces can feldom
be had, but at a great, and, frequently, an unneceffary ex-
pence. The given fituatiou of the ground fhould be con-
fulted and maturely lludied before the work be fet about.
Every fcite may be faid to require a different arrangement
of trenches. Of courfe, no man ought to fet about a work
of fo difficult a nature until he has lludied its principles, and
made himfelf mailer of its theory ; nor then, without the
afTiflance of praftice in himfelf, or others whom he can em-
ploy for the purpofe.

It is conceived that to expatiate on the utility of watering
grafs-lands would be a wafle of words. In fituations where
a lufficient fupply of water, of a fertilizing quality, can be
commanded at all feafons, it ranks indubitably among
the hi^hell clafs of improvements. Much, however, it is
fuppofed, depends on the quality of the water ; not on its
colour or clearnefs, but the Ipcciiic quality of the fufpended
particles. Waters, in their natural flate (not purified by
diilillation), more efpecially fpring waters, tliougli perfectly
tranfparent and pure to the eye, ai-e as various in quahty as
foils, owing to earthy and other particles being fufpended
in them imperceptibly to the eye, requiring the aid of
chemillry to deteft them ; hence hard water, foft water,
wholefome waters, medicinal waters, &c. The effects of
clear fpring water have been found flrikingly evident in
various cafes of this fort of management in different place-s
in this country.

But although very much depends on the quality of water
for the purpofe of meliorating grafi-lands, much alfo de-
pends on the quantity ; on having a fnfficient fupply at
all feafons. With this there are, perhaps, few waters which
might not be rendered beneficial to grafs-land, if tluowii
over it at proper feafons, and in proper quantity. Whhout
it, the benefit, it is poflible, may not be adequate to the
expence. The moll obvious advantage of watering grafs-
5 N Lnds,

IRRIGATION.

lands, it is xonceived, arifes in a dry feafon ; and if the in fuch cafes tke fucceeding crop of grafs is lefs plentit.
fupply fail in fuch fcafons, as frequently happens in many As the fpring feafon advances, much lefs floating is foii-
fituations, thtt intention is in part frullrated ; the winter and to be requifite. However, in every cafe where floating i-
early fpring waterings being in this cafe all that can be performed to advantage, the land fhould be laid dry bt-
commanded for the purpofe. This is given by way of twecn every time of covering it with water,
caution ; not as a difcouragement to the practice. There It has been adviled in the beginning to lay the water on
are, it is well obferved, in this ifland, fituations innumerable, in the early part of November, fuffering it to overflow from
in which the advantages arifing from the praftice, pro- lo to 14 days, and then taken off; repeating the fame
perly conducted, would far exceed the expence of ob- proceis in the two following months ; giving in February
taining ihcm ; and to afcertain them is an obje£l of the alfo two waterings of from five to fevcn days each ; and
firil magnitude to the owners and occupiers of grafs-lands, in March three, of from three to five days each, according
and in many inllances, probably in thofe of the arable kind to the ftate of the weather, conftantly permitting the water
likewife. to continue longer upon the land in cool than warm wea-

Hence it may be fafely concluded, that this mode of ther ; and it is hkewifc generally advifed, that on the fandy,
improving grafs, or other lands, where it can be had recourfe gravelly, and drier kinds of lands, the water fhould nor
to, is of the grcatefl; importance, and of the mod valuable remain fo long at a time as in thofe of the heavier kinds j
kind ; and it is probably capable of being applied in a and in the latter forts, Mr. Wright confiders three weeks as
greatly more extenfive manner than has yet been the cafe, long enough ; but Mr. Bofwell thinks it may continue on a
by the perfons employed in condufting the bufmefs fully month, or even fix weeks in the firft waterings, about No-
avaihng themfelvcs of the various occafional falls of rivers, vember, and a fomething fhorter time for thofe of the former
ilreams, and, in particular feafons, of canals, as in this way fort of lands. Mr. Wright alfo recommends, in December
water may often be provided for the purpofe of dittributing and February, the land to be let dry, for the purpofe of
over extenfive trafts of land that have hitherto been thought air for a few days, and that in February particular attention
incapable of admitting of fuch means of melioration and is neceffary, not to permit the water to flow over the ground
improvement. In other circumftances and fituations, by many days together, without being taken off, as there may
having recourfe to damming up the water, and the occafional be danger from white fcum being formed ; and by the land
life of wooden pipes in the conveying it where neceffary, being left expofed to froil in its wet ftate, it may be in-
it may be eafily raifed to heights fufficient for conducing jured that way. Thefe inconveniencies, it is fuppofed,
it over many elevated lands, and by fuch means promote however, by Mr. Wright, may be avoided by taking the
their vegetation and produce to a degree that cannot be water off in the day, and turnmg it upon the lauds only
eafily calculated or conceived. during the night time. But Mr. Bofwell, who has had ex-

And, from what has been already done in this way, it is tenfive experience in this way, does not ieem to apprehend
evident that, on heathy moors, and other mountainous trafts, any danger from this circumilance to the land,
it may often be applied witli the profpecl of great advan- Towards the beginning of the fpring, as about March,
tage. In traverfiug fuch hills, iuftances are daily occurring and fometimes fooner, there is moiUy a fufScient bite of
of little rivulets or rills, which are infuf&cient to form a grafs to admit the lands to be fed by flock. The water
regular courfe, fpreading their waters on particular parts, fhoidd in this cafe be turned off for a fortnight or m.ore,
and thus providing a motl beautiful verdure ; which affords in order to give it a fufficient degree of firmnefs before the
fufficient proof of what may be effcfted by the judicious animals are turned upon it. During the following months,
application of water in fuch fituations. The fame principles it is obferved that the grafs may be eaten clofe, but not
may be applied, in many fituations, in conveying the rich later ; as continuing it even for a few days in May would
liquors coUcAed in ponds and refervoirs about the farm greatly injure the hay produce which is to be obtained,
yards and buildings, that are too frequently wafted by eva- both in quantity and quality. In this month, when the
poralion or other means, over the adjoining fields, as has grafs has been fed down, the water fhould, according to
been praftifed in Chefhire by Mr. Fenna. Mr. Wright, be again turned over the lands for a few days,-

To this fyftem of improving grafs-lands, the chief ob- by which they are fo moiftened as to produce a full crop
jcftion is, the firil expence of the work ; but if it be con- of hay. It is not improbable but that, with lefs clofe feeding,
dufted in a judicious manner, and by perfons acquainted two crops of hay from fuch watered lands might frequently
with the bufinefs, this will feldom be fo confiderable as is be taken with benefit. It is remarked by this writer, that
commonly fuppofed, or foi-m any material impediment ; as the ilrft crop of hay from watered lands, when cut fuflfi-
the increafe of produce, which is almoft immediately the ciently early, is equally good with that cf moft other forts,
confequence, will amply repay the improver. It has been but that when let ftand too long, it becomes coarfe and unfit
cbjeded to by fome on the ground of cutting the land, but for the purpofe of fodder.

this is of little confequence if additional fupplies of food be A late philofophical writer has fiiggefted, that where
thereby afforded for the fupport of live ftock, and the gra- the flooding of lands is continued fome time, the water
dual improvement of the foil at the fame time effeiled. ihow.d only be fuffered to trickle or flow over it gently from

It may; be ftated that winter and fpring are the two the higher parts, and not ftagnate upon it ; as, in the latter
feafons when grounds of the grafs kind are ufually irri- cafe, the gral's roots are foon deftroyed in the fpring, and
gated or watered, as from tiie month of November till the that when fuch materials begin to decay underneath the
beginning of March. The experience of the operator muft, water, a white fcum arifes in confequence of the air fot at
in a great meafure, regulate lliis proceeding as to the length liberty by the beginning putrefaftion, which has been
of time they lliould remain under water. In fome diftrifts fufpedled as prejudicial to the grafs, but which is rather the
it is the pra&icc to allow the water to flow over the fields effett than thecaufeof the mifchief, and demonftrates that
for feveral weeks togetlier, with only the interval of a day the water has remained too long in a ftagnant ftate upon
or two occafionally ; while in others the cuftom is to cover the ground, and requires to be removed, or to have a frclh
them alternately each other week. When frofts fet in, the fupply from the ftream ; but the former is probably the
work is ufually fufpeiided ; but it has been remarked, that better pradice. The necelfity of continuing the irrigation,
7 or

I R R

er TTatering of land, after it has been once begun in hot
climates and fcafons, has been already (heCvn, and it is fug-
geftcd that there may be injury done to the grafs plants by
tiie fudden application of much water under fuch circum-
llances in fome cafes.

It is ufefully inculcated by a late writer that, before any
ferious expence is incurred in works of this kind, the nature
and efTeds of the water that is to be employed (hould be
fully afcertained by the eftabhlliment of trial grounds, which,
if it be proper and beneficial for the purpofo, will be Ihewn
by the fuperiority in the growth, verdure, and general ap-
pearance of the grafj towards the latter end of March, or
the beginning of the following month. The quantity of
water and extent of ground that can be covered by it muft
likewife be jointly taken into confideration before any im-
provement of this fort can with propriety be undertaken.
And in every inftance it is advifed that due eftimates, and a
calculation of profit, be formed on the following principles.
Firil calculating the probable advantages that may arife every
year from hay and pafturage, and an annually increafmg
fupply of manure and dung ; then taking the interell at fix
per Centura on the eftimated coll of the works that may be
requifite to produce them, together with the amount of
the ellimated annual expence of labour, and iieceifary re-
pairs.

A great number of interefting inftances of fuccefsful irri-
gation, or application of water over land?, in the midland
dillricts, have been Hated by the fame author. And in this
cafe, as in many others, Mr. Bakewell (lands firlt as an im-
prover of grafs-lands. It is ftated that, formerly, a fuit of
meadows, lying by the banks of the Soar, received confi-
derable benefit from the water of the river being fpread over
them judicioufly in the time of floods. But now, not only
thefe meadows, but near an hundred acres, he believes, of
higher lands lying entirely out of the way of natural floods,
are watered on the modern principle.

And it is remarked that the ingenious improver juft noticed,
like a man of experience in bufinefs, before he fet about this
great work, ftudied the art in the principal fcene of prac-
tice, the weft of England, where he fpent fome days witii
the ingenious Mr. Bofwell, who, not many years ago, pub-
lifhed a treatife on the fubjeft. And that the great itroke of
management in this department of his practice, which marks
his genius in ftrong charaftars, is that of diverting to his
purpofe a rivulet or fmall brook, whofe natural channel flcir;s
the farthefl boundary of his farm, falling, with a confider-
able defcent, down a narrow valley, in which its utility, as
a fo'urce of improvement to land, was confined. This rivu-
let, being turned at the highell place that could be command-
ed, and carried, in the canal manner, round the point of a
fwell, which hcs betsveen its natural bed and the farmery :
by the execution of this admirable thought, not only com-
manding the (Ivirts of the hill, as a fcite of improvement by
watering ; but fupplying, by this artificial brook, the houfe
and farm-offices with water ; filling, from it, a drinking-
pool, for horfes and cattle ; a walh-pool, for fheep ; and
converting it into a multitude of other purpofes : acquifi-
tions which, Mr. Marfliall fays, many other filuations in the
jiland are capable of affording. One of thefe purpofcs is
worthy of being mentioned as defcrving the attention of the
praftical farmer. After endeavouring to invent a flat-bot-
tomed boat or barge, to navigate upon this canal ; for the
purpofe, moft particularly, of conveying his turnips from the
field to thecattl--flieds ; and finding it noteafily pradicable,
hie great mind llruck out, or rather caught, the beautifully
fimple idea of launching the turnips themfelves into the
water ; and letting them flow dowii fingly with t)ie current.

1 R R

<•' We throtf them in," fays he, «' and bid them jnect lit
at the barn's end !" in which fituation he was then (October,
1789) contriving a rcfervoir, or dry dock, for them to fnli
into : with a grate at the bottom, to let out the water, and
retain the turnips ; which will there be laid up, clean waflied,
and freight-free, as a fupply in frofty weather.

The improvements eftected in this department of rural
affairs, by this able improver, are, it is obferved, not only
extenfive, but highly interelting, and are rendered the more
ftriking, by " proof pieces,' (a good term for experimental
patches,) left in each Icite of improvement.

In the art of irrigating or watering grafs-lands, on the
modem principle, Mr. Paget, of Ibilock, is alfo mentioned.
This improver, it is itated, cuts a conliderable quantity of
hay, annually, from lands which have received no other ma-
nure than water, during the la(t forty years. A ftriking in-
ftance, it is fuppofed, that water is not merely a ftimulns or
force, as lome men conceive it to be, but communicates fome
real nutriment to the herbage or grafs, plants. In lac prac-
tice of this improver, one circumftance occurred, which
ought to be mentioned by way of caution. He found that
in watering an orchard with the wadiings of the ftreet and
yards of a neighbouring village (a defirable fpecies of water)
the fruit-trees were greatly injured. A fimilar circumftance
alfo took place in the practice of Mr. Bakewell. It is well
known that furface water is in all circumftances highly inju-
rious to fruit-trees of the apple kind. Alfo, near Appleby,
in Yorkftiire, Mr. Moor has executed a conliderable work of
this kind in a judicious manner, cutting a frefti channel on
one fide of the fcite of improvement, for a rivulet which
wound through its middle ; in order to prevent its overflow-
ing 3t an improper feafon ; and converting the old cliannel,
(partially filled up) into a main float; an expedient whick
may be frequently pradlifed with'good effect, in different fitua-
tions. The lame Ipecies of improvement has hkewife been car.
ried on with much fpirit and fuccefs by Mr. Wilks of Mee-
fham ; and in other inftances the praftice has not been attend-
ed withlefs fuccefs, though under diff"ei-ent circumltances.

Ac-cording to the agricultural furvey of the county of
Devon, Mr. Templer, of Stover, has experienced from thi»
method of hufbandry very conliderable beneficial eflfefts on a
tract ofmarlliy land on the borders of his canal. It had for-
merly produced from five to ten (hillings an acre. After
having it drained and levelled, by forming conductors for
the overplus water of the canal during the winter floods, and
diftributing it by well arranged fluiccs, fo as to throw the en-
riching particles upon the furface, he converted thefe marflies
into valuable, verdant meadow-land. The method that was
adopted in conftrufting the dillributing fluices was by having
a number of trunks placed at various dillances, to each of
which a plug was fitted, and when the flood fwelled the
canal above the level requifite for navigation, the plugs were
taken out, and the water immediately overflowed thc'lurfacc
of the meadow-lands, being at any time capable of being
eafily reftrained by replacing the plugs: fimitar -fuccefs is
likewife aflerted to have attended a like procefs on lands
ill the upper line of the canal.

Befides thefe, in Yorkihire, Cheftiire, Wales, and the
more northern parts of Scotland, as well as in the different
dillricts in which th^ practice of irrigation has been long com- •
mon, various improvemerts have been effected by the appli-'
cation of v.-ater to the furface of grafs-lands, which will be.
particularly noticed under the proper head, and alfo the moll
approved methods of accomphihing the bufinefs under dif-
ferent circumftances of foil and lituation. See i/nUrin^

0/"L.\ND. - ■■

IRRITABILITY,. in PJ^yfwlojt,,dcuotcs,uihi moft""ge- •
- 3 N i " ■ neralj -

I R V

uera! fenfe, the capability of being irritated or excited, or that
property by which hving parts are enabled to execute their
fimftions : when thus employed, it is fynonymous with ex-
citability, and may be regarded as denoting the moll cha-
raclenllic peculiarity of hving matter. It is very commonly
employed, in a more limited acceptation, to exprefs the
property by which mufcles are enabled to contraft, either
in obedience to the will, or to any mechanical or chemical
ftimuh. In either cafe, this word is to be underftood as
fignifying merely a property of living bodies, the real na-
ture of which is as entirely unknown to us as that of attrac-
tion or chemical affinity. All the fpecidations which have
been entertained on the fubje£l of its nature, fuppollng it to
be a peculiar fubtle matter like thoie (whofe exiftence, be
it obferved, rells alfo on fuppofition) of electricity com-
mon or Voltaic, of magnetifra or light, or confidering it as
identical with oxygen, may be difmiifed without any formal
refutation, as they are completely gratuitous a'.Tumptions.
See Life, Muscle, and Nekve.

IRRITATION, in jll.Jidnc, fignifiesa ftate of feverifh-
nefs and inquietude, in which the funftions are impeded,
and the rtrength gradually impaired, arifing either from in-
ternal or external caufes, but principally from the former.
It is fynonymous with the erethifm, l^s^is-^i;, of the Greek
■writers. Irritation is produced, in different inftanccs, by
extraneous fubftances in the cavities or organs of the body,
as calcuh in the bladder, kidnies, or ureters ; worms in the
ftomach or inteftines, &c. ; or by chronic difeafe in the
vifcera, fuch as fcinhus of the liver, of the mefenteric
glands, &c. ; or flow inflammation in any part ; or by the
prevalence of any depreffing paffion, as grief and anxiety ;
or by long watching ; and various other caufes. In febrile
difeafes, from whatever origin, a ftate of irritation is more
readily produced ; i. e. the fame ftimuh which excite little
effedl in the ftate of health, tend to aggravate the feverifli
fymptoms, fuch as external heat, ftrong light, noifes, muf-
cular or mental exertion, and the like : whence, in every
fever, whether idiopathic or fymptomatic, the removal of
every fource of irritation is an indication conftantly to be
■kept in view.

IRRSUMIT, in Geography, a town of Eaft Greenland.
N. lat. 6l lo'. W. long. 45 35'.

IRSOA, a fmall ifland near the coaft of Portugal, on
the fouth fide of the mouth of the Minho. N. lat. 41 50'.
W. long. 8^ :?6'.

IRTISCH, or Irtysh, a river of Ruffia, which rifes
in the Chinefe Soongoria, flows through the lake Norfnifan,
in N. lat. 46" 30', then enters the Ruffian territory, and
after meandering through a large traft of country, throws
itfelf, in N. lat 61% and E. long. 56 , into the Oby. In
its way it takes up feveral fmaller rivers, and forms feveral
iflands, of which fome occafionally difappear, and their
places are fupplied by others ; and the intervals in which it
is navigable are perpetually changing. Its water in the
inferior regions is whitilh and light, fo that it ffiould feem
to flow over a bottom conliiling chiefly of calcareous marie.
It fwarms with fi(h, and its fturgeons have a peculiar deli-
tate flavour.

IRVINE, or Irewin-e, a fea-port town and royal bo-
rough in the bailiwick of Cunningham, and county of Ayr,
Scotland, is feated on the northern bank of the river Irvine,
fhe.eftuary of which forms the liarbour. On the fouthern
fAe of the river is a row of boufes uniformly built ; and
thefe, with others, are hamlets to the parilh of Dundonald.
The town appears to have been chartered at an early
period; for in a grant from Alexander II., reference is
RMie to previous charters. The magiilracy ot this towa
2

I S A

had formerly extenfive jurifdiiflion, but this has been
abridged ; but it ftill derives an ample revenue from a large
traft of land near the town. Here is a commodious har-
bour, which has 10 or 12 feet of water on the bar at fpring-
tides. Several vefTcls, called budes, were formerly em-
ployed in the herring-tiihery : at prefent the coal-trade is
the chief objeft with the inhabitants. Above 24,000 tons
have been (hipped from this port in one year. Attached to
the town is a dock-yard for fliip-bnilding, a large tan-yard,
rope-ground, and a bleach-fitid. Many of the inhabitants
are alfo engaged in the manufaftory of carpets, muflins,
filks, lawns, and other articles. In the year 1800, the
town contained 729 houfes, and 4584 inhabitants ; though
its population was eftimated, in 1790, at 3500. The town
is 61 miles W. by S. from Edinburgh. The church is de-
fcribed as a prominent objeft of beauty and intereft in the
town. Bowtree hill, in the vicinity of Irvine, is a feat of
the honourable Mr. Hamilton ; and near it is an old caiUe,
belonging to the earl of Eghngtown, who has a feat in the
neighbouring parifli of Kilwining. In the parifli of Irvine
it is faid that a religious feet called Buchannites, from the
name of the founder, had its origin. Sinclair's Statiftical
Account of Scotland, vol. vii. p. 169, &c. by the Rev.
James Richm.ond.

ISA, in Hindu Mythology, one of the thoufand names of
Siva, the perfoniiication of the deltruclive or regenerative
power of the deity. (See Siva.) With the epithet Maha,
or great, prefixed, Mahefa is formed, another of Siva's
names. In this form, the name of his confort or fakti (fee
Sakti) is Ifi. Under thefe names fir William Jones re-
cognizes the Ofiris and Ifis of Egypt. Ifwara feenis but
another mode of writing and pronouncing Ifa ; and the de-
duction of Ofiris from that found is no (trained etymology,
efpecially when confirmed by many hiftorical and charac-
teriftic coincidences. Ifa and Ifi are both perfonitications
of the moon ; for with the Hindus, that luminary is both
male and female : and here we (ind Parvati (of whom I(i is
only another form and name) again correfponding with the
Diana of the Greeks, one of whofe names is Luna.

ISAAC, in Scripture Biography, the fon of Abraham
and Sarah, was born at Gerar, in the countrv of the Phi-
liftines, B.C. 1896, when his father was ico, and his
mother 90 years of age. His birth was prc-vioully an-
nounced to Abraham, as the fon of covenant and promifc,
in whofe feed all the nations of the earth fhould be bleifed.
His name, according to its Hebrew etymology, which de-
notes " he has laughed, or ftiall laugh," expreffes the plca-
fure with which his parents received the prediction of his
birth, and augured the honour that awaited his polterity.
A circumlhmce, however, occurred, which tended to abate
their joy ; and this was a divine command to offer liaac as a
fiicrifice. (See AflHAilA.M.) At the age of 40 years,
Ifaac married Rebecca, the daughter of Nahor, Abraliam's
brother ; and by her he had two twin-fons, Efau and Jacob.
(See their articles.) This venerable patriarch, for whole
hillory we refer to the book of Genelis, ch. xviii— xxxv.
died at the age of 180 years, B.C. 1716, and was buried
with his parents in the cave of Machpelah.

I.sA.\c I. Co.MXENus, in Biography, emperor of the Eaft,
fon of Manuel, was the firft of the noble family of Comneni
who arrived at the imperial throne. Ifaac and his brother
John were bequeathed by an afle£lionate father, confcioui
of his own deierts in the fervice of his country, to the grati-
tude and favour of his fovereigu. The noble youths were
carefully trained in the learning of the times, the arts of the
palace, and the exercifes of the camp ; and had become ex-
iremelj popular with the people and the army. On the ele-
vation

I S A

I S A

Tatlon of Michael VI., the difcontcnt of the foldiery was death of Ifaac very foon followed, or perhaps preceded

openly manifellcd. The gencraU, who confidcred thcm-
felves infuhed by the elertion of Michael, fccretly ancmbled
in the fanftiiary of St. Sophia, and would have chofen the
venerable and valiant Catacalon, if the modclly of the
veteran had not fiiggefted the importance of birth as well as
merit in the choice of a fovercign. Upon his refufal of the

murder of his fon. Univer. Hid. Gibbon".

Isaac, Hexry, a German compofer of great renown in
Italy, during the fifteenth century, under the name of
Arrigo Tcdefco ; by which title he is celebrated by Poli-
tian. Qiiadrio, torn. ii. p. 321. fays that he was maeilro
di cappcila of the church of San Giovanni, in Florence :

ignity, Ifaac Comnenus was approved by general confent and the firft who, in different ballad-airs, fet the fongs of
Comnenus, then m Paphlagoma, foon learnt the dec.non of Lorenzo il Magnifico, in three pans, fbr a procelhonal

procelfiona

Ke flourilhed about 1475. Glai-canii<;, in

, . , ,, . , > ,- . ,,,•>-,, -- -^decachordon," fays that "Henry Ifaac chiefly cul-

countered in the neighbourhood of that city by Michjiel s tivated the churcli Ihle ; and in his works may be perceived

the mihtary fynod ; and inverted with the imperial enligns, mafquerade

marched to Nice, which he took by furprife ; but being en- i,is » l3odec

countered in the neighbourhood of that city by Michael's

generals, he entirely defeated them, and proceeded to Con- g natural force and majeftv, fuperior, in general', to any

ftantinople. The dethroned emperor rel.gned his dignity, thing that can be found "in the compolitions of our time/:

and retired to a monailery ; and Ifaac was lolemnly crowned, though his ilyle may be faid to be fomcwhat rough. He

S-ptember I, 1057. His niort reign was undilhirbed by was fond of lone notes in fom«

foreign enemies: he fell into a declining (late of health,
which he took as an admonition to retire from the world.
John, whom he would gladly have inverted with the im-
penal purple, refiifed to accept the toil, aud it was con-
ferred upon Conftantine Ducas ; and Ifaac ended his reign
of two years and three months in a monaftery. Ifaac in a
great meafure recovered his health, and furvived two years
&s voluntary abdication. At the command of his abbot,
he obferved the rule of St. Balil, and executed the moft
fervile ofiBces of the convent ; but he was gratified by the
frequent and refpeftful vifits of the reigning monarch, who
revered in his perfon the charafter of a benefaclor and faint.
Gibbon. Univer. Hi

:id of long notes in fome one of his middle pans, while
the reft of the voices were in a manner playing round it, as
the wind plays when it puts the waves in motion round a
rock."

ISA BAD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Irac ; 50 miles S. of Hamadan.

ISA BE, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon j ro
miles N.W. of Jedo.

ISABEL, St., one of the iflands of Solomon, in tlie

Pacific ocean, 2co miles in circumference, S. lat. 7^ 30',

about 160 leagues weft of Lima, difcovered by Mendana

in ! J67. The inhabitants are canIlib.^ls, and worfliip fer-

pents, toads, and other animals. Their ccmplexicn is

Isaac II. Asgelu.s, emperor of the Eaft, was raifed brown, their hair woolly, and they wear no covering but

to that dignity by the fall of Andronicus, the lafl: of the round their waift. They are divided into tribes, and ate

Comnenian family who reigned at Conrtantinople. There- con rtantly at war with each other.

volution wliich hurled him from the throne, faved and e.x- ISABELLA, in Biography, queen of Caftile, bom in
alted Ifaac Angelus, who defcended by the female hne from 14^1, was the daughter of John II. She paffed the early
the fame imperial dynafty. " The fucceffor of a fecond part of her life in great obfcurity, and without any profpeft
Nero,"' fays the hiftorian, " might have found it an eafy of a crown ; but the Caftihans having confpired againil her
talk to deferve the eftecm and affeclion of liis fubjefts ; brother Henry IV., obhged him to declare I fabella heirefs
neverthelefs they fometimes had reafon to regret the ad- to the kingdom. In 1469 (he fnarried Ferdinand king of
minirtration of Andronicus " Ifaac abandoned himfelf to Arragon ; and upon the death of Henry in 1474, they were
frivolous amufements and luxurious indulgences, aud op- conjointly declared king and queen of Caftile. They were
prerted his people by the lavifti expences of his houfehold. proclaimed at Segovia, amidll loud acclamations ; and the
*' Ifaac,'' fays Mr. Gifebon, " flept on the throne, and was fidelity of their new fubjeds enabled them to defeat all the
awakened only by the found of p'eafure : his vacant hours defigns of their enemies, who had declared in behalf o£
were amufed by comedians and buffoons, and even to thefe Joanna, the fuppofed daughter of Henry. Alphonlo IV..
the emperor was an objecl of contempt : his feafls and king of Portugal, efpoufed the perfon and the caufe of the
buildings exceeded the examples of royal luxury ; the num- latter, and took up arms in her defence and his own. The
ber of his eunuchs and domeftics amounted to twenty defeat at the battle of Toro, in 1475', was fatal to his pre-
thoufand." His generals were fuccefsful in expelling the ten lions ; and by a peace concluded in 1479, ^^e right of
Sicilian invaders ; but Ifaac difgraced himlelf by the cruelty Ifabella and her huihand was fully acknowledged, and
with which he treated the captives. Conrtantinople was Joanna retired into a monaftery. In thi.s fame vear, the
befieged, and the v.-eak emperor put all his truft in an image crown of Arragon fell to Ferdinand ; and from that period

the kingdoms of Caftjle and Arragon were infeparably
united, comprifing the whole of Spain not pofTeifed by the
Moors. (See Ferdinwnd. ) Religious zeal was a leading
feature in her character; and the defire of propagating the

of the Virgin Mary, and the prayers of the monks. A 1
volt of the Bulgarians proved a lafting injury to the empire ;
and it became neceffary to fuffer them to eftabhfii an inde-
pendent kingdom. Ifaac drev.- upon himfelf various acts of

hoftility from Frederic Barbarofia, who was the friend and Chriftian faith in parts of the world where it was yet un-

ally of the Crufaders. At length the perfidy of his own known, was the chief motive of the encouragement ftie gave

brother Alexius was more fatal to him than foreign violence, to the projects of Columbus, which eventually added fo

In 1 195, he feized upon the throne, during the abfence of much to the Spanifh monarchy. Her merits towards the

Ifaac on a hunting party ; and obtaining pofleffion of his church were rewarded by the title of " The Catholic,"

perfon, deprived him of his fight, and !hut him up in a conferred by Innocent VIII. on both the royal partners,

lonefome prifon. His fon Alexius efcaped, and engaged and their fuccelfois in the Spanifti crown. Ifabella died

the wertern powers in his behalf; who, in 1 203:, took Con- with the great regret of her Inbjefts, in November i504,

ftantinople, and replaced Ifaac upon the throne in conjunc- in the 54th year of her age. Univer. Hill. Robertlon's

tion with his fon. Another revolution, in 1204, effected Hift. of America.

by Alexius Ducas, deprived them of their feat ; aud the Isabella, in Condyli'Agy, the name given by the French

iiaturahit».

I S A

nntiiralifts to the beautiful pale-brown voluta, fo much
eftcemed in the Dutch cabinets.

Isabella, in Geography, a fmall ifland iienr the coaft of
Brafil ; z^ miles S.W. from the mouth of the river St.
Francifco. — ^Alfo, a town on the north coall cf the ifland
Hifpaiiiola, built by Chriftopher Columbus in the year
1493. N. lat. 19- '55'. W. long. 71 o'. Ifabella Point
forms the N.E. fide of the bay of the fame name. Here
Columbus formed the firll Spanifh fettlement, naming it
after his patronefs queen Ifabella. He was driven hither by
a temped in the night.

Isabella, St., a town of Brafil, in the government of
St. Salvador, near tlie coaft. S. lat. ii" 10'.

ISACHNE, in Botany, from i.-o-, equal, and aj;-.r, a
hujk. Brown. Prodr. Nov. Roll. v. i. 196. Clafs and
order, Triandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramlna.

EfT. Ch. Calyx of two equal, membranous, obtufe valves,
two-flowered. Florets equal, bivalve, of a paper-like tex-
ture; the outer male, inner female. Two fcales beneath the
germen. Stigmas feathery. Seed enclofed in the hardened
calyx. Broiun.

A genus of fmooth gratfes, growing in watery places.
Leaves flat, their flieaths bearded at the top. Flcwtrs pa-
nicled. —They have great affinity to Paiiuum, and the afpedt
of P. coloratum- It appears by Hermann s herbarium that
his Mineritana, Fl. Zeyl. 24, is of this genus.

The only New Holland fpecies given by Mr. Brown is
I. aujiralis. " Panicle lanceolate, Cm.ple. Branches and
flower-rtalks zig-zag. Stem ereft." Native of Port Jack-
fon. New South Wales.

ISjEUS, in Biography, an orator of Chalcis, in Eubaa,
who flouriihed about the end of the Peloponnefian war, the
fourth century before the Chriftian era. When he came to
Athens, he put himfelf under the inftruclions of the orator
X.yfias, from whom he obtained the fame purity, accuracy,
copcifenefs and perfpicuity of (lyle, which diftinguift^ed his
mailer, with more force and vigour. He was celebrated for
.popular eloquence, and had the honour of being the inftruftor
of Demofthenes. It ha^been faid that he was diffipated in
early life, but that as he attained to years of maturity, he
became illullrious by the praftice of the oppofite virtues.
He lived to the time of king Philip. He was author of
fixty-fonr orations, of which ten only are now remaining,
vhich are to be found among the Oratores veteres Grxci.
Thefe have been tranflatcd by fir William Jones, and were
given to the world in 1779. There was another Greek ora-
tor of this name, who came to Rome in the firft century of
the Chriftian era, and who is mentioned with great applaufe
by Pliny the younger, who obferves that he always fpoke ex-
tempore, and wrote with elegance, unlaboured eafe, and
great correftnefs.

IS.-\GO, in Geography, a country of Africa, N.W. of
Benin.

ISAGON, in Geometry, is fometimcs uled for a figure
confiding of equal angles.

IS.AIAH, or the Prophecy of Ifa'iah, a canonical book of
the Old Tellament. Ifaiah is tiie firft of the four greater
prophets ; the other three being .(ercmiah, Ezekiel, and
Daniel. Tins prophet was of royal blood, his father Amos
being brother, as fome have faid, to Azariah, or Uzziah,
king of Judah.

'I'he Cril appointment of Ifaiah to the exercife of the
prophetical office is fuppofed "o have taken place in the laft
year of Uzziah's reign, or 75S B C, at which time he is
iuppofed to have been about 35 years of age; and if he
^ivcd to the reign of ManaiTch B.C. 696, by whofe order,

I S A

according to a tradition of the Jews, he was fawn afundcr,
the duration of his office muft have extended to 61 or 62
years. But this Jewifli tradition is uncertain ; and one of
their principal rabbins (Aben Ezra, Com. in If i. I.) feems
rather to think that he died before Hezekiah, which opinion
is received as the moft probable. It is certain, however, that
he lived at leaft to the i J'h or i6th year of Hezekiah ; and
this makes the leaft pciiiDle term of the duration of his pro-
phetical office, about 47 or 48 years ; fo that he prophefied in
thereignsof Uzziah, Jotham,Ahaz, and Hezekiah. The time
of the delivery of fome of the prophecies is either exprefsly
marked in, or eafily deducible from, the hiftory to which
they relate ; that of a few others may, with fome probabi-
lity, be inferred from expreffions, defcriptions, and circum-
itances interwoven in the predictions themfelves. The pro-
phecy contained in the firll chapter ftands fingle and uncon-
nefted ; and contains a fcvere remonftrance againft the cor-
ruptions pre\"ailing among the Jews of that time ; powerful
exhortations to repentance ; grievous thi-eatenings to the im-
penitent ; and gracious promifes of better times, when the
nation ftirll have been reformed by the juft judgments of
God. The expreffion is upon the whole clear; the con-
nection of the feveral parts eafy ; and in regard to the images,
fentiments, and ftyle, it gives a beautiful example of the
prophet's elegant manner of writing ; though perhaps it may
not be equal in thefe refpefts to many of the following pro-
phecies. The prophecy contained in the fecond, third, and
fourth chapters, makes one continued difcourfe. The firft.
five verfes of the fecond chapter foretel the kingdom of the
Meffiah, the converfion of the Gentiles, and their admiffioa
into it. From the 6th verle to the end of the 2d chapter,
is foretold the paniffiment of tb.e unbelieving Jews for their
idolatrous praftices, their felf-confidence and diftrull of God's
proteftion ; and moreover the deftruction of idolatry, in
confequence of the eftabhfliment of Meffiah's kingdom.
The whole third chapter, with the firft verfe of the fourth,
is a prophecy of the calamities of the Babylonian invafion
and captivity ; with a particular amplification of the diftrefs
of the proud and luxurious daughter of Sion. Chapter iv.
2 — 6, promifes to the remnant, which ftiall have efcaped this
fevere purgation, a future reiloration to the favour and
proteition of God. The prophecy was probably delivered
in the time of Jotham, or perhaps in that of Uzziah. The
5th chapter is unconnected with that which precedes, and
with that which follows it ; and the fubjeft of it, like that of
the firll chapter, is a general reproof of the Jews for their
wickednefs ; but it exceeds that chapter in force, in feverity,
in variety, and in elegance ; and it adds a more exprefs de-
claration of vengeance, by the Babylonian invafion. The
vifion in the 6th chapter fcems to contain a folemn defignation
of Ifaiah to the prophetical office, and it is therefore thought
by moft interpreters to be the firft in order of his prophecies.
Bifliop Lowth, however, conjeftures that this may not be
the cafe ; becaufe Ifaiah is faid to have propheiied ia the
time of Uzziah; but as Ifaiah's prophecies are not placed
in exaift order of time, the 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th chapters
fcem to be antecedent to the ill chapter, and to fuit the
time of Uzziah, or the former part of Jothani's reign,
w-hereas the i ft chapter can hardly be earUer than the lail
years of Jotham. Accordingly this might be a new defig-
nation, to introduce more lolemnly a genend declaration of
the whole courfe of God's difpcnlations in regard to his peo-
ple, and the fates of the nation ; whicli are even now ftill
depending, and will not be fully accomphflied till the final
reftoration of Ifrael. The 7th chapter begins with an
hiftorical account of the occafioii of this prophecy; and

theii

S A I A H.

then follows a prf diftion of the ill fucccfs of the dellgns of
the Ifraelites and Syrians againft Judah ; and a denunci.ition
of the calamities to be brought upon the king and people of
Judah by the Aflyrians, whom they had now hired to affift
them, 'J'he 8th chapter is clofely ccnneCted with the fore-
going, aid contains a confirmation of the prophecy before
given of the approaching deflrudion of the kingdoms of
Ifrael and .'^yria by the Affyrians, of the denunciation of the
invafion of Judah by the fame AfTyrians ; together with a
repeated gt-r.eral affurance, that all the defigns of the ene-
mies of God's people (hall be in the end difappointcd and
brought to r.ought, concluding, after admonitions and
threatenings, with an illuftrious prophecy of the manifefta-
tion of the Mefliah, the tranfcendent dignity of his cha-
rafter, and the imiverfality and eternal duration of his king-
dom. This prophecy concludes at the 6th verfe of the
9th chapter. The whole pafTage from chapter ix. 7. to
chapter x. 4, contains a diftinft prophecy, and a juil poem ;
remarkable for the regularity of its difpofition ?nd the ele-
gance of its plan ; it is addrefled exclufively to the kingdom
of Ifrael, and the fubjeft of it is a denunciation of vengeance
awaiting their enemies. The ^th verfe of the loth chapter be-
gins with a new and diftinft prophecy, which is continued
to the end of the 12th chapter. It appears that it was deli-
vered after the taking of Samaria by Shalmanefer, in the
6th year of the reign of Hezekiah, and as the former part
of it foretels the invafion of Senacherih, and the dellruftion
of his armv, which makes the whole fubjecl of this chap-
ter, it muii have been delivered before the 14th year of the
fame reign. Then, according to Ifaiah's ufual method, he
takes occafion, from the mention of a great temporal deli-
verance by the dcftrutlion of the Affyrian army, to launch
out into the difplay of the fpiritual deliverance of God's
people by the Meffiah, to whom this prophecy relates. (See
Rom. XV. 12) The hymn in the 12th chapter fcems, by
its whole tenor, as well as by many exprefiions in it, much
better calculated for the ufe of the Chriftian church, than
for the Jewilh in any circumftances, or at any time, that
can be afllgned ; and the Jews themfelves feem to have ap-
plied it to the times of the Mefhali. The '13th and 14th
chapters (excluding the five lad verfes of the latter, which
belong to a quite different fubjedl) contain one entire pro-
phecy, foretelling the deftrutlion of Babylon by the Medes
and Perfians ; delivered probably in the reign of Ahaz (fee
Vitringa, i. 380.) about 200 years before the completion of
it. The former part of this prophecy, fays biihop Lowth,
is one of the moll beautiful examples, that can be given, of
elegance of compofition, variety of imagen", and fublimity
of fentiment and diftion in the prophetic ftyle ; and the
latter part confifts of an ode of fupreme and fingnlar ex-
rellence. The 15th and i6th chapters, which ought not to
have been feparated, taken together, make one entire pro-
phecy, deUvered, moll probably, foon after the foregoing,
in the ill year of Kczekiah, and accomplifhcd in his 4th
year, when Shabnanefer invaded the kingdom of Ifrael.
The prophecy in the i7tli chapter comprehends the kingdom
of Samaria and the Ifraelites, confederated with Damafcus
and the Syrians againtl the kingdom of Judah. It was de-
livered probably foon after the prophecies of the 7th and 8th
chapters, in the beginning of the reign of Ahaz, and was
fulfilled by Tiglath-Pilefer's taking Damafrus, (2 Kings,
xvi 9.) overrunning a great part of the kingdom of Ifrael,
and carrying a great number of the Ifraelites alfo captives to
Aflyria ; and liiU more fully in regard to Ifrael, by the con-
quell of the kingdom, and the captivity of the people,
effecled a few years after by Shalmanefer. The prophecy
in the 1 8th chapter i? in all its cir«umilancc3 obfcure and

doubtfuL In the 19th ^.-hapter the prophet feems to ha^e
had in view the conqucft of the Perfians by Alexander,
which was in facl a deliverance to Egypt, together with
other preceding ajid collateral incidents, and tlic favour
granted to the Jews by Alexander and the Ptolemies. The
20th cliapter refers to the taking cf Aflidod or Azotus,
and warns the Jews againfl depending too much on tl<eafiiil-
ance of Egypt. The ten firfl verfes of the 2 ill chapter
contain a prcdiftion of the capture of Babylon by the Mcde.-i
and Perfians ; the remainin^r prediftion is obfcure. Tlie
prophecy, ending with the 14th verfe of the 2 2d chapter,
foretels the invafion of Jerufalem by the Affyrians under
Senacherih, or by the Chaldajans under Nebuchadnezzar.
Vitringa thinks that the prophet had both in view ; that of
the Chaldoeans in the firll part, verfe i — 5, and that of the
AlTyriansin the latter part, v. 8 — 11. The prophecy in
the 23d chapter denounceth the deftruction of Tyre by Ne-
buchadnezzar. From the 13th chapter to the 2jd incfufive,
the fate of fevcral cities and nations is denounced; of Baby-
lon, of the Philiilines, Moab, Damafcus, Egypt, Tyre. The
prophet then proceeds, in the 24th and three following chap-
ters, to declare the judgments impending upon the people o'f
God themfelves, for their wickednels and apoilacy ; and
the defolation that fliall be brought on their whole country.
The particular fubjeft of the 24th chapter has been differ-
ently afligned by interpreters ; fome refer it to she dclolation
occafioned by the invafion of Shalmanefer; others to the in-
vafion of Nebuchadnezzar ; and olhers to the dcilrnction of
the city and nation by the Roma^is. Vitringa is fingu!ar in
referring it to the perfecution of Antiochus Epiphanes.
Bilhop Lowth thinks it may have a view to all the three
great defolations of the country by Shalmanefer, by Nebu-
chadnezzar, and by the Romans, efpeeially the lall. The 23 th
chapter contains a fong of praife, diflaled more by t.'.e pro-
fpeCt of future mercies, than by'the recolleclion of palt events.
The fubj*ft of the 27th chapter feems to be the ni;ture, the
mcafure, and the defign of God s d-.aiings with his people;
The prophecy in the 2Sth chapter, as far as the fifth vc*fe,
relates to the Ifraelites, and manifeiUy denounces their de-
(Iruftion by Shalmanefer. It then turns to the two tribes of
Judah and Benjamin, the remnant of God's peoj.le, who were
to continue a kingdom after the final captivity of the
Ifraelites. It begins with a favourable prognoilication of
their affairs under Hezekiah ; but foon changes to reproofs
and threatenings, for their intemperance, dilobedience, and
profanenefs. The fubjeft of the 29th and four following
chapters is the invafion of Senacherih ; the great diftrefs cf
the Jews while it continued ; their unexpefted and fuddea
dclivi-rance by Gods interpofition in their favour ; the fub-
fequent profperous Hate of the kingdom under Hezekiah ;
interiperfed with reproofs and threatenings, and alio with
promifes of better times. The 34th ami j^th chapters make
one dillinft prophecy ; an entire, regular, and beautiful
poem, confiding of two parts ; the firll containing a denun-
ciation of divine vengeance againll the enemies of tlie people,
or church of God : the fecond defcribing the fiouridiing
ihite of the church of God, confequent upon the execution.
of thofe judgments. The. 36th chapter contains a hillory
of the invafion of Senacherih, and of the miraculous de-
itruftion of his army, as a proper introdiiftion to the proplie-
cy in the 37th chapter, which is the anfwer of God to He-
zekiah's prayer, which could not be well underllood without
it. The narration of llie 38th and 39th chapters feems to
be in feme parts an abridgment of that of 2 Kings, xx.
The courfe of prophecies which follow from the 40th ciiap- •
ter to the end of the book, and which, taken together, con-
ftitute the moll elegatst part of the writings of the Old Tif-

tament, .

I S A

tament, interfperfed alfo with manj' pafTages of tlie higheft
fublimity, was probably delivered in tlie latter part of the
reign of Hezekiah. They are chiefly of the confolatory
kind ; and therefore they are opened with the promife of the
reftoration of the kingdom, and the return of the people
from their captivity, by the merciful interpofition of God
in their favour. The prophet, however, extends their views
to the fulfilment of God's promifes of eftabhfhing a more
glorious and an everlallincr kingdom, under the Mefiiah to
be born of the tribe of Judah, and of the family of David. He
connefts thefe two events together, and hardly ever treats of
the former without throwing in fome intimations of the latter.
Ifaiah has been, with peculiar propriety, denominated
the "evangelical prophet,'" on account of the number and
variety of his prediftions concerning the advent and cha-
rafter, the miniflry and preaching, the fufFerinffS and death,
and extenfive permanent kingdom of the Mefliah. His pre-
diftions are, indeed, fo explicit and determinate, as well as
fo numerous, that no one can be at a lofs in applying them
to the miflion and charafter of Chrift, and the events that
are cited in his hiftory by the Ne^v Teliament writers. The
whole book of Ifaiah, fome few pafTages excepted, which,
if brought together, would not at moll exceed the bulk of
■five or fix chapters, is confidered by bifliop Lowth as poeti-
cal (See the article Prophetic Poetry.) " He abounds,"
fays this learned critic, "in fuch tranfcendent excellencies,
that he may be properly faid to afford the moft perfeft model
of the prophetic poetry. He is at once elegant and fublime,
forcible and ornamented ; he unites energy with copioufnefs,
and dignity with variety. In his fentiments there is uncom-
mon elevation and majefty ; in his imagery the utmoft pro-
priety, elegance, dignity, and diverfity ; in his language
uncommon beauty and energy ; and, notwithftanding the ob-
fcurity of his fubjefts, a furprifmg degree of clearnefs and
fimplicity. To thefe we may add, there is fuch fweetnefs in
the poetical compofition of his fentences, whether it proceed
from art or genius, that if the Hebrew poetry at prefent is
poffened of any remains of its native grace and harmony, we
fliall chiefly find them in the writings of Ifaiah : fo that the
faying of Ezekiel (xxviii. 12.) may moil juft.ly be applied
to this prophet :

" Thou art the confirmed exemplar of mcafurea,
Full of wifdom, and perfect in beauty."
Ifaiah greatly excels, too, in all the graces of method, order,
conneftion, and arrangement ; though in aficrting this we
mult not forget the nat\ire of the prophetic in.pulfe, which
bears away the mind with irrefillible violence, and frequently
in rapid tranfitions from near to remote objefts, from human
to divine : we mull alfo be careful in remarking the limits of
p.irticular predictions, fince, as they are nov.' extant, they
are often improperly connefted, without any marks of dif-
crimination, which injudicious arrangement, on fome occa-
fions, creates almoil infuperable difiiciilties." Bilhop Lowth
has felecled as a fpecimen of the kind of poetry in the
language of which Ifaiah delivers his prophecies, the predic-
tion contained in the thirty-fourth and thiriy-fifth chapters ;
Hnd pointed out the beauties thai eminently didinguifh the
limple, regular, and perfcft poem, as he denominates this
prophecy. The latter part of the book, commencing at the
fortieth chapter, is, perhaps, fays the fame excellent judge,
♦■ the moft elegant fpecimen remaining of infpired compo-
fition, and yet, in this refpeft, is attended with confiderable
difficidt)'. It is, in facl, a body or coUedlion of different
prophecies, nearly allied to each other as to the fubjeft,
which, for that reafon, having a fort of connection, are not
to be fcparatcd but will* the ulmoll difficulty. The general

I S A

fubjeft is the refioration of the churcli. Its dehverance
from captivity ; the deftrudlion of idolatry ; the vindication
of the divine power and truth ; the confolation of the
Ifraelites, the divine invitation which is extended to them,
their increduhty, impiety, and rejeftion ; the calling in of
the gentiles ; the refioration of the chofen people ; the glory
and felicity of the church in its perfeft ftate ; and the ulti-
matedellruftion of the wicked, are all fet forth with a fufficient
refpedl to order and method. If we read thele pafTages
with attention, and duly regard the nature and genius of the
myllical allegory ; at the fame time remembering, that all
thefe points have been frequently touched upon in other pro-
phecies promulged at different times, we fha'l neither find
any irregularity in the arrangement of the whole, nor any
want of order and connexion as to matter or fentiment in
the different parts. Grotius calls Ifaiah the Demofliipn.'s
of the Hebrews, and bilhop Lowth ranks him with Homer.
(See Jeuemiah.) As a commentator on this book, the
learned are under great obligations to Vitringa in his excel-
lent commentary in z vols. fol. Amongfl the Englifli tranfla-
tions, the firll place will be allowed to bifliop Lowth for his
admirable work, abounding fo much with learned criticifra
and correct tafle, entitled " Ifaiah. ; a new Tranflation, with
a Preliminary DifTertation, and Notes, critical, philological,
and explanatory," firfl pubhfhed in i-;8, 4to. in which the
author has purfued the metrical arrangement. The late Mi-
chael Dodfon, efq. alfo publiflied in profe " A New Tranf-
lation of Ifaiah ; with Notes fupplementary to thofe of
Dr. Lowth, late Bifhop of London, and containing Remarks
in many parts of his Tranflation and Notes, by a Layman,"
1790, 8vo. We have lately had a valuable tranflation of the
prophecies of Ifaiah by Dr. Stock, bifliop of Killala. See
tlic works already cited, and Lowth's Prxledliones de Sac.
Poef. Heb. N- XX — xxi.

ISAKLU, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Caramania ; 12 miles N.W. of Akfliehr.

ISAKOV A, a town of European Turkey, in Moldavia ;
60 milcsN.E. of Jafl)-.

ISAKZI, a town of European Turkey, on the Danube ;
16 miles W. of Ifmail. N. lat. 4;' 18'. E. long. i<) 9'.
ISAMBLUCIS, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a
genus of foflilsof the clafs of \.\\efelsnitit, but of the colum-
nar, not the rhomboidal kind.

The felenita: of this genus confifl of fix fides, and two
obtufe or abrupt ends ; and all their fides being very nearly
of the fame breadth, they much refemble broken pieces of
the columns of fprig-cryftal.

The bodies of this genus, as well as the reft of the colum-
nar felenitce, are fubjeft to a longitudinal crack, which
fometimes admitting a fmall quantity of clay, (hapes it into
the figure of an ear of grafs. Hill's Hill of FoiT. p. 121.
See the article Sklenites.

IS.-iNDORA, in Geography, a town of Angola, on the
Coenza ; 25 miles S. of Loaiida.

ISANI, in Mythology, one of the many names of the
Hindoo deity, Siva ; alio of his fakti, or confort Parvati :
it feems nearly fimilarwith Ifa. (See under thofe articles.)
The Hindoos reckon eiglit of their principal deities, as re-
gents or fupporters of the eiglit cardinal and intermediate-
points of the heavens. Of thefe regents, called Maruls, or
•win/Is, Indra is the chief, and rules the Eall. (See Indka
and M.MtUT. ) Ifaiii or Siva, in that form, is by fome my-
thologills, but not by all, reckoned another, and ruler of
the north-eafl. See Moor's Hindoo Pantheon, under /tiJra
in the index.

ISANTHUS, in Botany, fo called by Michaux, front
i3-t!,s equal, and «»S:f, a Jloiver, becaufe this plant, unlike

me ft

I S A

wioll others of the clafs Lidynamir., has a regular corolla. —
Michaux Amer. v 2. 3. t. 5c. Clafs and order, Diiiymnia
GjnwB//,cnt:!a. Nat. Ord. rertUlI/atj, Linn. Labi.iU,
JlilT.

Gfii. Ch. C<i/. Perianth beU-(haped, rather fpreading,
cloven half wav down into five, nearly equal, lanceolate
fegmcnts ; tiie two lower ones, efpecially after the corolla
has fallen oil', more clofe than the red. Cor. nearly equal
witli the calyx, almoil regular ; tube ftraightifh, narrowly
cylindrical, limb foin'ewhat wheel-.liaped, "five-cleft ; each
fogmeut oval and fimilar, with two fpots at the bafc. St^m.
Filaments four, nearly equal, a little (horterthan the corolla,
perfedUr ercft ; anthers obhque, cloven below ; cells ovate,
diverging nearly at a right angle. - Pi/!. Genr^en fupcrior,
four-cleft ; ftyle the length of the (lamen.s recurved at top ;
lligmas two, recurved and much fpreading, linear tongue-
ftiaped ; the lower one rather the longeft. Peric. none,
except the permanent, fpreading tube of the calyx. Seedt
four, obovate, rugged and reticulated, connefted only at
their bafe, filling the calyx.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla nearly equal, five-
cleft. Stamens ereft. Anthers with divaricated Icbes.

I. I. cjcriileus. Blue Ifanthus Michaux Amer. v. 2.

t. ^o. A native of Virginia and Carolina, in a chalky foil.
The whole plant is rather vifcid and hairy. Root annual.
Stem about a foot high, ereft, round, branched. Leavrs
oppofite, on fhort flalks, ovate, acuminate, ribbed or nerved,
fringed. Fhivsrs of a pale blue.

We are only acquainted with this plant from the defcrip-
tjon and figure of Michaux. It is without doubt very nearly
allied to the Afperifoha, though we have follewed that author
in referring it to the clafs Didynamia.

ISARIA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Ultra ; eight miles E. of Nicaftro.

IS.ARRIA, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra; 11
miles S. of SquiHace,

ISATIS, in Botany, is the Is-aTi; of Diofcorides, and
Jfatis of Piiny, but its derivation is totally unknown. IVoad.
Linn. Gen. 344. Schreb. 435'. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 420.
Mart. MiU. Dia. V. 2. Sm. Fl. Brit. 693. Ait.Hort. Kew.
V. 2. 406. Tournef. t. 100. Juff. 242. Lamarck lUudr.
t.55'4. Gaertn. t. 142. C\3.k -auA otA^t, Telradynaiii'ia SUi-
ciilofa. Nat. Ord. Slliquof^, Linn. Cnicifera, Jufl'.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of four, ovate, fpreading,
coloured, deciduous leases. Cor. of four petals, crofs-
Ihaped ; petals oblong, obtufe, fpreading, by degrees at-
tenuated into cla.vs. Statu. Filaments fix, (lightly fpread-
ing,. the length of the corolla ; two of them fliorter ; anthers
oblong, lateral. Ptft. Germen luperior, oblong, two-
«dged, compreffld, as long as the ftiorter ftamens ; ftyle
Kone ; ftigma obtufe, capitate. Ptric. Pouch oblong, lan-
ceolate, obtufe, com.preifcd, two-edged, of one cell, not
gaping, tws-valved, deciduous; the valves are boat-like,
<:omprefied and cariuated. Seed folitary, ovate, central.

Eir. Ch. Peuch lanceolate, one-celled, fingle-feeded,
deciduous, with two boat-like valves.

I. I. tindoria. Woad — Linn. Sp. PI. 936. Engl. Bot.
t. 97. Mart. Fl. Ruft. t.4i. — " Radical leaves crenated,
Hem-leaves arrow-fiiaped. Pouch oblong, fmooth." —
Rather a fcarce plant in BriKiin, flowering in July, and
found in fields. It was not originally a native of this iiland,
but has become naturalized from its frequent culture for
the purpofe of dyeing blue. It is alfo a balsi for feveral
other colours. Pliny fays the ancient Briions llamed their
bodies with woad, but from the circumllance of this plant
having been introduced into liiis country from the (hores of
the JLJalti*, Spain, Italy, &c. Mr. Miller concludes that
Vol. XIX.

I s c

Weld {Refrda Liiissl.-i), and not Woad, was ufed b) our
ancedors for the purpofe above related. But if tlie plant
in queftion can be identified with Pli.iy's it is undoubtedly
a native. Root bienni:t!. Shm creft, br.qiched, fiirnilhed
with alternate, fomewhat fucc.ilent leaves; the radical oncB
ftand on long foot-ftalks, and are crenated. Calyx as well
as the corolla of a yellow colour Serd-vrjfeu dark brown.
Stem and leaves occafionally befprinkled with a fev,' liairs.

Linnaeus enumerates three other fpccics oi Ifalh, hifitank/i,
armena, and eegypliaca, the laft of wliich is very properly
removed by Vv'illdenow to Caiilc of Gartner. Vi lars and
Allioni mention another fpccies under 'he name of elp'mn.'
This genus was very unaccountably plaeed by Linnoius in
his order of Sil'iqucfa, together with B-ur.h-: and C ramie ;
but its nwr aifiiuty to Draba, Lepidium, Sec. in the fliapc
and fize of its pouch, fufficiently warrant profeffor Schre-
ber's placing it, among the SiUculofa.
I.sATl.s, in Zoology. Sec Laoopus.

ISATODES, a word ufed by Hippocrates, and fomc
other of the old writers, to exprcfs a greenifh colour of the
bile difcovered in the ftools, which rcfemble the colour of
the herb IfoUs, or woad. This was cfteemed an indication
of a highly depraved bile.

ISAURIA, in Jnel-nt Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
near Pifidia. Its inhabitants were merely occupied in plun-
der, when Servihus made war upon th.?m and conqurred
them. Hence he obtained the nam.c of the " Ifauriar."
Its chief town was " Ifaura," or " Ifauropolis,'' which
vvcre repeatedly dcflroyed and rebuilt. Under the Greek
emperors, Ifauria became a confidcrab!? province at the
ex pence of the neighbouring provinces. Hierocles, in his
" Nolitia," reckons in it 23 epifcopal towns, and Leon-!e-
Sage CFumeratcs 19.

ISBARTEH, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Natolia, the rcfidence of a P.acha ; and in the fauxbourgs
are four Greek churches ; 92 miles S. of Kiutaja. N. lat.
37- 44'. E. long. 30- 56'.

ISBASTER, one of the fmallcr Shetland ifiands. N. lat.
60" 34'. W'. long, o jS'.

ISC A, or Lsc.A. Danmcr.iorum, in ylnehiil Geography, a
town of Albion or England, the capital of the l)aninonii,
and moll prabably Exeter.

Isc.4. SUurum, the capital of the Silures, now Caerleon in
Monmouthihire. Here the fecond legion of the Romans,
which had contributed greatly to thercdnftion of the Silun-s,
was placed in garrifon (as fome antiquaries have imagined)
by Julius Frontinus, to keep that people in obedience. It
is cerrain, however, that this legion was very early and very
long llationcd at this place. Ifca Silurum ws.?, in the tin;e
of the Romans, a city not only of great ilrength, but alio
of. great beauty and magnificence. This appears from the
defcription which is given of its ruins by Giraldus Cam-
brenfis, in his topography of Wales,, written in the I2th
century, foon after it had been di-ftroyed and abandoned.

ISCALES, a town of Britain, iii the country of tlit;
Belgx, geiierallv placed at Ilchcfter in Somcrletfliirc.

ISCARIOT'H, a place of Judea, in the tribe of Ephraim,
whence Judas, who betrayed our Saviour, is fuppofed to
have derived liis fiirname

ISCH7EMUM, in Botany, from irrpc^, to repnfs, and
Kiy.a, bloid, becaui'e it was fuppofed to poliels the virtue of
ftopping hemorrhages from recent wounds. In this fenfe
the name was originally applied to tiie Pankur: fanguiuale
of LinnasuR, called, for the fame reafoii, Ssnguinarla by
fome writers ; and is now retained for a genus of grades
bearing fome refemblance to that, but the reputed virtue
above-Bieutioned can IJcarccly be thought to have any founda-
"3 O I tion>

I s c

tion. Lirni. Gen. 542. Sctireb. 718. Mart. Mill. Dift. v 2.
Brown. ProJ. Nov. Holl. v. I. 204. JutT. 30. Lamarck.
lUuftr. t. 839. Clafs and order, Polygamsa Manoec'ta, or
rather Triandria Digyn'ia. Nat. Ord. Gramina.

Gen. Ch. Ciil. Glume two-flowered, of two cartilaginous
nearly equal valves, fituated tranfverfely ; the outer almofl
ovate, tumid, cloven and acute at the top, the upper part
of the back flattened, ftriated, bordered; /nwr oblong, boat-
like, pointed or awned at the top, furnifhed with a longitu-
dinal dorfal membrane below the extremity. Florets fhorter
than the calyx, the outer one male, inner hermaphrodite.
Qor. (in the hermaphrodite floret) of two thin, membra-
nous, pellucid glumes ; the cuter fwelling, cither beardlefs
or awned, cloven to the infcrtion of the awn, acute ; czun
long, flender, bent, twilled in the lower part ; inner glume
lanceolate, acute, it^ margins folded together ; (in the male
floret) of two rather firmer, pellucid, fomewhat coloured
glumes ; the outer oblong, fwelling, contradied upwards,
acute, beardlefs ; inner oblong, obtufe, concave at the back,
thinner and acute at the margin : Ne3ary in each of two
fmall,- fpatulate, abrupt, notched leaves. Stam. Filaments
three, capillary, (hort ; anthers oblong, cloven at each end.
Pifl. (in the hermaphrodite floret). Germen oblong ; fl.ylcs
two, capillary, ereft, fhorter than the corolla ; ftigmas ob-
long, feathery, fpreading, prominent. Peric. npne, except
the unchanged calyx and corolla. Seed (in the hermaphro-
dite floret) lolitary, oblong, linear, convex at one fide.

Efl". Ch. Calyx of two vaKcs, two-flowered, placed in
pairs, laterally, on a jointed fl:alk ; outer valve flattened.
Corolla of two valves, ifhorter than the calyx. Stigmas
feathery. One floret male, or neuter.

Linnaeus' defines two fpecics only, /. niuticum,' Sp. PI.
1487, and /. ar[f}attim, ibid. The firft is deltitute of awns,,
and is the T'ajadi of Rhecde Hort. Mai. v. r2. 91. t. 49,
found in every kind of foil in Malabar, but not of any par-
ticular life, except as a grafs in genera'. The root is percn-
nia'. 5/c»:j' about a foot high,' round, fmooth,- recd-likej-
leafy. Ltaves lanceolate, pointed, broad at the bafe. Spikes
terminal, double, fliort, clofe, fliining. /. arijhtum, dillin-
guiftred by its awns,- was gathered by Ofbeck in China, and
has narrower leaves.

I. r'ugofmn, S.dif. Ic. i. t. I. Hort. 27.—'' External bar-
ren glumes tranfverffly rugofe ; one of the fertile ones,
wljether male or female, awned." — Found by Kocnig in the
borders of rice fields in the Eail Indies. This is very
remarkable for the Ihong wrinkles or furrows of its glumes.
Linnxus was inthned to make it a ttew genus by the name
of Cieadaria. Mr. Salifbury cultivated it in his Hove at
Chapel Allcrton before 1796.

Mr. Brown in his Prodromus has added fix new fpecies
to Ijlbecmum, and alfo ju!Hy refers to this genus the CoUadoa
of Cavaniiles, Ic. v. 5. 57. t. 460.

ISCHEMIA, l-^:u<., in Antiqnttyt anniverfary fports
Celebrated at Olympia, in memory of Ifchenus, the grand-
fun of Merc\i:y and Hierea ; who, in a time of fa;niiie, de-
voted himfelf to be a facrifice for his country, and was
honoured with a monument near the Olympian ftadium.

ISCHIA, in Geography, a volcanic ifland, fituated at the
eaftern entrance of the gulf of Naples, about 18 miles iii
-^circuit ; the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of that of Naples, and
containing three parilhes, and a cunvent of nuns. The vol-
canic I'ubllances of which th'.s ifland is interna ly compofed,
prove, beyond the pofSbihty of doubt, fays Spallanzani,
•that it owes its origin to fire. The calUe of the city of
^c-hia, as il is called, is built on a rock furrounded by the
fea, ;viid a little more than a, quarter of a mile in circuit.
t^ ttvo comiJtjnent fubll,auces of this rgck ve lava iuiU
6

rs c

tufa. About a mile to the weft is a torrent of lava, callecf
the " Arfo" or burnt ground, which is the moft recent of-
any in the ifland, fince it flowed iu 1302. This lava, thoughr
it flowed five centuries ago, is abfolutely fterile ; producing
not a fingle blade of grafs, and only afibrding, in' fome places^
a few arid and ufelefs plants of the lichen, or liverwort. On-
the furface, and for a little depth, it is light and fpongy, and.
eafily crumbles ; but deeper, it becomes dcnfe and harder.
This lava is of the hornftone bafe, and has an earthy ground ;;
varying in colour from that of iron to a rcddifli-black, and.
having incorporated in it very numerous feltfpars. M. Do-
loniieu fays, that the eruption of the Arfo, though it con.
tinued two years, never produced any pumice, but only
black fcorii ; but ispallanzani obferves, that the horniione^
by a violent fire, may be changed into a true pumice.
Though this tranfmutation rarely happens, no part of the
ifland, however, abounds fo much with pumices as the'
Rotaro, a mountain fituated between Cafamicciola and the
city of Ifchia. This mountain is of a conical fliape, and com-
pofed of tufa, pumices, and enamels. The extent of the-'
pumices is more than a mil.?. The Rotaro is the only place
in Ifchia which affords enamels. The mountain of St.Nic->
cola, which in earlier times was called Epopeo, and which
is in the centre of the ifland, was, as Spallanzani fays, with-'
out doubt, the firft that towered above the waves. The c(;n-
ftituent fubftances of this mountain are of various kinds.
The fulphate of alumine (alum-) was formerly extracted in
Ifchia for commercial purpofes ; and the manufafture was
principally carried on at Catrico, a place fituated above
Laceo, on the higher eminences of the Epopeo. But a'
careful obferver has not been able recently to difcover any-
remaining veftige of this fubftance. Spallanzani concludes
from experiments on different lavas, that this valuable fub-
ftance might fti'l be obtained at Ifchia. This ingenious
naturalift coafted the ifland and examined various mountains
that occupy the lower part of it. He began w-ith the Vico,:
which is partly formed of tufa, and partly of two currents
of lava, which defcend into the fea. The bafe of both thefe
lavas is hornftone, and they abound in feltfpars. He the.l
proceeded to Monte Zaro, formed, towards the fea, by a
river of lava, extending a mile in length, and nearly two in
breadth. The bafe of this lava is hornftune, and it contains
mica' and fekfpars. From the termination of Monic Zaro
to the commeKcement of Monte Imperatore, is a long and
ample traft, almoft entirely tufaceous, fcattered over with'
fragments of pumice. The Monte Imperatore prefents dif-
ferent fcrcs of lava, the bafe of which is hornftone, inter-
mixed with abundance of feltfpars. In many parts of the
ifland our author found a ferruginous fand, which not only
moves-ihe magnetic needle, but is ftrongly attrafled by liif
loadftone. This ifland, our author ap[)reheiid.s, when it was
firft produced by conflagrations in ancient, and to us un-
known, times, muil liave been of much greater extent than
it is at prefent. Time has alfo produced a great alteration
in the interior parts of the ifland. From the fummit of
F'.popeo, a number of conical eminences may be feen ; hut-
their internal craters no longer exift ; nor can be found in
Ifchia inconteftible traces of a fingle one, fiuce thofe dvptiis
and ample cavities, thole refemblances of theatres and am-
phiihoatros, which may be every where obferved, may be
equally the efi'ecl of fire or water. The fubllances, cur
aulJior conceives, which have furnilhed ah.Tient to the dif-
ferent conflagrations of Ifchia, have had their centre in tlx.fe.
argillaceous rocks, which, by the above-men; iwied eruption
in 1302, fliewed that they were not then exhaufted. See-
Spallan-^aifi's Travels in the T%vo Sicilies, &c. vol. 1.

Along tlu: coafl of llua ifland a lew. pretty viil.-iges are>
dilperfud }

I s c

dHperfed ; and detached habitations are fcattered over tlie
■fiirface of the whole illand, and are to be found even at an
wlevation where the culture of the foil mud ccafc. The
w!iite colour of the houfes forms an ajjreeable contrail with
the verdure of the vines and gardens in which tliey are era-
bofomed. At the fummit of the mountain, which forms
this iflaud, a hermitage, compofed of a chapel, and tlirce
cells, has been excavated out of the volcanic rock. The
cells are inhabited by as many hermits. One of them goes
his round through the ifland twice a week, and brings back
■bread, oil, eggs, and every thing ncceflary for the fervice
of the altar. The inhabitants give him a!ms with joy, and
recommend themfclves to his prayers. They make a pil-
grimage annually to this chapel.

' This ifiand enjoys a propitious climate, and the fky is
feldom obfcured with clouds. The winters are mild, the rep-
tiles harmlefs, and the fprings cure various difeafes. The
government is likewife mild, and the ifland is excnipt from
taxes. The king pays it a vifit every year, and gives por-
tion.? to the indigent young females.

• An hofpital is eftabliflied here at the expence of a cha-
ritable fociety at Naples. Some hundreds of Tick receive
attendance and relief during the bathing-feafon. Several
barks are folely employed in removing the convalefcents to
Naples, and bringing back other patients to the hofpital.
The lame, who are cured of their inilrmitics, leave behind
them their crutches, which they confecrate to the Madona,
«r to fome particular patron. The trees, (hrubs, and plants
tvhich prefer volcanic foils, thrive furprilingly in this ifland.
Here and there are feen groves of oak and chefnut trees ;
wliich are fuffered to grow only lo years. The orange,
pomegranate, fig, Neapolitan medlar, and arbutus, are the
mod C'-mmon trees in the gardens. Of wild flirubs, the
myrtle and the mailic are the mod numerous. The inhabit-
ants have forr.ething peculiar in their language, their figure,
and their drefs. In their converfation, they fcarcely ever
life the word ninn, thst of Chriflhm being fnbditnled for it;
and with tliem Chrifiian is fynonymous with Caiholic. In
their pious expreffions they feldom foar higher than the
Mother of God. It is to our Lady they recommend you,
when they leave you, and they wifli yon a holy night [Jiin-
iijjima notta.) To her they app'y when afflicted with difeafe.
At the death of an adult they pray for the repofe of his foul.
The death of a child is regarded as an happy event. Reli-
gious fedivals are with them days of rejoicing. N. lat. 40^
50'. E. long. 13° 46'.

Th^ foil feeds no animals befides afies and goats. The
roofs of the houfes throughout the ifland are flat, and are
"uled for drving fruits and other purpofes.

ISCHIADICUS MoKBL-s, in Surgery. See Dijhife of
Hiv-joint.

ISCH I AS. See Difiofi oftlir-joht and Sciatica.
ISCHIATIC, in AnaSuny, an epithet applied to certain
parts of the body fitnated near the ifchium ; as the ifchiatic
artery and neive. See Akteuy and Neuvk.

ISCHIATOCELE, in Surgery, a hernia taking place
at the faoro-ifchiatic foramen. See Heuxia.
• ISC H IM, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Tobolik, on the river Ifchim, which runs into tlie
Irtifch, N. lat. 57" 45'. E. long. 90''; 108 miles S. of
Tobolik. N. lat. 56' 10'. E. long. 69 14'.

ISCHIMSKOI, a town cf Ruffia, in the government
of Tobolik, at the conflux of the Ifchim and Oby ; 112
"miles E. of Tobolik.

ISCHIO-CAVERNOSUS, \n Anatomy, a name given
by W inflow and others to the eteclor j)ems raufclc. See
'Ckseratios.

I s c

ISCHIOCELE, in Surgery, a hernia between the facrniJi
and ilchinm.

ISCHIO-COCCYGEUS, in Av.aiowy, a name for the
coccygcus mufcle ; which fee.

ISCHIUM, one of the divifions of the os innominatum.

See EXTKF.MITIKS.

LsCHIL-M Os, Fr^flurrs of, in Surgrr\: See FkacTvre.
ISCHNAMBLUCIS, in N„luraJ Hi/lory, the name of
a genus of fofiils of the clafs of the felenitae, but one..f
thofe whicli are of a columnar form, not of the common
rhomboidal one.

The ivord is derived from the Greek, it^^vo;, t'l/m, ?f .?.t',-,
blunt or eblif;, and kUi, a column, and exprefTes a body m
form of a thin flatted column, with obtufe ends. The bodies
of this genus are of an cftohedral figure, confiding of fix
long planes and about two broken ends. The top and bafe
phnes are broader than the reft. T-he crack which rims
through the whole length of bodies of tiiis genus is often
filled with clay, which fpreads itfelf into the form of an
ear of fome giafles ; of this genus there are only four known
fpccies. Hill.

ISCHNOPIIONI.\, in MaMne, from .V;t'Jr, thin, and
€mr., th: -Mice, a term which feems to have been uled originaUy
to denote a certain tenuity or fmallnefs of the voice ; but
the mod common acceptation of the word is in the fcnle of
hefnation offpcech.

ISCHURIA, from .Vxi-, I flop, and ««*, urme, fignifies
an entire fupprefGon or retention of the urine.

The difeharge o^ urine may be a'together prevented or
fupprcfled for a time, from four different fets of caufes ;
whence Dr. CuUen has, with great judgment, arranged the
forty-three varieties of ifchvria, defcribed by Sauva^es after
Cuffon, under four heads or fpecies. Thefeare, i Ifchuria
renalh, in which the impediment to the excretion of urine
is in the k'lctiiks themfelves ; 2, Ifchuria wriaka, in which
the impediment confifts in an obdruftion of the canal of the
ureters, through which the urine diould pafs into the bladder ;

3. ifchuria vef calls, in which the urine, fecretcd by the
kidnies, and tranfmitted through the ureters, is retained
in the bkidder from difeafe in that receptacle itfelf; and,

4. Ifchuria urethralis, in which the impediment is occafioned
by fome obdruftion in the canal of the urethra, through
which the contents of the bladder are difcharged. See
Cullcn. Synopf. Nofol. Method. Clals iv. Ord. c. Sauvages,
Clafs X. Ord. 3.

The rend ih huria, in which there is little or no fecretion
of urine eiTefied by the kidnies, is to be diftinguiflicd by
the fo'lowing circumdances : It fupervencs upon fome pre-
vious aifccliou of the kidnies, and is accompanied by pain
or an uncafy fenfe of weight in the region of the kidnies,
while, at the fame time, there is no tumour in the hypogaf-
trium, or lower portion of the belly, fuch as a dillended
bladder would occafion, nor any defire to make water.
The ifcliUria, from obdru£led ureters, is accompanied by
fimilar fymptoms, except that the pain or uneafincfs is felt
in the courfe of the ureter ; it is likewife uiiac onipanicd
by hypogHil.'ic tumour, or dcfirc to pafs urine. The moll
frequent caufes of thefe two forms of retention of urine
are inflammation of the kidnies or of the ureters, or the
prefence of calculous concretions in thofe parts ; bv;t othei-
caufes have been occafionafUy obferved to produce the dif-
eafe, fuch as grumous blood, impaclcd in the f;une jjarts,
and purulent matter, or mucus, obllrucling the pallages.
It may he remarked, that fome writers have confined the
term retention of urine to the renal form of the difeafe, as if
they would adert, that, when the urine was not fecretcd, it
was rclmued in the blood ; and tlicy denote the other forms
3 O .: of

I S E

ef the difcare by the term fuppnjion of urine : — a falfe hypo-
tht'fi3, but the terms may be retained as expreflSng the fails.
When the retention is connedled with inflammation of the
kidney or ureter, its cure will depend upon the removal of
tliat jidaramatory ftate. (See NkPHRItis ) And when
it originates from imparted calcuUis, it muil he treated
with the remedies rcforted to in other calculous cafes. See
Nephralgia.

The two other fpecies of ifchuria, orij;inati:ig from im-
pediments to the evacuation of the bladder, by difeafes of
that organ itfelf, or of i-^s outlet, the urethra, are to be
diftinguilaed, by the evident tumour of the hypogaftrium,
above the pubes. and by the frequent urging to make water,
accompanied with pain in the neck of the bladder, in the
one cafe, and in fome part of the urethra in the other. The
caufes which give rile to the veftcal fuppreffion of urine,
are inflammation of the neck of the bladder ; (tone in the
bladder ; fpafm of the fphinfter ; palfy extending to the
bladder ; over-difl:ention of its fibres, from retaining the
urine too long ; purulent matter, mucus, or grumous blood,
lodged in the neck of the bladder ; and tumours of the
neighbouring parts compreffing the neck of the bladder,
iuch as hardened f;eces in the redlum, or calculous concre-
tions, flatus, inflammation, abfcefs, or hemorrhoidal fwelHngs
in the fame bowel, and alfo the gravid uterus, or other, en-
largements of that vifcus. The caufes of impediment in the
canal of the urethra, which' occafion fuppreflion of urir.e,
are inflanimation of that paffage ; pus, mucus, or grumous
tlood impaded in it ; ilri&ure ; tumours in the perineum ;
phimofis, &c.

The means by which thefe caufes of fupprcRion of urine
are chiefly to be removed, and the difoafe to be cured, are
principally furgical. See S upprejlon. of \5B.iy:v..
Ischuria, in Surgery. See Rttenllon o/Uris^.
ISEFIORD. in Gtogrtiphy, a large bay or gulf of Den-
jnark, on the N. coail of tlie ifland of Zealand ; the mouth
of which lies in N. lat. 55' 59'. E. long. 1 1^ 50'.

ISELASTICS, IsELAvncA, a kind of games, or com-
bats, celebrated in the cities of Greece and Afia, in the
time of the Roman emperors.

Tiie vi£lors at thefe games had very confiderable privi-
leges conferred on them; after the example of Auguftus
and the Athenians, who did the hke to the conquerors at
the Olympic, Pythian, and Ifthmian games. They were
crowned on the fpot, immediately after their vidory ; had
penfions allowed tliem ; were furnifhed with provifion at the
public cod ; were carried home in triumph, and made to
enter their cities through a breach in the walls ; whence
their appellation from sjs-Aaujiiy, to enler.

I3EI.IN, James Ciihistopher, in Bicgraphj, an emi-
nent phi'r,logi!l and divine, was born at Balil in 1681 ; and
haviivg lir'd a good foundation in grammar learning, he was
admitted to his academical courfe as early as the age of 13,
and at ij he diilingniflied himfelf by a Latin poem on
" The Pafiage of the Riiine" by the French, which ob-
tained for him great applaufe. In 1701 he v/as oidained
minifter, and on that occafion pubh(hed a difiertaticn en the
Babylon of the Revelations, in anfwer to the bifhop of
Meaux. In 1704 he accepted the chair cf eloquence and
Liftory in the univerfity of Marpurg, which he occupied
with great reputation for two years. In 1706 he was
appointed profuiTor cfhiftory and antiquities at Eafd, and in
1 7 1 1 he was made doftor in theology, and appointed to teach
that fciencc. He was invited to fettle at Paris, which he
declined, and the French academy eledted him to the place
of honorary member, vacant by the death of Cuper. This
hcaour was conferred upon him in return for the pains

I S E

he had taken to comply with the king's requefl of o'l,-
taining for him copies of the afts of the council held at
Bafil in the fifteenth century. He died in 1737, and his
memory was honoured by a great number of eulogies in
Latin and German. The works of M. Ifelin conlilt of
orations, differtations, and detached tracts on a variety of
fubjefts, philological, theological, and mifcell^neous. Morcri.
ISEMN, Isaac, was born at Bafil in 1728. He received
his academical education at Gottingen, where he paid great
attention to jurifprudence and ftatiltics under the moil abU
profeflbrs. He undertook the taflc of reducing the jurif-
prudence of the Swifs confederation into a fyfkm, of which
he publiflied a fpecimen in his thefis, when he obtained
the degree of doftor, under the title of " Tentamen Juris
publici Helvctici." When he had completed his ftudies
he went to Paris, and obtained the acquaintance ani friend-
fhip of the moil eminent men of letters in that capital.
After his return, he applied with great diligence to the
ft udy cf jurifprudence, and in 1756 he was appointed to
the important office of fecretary to the grand council of
his native city. Soon after he publiflied his firft work,
entitled the "Dream of Mankind," which has gone through
many editions. He next gave the world a work, entitled
" Free Thoughts on the Depopulation of my native City,"
in which he rccommended^the admiflion of new citizens. But
his moll important work was his " Hiftory of Mankind,''
in which he traces the progrefs of the human mind from
a Itate of rudenefs to that of refinement, and (hews in what
manner nations have emerged from obfcurity, and have beciv
copipletely civilized by the introduftion of arts and manu-
factures. Ifehn was the author alfo of a periodical work,
entitled " Ephemerides of Mankind." He cirried on an
extenfive correfpondence both in Switzerland and foreign
countries, and he wrote many excellent critiques in the
" Deutllie Bibliothek," which are faid to be diftinguilhed
by their acutenefs, modeily, and adherence to truth. He
died in the year 1783, at the age of 54. Ifelin's writings
abound with exalted ideas and ingenious thoughts, and dil-
play great knowledge of human nature, ai-dcut patriotifni^
and a ilrong vigorous mind. Gen. Biog.

ISEN, in Geography, atown.of Bavajia; 24 miles E.N.E.
of Munich.

IfcENBURG, Upper, County of, a principality of
Germany, Ctuated in the Wctterau, about 30 miles long
and 10 broad. The houfe of Ifenburg is divided into ft-
veral branches, taking thcjr furnames refpeftiveiy from towns
on the eilate.

IsESEUKG, Zcw^r, a connty of Germany, in the circle
of the Lower Rhine, formerly governed by courts of its
own, as a fief of the eleiSorate of Treves.

IsENBUnc, a town of Germany, giving name to the
county, fituatcd on the Ifer, and furroimded with (liarp
rocks, on one of which is acalUe built by Charlemagne ; 10

miles N. of Coblentz. N. lat. ^o" 30'.

35-

IsENBUi'.c-., Nciu, a tov.n ot Germany, in the county nf
Ifeiibuiy. ibunded by French refugees ; 3 miles S. of Frank-
fort on the Maine. N. lat. 50' 3'. E. long. 8 38'. '
. ISENHAGEN, a town of Weftphalia, in tiie princi-
pahty of Limeburg ; 24 miles E.N.E. of Zelle.

ISEO, a town of Italy, in the department of the Benaco,
on a lake to which it gives name, through which the river
Oglio takes its courfe : the town was anciently called " Sa-
bino ;" 12 miics N.W. of Brefcia.

ISER, a river of the Tyrolefe, which rifes about 5 miles
N. of lnfpruck,.and, paCing by Munich, Landthut, Landau,
&c. runs into the Danube, 2 miles below Deckendorf,.

ISERE^ a river which rifes in the Alps, about 1 2 miles

froiu

I S E

from mount Cenis, in a mountain called '• Iferan," in the
duchy of Savoy, and, after entering France, paffes by
Grenoble, &c. and joins the Rhone, about 3 miles above
Valence ; nangable for boats as lar as Montmelian.

IsERK, formerly Grafivaitdan and Viamois, one of the 1 1
departments of the eallern region of France, fo called from
the river Ifere, which crofTes it ; iituatcd in N. lat. 45' 50 ,
W. of Mont Blanc : containing 452 fqnare leagues, and
441,208 inhabitants, and divided uito four diftricls, -o'tz.
Vienne, including 104,689 inli.ibitants ; Tour-du-Pin, havin^r
99,053; Grenoble, 169,623; and St. Marcellin, 67,843
inhabitants. Its number of cantons is 44, and that of
communes JjS. The annual contributions amount to
3,546,809 francs, and the expences charged upon it to
338,804 francs 37 cents. This department confifts of
barren and marfliy plains, deep vallies, and high mountains
partially wooded. The chief products are grain, hemp,
roots, fome good wine, and excellent pallures. It has
mines of iron, copper, lead, coal, quarries, and m.ineral fprings.
Its capital is Grenoble.

ISERINE, in Mh'.ernlo-y. S<-e TITA^•IU^r.

ISERLOrIN, orLoils, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the county of Mark, inhabited by Lutherans, Cal-
vinifts, and Roman Catholics, who are ailovv-ed their feparate
worfliip. Its mauufaclures are confiderable in iron, tin, rib-
bons, velvets, fdks, (luffs, &c. ; 32 miles N.E. of Cologne.
N. lat. Jl' 18'. E. long. 7- 40',

LSERNI.-^, a town of Naples, in the Mohfe, lituated at
the foot of the Apennines, t lie fee of a bifhop ; 12 miles
\V S.W. of Molife. N. lat. 41 ' 38'. E. long. 41^ 2'.

ISERTIA, m Botany, was fo named in honour of Mr.
Ifert, a German botanill, and furgeon in the Danifh fervice,
on the coaft of Guinea. — Schreb. 234. Willd. Sp. PL v. 2.
2iD. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 2. V.-..hl. Eclog. p. 2. 27. Lamarck
Illu.lr. t. 259. (Guettarda ; Julf. 207. Aubl. Guian. v. i.
3i7.t Clafs and order, Hcxandna Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
R'lbiacee, Jaff.

Gen. Ch. CaL Perianth of one leaf, fuperior, C'.)Iourod,
four or fix-toothed, prrmancnt. C:r. of one petal, r.innel-
(haped ; tube long, cylindrical, flightly curved ; limb di-
vided into tix, fubovate, rather ere£V, villofe fegments.
Stam. Filaments fi,^, very ftiort, within the throat of the
corolla ; anthers lineiir, aSxed to the b-ick, ercd. P'ljl.
Germcn inferior, roundiih ; ftyie thread-lhaped, fiirrounded
by a glandule at the bafe ; ftigma fis-ckft. Perk. Fruit
pulpy, fomewhat globular, ero'VHod by the calyx, iix-
celled ; the cafes of the cells brittle. Seeds numerous,
fmall, anguldtcd, roagh.

■ E.T. Ch. Calyx fuperior, fix-toothed. Corolla funnel-
fnaped, fix-cleft. Stigma fix-cltft. Fruit fix-celled, many-
feeded.

1. \. cocc'inea. Willd. n. i. (Guettarda coccinea ; Aubl.
Guian. V. 3. t. 1 23) — Leaves lanceolate-elliptical, clothed
with hoary pubeLence, acum.inate, acute at each end.
Flower-ftalks branched, bifid. A native of v.-oods in Gui-
ana, floA-eri.ig and bearing fruit at ail feafons. — This tree
rifes to the height of ten or twelve feet, is f imiihed with
ereft, knotty, fquare branches. Leaves oppofite, large,
ovate, acute, green above, downy beneath, dark-coloured,
with reddifh nerves. St'ipulas long, broad, acute, deciduous.
Flo-jjers racemofe, creft, terminal ; their partial-ftalks op-
pofite, furnilhed with tv/o little fcaks. Cdlyx purplifh.
Tube yellew. FruU red.

2. I. parviflora. Willd. n. 2. — " Leaves oblong, the
lower ones fomewhat heart-fliaped at the bafc. Bunch of

flowers ovate."— Found in the ifland of Trinidad Leaves

generally fmooth, fomeliraes rather villofe beneath.

I S I

rSETSK, in Geography, a town of RuJTia, in thegovertr-
ment of Tobollk, on the Ifet, which runs into the Tobol,
near Yalutorovfli ; 44 miles W.S.W. of Yalutorovfl<.

ISGAARD, a town of Denmark, in North Jutland,
fituated on a pcninfula in the Baltic ; feven miles E N.E. of
Aarhuus.

ISGAUR, Isf;URIAli, or IJkur'ia, anciently called " Di-
ofcurias," and " Sebaftopolis," a town of Mingrelia, on the
E. coaft of the Black fea, with a road for (hips, which in
fummer is tolerably good. In 1672 it was burned dov.n by
the Abhkas, who were invited by the prince of Mingn-lia to
alfiil him againll the Turks, N. lat. 43' iS'. li. long.

ISHMAELITES, in Anchnt Geography iniHi/fory, the
defcendants of Idimael, the fon of Abraham by Ilagar, hiiJ
Egyptian bond-maid. Ilhmael was born in the year B C-
1910, and his name, founded on a circr.milance whicli afTordid
relief to his mother, when (he was wandering from her maf-
ter's houfe towards Egypt, her native country, is derived
from the Hebrew "^J^y^fi?', formed of ];^'y,Jr:he:mah, to
hear, and ^^, el, GocT, and denoting " the Lord hath
hearkened !" The heavenly mcflVnger who appeared to
Hagar in the wildcrnefs, and inflructed her by what nam.e
to call her future fon, predi.'tcd alio that he and his pofterity
would prove fierce and w.irlike, engaged in repeated holli-
litics, and yet able to maintain their independence. Hagar,
deriving encouragement from this circumllance, returned to
the houfe of Abraham, and was foon delivered of lier pro-
mifed fon. The father regarded Ifhmael as the heir of his
wealth, till Sarnh had the promifc of her fon Ifaac. .Vfter
the birth of Ifaac, Abraham wai perfuaded by his wife to
difmifs Hagar arrJ Ii- ■ .".jh ; and the patriarch p'robably pro-
vided for their : ,: ij:i,e diftant fituation, where
they could not . ■ nutrimony of Ifaac. Hav-
ing wandered f r : . - i!ie wildernefs of Beerflieba,
they proceeded farther t!) the wildernefs of P:!ran, which
bordered on Arabia, and here lihmael arrived at maturity,
a:;d became an expert archer, or a l.unter and warrior. In
procefs of time his mothcr.procured for him a wife out of
Egypt, by v.'hom lie had tv/elve fons, who eventually e'.ta-
biiihed tiieinfelves as the heads of fo many diltinct Arabian
tribes. Accordi::gly the defcendants of Ifnmael are mcU'
tioncd in hiltory, under the general name of Arabians and
lllimaclites. Of Ilhmael's perfonal hillory, wc merely
leani from the facred writings, that he joined with his bro-
ther Ifaac in paying the lalt tribute of refpcct to the rc-
niai! s of tlv.ir father; and that he died, at the age of 137
years (B.C. 1773.) Gen. xxv. 9- iS. His dclcendants,
ac -ording to the fcripture account, fpread themfelves " frortv
Havilah to Siuir, that is before Egypt, as thou goeft into
A'.fyria." From this brief ijatement, we may conjettm-e
hov/ far their territory extended ; fi.T Haviiah, according to
the generality of writers, was lituated near the confluence
of the Tigris and Euphrates, and Shur, on the ifthmu,'?
which feparates Arabia from Egypt, now called the iilh-
mus of S'-'.e/.. From thence we may we'l imagine, that
they fpread themfelves on both fides fo far as to have taken
poliefiion of the greatell part of Arabia ; and, indeed,
Jofephus (Antiq. 1. i c. IJ.) does not fcruple to ftyle
their progenitor the founder of the Arabian nation. See
Arable.

IS I, in Hindoo Mythology, is a r.rvme of the goddefs
Parvati, confort of Siva, in h:s form of IJa ; which fee.

ISIA, \^uu, fealls and faerilices anciently folemnized ia
honour of the goddefs Ifis.

The Ifia were full of the moil abominable impurities ;

and for ttiat rcafon, tbofe who were initiated into them

5 were

I S I

• were obliged trt. take an oath of fecrecy-. They held for
f\'me days fucceflively, but grpw fo fcandaloas, that the fenate
abolilhed them at Rome, under the confiilate of Pifo and
Gabinius. They were re-eftabliflied by Augullus, and the
emperor Commodus hiir.felf affilled at tliem, appearing among
the priei'is of that goddefs with his head Ihaven, and carrying
the Anubis.

ISIAC Table is one of the moft confiderable monu-
ments of antiquity, being a plate of copper or brafs, dif-
covered at Rome, in 1525, and fiippofed by the various
■figures in bas relief upon it, to reprefent the feafts of Ilis,
and other Egyptian deities.

With regard to the hiilory of this monument, we may ob-
ferve, that the copper or brafs ground was overlaid with a
black enamel, artificially intermixed with fmall plates of filver.
When, in the year j J25, the conllable of Bourbon took the
city of Rome, a lockfmith bought it from a foldier, and then
lold it to cardinal Bembo, after whofe death it came ijito
the hands of the duke of Mantua, and was kept in that
•family till it was loil at the taking of that city by the Impe-
riahils in the year i6jo, nor has it been ever heard of fince.
By good fortune it had been engraved in its full proportion,
and with all pofllble exacin'efs, by TEneas Vico of Parma.
This tablet was divided into three horizontal compartments,
in each^of which were different fcenes, containing different
adtions. Thofe compartments are, as it were, different car-
touches, dillinguilhed fometimcs by fingle ftrokes only, but
oftener by a very. large fafcia, which is full of hieroglyphics,
that is, of that myfterious writing, confecrated by the an-
cient Egyptians to the myfteries of religion. The four
fides of the table were ir.clofed with a bordei-, filled up, like
.the ground, with feveral figures of the Egyptian gods, and
■in'ith a great number of hieroglyphics. There have been
various opinions as to the antiquity of this monument :
fome have fuppofed that it was engraved long before the
time when the Egyptians worfliipped the figures of men
and women. Others, among whom is bifliop Warburton,
apprehend, that it was made at Rome, by perfons attached
-to the worfhip of Ifis. Dr. Wiirburton confiders it as one
of the moft modern of the Egyptian monuments, on account
of the great mixture of hieroglyphic charadlers which it
iears.

It has been alfo a queftion, whatever may be thought of
.the antiquity of this tablet, whetiier it only reprefeiits the
myfteries of Ifis, whofe figure, placed in a fort of niche,
occupies the centre; or wkether it contains the principal
points of the Egyptian theology, fince all their gods are
here xeprefented. pignorius, Kirchcr, and Cliifflct, have
.offered their various conjectures concerning the defign and
.5neaning of this monument. The abbe Banier (in his " My-
ithology, &c." vol. i. p. 567.) declares it to be lus opinion,
that it was a votive table, which fome prince, or private
perfon, had confecrated to Ifis, as an acknowledginent for
fome benefit wiuch he believed flie had conferred uponiii;n.
That goddefs occupies the principal place in it, and the de-
iign of varying her attitudes anti fymbols, muft have been
to point out to us, in how many different modes (lie was
jteprefented, as v/ell as the different facrifices tliat were
offered to her. Accordingly, three forts of thefc are there
So be obferved, one of animals, another of plants, .and a
third of libations. Perhaps the perfon who had confecrated
(this table to Ifjs, had offered to her all thefe forts of facri-
lices, either for having been cured of fome fevere difeafe,
*r for having been delivered from fome great danger, to
which he had been expofed by fea ; for that j;oddefs was
.equally invoked in difeafes, and when people were entering
iipoa along voyage; fince the epithets of " Salataris" and

I S I

" Pelagia" were added to her name. Nothing was more
common than the votive tables, confecrated to Ifis. AU
the temples of this goddefs were full of them ; and works
of that fort procured a living to great numbers of painters,
as we learn from Juvenal (Sat. 18.) :

" Et quam votiva tcftantur fano tabella

Plurima, Piftores quis ncfcit ab Ifide pafci."

ISIACI, priefts of the goddefs Ifis. Diofcorides tell*
us, that they bore a branch of fea-wormwood in their lianda
inftead of olive. They fung the praifes of tlie goddefs
twice a day, -j.'a. at the rifing of the fun, when they opened
her temple ; after which they begged alms the reft of the
day, and returning at night, repeated their orifoiis, and ftmt
up the temple.

Such was the life and office of the Ifiaci ; they, never
covered their feet with any thing but the thin bark of the
plant papyrus, which occafioned Prudentius and others Ut
fay they went bare-footed. They wore no garments but
linen, becaufe Ifis was the firft who taught mankind the cul-
ture of this com.niodity. See Diodorus Siculus, and Plu-
tarch's Ifis and Ofiris.

ISIDORE of Pchjliim, in Bw-raphy, a celebrated dif-
ciple of St. John Cbryfoftom, and diftinguiflicd in the Greek
and Roman calendars by the epithet of " Saint," was by
birth an Egyptian ; and flourifhed, as the contemporary v.(
Nonnus, and, according to Cave, about the year 412. As
his name docs not occur after the year 433, he probably died
before the middle of the fifth century. Ke embraced the
monaflic hfe at Pelufium,and acquired, by his aufterities and
indefatigable application to literary ftudies, high reputation
for fanftity, learning, and eloquence, fo that he «as ho-
noured by the Greeks with the appellation of " the famous."'
Facundus fays, that he wrote 2000 cpiftles for tlie edifi-
cation of the church ; and Suidas afcribes to him 3000,
explanatory of the fcriptures. Of thefe there are ftill ex-
tant 261 2, in five books ; of which Moflieim fpeaks in terms
of high com.mendation : faying of them, that though they are
ffiort, they are admirably written, botli with refpeft to the
folidity of the matter, and the purity and elegance of their
ftyle. He adds, that they manifeft more piety, genius,
erudition, and wifdom, thas are to be found in the volu-
minous produttions of many other writers, and that they
call a confiderable -degree of light upon feveral parts of
fcripture. Dr. Lardner, citing a differtadon of Dr. Heu-
mann on Ifidore of Pelufium (apud Primitias Gottingenfes,
Hanover, 175S, 4to. ), informs us, that this learned writer
argues, that moft of IliJorc's letters are fiftitious, and not ■
a real correfpondence ; and, fays Lardner, he feems to have
proved what he advances. Ifidore has largely quoted all,
or moft of the canonical books of the Old Teilament ; but
he very feldom quotes any apocryphal books He alfo
often cites the four gofpch, the aSs of the apoftlcs, and all
St. Paul's epiftles, except that to Philemon. He likewife
quotes and explains paifages of the epiftle of James, tlie
firft and fecond epiftle of Peter, and the firft epiftle of John.
He explains the 8th verfe of the fecond epilile of John, and
there is no reafon to doubt his having received the other. He
explains a pafi'age of the epiftie of Jude ; and ules fevcrai
expreffions that feem to have been taken from the bfiok of
Revelation : fo that, upon the whole, his canon of fcripture
was the fame as -our's. Ifidore had a great refpeoi for the
fcriptures, and often recommends the peruiai of them.
The bell edition of his- works' was pnbliftied at Paris, m
Greek and Latin, 1638, folio. Cave. Dupin. Moiheim.
Lardner.

IsicouE of Seville, was an .eminent fciftiop of this city in

Spain

I S I

fjpain for ,|0 years, from the year ygy or 5:96 to 636.
He was tlie fon of Severianus. ijovcrnor of Carlliagena, and
brotlior of Leander, bilTiop of Seville, who had the care of
his education. He prefided at a council held in Seville in
619, and at anoth r i'l Toledo in 6_;5 ; in which meafures
were adopted that ferved to reform the lax Hate of eccle-
fialUcal ckfcipline and manners in Spain. He was a volu-
minous writer, and his works arc enumerated by Dupin and
Lardner; and the bed ediiion of them was publifhed at
P.iris, in i6oi, by father James du Brenil, a Benediftine
monk, in folio. As a writer, he is characterized more by
learning and pedantry, than by judgment, taile, or accu-
racy. . Mofheim reckons him among thofe autliors, who
gave rife, by their coUcftions, to that fpecits of divinity,
which was afterwards. diltinguifiied by the L-itins under the
denomination of " pofitive "theology " Dupin, though he
reprefents him as a prodigy of learninsr, and an oracle, ad-
mits that he wanted genius, and a diferiminating judgment ;
and that his opinions are often falle, and his remarks trivial,
and frequently erroneous ; and that his llyle is rather per-
fpicuous than eloquent or poli!hed. Ifidore received all the
fame books of the New Tertam.nt which we receive ; and
he fpeaks of them with great refpett, ftating that they con-
tain the precepts of life and the rule of faith, and ihn they
may be profitably read by all forts of men. This Ifidore is
fometimes called " the younger," to dilliug'iifh him from
Ifidore, biihop of Cordova, in the fift^ century, who wrote
" Commentaries on the two Books of Kings," wHch he
dedicated to Paul Orofius, the difciple of St. Auguftine.
Cave. Moflieim. Dupin. Lardner.

Ifidore was a man of great and extenfive learning, but
particularly, it is faid, in geometry, mufic, and aftrology,
which, in the time of Ifidore, was another name for aftro-
nomy.

Hfs book on the holy offices contains the principal points
of difcipline and ecclefiaftical polity. He is frequently
ranked among miifical writers. In his treaiife on the divine
offices, much curious information occurs concerning canto
fermo, and mufic in general ; but particularly its introduc-
tion into the church, the inftitution of the four tones by St.
Ambrofe, and the extenfion of that number to eight by St.
Gregory. In treating of fecular mufic, he has a lliort
chapter on each of the following fubjecls : of mufic, and its
name: of its invention: its definition: of its three con'H-
tuent parts, harmonics, rhythm, and metre: of mufical
numbers: of the three-fold divifions of mufic ; id. Of the
harmonical divifion of mufic ; zdly, Of the organic or iii-
ilrumental divifion ; jdly. Of the rhythmical divifioi.

Thefe chapters are very fliort, and contain little more
than conipreffed definitions of mufical terms. In enumerat-
ing the feven liberal arts, cap. ii. he ranks them in the fol-
lowing manner : grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, mu-
fic, geometry,. aibronor?.y, Ifidore died in the year 636,
and 15 enrolled among the faints of the Roinift calendar.

Isij«>i!E, Meucato:!, or Peccatok, the narr,e given to
the author of a colledion of c:".;ions, which for fome time
were attrib'ited to Ifidore of Seville, is fuppofed to have
fliNirifhed towards the clofe of the eighth century. ThJs
collection contains the pretended decretals of more than fixty
popes, which are followed by the canons of the councils
which were held in G-eece, Africa, France, and Spaiji.
They are generally confidered as fpurious, of which there is
abun<!ant uiternal evidence, arifing from the llyle, the in-
corrtdncfs of their dates, and- from many hillorical, geo-
graphical, and chronological errors. They were invented
for the purpofe of ftrengiheiiing. the already overgrown
power of the church, and to- enfiorce tjie belief that iLe

I S I

biihop of Rome was conftitu'ed and appointed by Jefns
Ciiriil as fupreme legislator and judge of the cliurcii uni-
verfid ; and that, therefore, the bilhops dcri\ed all their
authority from the Ro . an pontiff, ror could the councils
determine any thing without his permifilon and confent.
Tluuigh the forgery was manifeil to every thinking perfon,
yet with the great mafs of the people it produced the in-
tended effed," and contributed to enrich and aggrandize the
Roman pontiffs, and exalt them above all human authority
and jurlfdidion. Moreri. Mofheim.

I-iDOHE of Charax, a Greek author, in the time of
Ptolemy Lagus, about three centuries before the Chrillian
era, compofed feveral hillorical works, and a defcription of
Parthia, which has been pubiiilied by Hefchelius, and like-
wife at Oxford, among the col eciion of the lefler geo-
graphers. It is entitled " Manfiono? Parthici' "

ISIDORO, St., iu Geography, a town of Ca'ifornia ;
30 miles N.N.W. of I.oreto.

ISIGNY, a town of France, in the department of Cal-
vados, and chief place of a canton, in the diilrift of B.iyeux ;
29 miles W.N W. of Caen. The place contains 18^9, and
the canton 13, 651 inhabitants, on a territory of 24.0 kilio-
metres, in 29 communes. N lat. 49 19. VV. long. I . —
Alfo, a town of France, in the dejiartment of the Channel,
and thief place of a canton, in the diflrict of Mortain ;
9 miles W. of Mortain. The place c(mtains 358, and the
canton 5708 inhabitants, on a territory of yj kiliomelrea,
in I I co.nnmnes.

ISIKOVA, a town of Japan, iu the ifland of Niphoni
20 miles SS W. of Kanazava.

ISIM.-^, a town of France, in the department of the
Dora ; 19 miles E. of Aoihi.

ISIME, a town of Thibet ; 25 miles E. of Harachar.
ISINDI, in yliKient Geography, an cpifcopal town of
Afia, in the fecoiid Pamphylia.

ISINDUS, or IsiNDA, a town of Afia, in Ionia.
ISINGLASS, a name given to Mufcovy talc, and to
Ichthyocolla ; which fee. See alfo Glue.

Lsi s c;la.s.s Fi/h, in Ichthyology. See Ac ipexser and Huso.

ISIS, in j^ncient Geography, Tchorok, a river of Afia, in

the Colchide, which, according to Arrian, was oavigable ;

and he places it between the mouth of the Acinafis and that

of Mogra, about 90 (ladja from the one and the other.

IsLS, in Grography, a name frequently given to the river
Thames, before it joins the Thame at Dorchefter; but this
river is only a branch of the Tlian-cs, which rifts near Min-
chinhampton in Glouceilerfiiire, and joins the main ilieam
near Leehlade.

I.-i.s, in Mythology, a goddefs of the ancient Egyptians,
worfhipped by llum and many other nations.

Ifis, according to fome, is fynonymous with ■jrxX^iy,
ancient or aged, an expreffion which, in the Egyptian
theology, was appropriated to the moon, on .iccount of her
eternal birth. According to others, and particii'arly Jah-
lonfki, (Pantheon Egyptiacum, vo'.ii.) Ifis, in the Egyp-
tian language, lignificd " the caufe of abundance:' and it
was applied by the Egyptian priells to the ntoon, bicaufe
they fuppofed, in confequence of attention to the phenotr.tna
of nature, that the moon has a direft influence on the at-
mofphere, the winds, and the raiws ; and therefore they
regarded it, like the fun (which they called Ofiris), as one
of the fources of the iiiundalion of the Nile. Hence 1 hey
were led to charaftcri-ze this beneficial effect, by deuomiiiat-
iiig the caufe of it Ifis. This is faid to have happened 320
y«ars after the exodus of the I Iraehlcs ; at wiiieh period
they bellowed furnames on the fun and moon, proper to fi)»
iheir difcoverit;s> aud profented the people with a iicw theo.

logy.

ISIS.

lofry. According to Herodotus and all the ancients, Ofiris
and Ifis wore the two great divinities of tlic Egyptians, and
the moft generally worftiipped in the whole coufitry ; and,
indeed, almoll the whole mythology of tliofe ancient people
is comprehended under what theii^priells fabled about the:r.
The Greek and Latin authors extend flill fartlicr this
Egyptian mytholoiry concerning Ifis and Oiiris, fince, ac-
cording to them, they comprehended all nature, and all the
gods of that ancient people. According to Herodotus, the
Egyptians took Ifis for Ceres, and believed that Apollo
and Diana were her children, and that Latona had only
been their nurfe ; differing from the Greeks, who regarded
her as their mother,. According to the fame author, Apollo
and Orus, Diana and Eubaflis, Ceres and Ifis, are the
fame ; and hence it is, he fays, that iEfchylus makes Diana
the daughter of Ceres. Moreover, the mythologills afiert,
that Ifis and Ofiris included, under different names, all the
gods of paganifm ; fince, according to them, Ifis is Terra,
Ceres, Juno, the Moon, Minerva, Cybele, Venvis, Diana,
and, in one word, all nature : and hence, as they pretend,
this goddefs was called Myrionyma, that is, who has a thou-
fand names. Ofiris alfo, in their opinion, is Bacchus or
Dionyfius, the Sun, Scrapis, Pluto, Ammon, Pan, Apis,
Adonis, &c. It IS difficult to afcertain the real origi.i of
Ifis amidft thefe mythological fabler. Some have pretended
that the fable of Ifis came originally from Greece ; and they
have confounded that goddefs with lo, the daughter of
Inachus, king of Argos. The fable of lo is recited by
Ovid in his " Metamorphofis," (1. 38.) and this fable has
been differently underftood and explained by various authors.
It is allowed that there was in Greece a princefs named lo,
the daughter of Inachus, or, as Paufanias fays, of Jafus ;
and the Greeks took occafion to confound Ifis and lo, in
confequence of the introduftion of the worfhip of Ifis into
Greece, efpecially into the city of Argos. Inachus taught
the Greeks to pay honour to Ifis, and hence they looked
upon her as his daughter. Jab!on(ki fays, that the Egyp-
tians, from remote antiquity; worfhipped the moon, under
her proper name of •' loh," which, in the Egyptian lan-
guage, fignifies the moon ; and that Inachus, the firft king
of Argos, carried this worfliip into Greece, nearly 300
years before the birth of Mofes It is there, fays Euita-
thius, that a cow is the fymbol of lo, or the moon ; for in
the Argian language, the moon is called lo. The Grecian
fable, on the ether hand, makes lo crofs the fea from
Greece, metamorphofed into a cow, and condudls her into
Egypt, where flie receives the name of Ifis Accordingly,
Lucian, well verfed in ancient mythology, puts thefe words
into tiie mouth of Jupiter, " Conduct lo to the barks of
the Nile, acrofs the waves of the fea. Let her become Ifis :
let her be the goddefs of the Egyptians ; let her augment
the waters of the river, and let loofe the winds." As the
Nile began to incrcafe at the new moon which follows the
folftice, the Egyptian priells, who regarded this planet as
the mother of the winds, decreed to her the honour of this
phenomenon. " Ifis," fays Servius, (Obf. on the j5ineid.
1. 8.) " is the genius of the Nile. The fiflrum (hx; bears in
lier hand indicates the increafe and the flowing of the waters ;
the vafe (lie holds in her left marks their abundance in all the
canals." Temples were erefted to her in the different pro-
vinces, and Ihe had altars and facrifices tliroughout the whole
country. " Coptos,'' fays Eullathius, " is a city of the
Thebais, where lo is adored under the name of Ifis. It is
an her feltivals that they celebrate with the fiilrum the in-
creafe of the Nile." The people, from the allegorical lan-
guage of the priells, imagined that they owed tliis bounty
U) the tears of that divinity. TIio Egyptians, according to

Paufanias, were perfuaded that the tears of Ifis had the
virtue to augment the Nile, and to make it rife up into the
country. Savary, in his " Letters on Egypt," fays, that
the Copts are not yet cured of this fuperitition.

Notwithftanding the fabulous pretenfions of the Greeks
with regard to the origin of Ifis, and their attempts to iden-
tify her with their lo, the Egyptians, according io Dio-
dorus Siculus (1. i.) and Plutarch De If. et Ofir.) affert that
this princefs was born in their country ; that Ihe married
Ofiris, that they lived together in perfect harmony, and that
they concurred in their endeavours to polifii and civilize their
fubjefts, to teach them agriculture, and feveral other necef-
fary arts of life. Diodorus adds, that Ofiris, determining on
an expedition lo India for purpof s of civilization, fettled
Ifis regent nf his kingdom. (See B.iccnus.) On his »e».
turn to Egypt he found that his brother Typhon had formed
a party againil the government. Typhor., however, refilled
the gentle means ufed by Ofiris for fubduing his ambitious
fpirit, and, under a pretence of hofpitality, confined hi.;i in a
cheft exquifitely wrought, and threw it into the Nile. When
Ifis heard of her hufaand's tragical end, fhe made diligent
fearch for the corpfe, and liaving found it in Phoenicia, was
allured by the king of Byblos to carry it off to Egypt.
Having kmented over it, (he at length caufed it be inferred
at Abydos, a town fituated to the well of the Nile. In
the mean time Typhon was contrivirg to fecure ):is new em-
pire, but Ifis, being recovered from her diftrcls, co lefted
her troops, and placed them under the cendu*t of Orus, her
fon, who purfued the tyrant, and vanquifned him in two
pitched battles. (See Typhon) Ifis having died fome time
after her fou's vitlory over Typhon, the Egyptians paid
adoration to her witii her hufband Ofiris, as to divinities; and
bccaufe they had applied themfelves, during their reign, to
teach agriculture, the ox a;id the cow became their fymbols.
Fellivals were inliituted to their honour, in which feveral
infamous rites were afterwards introduced. There the infa-
mous image of the Phallus which Ifis had confecrated, was
carried m proceiTion, aiid it became the fymbol of fruit-
fulnefs, though in its original inftitution it had only been the
mark of Ifii's pafiion for Ofiris her hufband. Diodorus Si-
culus has recorded the following infcription on an ancient
monument, by which Ifis was charaCicrized. "I, Ifis, am
the queen of this country. And I had Mercury for my
prime miniller. None had power to hinder the execution
of my orders. I am the eldell daughter of Saturn, the
youngell of the gods. I am the filler and the wife of king
Ofiris. I am the mother of king Orus. I am fhe whore-
fides in the dog-ftar. The city of Bubailis was built in
honour to me. Rejoice, O EgyjJt, thou that haft been to
me inllead of a nurfe, and mother." The following infcrip-
tion, according to Plutitrih (De If. et Ofir.) was engraved
upon the pavement of Minerva's temple. " I am all that
has bee::, that is, and that Ihall be, and none among mortals
has hitherto taken off my veil."

The Egyptains, having called the moon Ifis, or the caufe
of abundance, applied this epithet to the earth, us the mo-
ther of f.-uits. We know, fays Macrobius (Saturn. 1. i.),that
Ofiris is the fun, and Ifis the earth. Ifis, in the Egyptian
language, adds Servius, means the earth. In this point of
view, (he has a llriking affinity to the Ceres of the Greeks ;
and this agrees with the account given of her by Herodotus
(1. ii.). Plutarch informs us, that the priefts honoured only
with tlie name of Ifis that part of Egypt which was wa-
tered by the Nile, and in ailulion only to her fecundity : he
adds, that, in the facred language, they termed the inun-
dation, the marriage of Ofiris with Ifis.

Ifis is reported by Diodorus Siculus to have invented many

exccOeiil

I 3 I

eSdclUnt medicines : and hence, fays he, after (he was re-
ceived among the number of the deities, (he was applied to
for the cure of di tempers ; and frequently indicated reme-
dies by dreams. Galen takes notice of fome plaftcrs which
bear her name. Banier's Mythology, vol. i. Savary's
Letters on Egypt, vol. li. See Blbastis, Orus, Osikis,
and SoTiiis.

Isis, in Zoology, a genus of Zoophytes of a ramofc or
plant-hke form, the ftfm and branches of which are com-
pofed of ftony articulations, longitudinally ftriated, vmited
by fpongy or horny junctures, and covered, when living or
in a recent (late, by a foft porous cellular flcfn or bark ; and
t!ie mouths befi-t with oviparous polypes. The fpecics of
this family are entirely of the marine kind, and ir.oiUy inha-
bitants of the Indian, feas.

Species.

HiPPLUls. Joints white with black junftures. IJis hip-

?iris, Linn. ScTtularia ramofjfwni, &c. Hort. ClifTort. I/is,
alias, Ellis, &;c. Hippwis fa.wa, Cluiius. Jccetarium
album, Rumpf. Lithophylon, &c. Gualt.

A native of the Indian feas, where it is found growing to
rocks, and is from fix inch.es to two or three feet in height.
The flefli, when recent, is bright orange or red, the bone or
ftony part, as in the dried ftate, whitifh. A variety is de-
fcribed by Efper under the nnme of Ifis elongata.

DiCHOTOM.^. Stem cornlline, with fm.ooth joints and de-
corticated junctures. Gmel. IJis artlculala JUiformis, &c.
Pallas, hippurls coralkides carnca capcrjis, Petiver.

This fpecies is fomewhat flexible, about fix inches in height,
with flefh-coloured joints, and 3e(h of a cinnabar colour, befet
with convex papillx. It inhabits the feas of India and
Ethiopia.

OcHRACEA. Stem coralline, with decorticated joints and
knotty junftures. Gmel. Litho.rylon, &c. Hort. Chffort.
IJis articulala pan'iculalo-dkhotoma ramofjftma e.vplanala, cor-
tice h'm^ papillofo, Pa'.las. Ifts, S:c. Soland. CoralUum rii-
brum inJicum, Ellis Phil. Tranf. ylccabarium rubrum,
Rumpf. Pfeudocorallhim croceum, Ray. Nippiiris fay.ea
fuh'O-rubra condeniana, Morif. Accabaar feu corallodendron
liulgare rubrum, Seba.

Inhabits the feas of the Eaft Indies ; the colour deep-red,
or fometimes white, with the junctures browniih-yellow; the
ftem irregularly grooved, the branches numerous, dichoto-
mous and f pread, the joints connedted by yellow fpongy
knobs ; flefh yellow, with numerous ftellate'd mouths, the
habitations of polypes, each of which is furniflied with eight
claws-.

Ektroch.\. Stem teftaceous, round, with orbicular per-
forated joints and verticillated dichotomous branches. Gmel.

Stem about three quarters of an inch in thicknefs, with
crowded flat orbicular joints, perforated in the centre, the
perforations pentangular, with the difl< fomewhat flriatcd from
the centre, the outer bark unequal and furrounded with a
row of tubercles : branches thin, dichotomous, continued
«nd not join.ed. Inhabits the ocean.

AsTERlA. Stem teftaceous, jointed, pentagonal ; the
branches verticillated with a terminal dichotomous ftar.
Gmel. Encrinus cap'ite JlcUato ramofo dickolomo pcntagono
equifet'iforml, Ellis Phil. Tranf. Palma marina e Marlinica,
Guettard Act. Parif.

Found in the feas about the ifland of Barbadoes. Neither
this nor the fpecies preceding, though retained under the
genus Ifis, upon the authority of Gmehn, can with propri-
ety be confidered as appertaining to that genus, or perhaps
to any (^ther, at prefcnt eilabiifhed among naturalills. They
unqueftionably belong to a race of creatures whofe manners,

Vol. XIX.

r s L

and even (!ru£ture, are not at this time vcrv clearly under*
flood.

CocctNEA. Stem jointed, (lender, very red, and fome-
what ftriated ; joints united by fhort yellowifti fpongy junc-
tures ; fledi on the outfide covered with fmall fcarle. pro-
minent cells, each furnilhed with a mouth. Solander.

A diminutive kind of coral, with irrtgu arly fpreading
branches, and which rarely exceeds die height ot two or
three inches. It is a native of the Indian ocean, and is fome-
times found entirely white.

ISIT, in Geography, a town of Rufiia, in the government
of Irkutflc, on the Lena. N. la'. 6i'. E. long. 123' yo.

ISKA, a name given by the ancients to a light Kind of
agaric, gro^nng to the old flumps of the oak, hazel, and
other trees. Tliis being a very light kind of fuel, was ufed
by the ancients m the manner of a caatrry, as we have
learned from the Indians to ufe moxa, or the down of mug-
wort leaves.

ISK.A.RSKOIGOROD, in Gcography,%\.ov!Ti of Ruf-
fia, in the government of Tobol.li. N. lat. 60 5'. E. long.
59' 14'-

ISKASKAMAGTI, a lake of Canada ; 84 miles N.W.
of Quebec. N. lat. 47 jo'. W. long. 72° 25'.

IS KIM, a river of Perfia, which runs into the Arabian
fca, N. lat. 35° 4,'. E. long 57" 9'.

ISKOLDZ, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Novogrodek ; 30 miles S. E.of N^vogrodek.

ISKOROSE, a town of Poland, in Voihynia ; 48 mile*
N. of Zytomiers.

ISLA, Joseph Francis de, in Biography, a Spanifh
Jefuit of Madrid, who, after the deftruclion of his order,
retired to Italy, and died at Bologna in 1781. He was
author of a fatireon the ignorance and vicds of the monks,
entitled '« Hiftoria del Fra. Gerundio de Compazas alias
Zotes," which the fupreme council of Caftile was obliged to
fupprefs. It has been tranflated into Englifh and German,
and it is faid that fince the time of Cervantt-s, no Spaniili
writer has difplayed fo much wit and humour. Gen.

IsLA, in Geography, a river of Scotland, which rifes
in the (hire of Angus, and runs into the Tay, 10 miles N.
of Perth.

IsLA. See Ila.

ISLAM. See Maho.metaks.

ISLAMABAD, a town of Bengal, and capital of the
province of Chittigong, fituated on the river Cliittigong, or
Cnrrumpelly, about 12 miles from the bay of Bengal. N.
lat. 22^20'. E. long. 91' 4j'. — Alfo, a fmall province of
Bengal, between Goragot and Patladah.

ISLAMNAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Bopal ; 10 miles N.N.E. of BopJtol.

ISLAMPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Nagore; 36 miles N.E. of Didwana. — Alfo, a town of
Hindooilan, ui Bahar ; 28 miles S. of Patna. N. lat. 25^
8'. E. long. 85- 43'. —Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in \i-
fiapour ; 15 miles S.W. of Currer. — Alfo, a town of
Hindoollan, in the circar of Jyenagur ; 70 miles N.N.W.
of Jyepour.

ISLAMTI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania;
30 miles S.S.E. of Kaifarieh.

ISLAND, or Isr.i:, a tradt of dry land encorcpaficd
with water ; either with the fea, a river, or lake. In which
fenfe ifland ftands contradiflinguiftied from continent, or
terra firma.

Some conclude that illands are as ancient as the world,

and it is by no means probable, that the large iflands far

remote from the eontin'^jt are new, or that they either arofe

t P out

1 S L

cut of the fea, or were torn from the main land. Nor is it
lefs certain, that there have been new iflands formed by the
calling up of vaft heaps of clay, mud, fand, S:c as that, for
. iullance, of Tfongming, in the province of Nanquin, in
. Chiua : or by tho\iolence of the fea, which has torn off
large jjromontories from the continent, as the ancients mia-
gined Sicily, and even Great Britain, to have been formed.
,It is alfo certain, that fome have emerged above the waves,
as Santorini formerly, and three other ifies near it in later
times; thelall in 1707, which rofc from the bottom of the
fea, after an earthquake, that was fuppofed to have loofened
it from its hold.

Several naturaljfts arc of opinion, that iflands were formed
at the deluge : others think they have been rent and fepa-
rated from the contincnbby violent ilorms, inundations, and
earthquakes. Thefe laft have obferved that the Eaft In-
.dies, which abound in iflands more than any other part of the
world, are likewife more annoj^ed with earthquakes, tem-
pefts, hghtnings, volcanos, &c. than any other part.

Varenius thinks moll of thefe opinions true in fome in-
'ftances, and beheves that there have been iflands produced
each of thefe ways. St. Helena, Afcenfion, and other
fleep rocky iflands, he fuppofes to have become fo, by the
feas overflowing the neighbouring champaigns. By the
heaping up huge quantities of fand, and other terrefl;rial mat-
ters, he thinks the iflands of Zealand, Japa.i, &c. were form-
ed": Sumatra and Ceylon, and moll of the Eatt Indian
iflands, he rather thinks, were rent off from the main land ;
and concludes, that the iflands of the Archipelago were
formed in the fame way ; imagining it probable, that Deu-
calion's flood might contribute towards it. Many iflands in
the South fea are formed by banks of coral, the produftion
of infefls. For an account of thefe by Alexander Dalrym-
■ple, efq. fee the PhilofophicalTranfaaions, vol. Ivii. p. 394.

The ancients had a notion, that Delos and fome few other
iflands rofe from the bottom of the fea ; which, how fabu-
lous foever it might appear, agrees very well with fome later
pbfervations. Seneca takes notice, that the ifland of The-
rafia rofe out of the .^gean fea in his time, of which the
mariners were eye-witnefles. Concerning the legal occu-
pancy and property of new iflands, fee Alluvion.

Iflands may be confidered under fix different heads, with
a view to their llruclure or fubterranean geography: i . Such
as confifl. of an unllratified mafs, as of granite, bafalt. Sec.
of which fome fmall rocky iflands appear to confift. 2. Of
mantle-fliaped ftrata, as M. Werner has named thofe that
furround a central hump or mafs, from which they dip in all
direclions : the projection of fuch iflands above the water
being occafioned by an original hump in the ftrata. 3. They
are occafioned by hummocks, or piles of fl;rata, left when
the furrounding ftrata were denudated, or excavated for the
bed of the fea : England feems feparated from France by
this caufe. 4. By lifted trads of ftrata : it will only be
practicable to difl'inguifli this cafe from the laft in iflands
near to others, or to a continent, in which the fame ftrata
are found on the oppofite coafts, by which to obfervc,
.whether the ifland traft has rifen, or the intermediate part
funk which forms the channel of reparation. 5. To volcanic
eruptions in tbe bottom of the fea : fuch are generally of
modern formation compared with the antiquity of the four
preceding claifes, and have, feveral of tliem, appeared within
the periods of hiftory ; and, 6. To gravel fand and filt
thrown up by the waves and tide, and accumulated in height
by the blowing of the fands from the beach, until fmall
iflands ire thus raifed permanently above the level of the
fea ; fome of them without afliftance from man, but the
greater part of the newly formed iflands on the coafts of the

I S L

ocean have -been gained, and are preferved by artifiaijl
banks, from the overflowings of the high tides. In large
iflands, like England, great varieties of thefe cafes will doubt-
lefs be found to obtain in their ftruclure : the eaftern fides of
the greater part of the iflands are, perhaps, the flatteft, and
the wellern fide5 the moft abrupt, owing to the ftrata dipping
towards the eaft, but it is by no means true, that the wellern
fides of iflands and continents are always the moft abrupt,
fince often, the ftrata dip to the weft, as they do and pafs
under the fea, in the coal works at Whitehaven and Wor-
kington in Cumberland.

Islands, Floating. Hiftories are full of accounts of
fioating-iflands ; but moft of them are either falfe or
founded on exaggerations. What we generally fee of
this kind is no more than the concretion of the lighter
and more vifcous matter floating on*'%he furface of water
in cakes, and with the roots of plants, forming conge-
ries of different fizes, which not being fixed to the fliore
in any part, are blown about by the winds, and float on the
furface. Thefe are generally found in lakes, where they
are confined from being carried too far ; and from being
broken by the agitation of the water. And in procefs of
time fome of theuT acquire a very confiderable fize. Se-
neca tells us of many of thefe floating iflands in Italy ; and
fome later writers have defcribed not a few of them in other
places. But however true the hiftories of thefe might
have been at the tim.e when they were written, there remain
very few proofs of their truth at this time, thefe iflands
having either difappeared again, or having been fixed to
the fides, in fome part, in fuch a manner as to liave made a
part of the (hore. Pliny tells us of a great ifland, which at
one time fwam about in the lake Cutilia, in the country of
Reatinum, which was difcovcred to the old Romans by an
oracle : and Pomponius tells us, that in Lydia there were
feveral iflands fo loofe in their foundations, that every little
accident fliook and removed them. Herodotus fpeaks alfo
very largely of the lake Chemnis in iEgypt. See Ab-
sorptions of the Earth.

Islands, Fortunate. See Fortunate.

Islands, Volcanic. See Volcano.

Gryphiander has written a Latin treatife exprefsly on
iflands, " De Infula."

Island Bay, a bay on the E. coaft of the ifland of
Paraguay. N. lat. 6 15.' E. long. 118' 83'.

Islands, Bay of. See Bay.

Islands, Bayona. See B.^^yona Iflands.

Island Magce, a peninfula on the eaft coaft of the
county of Antrim, Ireland, forming one fide of the lough,
or harbour of Lame.

Island, or Iceland Cryjlal. See Crststal.

IsLAyB-Fi/h, in the Ftfh-trade, a name given to the com-
mon cod-fifti, when it has been caught and preferved in
Iceland.

ISL AS EsTOLAS, in Geography, a clufter of fmall iflands
in the Atlantic, neai- the coaft of Spain, N. lat. 42° 13'.
W. long. 8' ^i'.

IsLAs Medas, three fmall iflands in the Mediterranean,
near the coaft bf Spain. N. lat. 42 ' 3'. E. long. 3" 4'.

IsLAS Ofas, rocky iflets in the Atlantic, near the coaft
of Spain. N. lat. 42° 17'. W. long. 8' 56'.

IsLAS de Sifarga, a clufter of fmall iflands in the Atlantic,
near the coaft of Spain. N. lat. 43- 23'. W. long. 8' 50'.

ISLE, L', a town of France, in the department of the
Tarn, and chief place of a canton, in the diitridt of Gaillac;
five miles S.W. of Gaillac. The place contains 5402, and
the canton 6715 inhabitants, on a territory of 827; kihomc-
tres, in 5 communej.— Alfo, a town of France, m the de-
partment

I S L

partmsnt of Vauclufe, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftriciof Avignon. The place contains 5155, and the can-
ton 11,099 inhabitants, on a territory of 173 1 kihometres,

IsLE-JJam, L', a town of France, in the department
of the Seine and Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftria of Pontoife, 6 miles N.N.E. of Pontoife. The place
contains 13S1, and the canton 1 1,965 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 147.1 kiliometres, in 23 communes.

Isle- SoitchardfL', a town of Franco, in the department
of the Indre and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftritt of Chinon, furrounded by the Vienne ; 9 miles
E.S.E. of Chinon. The place contains 1000, and the can-
ton 10,437 inhabitants, on a territory of 240 kiliometres, in
20 communes.

Isl.t.-BouJou'm, L', or IJle-Bouen, a town of France, in
the department of the Vendee, fitnated on an iflaud of the
fame name, about 5 miles long, on the coaft ; 9 miles N. W.
of Challons.

I.sLE of Cerf, a fmall ifland in the En^Ufh channel, near
the coall of France. N. lat. 48- 53'. W. long. 3° 25'.

IsLE-Difit, L', a town of France, in the department of
the Vendee, and cliief place of a canton, in the diftricl of
Les Sables d'Oionne. The placi; contains 1049, and the
canton 2053 inhabitants, on a territory of 65 kiliometres, in
2 communes.

IsLE-d'Otif^ant, L', a town of France, in the department
of Finifterre, and chief place of a canton, in the diilrift
of Brefl. The place contains 1 645 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 22 kiliometres, in i commune.

IsLE-en-DoJan, L\ a town of France, in the department
of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftria of St. Gaudens ; 18 miles N.N.E. of St. Gaudens.
The place contains iioo, and the canton 10,832 inhabitants,
on a territory of 2325 kiliometres, in 24 communes.

lfii.E-JourJmn, L', a town of France, in the department
of the Gers, and chief place of a canton, in the dillria of
Lombes, fituated on the Save; 7 miles E. of Auch. The
place contains 4686, and the canton 1 1,634 inhabitants, on
a territory of 2625 kihometres, in 23 communes. N. lat. 43^
37'. E. long. I' 10'. — Alfo, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftria of Montmorillon, 24 miles S.E. of Poitiers,
The place contains 448, and the canton 7 J53 inhabitants, on
a territory of 37 j kiliometres, in 1 1 communes. N. lat. 46'
ic'. E.lo

ment of the Doubs, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-

iig. o i^ . ^

l^h'E-fur-k-Doubs, L' , a town of France, in the depart-
oftt " . - ..-

triaof Baume; 11 miles N.E. of Baume. The place
tains 685, and the canton 7048 inhabitants, on a territory
of 167^ kiliometres, in 24 communes.

I'iLE-/ur-/e-Serrein, L', a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Yonne, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tria of Avallon. The place contains 47S, and the canton
8766 inhabitants, on a territory of 250 kihometres, in 23
communes.

I.SLE Jei Mollis, an i3and of France, in lake Morbihan,
with a tower ; j miles S.S.W. of Vanncs.

Isle Grande, or La Rochs, an ifland in the South Pacific
ocean, feen by Anthony de la Roche, in 1675. S. lat.

45"-

Isle Royale, an ifland on the N.W. fide of lake Supe-
rior, within the territory of the United States, N.W. of the
Ohio ; about 100 miles long, juid, in many places, about 40
broad. The natives fuppofe that this and the other iflands
on the lake are the refidencc of the Great Spirit.

I S L

Isle Plate, a fmall ifland in the Englifh channe', near
the coaft of France. N. lat. 48' ,3'. W. long. 3' 24'.

Isle of Dogs Canal, is the name of a very wide and
deep canal for the paiiage of ihips acrofs the ifthmus called
the Hie of Dogs, in the river Thames, below London, of
which an account has been given under the head of that
river, in our article Canal, and a plan of tlie fame will be
found in our plate of Docks.

LsLE of Wight, an infulated traa of land, fituated in the
Englifti channel, near the coaft of Kampfhire, from which
it is not more than three miles diftant at the neareft point,
and to which county it belongs in all political and civil mat-
ters. The form of the ifiand is that of an irregular lozenge ;
meafuring from the caftcrn to the wcllcrn angle nearly
twenty-tliree miles ; and about thirteen from the northern to
the fouthem point : its fuperficics is computed at 105,000
acres. I'hrough the middle, in the Icngeft direftion, ex-
tends a range of hills, affording excellent pafture for flieep,
and commanding views over every part of the iile, with the
ocean on the fouth fide, and the coalts of Hampfhire o;i the
north. The face of the country is much diveriified ; hill
and dale, the fwelling promontory and the lowly glen, ap-
pear in quick fuccafhon to animate, and give intereft to the
profpeas. The land round the coaft is, in fome parts, very
high, particularly on the fouth, or back of the ifland, as it
is commonly termed ; here the cliffs are very ftecp, and vaft
fragments of roek, undermined by the waves, lie fcattered
along the (hore : on the northern (ide, the ground Hopes to
the water in eafy declivities, excepting towards the Needles,
or weftern point, where the rocks are bare, broken, and
precipitous. The height of the cliffs, of wliich the Needle*
form the extreme point, is, in fome places, fix hundred feet
above the level of the fea, and when viewed fi-om the diftance
of about a quarter of a mile, have a grand and aJmoft fublime
and ftupendous effea. Thefe cliffs are frequented by immenfe
numbers of marine birds ; as puffins, razor-bills, willcocks,
gulls, cormorants, cornifli-choughs, daws, ftarlings, and
wild pigeons ; fome of which come, at ftated times, to lay
their eggs and breed ; while others remain there all the year.
The clifFi are in fome places perpendicular ; in others, tliey
projea and hang over, in a tremendous manner : the feveral
ftrata form many Ihelres ; which ferve as lodgments for the
birds, where they fit in thick rows, and difcover themfelves
by their motions and flight, though not individually viiible.
Here are many caverns and deep chafms, wliich feem to
enter far into the rocks ; and in fome places, the iiTuing of
fprings forms fmall cafcades of rippling walcr down to the
fea. The country people take the birds that harbour in
thefe rocks, by the perilous experiment of defcending by
ropes, which are fixed to iron crows, driven into the ground :
thus fufpended, they with fticks beat down the birds as they
fly out of their holes. A dozen birds generally yield one
pound weight of foft feathers, for which the merchants give
eight pence ; the carcafes are bought by the fifliermen at
fixpence per dozen, for tlie purpofe of baiting their crab-
pots. The rocks, called the Needles, derived their npme
from a lofty pointed one, refenibhng a needle in fhape,
which had been disjointed, with others, from the main land,
by the force of the waves : this was 1 30 feet above the low
water mark ; but about forty years ago, ilsbafe having been
excavated by the fea, it fell, and totally difappeared.

All the higher parts of the iflaud are compofed of an im-
menfe mafs of calcareous matter, of a chalky nature, in-
cumbent on fchiftus, which runs under the wliole i.He, and
appears, at low water mark, on the coaft near Mottifton :
this becomes fo indurated by expofure to the air, as to make
very good whctftonei. The lime-ftooe is burnt for manure ;
3 P 2 and

ISLE OF WIGHT.

and in the pits where it is dug for that purpofe, are found
numerous echini, (harks' teeth, and ammonia. Thefe foffils
are particularly abundant in the range of cliffs which forms
the fouthern fhore ; together with bivalve and turbinated
fliells of various defcriptions : the cornua ammonis are of all
fizcs, from one inch to eighteen inches in diameter. A ftra-
tum of coal difcovers itVelf at the foot of Bimbridge cliff,
and runs through the fout])ern part of the ifle, appearing
again at Warden Ledge, in Frefhwater parilh. On the north
fide of this ftratum lies a vein of white fand, and another of
fuUer's-earth ; and on th.e fouth fide is a vein of red ochre.

The foils of the iflai.d are of various kinds ; but the mod
prevailing is a ftrong loamy earth, well adapted for agricul-
tural purpofes, and extremely fertile. Tlie quantity of
grain annually raifed here, is computed to amount to feven or
eight times as much as fufficient for all the inhabitants. The
medium produce of wheat, throughout the ifland, is about
twenty-one bulhels per acre ; of barley and oats about thirty
buihels ; and of beans and peas about tvventy-eiglit bufliels :
potatoes are very produftive, though not greatly in efteem,
and turnips alfo yield a rich increafe. The meadow lands
are. extremely fine, and produce from one to three tons of
hay per acre. The elevated trails are mollly appropriated
to pafturing ftieep ; tlie number annually fiiorn is about
40,oco ; the wool is of the fuiell quality,' and in much re-
pute ; the breed in general ufe is the Dorfetfhire : about
5000 lambs are fold annually.

The climate is extremely falubriaus, and highly favourable
to vegetation : its genial qualities, and near approximation,
in mildnefs, to more fouthern regions, may be ijillanccd by
the profufion of myrtles, and by the flourifhing Hate of a
vine-plantation at Appuldercombe. Tlie central parts of
the i(le are fubjeft to frequent rains ; the high range of hills
proving a co.f.ltant fource of attraction to the vapours, and,
in the winter month.^, involving all beneath them in gloom
and humidity. The general fertility, however, is fo little
affedled, and the vegetation is fo abundant, that this ifland
has often been (lyled the " Garden of England ;" an appel-
lation, perhaps, that is partly fuggefted to the mind by the
innumerable plants and llowers which grow every where in
wild luxuriance ; among them are the ophrys apifera, or bee-
orchis ; the digitalis, or fox-glove ; and the cnthmum mari-
timum, or rock-famphire.

The contiguity of the Portfmouth, and other dock-yards
for (hip-building, has operated to deprive the Ifle of Wight
of much of its timber; and even Tarkhurft, or Carilbrooke
foreft, which includes about 3000 acres of good land, is al-
moll deftitute of trees of any value. The woods of Swain-
fton are of confiderable extent ; and thofe of AVooten and
Quarr cover a fuperticies of nearly 1 100 acres : the oak and
the :r'm are the moll fiouriir.ing trees.

Great variety of iifl; is found on the coaft, and in confi-
derabk abundance : thofe of the cruftaceous kinds are parti-
cularly numerous on the fouthern (hores. The lobiler and
crab are of uncommon fize, and peculiar quality ; fome of
the former are often taken upwards of fix pounds weight ;
the latter fo abundant on a particular part of the coatl, that
a neighbouring village has obtained the name of Crab-Niton
irom thiscircumftance. Cockles are in high eftimation ; the
land-ecl is alfo very plentiful.

The trade of the Ifle of Wight is flourilhing ; the harbour
♦f Cowcs is particularly convenient for fliipping and un-
fliipping mercliandize. The chief imports are coals, tim-
ber, deals, iron, wine, hemp, and fruits : the principal ex-
ports are v..nc-.i. flour, barley, malt, and fait. The chief
manafaftures a:- thofe of (larch, hair-powder, and fait ; and
latterly the nwki.ig of wooUcBf, Tasking, &c, has been

carried to fome extent in the Houfe of Indudry near New-
port.

Several chalybeate fprings have been difcovercd in different
carts of the ifland ; one of them, at B'ack Gang, under
Chale cliff, is very flrong : about half a mile from this, at
Pitland, is a fpring, impregnated with fidphur ; and at
Shankin is a fpring, the waters of which arc flightly tinftured
with alum. Springs of clear water are very numerous, and
in general extremely pure and tranfparent, from the natural
percolation which they undergo through the lime-ftone
itrata.

The principal rivers are the Medina, the Yar, and the
Wooten. The Medina, anciently called the Mede, rifes
near tlie bottom of St. Catherine's Down, and flowing di-
re5',ly north^vnrd, divides the ifland into two nearly equ.il
parts ; gradually widening in its courfc, it paffes to the call
of Newport, and in Cowes harbour unites its waters with tlie
ocean. Niunerous fmf.ller ftreams alfo exiil ; and varioxts
cre.'ks and bays nm up from the fea. The two diviifons of
the iflnnd are called the hundreds, or liberties, of Ea(t and
Wed Medina, from their relative fituations to that river.
They contain thirty pariflics, in which are comprehended the
following boroughs and towns; Brading, Newport, New-
town, and Yarmouth ; the three latter of which return fix
members to parliament.

Tlie ancient hiftory of this illand has been a fubjeifl of
much controverfy with topographical writers. Whitaker>
in iris Hilloi-y of Manchefler, contends that it was formerly
connedled witli the main land ; and that it is the Iclis of
Diodorus Sieulus. At this port, according to the latter
writer, the Britons fiiippcd their tin for Gaul ; but the ori,.
ginal tin (laple of Britain was certainly the Cafliterides^
or Scilly iflands. (See Borlafe and Heath's Accounts cf
thefe Iliands. ) During the Anglo-Roman dynady this
ifland was called Vtdis ; but it does not appear that the
Romans had any dation or fettlement here; though they
liad two or three confiderable dations on the oppofite coad ;
one at Claufentum, near Southampton, and another at
Port-cheder. Suetonius, the firll of the Roman authors,
who notices the ifland under confideration, dates, that it was
fiibdued in A.D. 43 by Vefpafian. Cerdic, a Saxon chieftain
and founder of the kingdom of Weffex, made a fecond con-
quell of the ifle, and appointed his nephews Sterff and With-
gar to govern the inhabitants. In the year 661 it was again
fubdued by Wulphure, king of Mercia, but this monarch
was difpoHeffed of this trait of land within tlie fpace of i J
years. Tlie Danifh marauders afterwards vifited, and took
poffeflion of this ifland ; and preferving a port here, they
made frequent defcents on the coads of Hampfhn-e, Do:v
fetfhire, and Suifex. After the Norman conqueil, tlie ifland
was annexed to the crown, and was frequently granted, in
trud, to the favourites of different monarchs.

A lid oi' the different noblemen who were governors, cr
lords of the ifland, with the conditions on which it was held,
are fully narrated in fir Richard Worfiey's Hidory of the
Ifle of Wight. The fituation of this ifland has rendered it
liable to invafions in the time of warfare, and particiilajly
when France has been at war with England, and many in-
dances arc recorded of delcents on tbib coall. To protect
the ifland, a large and drong fortrefs, called Carilbrooke
cadle, was condrufted at an early period, and has been prc-
ferved as a place of refuge and Itrengih even to the prefent
time. Here a military goveTor occaiionally refides. Other
forts were condrufled on ditt .ent p:rts of the coad ; but
the great fortifications at Portfmoutii, uad at other places on
the Hamplhire coad, ferve to gu.id tlie ifland. The
fouthern (hore is alfo naturally protected by rocks. The
1 o* il]an(i

I S L

I S L

jHancI contains feveral feats and villas, the principal of wliich preting literally fome of the precepts of St. Paul with re-
is Appuldercombe park. Sir Richard AVorfley's Hiftory gard to the Jewifli law, declaimed againft the lawj and the
of tlie Ifle of Wight, 410. Albiii's Hiftory, &c. 8vo, necciTity of good works. See Axtixomians.
Bullcr's Account of the Ifland, i2mo. Windham's Pic ISLEBO ROUGH, wGeogmphy, a townfliip of Ame-
tuie of the Tfle of Wight. rica, in Hancock county, Maine, formed by Long ifland.
Isle of Height, a county of Virginia, on the S. fide of in tlie centre of Pcnobfcot-bay ; 15 miles long, and from
James's river, W. of Norfolk county, about 40 miles long two to three broad: it was incorporated in 1789, contains
and i^ broad, containing ^313 free inhabitants, and 4029 483 inhabitants, and is dillant 260 miles N.E. by N. from

flavcs. In this county is a mineral fpring, to which many
perfons rcfort. It is fitwated about lo miles from Smith-
field, and 12 from Suffolk.

ISLEBEIANUS Lapis, in Natural Hipry, a name
given by authors to a kind of bl:icki(h Hate, very heavy, not
very hard, and erfily fplitting into thin flakes. It is dug
near Ifleb, in Thuringia, whence it has its name, and is much
of the nature of that fort of black flate which we have com-
mon in England, lyin^ over the coal llrata.

As our (late of this kind contains ufually leaves of fern I'ji.f 38' from Pav
and other plants, this foreign kind contains the impreflions Islks, in Jnhilcdiire, the fides or wing? of a building,
of; feveral kiads of riiTij-fo exaft'iy delineated in fliape, and ISLEWORTH, in Geography, a panlh in the hundred
with the fins, fcnles, and all other parts fo pcrfed, that the of the fame name, and county of Middlefex, England, is
fpecies are eafily known. All thefe impreflions and deli- dehghtfully fcated on the banks of tlie Thames, and has

ollon.

ISLES de Madame, idands that lie at the S. end of
Sydney, or Cape Breton ifland, on which ihcy are depen-
dent. Thelargell of thefe, with Cape Canfo, the E. point
of Nova Scotia, forms the entrance of the gut of Caufo
from the Atlantic ocean;

LsLE-s of Don Jofeph Gal-wr^, a large duller of iflands in
the South fea, populous, and affording plenty of potatoes,
cocoa, bananas, and other fruits. S. iat. 19' 39'. E. long.

ncations are, however, fo flat and thin, and have taken up

fo little room in the (lone, that they feem rather to have been

the flcins and esuvix of iifh than the whole bodies of them ;

but this is not wonderfnl when we conikler how eafily the

Bodies, and- even the bones of- fiflies may be diflblved ; and

that thefe exuvii are lodged in a fubil;;nce which contains

a vitriolic fait, very capable of eflefting fuch a'folution.

It is eafy to conceive, that this and ot!>er' fuch falls, v.Inle

in a ftate of folution in water, before the concretion of the

matter of this ftone into -i hard mafs, might make that water furnifli a vail '

a menftruum capable of thus diiTolving the bodies and bov.os garden market.

long been the reiidence of many perfons of rank and for-
tune. The parifli cgnfilis of about 2370 acres, chiefly
appropriated to arable and pafture ; but nearly jco acres
arc nfed as gardens and nurfery-grounds. At Baberbridge,
in this parilh, are fome large copper and brafs mills, rented
by the fociely of the mines-royal. A contiderable china
manufadlory> fome extenfive calico-grounds, and two large
flomvmills are alfo within this parifli. The chief bufinefs,
or trade of the place, is derived from the gardens, whiciL
ariety 01 fruit and vegetables for Coveut-
In the year 1794, hr Jofeph Banks ob-
of fifties, while the outer flcin and fcales being much tained a correft llatement of the population of this parifh :
tougher, and of a very different nature, might efcape the and it appeared that the number of houfes was 712; of
effeSs of them. It is well known that the fins and fciles, which 43 belonged to gentlemen, 6 to farmers,, 26 to pub-
and other external parts of fifli, are much more capable of licans ; the remainder confiiled of fliops and cottages. The
bearing macerationin water than the mternal fubHances of inhabitants at the fame time amounted to 4190. In the year
them ; and it is eafy to con'-eivj that thefe, after having with- tSoo, the houfes amounted to 768, and inhabitants to 4346.
rtood that power-in thewater, would at length futjTide down The principal building in this parilh is Sion-houfe, a fpa-
among the muddy matter that was to form fome of- the cious feat of the duke of- Northumberland. The houfes
ftrata of this flate: the motion of the water would not occupy the fcit« of a convent of Biidgetines, founded by-
fail to expand their ikins, though ever fo thin, into the true king Henry V. The prefent m.infion was enlarged and
and exaft ftiape of the whole fiih ; and when thus laid fitted up by the late duke, v.-jio embellifhed it with feveral
along upon the furface of the new-formed ilratum, the next pieces of ancient fculpture, alfo with twelve Ionic columns,
quantity of the fame matter that fubfided would form another and fixteen pilafters of fine marble. The improvements
flratum, which falling evenly upon the former, would cover, made in the houfe, and the elegant facade, adjoining the
it, arid on the following,- concretion of both, the figure of public road near Brentford, are from dtfigns by the late
the fifh would be beautifully preferved between two plates Mr. Adams. The gardens and plcafure-grounds, conti-
or flakes of a filTrfe ftone. guous to the Thames, were laid out by the late Mr. Brown.

It is very remarkable, that as in thefe flates of Ifleb pre- The duke of Marlborough and the earl of Slirewfliury have
ferving fifhes, the external parts only are preferved, the feats in this parifli. Ifleworth Park was occupied by tiie
bones and fleih being wafud : fo, on the other hand, in barons' army, headed by Simon de Montford, in tlie year
thofe foflile lifne.^ brought from Syria, the fliins and fcales 1263. On the 4th of Auguft, 1647, general Fairfax ap-
are wanting, and the flieletons are principally the part pre- pointed his head-quarters at Ifleworth, and received the par.

ferved." In fome of thefe the bones are not clean, fniaii par-
cels of the flefh being found petrified among them ; but this
flefh is flripped of the fliin. The ftone in which thefe Sy-
rian fifhes are preferved is alfo very different from the lOeb
flate, being whitifa or greyifli, and very hard. The flones

liamentary commiirioners here. Lyfons's Enviroas of Lon-
do:i and Middlefex Pariflie.''.

ISLINGTON, a village in Ofrnldon hundred. Middle,
fex, England, though formerly a fmall place, and feparated
from London by feveral intervening fields, is now conneded

of this kind found on mount Libanus, .where they are very to the northern fubuibs of the metropolis, and indeed ap-

cominon, have very fine delineations of the flar-filh com- pears to form a part of this v.ill city. " When it is con-

plete. Woi>dw. Cat. Foff vol. ii. p. 23, &c. fidered, that Iflington is fc.u-cely tivo miles from the centre of

ISLEBIANS, in Ecdefajlkal Hlflory, a name given to the original London; that it is feated upon the Ermin-ftreet

thofe who adopted the fentiments of a Lutlieran divine of of the Romans, and the fpot where they had a military poll ;

Saxony, called John Agricola, a difciple and companion of alfo, that it has, from the earllell period of our hiltory,

Luther, a native of Ifleb, whence the name 3 who, i.ater- been celei)rated for tlu? richaefs of its paftures, and the cx»

ccllgiit

I S M

cellent produce of its dairies, tlicre can remain little doubt
that tliefe circamltances muft have rendered it of confider-
able importance to the Londoners, as well as the garrifon
there." This village has been varioufly fpelt in old records
and publications ; as Ifendune, Tfendon, Ifeldon, Yfeldon,
and Eyfeldon : but it appears that the prefent name has
prevailed from the clofe of the i6th century. The parifii
of inington is three miles two furlongs in length, from
N.W. to S.E., and two miles one furlong in breadth. It
confiils of 3032 acres three roods, of which the ehief part
is appropriated to pafture. Befides the village of Ulington,
the pariili contains the following hamlets : HoUovvay, Balls-
pond, Battle -bridge, the City-gai-dens, Kingfland-grccn, and
great part of Newington-green. The population of this
parifti, in 1800, was returned at 10,212, occupying 1663
honfes : in 1793, the latter was only i2Co, and the former
t>6co : whereas, in iSio, the population has increafed to
14,000. Previous to the year 1714, the roads and high-
ways were in fo bad a ftate, that in an aft of parhament then
pafied, they are defcribed to be " very ruinous and almoft
impaflable for the fpace of five months in the year." This
furniHies a curious illullration of the amazing improvements
made for public accommodation within lOO years : for now
foot-paffengers are provided with good pavements, or gravel
patlis, and the public roads are fii-m, even, and generally
clean. They are alfo furnifhed with lamps for winter, and
watchmen and patroles are employed to protcft houfes and
paffengers. From an early period, even before the time of
Henry II., Iflington has been noted as a place of recreation
for the citizens of London ; where wrefthng-matches, flioot-
ing, archery, calling the (lone, and other athletic pallimes
■neve purfued. Now the mechanics and lower clafles fre-
quent public-houfes, which are provided with grounds for
Ikittles and Dutch-pins ; places for playing at fives, cricket,
and bowls. In this parilh, to the north of White Conduit-
houfe, are the traces of an encampment, which fevei-al
writers have attributed to the Romans, but neither its pre-
fent ftate, nor any difcoveries that have been made, juftify
this opinion. Iflington contains feveral commodious, and
fome handfome houfes belonging to London merchants and
tradefmen.

For a full and circumftantial hiftory and defcription of
this parifli, the reader is referred to " The Hiftory, Topo-
graphy, and Antiquities of Iflington," by John Nelfon,
4to. iSii.

ISLIP, a poft-town of New York, in Suffolk county,
Long ifland, E. of Huntington, containing 958 inhabitants.
ISMADABS, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
125 miles N.W of Jedo.

TSMAELPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 38
miles S.W. of Patna. — Alfo, a town of Bengal ; fix miles
E. of Boglipour.

ISMAIL, or IsMAiLow, a town of European Turkey,
in the province of Beffarabia, fituated on the N. fide of the
Danube, about ^j miles from the Black fea. The town
meafures about a mile toward the land, and half a mile by
the fide of the Danube, and was fortified by eight baftions.
The ramparts are in general 18 feet high, and in fome places
sj. The moat is from 30 to 40 feet deep, and at an inter-
mediate diftance between the polygons named Bender and
Brock was a falfe trench. Near the town was a cavalier of
flone-work, capable of holding fome thoufand men. The
fide next the water was defended by ramparts and horizontal
batteries. This place was taken by ftorm, December 22,
J 790, by the Ruffians, under general Suwarrow. It is faid,
that after the Turks had furrendered, the garrifon was put
ts death, and j 0,000 men malRicred in cold blood ; the town
-t'4

I S M

was given up to the unreftrained brutality of the viclorious
army. The booty found in the place was immenfe: 144
mile's S. W. of Otchakov. N. lat. 4J- 23'. E. long.
29^45'.

ISMANING, a town of Bavaria, which gives name to
a county, fituated on the Ifer ; eight miles N. N. E. of
Munich.

ISMENIAS, in Biography, one of the moft celebrated
performers on the flute in antiquity, was a native of Thebes ;
and not lefs renowned for fplendour, extravagance, and ca-
price, than for his flcill in mufic. Having been taken pri-
foner by Atheas, king of the Scytliians, he performed on
the flute before this rude monarch ; but though his attend-
ants were charmed fo much that they applauded him with
rapture, the king laughed at their folly, and faid that he
preferred the neighing of his horfe to the flute of this fine
mufician.

.^lian tells us, that he was fent ambaffador into Perfia.
Lucian, that he gave three talents, or 581/. 5.;. for a flute
at Corinth. Antifthenes, not very partial to mufic, faid he
was fure that Ifraenias was a worthlefs fellow, by his. play-
ing fo well on the flute. Plutarch relates the following
itory of Ifmenias : being fent for to accompany a facrifice,
and having played fom.e time without the appearance of any
good omen in the viftim, his employer became impatient,
and, fnatching the flute out of his hand, began playing in
a very ridiculous manner himfelf, for which he was repri-
manded by the company ; but the happy omen foon appear-
ing, there ! faid he, to play acceptably to the gods, is their
own gift ! Ifmenias anfwered with a fmUe, " While I
played, the gods were fo delighted, that they deferred the
omen, in order to hear me the longer ; but they were glad
to get rid of your noife upon any terras." Thus we fee
that neither vanity nor impiety is . peculiar to modern mu-
ficians.

The fame author, in his life of Demetrius, informs us,
that Ifmenias ufed to inftruft his pupils by examples of ex-
cellent and execrable performance ; letting them hear, imme-
diately after each other, a good and a bad player on the
flute ; faying of the firft, " this is the way you Jbould
play ;" and of the fecond, " this is the way you ftioiJd not
play." He is recorded by Pliny as a prodigal purchafer
of jewels, which he difplayed with great oilentation. Being
at Cyprus, he found at a jeweller's an engraved emerald of
the moft exquifite kind, reprefenting the prince fs Amy ona,
one of the daughters of Danaus, tor which the jeweller
aflced him five talents, with which demand Ifmenias imme-
diately complied. But the jeweller, aftoniftied at his facility,
and expefting that an abatement would have been required,
offered, confcientoufly, to return two of the five talents ;
but the magnificent mufician refufed to take them ; faying,
that it would for ever diminifh the value of the gem. Upon
this principle it feems as if the purchafers of fcarce books
were fearful of acquiring them cheap ; as their valwe is
often more heightened by their price and margin than con-
tents. And we are convinced that the innumerable crowds
who flocked to the Pantheon in 1775, when the Agujari
firft fling there, were not occafioned by her merit or cele-
brity as a finger, but by her having ico/. a night for her
performance ; and who knows but that Mrs. Billington's
high falaries may have contributed to her attradiions, as well
as her extraordinary talents ?

ISMID, or Is NiCKMiD, in Geography, a town of Afiatic
Turkey, fituated on a bay of the fea of Marmora ; where
the Greeks and Armenians have each a church and an arch-
bifiiop. This is fuppofed to have been the ancient Nico-

jnedia.

I S N

media, the capital of Dkhynia ; 4J miles E.S.E. of Con-
ftantinople. N. lau 40' 39'. E. long. 29 34'.

IsMiD, a town of Albtic Turkey, in Caramania ; 24
miles E S E. of Cogni.

ISMIL, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ; 30
miles E. of Cogni.

ISMOKIL, a fmall ifland on the E. fid- of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 63 ' 16'. E. long. 21 jo'.

ISN'AGAR, or Isnajar, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Cordova, 10 milfs S. of Lueena.

ISNARDI, in Biography, according to M. Laborde,
" after iinging, in his youth, on the Sage with fuccefs,
quitted the theatre, and ftudied compofitioj and poetry.
After which he publifhed fonnets, madrigals, and even (hort
dramas, fct to mufic by himfelf. His works have been often
reprinted." Now if Waltlier's dates are correiS, and he
gives authorities for them, Ifnardi inuft have fang with fuc-
cefs on the ftage before the lyric ftage or operas had ex-
iilence ; but we are unable to lind a mufician of this name.

ISNARDIA, in Botany, was fo named by Linnjeus, in
honour of M. Antoine Danti difnard, member of the Aca-
demy of Sciences, in the jSIemoires of which academy may
be found feveral of his tracts on botany, pubhlhed between
the vears .1716 and 1726 — Linn. Gen. 61. Schreb. 84.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 6S0. Mart. Mill. Dicl. v. 2. Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed. 2. v. i. 266. JufT. m. Laaiarck. lUuftr. t. 77.—
Clafs and order, Tetrandna Monogynla. Nat. Ord. Calycan-
tbemt, Linn. SalicariiS, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, bell-diaped, perma-
nent, divided into four, flightly fpreading fegments. Cor.
.>^one. Slam. Filaments four, (horter than the calyx, one
placed within each fegment of it ; anthers ilmple. Ptji.
Germen inferior ; ftyle cyhndrical, longer than the ftamens ;
ftigma capitate. Peric. Capfule fquare, of four cells,
crowned by the calyx. Siifds numerous, oblong.

Eir. Ch. Corolla none. Calyx four-cleft. Capfule of
four cells, crowned by the calyx.

Obf. Linnseus has obferved, in a MS. note to his own
copy of the Genera Plantarum, that the bafe of the calyx
is furniflied with two awl-(haped brafteas adhering clofely
together.

I. 1. palujlrls. Linn. Sp. PI. 175. (Glaux major pa-
luftris, flore herbaceo ; Bocc. Muf. 105. t. 84. f. 2.) A
native of rivers in France, Ruffia, Jamaica, North America,
&c. It flowers in July, and was Hrft introduced at Kew
by Dr. Fothergill, in 1776. — " In general appearance this
plant greatly reiembles Peplh Portulaca. It is creeping and
floating. Flo'wers axillary, oppofite, feflile, green." — Leavet
obovate, wedge-ihaped at the bafe, veined and fmooth.
.9fc(£r brown. — S.vartz has defcribed a plant in his Fl. Ind.
Occ. v. I. 273, under the name of Ludiuigta repens, which
he fays differs only from Ifnardta palujlrh in being furniflied
■with petals.

ISNARI, Paolo, of Ferrara, in Biography, a difciple
of the celebrated muflcian Manara, maeilro di cappella of
the Duomo in that city, and a voluminous compofer of
church raullc, flouriflied in the latter end of the fixteenth
century. In 1 j6^, he publifhed his " Cantus Hebdomadx
Sanftae," or Mufic for Paffion Week: in 156S, fix-part
mafles : in 1578, the Vefper pfalms in three parts, and three
Magnificats in four parts. This laft work was reprinted at

Milan, I ygo.
ISNEl '

^LLO, in Geography, a town of Sicily, in the valley
ofDcmona; 13 miles S. of CefaU.

ISNIK, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, fituated
on a lake of the fame name, called by the ancients Afcanius,
that abounds with filh, and that communicates with the fea

I S O

of Marmora. The chief article of its trade is filk. It is
the fee of a Greek archbifliop, though it contains fcarcely
300 houfee. It was anciently called " Nice," and famous
for its council ; 60 miles E. of Conftantinople. N. lat. 40"^
16'. E. long. 29^ jo'.

ISNY, or YsNi, a town of Germany, lately imperi.ll,
fituated in the Algau, betwixt the counties of Holieneck
and Trauchburg, and the lordfliip of Eglof. The magif-
trates and greateft number of the citizens are Lutherans.
It has often fuffered by fire ; 40 miles S. of Ulm. N. lat.
47' 45'- E. long. 9- 58'.
_ ISOCHRONAL, or Isochronous, is applied to fuch
vibrations of a pendulum, as are performed in equal times.

Of which kind are all the vibrations or fwings of the
fame pendulum, whether the arcs it defcribes be longer or
fiiorter ; for when it defcribes a fliorter arc, it moves fo
much the flower ; and when a long one, proponionably
faller. See Pendulum.

I.socHRON.\L Lint, is that wherein a heavy body is fup-
pofed to defcend without any acceleration.

Leibnitz, in the Act. Erud. Lipf. for April 1689, has a
difcourfe on the llnea Ifochrcna, in which he fliews, that a
heavy body, with a degree of velocity acquired by its defcent
from any height, may defcend from the fame point by an
infinite number of ifochronal curves, which are all of the
fame fpecies, differing from one another only in the magni-
tude of their parameters ; fuch as are all the quadrato-
cubical paraboloids, and confequently fimilar to one another.
He fliews alfo how to find a Hne, in which a heavy body
defcending, fliall recede uniformly from a given point, or
approach uniformly to it. See Cycloid.

ISOCHRONOUS Parcels, \y^MuJlc. Mr. John Holden
labours in his " Effay towards a rational Syftem of Mufic,"
to eftablilh it as a principle, that " there is a certain propen-
fity in our mind to be fubdividing the large numbers (of
equal and equidifl:ant objecls) into fmaller equal parcels : or,
as it may be jullly called, compounding the large numbers of
feveral fmall faSors, and conceiving the whole by means of
its parts," p. 288. " Seven, we conceive, as two threes dif-
joined, and one in the middle ; five becomes two twos dif-
joined, and one in the middle," p. 289 ; and again, p. 305,
" we readily conceive five by its affinity to four, and feven
by its afiinity to fix," p. 292. «' Among the ifochronous
fingle vibrations of mufical founds, the mind naturally
feeks to conllitute ifochronous compound parcels." — " The
fixe or magnitude of a mufical interval is eflimated bv
the InequaUty of the ifochronous parcels of vibrations of
its two terms ; and in proportion as their ifochronous
parcels differ more from cquahty, the included interval be-
comes greater," p. 327. The above axtraiits Ihcw the
nature and ufes to which this author attempts to apply his
ifochronous parcels of vibrations ; in which we can fcarcely
admit hun to have been more fucccfsful, than in the appli-
cation of the Grave Harmonics (fee tliat article), or Tar-
tinian founds, to accounting for the conftitution of the mu-
fical fcale ; tlie incongruous fyftem of intervals to which
thefe fancies lead, will be feen in our article Holden 's
Syjlem of liliiftcal Intervals.

ISOCRATES, m Biography, a celebrated Greek rheto-
rician, was born at Athens about the year 436 B. C. He
received a good education, but his father, being ruined by
the Peloponnefian war, left him no other inheritance. He
had iludied under Gorgias, Prodicus, and other great mailers
of eloquence, but the weaknefs of his voice, and his want of
a proper degree of confidence, prevented him from ex-
ercifing the talent of fpeaking in public. He employed
himfelf, therefore, in corapofing difqourfes in his clofet, and

1 s o

in teacliiiig the art of rlietoiic. He was the inftru£lor of
Timotheus, fon of Conon, v. horn he afterwards accompanied
to feveral parts of Greece as his fecretary. He liad nume-
rous fcholars at Alliens, and was amply remunerated for
fome of his writings, particularly for a difcourfe which he
addrcfled to Niocles, king of Cyprus, for which he received
a funi equal to between four and five thoufand pounds of our
money. Though courted by the great, he had an ardent
mind in defence of wlial was jull and right. When Tliera-
rnenes, profcribed by the thirty tyrants, took refuge at the
altar, he pleaded in his defence, at the hazard of (haring
his fate ; and after the death of Socrates, when all his dif-
ciples look flight, he dared appear in mourning in the public
llreets of Athena. He paffed a long Kfc in peace and ho-
nour, and Iiiid reached his ninety-eighth year at the fatal
battle ofCluronxa, when, unable to bear the calamity wliich
had befallen his country, he abltained from all fnltcnance
for four days, and expired. It was mentioned, to his praife,
■that he never, by writing or accufation, injured a fingle indi-
vidual. A llatu:- of bronze was raifed to his memory by
Timotheus, and another by his adopted fon Aphareus.
The ftyle of Ifocrates is pure, fwcet, and flowing : he was
extremely attentive to the harmony of his periods, and he
h reckoned by Cicero as the firft who introduced into
Greek profe that melody of whicli it is fufceptible. He
fpent a deal of time in polifliing his compofilions ; his pane-
gyric on Athens is faid to have coft him ten years labour.
Twenty-one of his di(couri'es remain, which have been diftri-
buted into the moral, thedehberative, the panegyrical, and
the agonillical. Moreri.

ISOETES, in Botany, an old name for one of the fmaller
kinds of Sedum, from urof, eqval, and sto.;, the year, as being
evergreen. It is for the fame reafon adopted by Linnjeus
for the prefent genus. Linn. It. Scan. A17. t. 419. Gen.
561. Schreb. 7,-5. Marl. Mill. Didi. v. 2. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 1144. JuiT. 17. Lamarck Did. v. 3. 314. lllultr.
t. 862. (Calamaria: Dill. Mufe. J40. t. 80. f. i.) Clafs
and order, Cryptogamia Filkes. Nat. Ord. Filices.

Gen. Ch. MJe, Flo^tCen folitary, within the bafe of
the inner leaves. C/iL a hcart-fliaped, acute, fefTile fcale.
Cor. none. Stmn. -Filament none ; anther roundifli, of one
cell, compreffed, convex on one fide, concave on the other,
Handing on the calyx. -^Female, Floivirs folitary, within
the bale of the outer leaves of the fame plant. Cal. as in
the male. Cor. none PiJ}. Germen ovate, ftanding on
the calyx, within the leaf ; llyle none ; ftigma . . . Pcric.
Capfule membranous, nearly ovate, concealed within the
bafe of the leaf. Seeds numerous, angular, rough.

Efl". Ch. Male within the bafe of the inner leaves.
Anthers folitary, ftanding on the heart-rtiaped calyx. Fe-
male within the bafe of die outer leaves. Germen ftanding
•on the heart-fliapcd calyx, Capfule membranous. Seeds
many, angular, rough.

I. l.lacujlris. Common QuilKvort. — Linn. Sp. PI. 1563.
Engl. Bot. t. 10S4. Bolt. Fil. 74. t. 41. (Subularia
vulgaris CTecta, folio rigidilTimo ; Raii Syn. 306.] — Fronds
awl-ftiaped, femi-cyhndrical, rather fpreaduig. Capfules
roundifli, of two cells. Seeds granulated all over. — Found
under water, about the margins of alpine lakes in various
parts of Europe. In thofe of Wales, Scotland, and Weft-
moreland, it is abundant, making a fort of coarfe evergreen
turf, much below the furface. The root is perennial, tuberous,
throwing out many long fimple llbres. Leaves or fronds
•numerous, tufted, fimplc, awl-(haped, from three to twelve
inches high, rather fprrading upwards, and often recurved,
femi-cylindrical, fmooth, divided internally into four longi-
;tudinal cells or tubes, with numerous tranfverfc partitions.

ISO

The bafe of each leaf is fomewhat dilated, and bordered
with a membrane, the frudificalion being fituated on the
inner fide, under the cuticle, that of the inner leaves being
male, the outer female. What fupports the anther in one
flower, the germen in another, may be termed eitiier a cply x
or receptacle. The ripe capfule is nearly as large as a fpht
pea, brovnifh, thin, and membranous ; we find it divided
into two cells by a tranfverfe ftrifture or partition, notwith-
llanding wiiat Sciireber has m.entioned to the contrary,
apparently from Oeder. The feeds are numerous, fmall,
white, rough all over with minute granulations.

2. I. fetacea. Slender Quillwort. Lamarck Dicl. v. ^.
314. — Frond*- briftle-fliaped, nearly round, ereft. — La-
marck mentions this as very different from th.e former in the
(lendernefs and ftraightnefs of its leaves, which are only about
2i inches high. The root alfo is entirely fibrous, not tube-
rous. It was found by the abbe Bonnaterre, growing three
or four feet under water, in the lake of St. Andrcol, ou the
mountains of Aubrac.in Gcvaudan. We have had no other
tidings of this fpecies, but fliould expe6t to find it in Britain.

3. I. uuilocularis. Indian Quillwort — Roxb, MSS. —
Fronds fomewhat triangular, ereft. Capfules elliptical, of
one cell. Seeds granulated on one fide, triangular on the
other. — Sent from the coaft of Coroinandel by Dr. Rox-
burgh. Koenig fent what appears certainly to be the fame,
in a younger ftate, to Linnaeus by the name of /. hidica, as
found in ponds on a fandy foilj in December. In thefe
latter fpecimens the root of each is a globole tuber. Fronds
about fix, creft, ftraight, flender, obicurely triangular, with
a broad membranous bafe. FruP.ificat'wn too young to be
difcernible. Dr. Roxburgh's fpecimens confift of feparate
fronds, larger than the former, as being more advanced, but

otherwife cxaftly fimilar, the bafe of each winged with a
broad membrane, and lodging an elliptical, flightly com-
prefled, membranous, browniih capfule, from above half an
inch to near an inch long, of one cell, whofe infide is lined
with innumerable compreffed membranous ftalks, each bear-
ing a beautiful white feed, convex and granulated below,
triangular and fmooth above. A fponjy body, above the
capfule, but, in our fpecimens, disjointed from it, is lodged
in the fubilance of the leaf, and the fame is indicated by the
figure of the firft fpecies in Engl. Bot. in boih male and
female flowers, as well as by Linnsus in his Iter Scankum.
Having never had an opportunity of tracing the progrefs
of the fructification, we are not certain whether this be the
part called fometimes calyx, fometimes receptacle, but if fo,
the capfule is rcverfed. S.

I SOLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Ultra, the fee of a biihop, fufFragan of St. Scverina, from
which it is diftant S.E. i J miles. N. lat. 39' 4'. E. long.

17° 24' Alfo, a town ©f lilria, feated on an illhmus

which extends far into the fea , the environs of which are
celebrated for wine ; 7 miles S. of Capo d'lftria. N. lat.

M° .?7'- I^- '""g 13° 4P'-

IsoLA Aha, a town ot Italy, in the department of the
Mincio ; 1 1 miles N.N.E. of Mantua.

IsoL.4. de Dovar^i, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Upper Po, on the Oglio ; 12 miles N E. of Cremona.

IsoL.4 Poccarizza, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Mincio ; 18 miles N.E. of Mantua.

IsoLA Grojfa. See Gross.\.

IsOLA delle Fcmine, a fmall ifland near the W. coaft of
Sicily, which was formerly a place of banifliment for women.

I.soL.\ Sacra, a fmall ifland at the mouth of the Tiber,
near Oftia.

IsoLA delk Scala, a town of the Vcronefe ; 13 miles S.
of Verona.

ISOLACCIO,

I s o

TSOLACCIO, a town of the idand of Corfica ; jS
miles N. of Porto Veccliio.

ISOLEPIS, in Botany, from wo,-, equal or uniform. End
^■-;,-, Tifcak. a s^enus feparated from Sclrpus by Mr. Brown,
in his Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 23 1, on account of the want
of briftles at the bafe of the germen or feed, by which alone
it is diftinguilhed ; a mark, if conitant, certainly fuflicient
in fo difficult a tribe. Twelve Now Holland fpccies are
defined by this author, amongit which are Stirpus Jlu'itans,
fupinus, fdaccus, and cap'iUaris of Liimsus ; nodofut and pro-
lifer of Rottboll ; with fix never before defcribed.

ISOLETTA, iH Geography, a town of Italy, in the
department of the Mela ; 15 miles S. of Drefcia.

ISOMERIA, formed of ij-o;, equal, and pcfi-r, part, in
Algebra, a method of freeing an equation from fraftions, by
reducing all the fractions to one common denominator, and
then multiplying each member of the equation by that com-
mon denominator.

Tins amounts to the fame with what is otherwife
called converfion of equations. See CoNVEnsiON of Equa-
tions.

ISONA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Catalonia;
24 miles N. of Bala^ucr.

ISONEM A, in Botany, from tm.-, equal, and tr.yn, a threaA
or Jlamen. Brown. Mem. of the Wernerian Society, v. r.

63 Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogyr.ia. Nat. Ord.

Contorts, Linn. Apoc'mex, Brown.

Ell'. Ch. Corolla falver-fliaped ; its mouth and tube with-
out foales ; limb in five deep fegrnents. Stamens prominent ;
filaments inferted into the mouth, fimple at the top ; anthers
arrow-(haped, adhering to the iiigma by their middle part.
Germens two ; llyle one, thread-fnaped ; ftigma thick, ob-
tufe. No fcales beneath the germen. Pouches . . .

The above charaAers are taken from a (hrub gathered on
the African coaft, near Sierra Leone, by Smeathman, and
prcferved in the Bankfian herbarium. It is hairy, appa-
rently erect, with oppofite lea'oe:. Pvnicle terminal, oppo-
fitely divided, corymbofe. Leaves of the calyx with a
double fcale at their bafe on the infide. Tube of the corolla
half an inch long, cylindrical, bearded in the middle within
Brown.

ISOPERIMETRY, in Malhemaiics, is a branch of the
higher geometry, which treats of the properties of ifoperi-
metrical figures, vh. of furfaccs contained under equal peri-
meters ; of folids under equal furfaces ; curves of equal
lengths, &c. Of the foregoing heads, the two firll may
be confidered as containing the elements of the fcience, which
relate principally to the maxima et minima of different fur.
faces and folids, when bounded by figures of equal peri-
meters, but of a greater or lefs number of fides, and pofited
in a different order. The other part, which relates to the
maxima et minima of curves, treats of problems of another
kind, and of the moil difficult nature which have engaged the
attention, and cxercifed the talents, of many of the greatelt
mathematicians of modern times ; as Newton, Leibnitz,
the Bernouillis, Euler, Lagrange, &c. and gave rife to
many warm and even rancorous difputes, particularly be-
tween the brothers John and James Bernoiiilli, which we
rtiall mention more particularly in the fubfequeni part of
this article, after having given a llight hiftorical iketch and
view of the more elementary parts of this interellmg branch
of mathematical inquiry.

The problems in which it is required to find, among
figures of the fame or different kinds, thofe which, within
equal perimeters, ("hall comprehend the greate'.l furfaces,
and thofe folids which, under equal furfaces, iball contain
the greateft volume, had long engaged the i^ttentign of

Vol. XIX.

I s o

mathematicians before the iiiTcntion of fluxions end dif-
ferent methods liad been devifed for the folution of them
by Dcs C.irtes, Fermat, Sluze, Iludde, md others; but thefe
were all fupplantcd by the fimplicity and generality of the
new analyfis ; after which time (lie elements of the fcience
fcem to have been loll fight of by mathematicians, who
were all engaged in the lolution of the higher order of
ifopcrimetrical problems.

Simpfon was tlie firfi who condcfcendcd to treat of ihc
more elementary parts of this fcience, by giving, in his
Geometry, a very intcrcfting chapter on the maxima and
minima of geometrical quantities, and feme of the fimpleft
problems concerning ifoperimeters. The next who treated
the fubjeft in an elementary manner was Simon L'Huillicr
of Geneva, who, in 178;, publifiied his trcatife " Do Re-
latione mutua Cap.-\citatis et Terminorum Figurarum," f.:c.
His principal objeft in the compofition of that work wa3
to fupply the deficiency in this rcfpeft, which h- found
in mod of the elementary courfes, and to determine, with
regard to both the mofl ufual furfaces and folids, thofe
wiiich poflefr. the minimum of contour witli the fame ca-
pacity ; and reciprocally, the maximum of capacity witli iJjc
fame bonnd.^ry. Legcndre has alfo confidered the fame
fubjeft, in his " Elemcns de Gconietrie ;" Dr. Hutton,
in his " Courfe of Mathematics;" and Dr. Horficy, \a
the Pbilofophical Traufaflions, vol. Ikkv. for 1775.

Eiivrli tf Ifoperimclry.

Proposition I. — Of all triangles that can be contained
under any two given right lines, and any other line join-
ing their extremities, that will be the greateft that has the
two given lines perpendicular to each other. Fig. i,
Ifoperimttry. Plate IX. Geometry.

Let A B and B D be the given lines, then will the tri-
angle A B D, in which they are perpendicular to each
other, be the greateft : for let B C = B D, and the angle
ABC cither greater or lefs than the right angle A B D ;
aiid let alfo C F be drawn parallel to A B, and meeting
B D in F ; and join A F, A C, A C

Then the < B F C being a right angle, it is evident that
B C, or B D, is greater than B F, and therefore the
triangle A B D, being greater than the triangle A B F, is
aho greater than its equal ABC. Q. E. D.

The fame may be otherwife demonltratcd, thus: — Affume
either of the two ^iven fides for the bafe of the triangle ;
then the area being direftly as the perpendicular let fall
upon that fide from the oppofite extremity of the other
given fide, the furface will be the greatell w hen that, per-
pendicular is the greateft, that is, when the other fide is
not inclined to that perpendicular, but coirc-des with it ;
hence the area is a maximum when the two given Cd^5 ar?
perpendicular to each other. Q. E. D.

Prop. II.

Of all triangles of the fame bafe, and whofg vertices fall
in a right line given in pofition, the one whofe perimeter
is a minimum, is that whofe fides make equal angles wiia
the given line. Fig. 2.

Let A B be the common bafe of a ferics of t.-iangi*-
A B C, A B C, whofe vertices C, C, fall in the right Jjr*
L M, given in pofition ; then is tl\e triangle of lea!^ per;,
meter, that whofe fides AC, B C, make equal angles witli
the line L M.

For, let B L be drawn from B perpendicular to L M,
and produce it to D, till D M =-- B M, and join D A ;
and from the point C, where this line interlcfb L M,

ISOPERIMETRY

iYzw C B ; ati(3 alfo from any otVier points C, C", afTumcd
in L M, draw C A, C 15,, C D ; then it is obvious, that
CD, CD,-C"D, are rLfpeftively equal to C B, C B,
C" B, and therefore A C + C B = A C -f CD, and
AC4-CB-AC + CD = AD; and confcquently,
C\.>-e two fides of a triangle are pfi-eater than the third
f.de, we ha^^e AC + C' D > AD, or (A C 4- C B)
> (AC + C B) i aad the fame is true of any other point
C in the line L M; therefore A C + C B is lefs than
anv other two lines that can be drawn from _A, B, to
meet i:i the line L M, and confeqnently A B + AC +
C B is the triangle, having the minimum perimeter, and it
lias its fides meeting L M at equal angles, as is evident,
Q . E . D.

Cor. — Of all lines draw'n from two gi\Tn points, to meet
in a line given in pofitioii, the fum of thofe two fliall be
the leafl, that make equal angles wirh the given line.

Prop. HI.

Of all triangles having the fame bafc, and the fum cf the
o her two fides tlie fame, the. ifofceles is the greatelL
/■,-. 3. •■ , :

Let A C B be an ifofceles triangle on tlie Tiafci A.B,
and ADB a triangle on the fame bafe, havinij its two
fides A D ^- D B =- A C + C B ; then will A B C be
tlie crr-'atell trian-^le.

FTrll draw C H perpendicular to A.B, and DEF p.i-
rallel to A B, interfering 'C H (produced if neceffary)
in The point E ; likewife let A E and B^E be drawn.

Now it is evident, that the angles A E F and B ED are
•equal, and confeqnently by Prop. II. A E + E B is lefs
than A D 4- D B, o'r lefs than the equal fum A C +
C B ; therefore the point E, and confequentl.y the whole
triangle A E B, mull fall within the triangle A C B., and
therefore the trianirle A E B, or its equal ADB, is lefs
thanACB. Q.E.D.

Prop. IV.

Of all triangles (landing on the fame bafe, and having
the fame vertical angle, the ifofceles one is the greatell.
Fig. 4.

For fiiice all triangles whofe bafes and vertical angles
are equal have their vertices in' the fame circular fegment,
it is obvious, that the ifofceles triangle A B C is that
which has the greatelt perpendicular; and fince triangles
whofe bafes are given, are as their perpendiculars, it fol-
lows that the ifofceles triangle, which has the greated per-
pendicular, vvnil alio have the greatcit furface. Q. E. D.

Phoj-. V.

Of all right lines that can be drawn through a given
point, between two right lines given in pofition, but not
parallel, tliat which is bifeftcd by the given point forms,
with the other two lines, the leaft triangle. Fig. ^.^

Let A B, B C be any two lines given in pofition, and
D the given point ; then J fay that the line E D F, which
is bifecled in the point D, makes with the two given liies
A B, B C the kail triangle. For if E I be drawn parallel
to B C, meeting G H in 1, the equi-augnlar triangles
D F'H, and DEI, will be ecjual, becaufe ED = FD-;
and D F H will therefore be greater, or lefs, than DEC,
according as B G is lefs, or greater, than BE; in the
b'.ter cafe, let the fpace D E B H be added to both, fo
ih^ll F E B be lefs than G H B ; and if in the former cafe,
D G B F be added, then will H G B be greater than
F E B ; and confcquently FE3, in .tllis cafg .^Ifp, Ipls
DisnHGB. Q.E.D,

Cor — If DM and D N be drawn parallel to B C and
B A, the two equal triangles D E M and D F N, taken
together (fmce EM = D N = M B), will be equal to thi^
parallelogram D M B N ; and therefore this parallelogram
is equal to half the triangle FEB, but lefs than half tlie
trian'^le B G H ; whence it follows, that a parallelogram is
alivays lefs th.tn half the triangle in which it is infcribed,
except when the bafe of the one is half the bafe of the
other, in wtiich cafe the parallelogram is exafily equal to
half the triangle, which is the maximum parallelogram that
can be infcribed in any triangle.

Ssf}ifi:'m. —Yrom the preceding corollary it might be de-
momlviited, that the leaft triangle that can pofiibly be de-
fcribed abont, and the greatelt parallelogram that can be
infcribed within, any curve, concave to its axis, will be when
the fubtangcnt is equal to Tialf the bafe of the triangle, or
to the vAolc bafe q£ the parallelogram.

Prop. VI.

Of all right-lined ligu-es, cont-ained under the fame
number of fidos, and infcribed in the fame .circle, that is--
the greatell vvhufe fides are all equal. Fig. 6.

F«r, if paflibls, let fome polygon, AB'C.EF., whofe
fides C E, F E, are unequal, be tlie greatell ; and let
'CDF be an ifofceles triangle, defcribed in the fame feg-
ment with CE F whicli, being greater than CEF by
Prop. IV.. the -whole polygon ABCDF is greater than
the polygon A B C E F, whereas we have fuppofed the
latter tu be the grcateft, which is abfard ; therefore tlve
polygon which has all i'.s fides equal is the greateil. Q.

E. b.

Cor. I . — It follows, with reference to the fame figure,
that of all right-lined figures, contained under the fame
perimeter, and of the fame number of fides, the greateil is
thitt which has all its fides equal.

For if A B C E F be fuppofed the greatell, in wbick
the fides C E and E F are unequal, then the triangle CEF
would be greater than the triangle CDF, the fum of the
fides in bolh cafes being equal; but, fince CDF is an
ifofceles triangle, it is greater than any other on the fame
bafe, and of equal perimeier. Prop. III. ; therefore D C
and D F mufl be equal, and the fame may be demonllrated
of any other two unequal fides.

Cor. 2. — Hence again it follows, that of all right-lined
figures, contained under the fame number of fides, and of
equal perimeters, the gi-eatett is that which may be infcribed
in a circle : the figure being a regular pclygon by the fore-
going corollar)-.

Pjjop. VH.

Of all reftilinear figures, in w^hich all the fitles except one
are given, the greateil is that whidh may be infcribed in a
femicircle, whofe diameter is that uiiknoun fide. Fig. y.
■ For conceive ABCDEFtobca rrtftilincar figure^ that
is not iiifcribablc in a femicircle, and draw any two lines
A D, F D, from the extremities of the fide A F, to any
angle of the figure ; then it is obvious, th.it the whole figure
will be tile grcateft when the triangle A D Fis the greattft,
but this will be Prop. I. when A D F is a right angle, antl
in the fame manner we fmdtbat A C Fis a right angle, and
fo on ; aud confcquently when the figure is iirfcribed in a fe-
micircle, of whic-h the unknowm fide is the diameter, its fui>
face wiU be the grcateft. Q. E. D.

Pnop. VIII.

Of all figure?, made with fides given in number and mag-
^ nitude,

ISOPERIWETRY.

ailtude, tliat which may be iufcribeJ in a circle is the greatcil.
JVkj. 8. and 9.

Let ABCDE, &€., and abcde, &c. be two poly-
gons, of which the fides of the one are refpedively cqiial to
the fides of the other ; that is, A B = « i, B C = i f ,
CD = cd, Si.c., thetirll of which is infcribed in a circle,
but the other not infcribable ; then I fay, that the polyjjon
ABCDE, &c. that is infcribed in a circle, is greater tiun
the polygon a Ic de, &c. which is not fo.

For draw the diameter E P ; join A P, B P ; and upon
■ab = A'Si make the triangle ap b equal in all refpefts to
the triangle A P B, and join ep. Then of the two figures
ed c bp,s.ndpagfe, one at lealt is not by (hyp.) infcribable
in a femicircle, of which ep is the diameter, confeqiiently
one at leaft of thcfe tv^o figures is fraaller tlian the corre-
fponding part of the figure ABCDE, Sec. ; and therefore
the whole of this lail figure ABCDEFGPis greater
than the other vvliole figure abc d efgp ; and if from each
of thefe there be taken away the equal triangles A P B,
and apb, there will reipain the polygon ABCDE, &:c.
greater than the polygon a be de, S^c. Q. E. D.

Cor. — The magnitude of the greatell polygon which can
be contained under any number of unequal fides, does not
at all depend upon the order in wliich thofe lines are con-
nefted with each other. For Gnce in all cafes it muil be in-
fcribable in a circle, it may always be divided into the fame
number of ifofceles triangles, which will be refpeftivcly
equal in all cafes.

Prop. IX.

Of all pol)-gons clrcumfcribed about the fame or equal
circles, that has the greateft lurface which has the gieateft
perim.eter. For conceive radii to be drawn from the centre of
the circle to each of the points of contact, tlven it is obvi-
ous that the area of the polygon will be equal to the reClan-
gle of the radius into lialf the perimeter of the figure; there-
fore the area being as the perimeter, it follows that the poly-
gon, having the greateit perimeter, will have the greateft
area. Q. E. D.

Cor. 1. — Hence the area of any polygon circumfcribed
about a circle, is to the area of the circle, as the perimeter
of the former is to the circumference of the latter. Alfo,
the area of different polygons circumfcribed about the fame,
or equal circles, are to each other as their perimeters.

Cor. 2. — If a circle and a polygon, circumfcribable about
another circle, are ifoperimeters, they will be to each other
as the. radii of the circles.

Prop. X.

The circle is greater than any reftilinear figure of the
fame perimeter ; and it has a perimeter lefs than any reilili-
near figure of equal furface. Figs. 10. and 1 1.

Let the circle P Q, and the polygon A B C D E F, be
ifoperimeters ; then 1 fay that the circle is greater than the
polygon.

For firft, whatever may be the number of fides of the poly-
gon, it will be the greatell under the fame perimeter when
the polygon is regular, Cor. 1. Prop. V I. ; and confequently
there may be a circle infcribed within it, the area of which
circle will be evidently lefs than the area of the polygon, and
therefore by Cor. I . of the preceding propufition, the circum-
ference of this circle will be lefs than the perimeter of the
polygon, or lefs than that of the circle P Q ; and confe-
quently, alfo, the radius of the former will be lefs than the
radius of the latter. But by Cor. 2. Prop. IX. the area of
the circle P Q, is to the area of the polygon, as the radius of
the circle P Q is to th* radius of the circle a b ; and there-

fore the area of the formw is greater tlian the area of tin?
latter ; that is, a circle is greater than any right-fined figure
of ecjual perimeter.

Again, converfely, if the areas are equal, the circumfer-
ence of the circles is lefs than the perimeters of the poly-
gon.

For conceive a circle to be made whofe c-ircumferciice is
equal to the perimeter of the polygon, then will tins, circle
be greater than the polygon by v.liat is prov'.d above, ami
coniequently greater than that circle which is equal to thff
poly.gon; and therefore its circumference will alfo Vk- greater,
that is, tlie perimeter of the polygon \\\\\ aKvays be greattr
than the ciicumfcrcnce of a circle of equal iurface.
Q.E.D.

Pitop. XL

The greateft reftangle, that can be contained under the
two parts of a line, any how divided, will be when the lint;
is bifeaed.

Let A B be a line that is bifefted in C, th»n will .\ C .-:
CB be greater th.an A D x D B, D beii-g any other
point in the line A B.

For A C X C B = A CS but A D x D B =: [\ C
— DC) X ( A C + D C) = A C - D C ; confequeut-
ly the firft redtanglc is the grfateft. Q.E.D.

Pkop. XIL

The greateft folid that can be contained, under the three
parts of a given line, any way taken, will be that in whitli
the three parts are equal to each other.

For fuppofing the point C fixed: then the reflangle of the
two parts AD X DC, will be the greateft when A D =
D C (by Prop. XI ). In the fame way, if any other poi;it
be fuppofed fi.Ked, as D, then will the reftangle D C x C B
be the greateft when D C = C B, and confequently the
folid ADxDCxCB will be the greateft when thefe
parts are all equal. O. E. D.

Cor Hence of all parallelopipednns having the fum of

their dimenfiims the fame, the cube is that which has the
greateft capacity.

Phop. XIII,

A line being divided into two parts, the folid that is con-
tained under one of thofe parts, and the fquare of the other,
will be the greateft when the latter part is double the
former.

Let A B be divided into two parts in the point C, mak-
ing A C = 2 C B, then will AC" X C B be greater than
when C is taken in any other part of the line .A B.

For >n whatever part of the line A B the point C be
taken, the point A C may be bifefted in D, and then we (hall
have AC- x C B = four times AD x D C x C B, but
thislartisthegreateft whenAD= DC = C B(Prop. XII.)
therefore the former is the greateft when A C = 2 C B.
Q. E. D.

Piiop. XIV.

Of all prifms of equal altitudes, and whofe bafes are alfo
eqnal, and like, the right prifm lias the fmalleft furface.

For the area of each face of the prifm is propor-
tional to its height ; and therefore the area of each face is
the finalleft when its height is the fmalWfl, that is, when it
is equ.il to the altitude of the prifm, which is evidently wiieii
the prifm is a right one. Q. E. D.

Cor. — And hence, converfely, of all prifms wliofe bafcs
are equal and like, and whofe lateral fiurface is the fame,
the riglit prifm has the great.ib altitude and capacity.

3 O 2 FiiOP.

ISOPERIMETRY.

Prop. XV,

A cylinder has a lefs furface than any prifm of equal bafe
«:id altitude.

For fince the bafes and altitudes are equal by hypothefis,
the furfaces will be greater or lefs, as the lateral furfaces are
greater or lefi: ; but thefe will be as the perimeter!, of the
(olid bafes, of which that of the cyhndcr will be the Icail,
being a circle (by Prop. X.), and confequently the cyhnder
is tliat which has the lead furface.

Cor. I — And again converfely, of all folids on equal bafes,
and whofe furfaces are alfo equal, the cylinder is that which
has the greatell capacity.

Cor. 2. -In the fame manner (by Prop. VI. Cor. i.) it
n.ay be demonilrated, that of all right prifms of the fame alti-
tude, and whofe bafes are equal, and of the fame number of
fide« ; that has the lead furface whofe bafe is a regular
figure, and therefore when the prifm is a parallelepiped the
bafe is a fquare.

Cor. ^. — And again, of all right prifms, whofe altitudes
and furfaces are equal, and whofe bafes have a given number
«f fides, that which has a regular figure for its bafe is the
grea'elt ; and therefore when the priim is a parallelopiped
the bafe is a fquare.

Prop. XVI.

Of all right parallelepipeds, given in magnitude, that
Vfhich has the fmal'ell furface has all iis faces equal, or is a
cube : and reciprocally of all parallelopipcds of equal fur-
face, the greateil is a cube.

For by the foregoing corollaries, the right parallelopiped,
having the fmalleil f.:rl'ace, with the fame capacity, or the
greatell capacity with the fame furface has a fquare for
its bafe : but any face whatever may be taken for the
bafe : therefore in the parallelopiped, whofe furface is the
Imalleft with the fame capacity, or whofe capacity is the
greateft with the fame furface, has necelfarily every two of
its oppofite faces fquares, and confequently it is a cube.
Q. E. D.

Prop XVII.

Of all cylinders of the fame capacity, that has the leaft
furface whofe altitude is equal to the diameter of its bafe.
Fi-,s. 12. and ij.

Let A B C D, and abed, be two cylinders of equal ca-
pacity, and of which the firft, A B C D, has its ahitude
?qual to the diameter of its bafe, and the other any cy-
linder who.fe dimenfions are not the fame with the firlt, then
I fay the cylinder A B C D has the leaft furface.

For conceive each of thefe cyHnders to be circumfcribed
by a fquare prifm, then will the capacities of thefe prifms be
alfo equal ; and their furfaces will be to each other as the
furfaces of the cylinders that they circumfcribe, as is evident
from (Cor. i. Prop. IX.) ; and therefore reciprocally, the
farfaces of the cyhnders will be to each other as the fur-
faces of the prifms : but fince thefe prifms have equal capa-
cities, that which circumfcribes the cyhnder A B C D has
the leaft furface, becaule it is a cube (Prop. XVI.) ; and
confequently, the furface of that cylinder is the leaft alfo.
Q. li D.

Cor. — In a fimilar manner it is demonftrated, that of all
cylinders of the fame furface, that has the greateft fohdity
whofe altitude is equal to the diameter of its bafe.

Ifoperinutrical Prchkms — We have before obferved, that
the theorems relating to the furfaces and foiidities of bodies,
of equal perimeters, might be confidered as forming the ele-
ments of if ^perimetry, and which, as we have feen, are de-

monftrable from the fimple elements of geometry; wl'le
tliofe relating to the maxima et minima of curves are of th-
highell order of problems ; which have called ip'o aftion tic
talents, and excited the pafTions, of foine of the ableft geo-
meters of modern tunes, having led to a difpute, whicti,
for want of impartial and competent judges, remained uiicii-
cided for many years, and which has fince been termed " C. •.
war of problems," on account of the great intereft it t,v-
cited, and the determined and able nianner in which eacli
party fupported its opinion, and contelled that of its oppo-
nent ; and as this difpute cannot but be confidered as one
of the moil memorable ever s in the hillory of the modern
analyfis, we (hall prefent the .xader with an abllradt of it,
fo far as it relates to iloperimetry, referring him for furtl. i
information to the " Hiiloire des Mathematiques," by
Montucla, vol. iii. p. 322, ar.d to BofTut's "Hillory of
Mathematics," p. 331 ; and alfo to an interciling little
treatife on this fubjeCl, lately publifhed by Mr. Woodhoufe
of Caius college, Cambridge.

The firft problem which can be faid to relate to this clafs,
was propofed by Newton in liis " Principia,"' which was that
of the folid of leaft refiftance. But the fubjcdt and doftrine
did not become a matter of difcuffion and controverfy, till
John Bernouilli required of mathematicians the determination
of the curve of quickeft defcent, in a paper publifhed in the
Leipfic ads for June 1696, under ths following form :

Problema Novum
ad cnjus folutionem mathematici invitantur.
" Datis in piano verticali duobus punctis A et B, aflignare
mobili M, viam A M B, per quam gravitate fu3 defcendens,
et moveri incipiens a puncto A, breviflimo tempore perveniat
ad altrum punctum B." /'y' H-

At the firll view of this problem, it would be imagined, that
a right line, as it is the ihorteft path from one point to an-
other, muft likewife be the line of fwifteft defcent : but the
attentive geometer will not haftily alTert this, when he con-
fiders that in a concave curve deicnbcd from one point to
another, the moving body defcends ai firft in a direction more
approaching to a perpendicular, and confequently acquires
a greater velocity than down an inclined plane ; which
greater velocity is to be fet again il the length of the path,
which may caufe the body to arrive at the point B fooner
through the curve than down the plane. Metaphyfics alone,
therefore, cannot folve the quettion ; in fad it requires the
utmoft accuracy of mathematical inveftigation and calcula-
tion, the refulc of which (hews that the path required is a cy-
cloid reverfed, as we (hall fee in what follows, being at
that time a new and remarkable property of this curve-, which
the refearches of Huygens and Palcal had prevloufly ren-
dered fo celebrated. See Cycloid.

According to BoiTat, Leibnitz rcfolved this problem the
fame day on which he received it, but that he and John Ber-
nouilli agreed to keep back their folutions ; but the fad of
Leibnitz having obtained a correft folution ftcins to be
very doubtful ; at all events, at the e.-ipiration of fix months,
the time allowed, no folution was publiihed, and the time
was accordingly enlarged to one year, during which period
the folutions of James BcrnouiUi, Newton, and the marquis
de I'Hopital appeared ; Bernouilli's and Newton's were
both given in the Ada. Erud. Lipf for May 1697, but the
latter without a name, the real author of wliicli, however,
mathematicians had little trouble in divining, for as John
Bernouilli obferved on this occafion, " ex ungue leoncm."

James Bernouilli, in the courfe of his inveftigations, had

afcended to problems on ifoperimetrical figures requiring ftlll

more profound fpeculations, and, (ifttr having rcfolved

5 tliem*

ISOPERIMETRY.

tliem, lie prepofed to mathematicians in general, at the con-
clufion of his folution of liis brother's problem.

The rivalry in glory that had long divided the Bernoiiillis,
\ra3 fully difpla)Ted on this occafion. At firll it was a little
moderated by their habits of feeing each other, at lead oc-
cafionally, and by the intervention of their common friends ;
but John haWng been appointed profL-fToi- of matiiematics at
Groningen in 169J, all private intercom fe between them
foon ccafed, and they no longer correfponded except through
the medium of periodical publications, for the purpofe of
propofing to each other the mod difficult problems ; and
here it was that James Bernouilli, defirous of avenging him-
felf of the ingratitude of his brother, to whom he had been
preceptor, challenged him by name to anfwcr the following
problero.

Of all ifoperimctrieal curves dcfcribed on the fame com-
•mon bafe B N, to find B F N, fuch that anotlicr curve,
B Z N, (hall contain the grcattft fpace ; the ordinate of
which, P Z, is in any multiplicatc or fubmultiplicate ratio of
the ordinate P F, or of the arc B F. Or, as we ihould fay
now, the ordinate of which, P Z, is any fundion of P F, or
of the arc B F. Fi^. I ,-.

To this leading propolition, he added another more analo-
gous to that of the line of (aiftLJi defcent, which was, to
frnd among all the cycloids, which a heavy body may de-
fcribe from a pirint to a line given in poiition, that cycloitl
which is defcribed in the leall poffible time, which propofi-
tions he concluded in nearly the following words. " A per-
fon for whom I pledge myfelf { Prodit Nox NE.\ro, pro qui
caveo) engages to give my brother, independently of the
praife he will deferve, a prize of 50 florins, on condition
that within three months, he engages to refolve thefe pro-
blems, and within a year publifhes legitimate folutions of
them."' Adding, " if at the expiration of this time, no
one (hail have refolved them, I will make public my fo-
lutions."

Thefe propofitions, as we have before obferved, were fent
with the folution of the hrachyfiochrone (a term by which
John Bernouilli's problem was delignated); and as foon as he
had noticed .he fouitions to this, in doing which he bellow-
ed great praife on that of Newton and de I'Hopital, and
fome flight cenfure on his brother's, he undertook the folu-
tion of James's problems above-mentionL-J, and imagining
that his theory of the line of f.viftell defcent was alone fuffi-
cient to folve them, the following expreffions of ingenuous
vanity efcaped him. " Difficult," fays he, " as thefe problems
appear, I did not fail to a;<ply to them the inftant they came
to my hands, and hear with what fuccefs; inftead of three
months allowed me to found their depth, and the remainder
of the year to find their folutions, I have employed only
three minutes to examine, enter upon, and dive to tiie bot-
tom of this myftery." Thefe iiigh founding phrafes were ac-
companied with the coni^rudtion he gave of the problems,
awd the coofequent demand of the prize, which he faid l;e
Ihould give to the poor, a.s it coll him fo little trouble to
gain it. Bui the bufmefs was by no means fo far advanced as
he fuppofed, as his folution only anfwered for particular cafes,
in confequence of hi^ having made only two elements of the
curve enter therein, while the general folution required
three ; and he therefore thus laid himfelf open to the keen
reproaches of his brother, who foon perceived in what re-
fpect the folution was defective, and being at the fame time
perfectly fure of his own, he publifhed an advertifement in
1698, in which he affertedthat his brother's method was de-
feiiive. He Hill allowed geometricians time to find the folu-
tion, and if no one gave it, he pledged liimfelf for tl^ce

things; ift. To divine with pritcifion the analyfis ofhi'g
brother : jdly Whatever it might be, to point out fallacies in
it : and, 3dly. To give the true folution of the problem in all
its parts. Adding, at the fame time, that if any perfon was
fufficiently interclKd in the progrefs of fcience to venture a
wager upon thefe articles, that he would engage to forfeit an
equal fum if he failed in the firil ; double the funi if he did
not fucceed in the lecond ; and triple the fum if he did not
accomplifti the third.

The fingularity of this advertifement, and the reputation
of the writer as a geometrician, a little ilaggcred John Ber-
nouilli's confidence in liis method. He revifed his folution,
allowed that he had m.ide a trifling miftake, which he
afcribod to too great precipitancy, and fent a new refult , but
without alFuming a more modeft tone, and again demanded
the prize.

To thefe pretenfions, James Bernouilli laconically an-
fwered, " I beg my brother to revife his lad folution anew,
to examine it carefully in every point, and then to let us know
whether it be all right ; as he mull be aware, tliat no atten-
tion can be paid to his excufes of precipitancy after I have
publiflied my folution." But John Bernouilli, who was not
aivare of the radicd defedl of the method that he employed,
felt an entire confidence in his lall refult, and faid in reply
there was no neccfhty to revife what he had done, ar.d that
his time would be much better fpent in making new difcove-
ries. To this confident affertion James ironically anfwered,
«' I never believed that ray brother was mailer of the true
folution of the ifoperimetrical problem, and I doubt it no.v
more than ever, from the difficulty he makes of the rcvifion
of his folution ; if it coll him but three minutes, as he
aflerts, " to examine, enter upon, and dive to the bottom of
the whole myitery," furely the revifal could not require
more ; but fuppofe he (pent double that time, how many
new difcoveries v/ould he be robbed of by the ^x-i. mmuU'S
thus employed."

To this John again replied, and the matter Hill remained
undecided ; till, in 1700, James Bernouilli printed at Baiil a
letter addreifed to his brother, m which he invited him with
great moderation to publifh his method, and concluded by
giving tlie formuks of the problem, but without their de-
monilrations. John foon perceived how far he differed from
his brother, but not difcovering the principle of the true fo-
lution, nor the defecl of his own method, he at length gave
it in a paper which was fent under a ieal to the Academy of
Sciences at Paris, in the month of February 1701, on con-
dition that it ihould not be opened without liis confent, ;;nd
after liis brother had publllhedhis analyfis.

As foon as James Bernouilli was informed of this, he had
no longer any reafon to keep his folution a fecret ; he
accordingly made it public, arid maintaiued it by way of
a thelis at Safil, in T.Iarch 1701, with a dedication to the
four illuilrious mathematicians, de I'Hopital, Leibnitz, New-
ton, and Fatiode Duillier. He hkewile printed it feparalely
under the following title : " Analyfis magni problcmatici
ifopcrimetricu" This was confidered as a prodigy of faga-
city and invention ; and indeed, if the time be ccnlidered, it
will not be too much to affert that a more difficult j.' cblem
was never refolved. The marquis de I'Hopital wrote to
Leibnitz, tlut he had read it with avidity, and that he had
found it very d'u-eft and accurate, which tellimony Leibnitz
tranfmitted to John Bernouilli himfelf, though he was much
prejudiced in his favour, having himfelf before examined and
approved of John Bernouilli's folution ; the latter having
fubmitted it to him for his opinion.

After ihii publicaiioo John Bernouilli maintained a porfeA

fJentc,

ISOPEHIMETRY.

filence, neither puMft'mg his own folution, nor ciMtrcifm(T
that of his brother's. At length, in 1 705, James Bevnoiiilli
died, and a (hort time after John BernoniUi pubhfhed his
fohition in the Memoires of the academy for 1706. This,
however, poflelFed the fame radical defei\ that has been before
Hated, namely, that the author had confidered only two ele-
ments of the curve, iiiftead of which it is requifite to have
three enter, or to employ an equivalent condition. In pro-
blems of the fame kind as that of the line of fwifteft defcent,
where it is fimply required to fulfil the conditions of the
maximum or minimum, the applying of this condition to
two elements is fufRcient to find the fiuxional equation of
tlie curve ; but when, befide the maximum or minimum, the
curve mull poffefsa farther property of being ifoperimctrical
to another, this new condition requires that a tliird element
of the curve (hall have a certain inclination with refpeft to
the other two ; and every determination, founded fimply on
the firft confideration, will give falfe refults ; except in thofe
cafes where a curve cannot fatisfyone of tlie two conditions,
■without at the fame time fulfiUing the other ; and of this
John Bernouilli was at length fo convinced, that he made it
the bafis of a new folution, more than 13 years after his
brother's death, confeffing himfelf decL-ived in his firll. "J'ai
donner ici," fays he, " pour reparer cette inadvertence une
noilvelle maniere de refoudre," &c. This was a tardy
avowal, but it would ftill have done him honour, had he at
the fame time acknowledged that his new folution was in
fubftance the fame as his brother's ; but giyen in a form which
confiderably abridged the calculation ; in (lead of which, he
even in this feeks every occafion to afperfe his brother's me-
thod, and this after a lapfe of fo many years, when, as Mr.
Woodhoufe obfcrves, "the rccoUeftioii of his brother's kind-
nefs, or zeal for a brother's fame, ought to have afifuaged
and laid to fleep all angry paffions ;'' but witli regard to the
folution itfelf, it mult be acknowledged, confidering the
flate of analytical fcience at tliattime, to poffefs very dillin-
guifhing marks of a great mafter, and fairly merits the eulo-
gium wliich the author himfelf has bellowed upon it ; that
of being equally exempt from the tcdioufnefs of his brother's,
and tiie obfcurity of Taylor's calculation, alluding here to
the folution of the celebrated Dr. Brook Taylor, wiiich ap-
peared, in 1715, in his " Methodus Incrementorum " At
the period at which we have now arrived, James Bernouilli
had been dead feveral years, and the above paper was tlie
laft that John Bernouilh wrote on the fubjeft of ifoperiinetry,
but the theory was purfued by many other eminent mathe-
maticians, and introduced into feveral of their works. Simp-
fon, in his Trafts, has a chapter, entitled " An Invelligation
of a General Rule for the Refohition of Ifoperimetiical Pro-
blems of all Orders.'' He has alfo given the folution of
feveral ifoperimctrical problems, in his " Doftrine of Flux-
ions " Maclaurin has hkewife a chapter on the fame fubjecl
in his "Treatife of Fluxions." To thefe may alfo be added
Emerfon, Le Seur, Boflut, and Lacroix ; each of which
authors has introduced this doftrine into their refpeClive
works ; but the two writers who have mod contributed in
bringing to perfeftion die theory of ifoperimetry, are Eulcr
and Lagrange, the former having, befide feveral memoirs
in the Ada Petro, a traft on this fubjeft, entitled " Me-
thodus inveniendi Lincas Cui vas Proprietate Maxiini Mini-
mive gaiidentes," which, with a very few exceptions, is what
i". was intended to be, a complete treatife, containing efien-
tiaily all the requifite methods of folutions, with great variety
and abundanccof examples aiid ilhiltrations : there were Rill,
howi-ver, fome -defefts in this work, for want of a better
atgoi ihm, or more compendious procefs of elUblilhing the

theorems ; and certain ritpplemetital formula; ; which defefts
have been finally removed by I^agrange, in his admirable and
refined " Calculus of Variations ;" and a very interelliiig
treatife on the fame fubjecl has lately been publilhed by
Mr. Woodhoufe, in which are combined tlie hiitory and pro-
grefs of the fcience, with fuch obfervations and remarks, as
feem moft calculated to render it inftruftive and familiar to
the Englifii Itudent.

Having thus given a brief (Icetch of the fuccefilve improve-
ments that have been made in the theory or ifopiTimetry,
from tlie time of its firft introduction by John Bcrnouiili,
to its completion by Lagrange ; we fliall conclude tliis
article with the folution of a few problems which will illuf-
trate many of the reraaiks that have been made in the fore-
going pages, referrmg the reader wI;o wifiies for farther
information to the woi-ks above quoted.

The refearches of Euler and Lagrange have i-endered the
folution of ifoperimctrical problems extremely fimple, but
the invclligations by which they arrived at their formulas of
folution are very profound, long, and embarraClng, which
nothing lefs than tlie genius of thefe celebrated men would
have been able to have reduced to that fimple form at which
tliey at length arrived, an invcftigation of which, at lead of
Lagrange's, will be given und.er the article Variation.
In this place we fiiall barely Itate the refults, and (hew their
application to the folution of a few problems of this kind.

Let V rcprefent any fundticn of the variable quantities
x-^ndy, and let there be afliimed

V rz M ,v + Nj +- P/ + Q j, &c. [A]

where 6 =. -—, a =; — , r =: — , 5:c.
'^ X X X

Then the folution of all ifoperimetrical problems, into
which no integral quantity enters, are folvible by the fel-
lowing general formula,

N-

R

cc. = o [B]

which however, for the fake of a more ready application,
may be divided into the following cafes.

Cafe I. — If M, Q, andall the co-efficients except N and P,

in the above value of V, be equal to zero, then we have

p 5

V = N p -f P /) ; and fince crcjierally N -t- , .- —

■* a i XX-

P

See. = o, it bee

N

omes in this cal

P = o ; or, fii

feN

= o;3 equently,
, it reduces to N v —

/> P = o ; whence N >' = /P; and fubftituting this laft
value of Nj, WT have V =^P -|- P /> ; and taking the
fluents V = P/ + r, c being the correftion.

If M be r.ot equal to o, we muft add the fluent of M a ;
then V —/yii + V p -\- c.

Cafe 2. — Let M = o, N = o, and all the co-efficients after

Q, then V =z P^ + Q ?> and the general formula in this
cafe becomes

p (V

- — + -rrr = °5

wlicnce P :=-■*" , and the fluents give P = -'^ -f r;

multiply

ISOPERIiMETRY.

muttlply this by/, and fiiice -4- = ?, we thus obtain ^hcn will V = c p + R r - j 1 + c [/]

T) ; ,\ . ; By nierins of which formulx the following problems are

Vp = gQ + cj>;_ readi'ly folvcd. °^
and now fubftitutiiig tins value of P p, in the general ex-

preffion for V, it becomes Phoblem I.

Y _ Q .|_ Q ■ ^ ^ / Required the relation of x and y, fiich that the fluent of

,, , I- .in , u ?! n (" "^ — J' ) J' -'^» or f(a.v —y')y X, fliall be a maximum, or

and by takmg the fluents on both iides a mininium •'''•'' '

V=Q? + <^/> + <:'; Comparing this cxpreflion with /V a-, (the analytical ex.

f and <■' being the cojredions. prefiion for tlic maximum or minimum property,) we fee that

If M be not equal to o, we mud add the fluent of M v ; V = a.ry — y', confequcntly V = ayx+ (.i .v — 3 j ) i\;

in which cafe which compared with the general formula,

V = fU x + Q q + c p + c' V = M -v + N .■ + &c.

Cafe 3.-If M = o, but N is not = o ; that is if the ;.,.^.^ ^^ ^ ^^^ N = «.v - 3 f, P = o. Q = o, &c.

form be ' p 0 .' ' ' x, '

V = N V + Vp + Q q; ^"' '"'"ce N r + &c. = o, this becomes

r o ' '- ' — '

then fince N ^ -i- -?r = o> a *■ — 3 J" — o, or _>•=./__; ; , _

.XX- ■ ^ V ^.

, , V 1 • u ■ * • /"i^^, ,r A ' ^ which is the relation of A- and )i required, . '

we have by multipiving by _v — p x, ( becaule p = -- ] j ^ .

PaoB. II.

"N J — /> P + p -.- ■»' = o- Required the (horteft; curve that can be drawn between

■* . . two points, or between two curves..

Q - / Q \' ■ ^^ _ /' A ^ \' _ ^^'■'■''' '^ "'^ '^'^''" '^ '" reprefent the curve, k the abfcifs,

^ Ejt/> -r -^ = \P .;. ) ~ P '^'^ yP V/ and _>| the ordinate, it will be neceffary to fulfil the following

condition, namely, that f x, be a minimum,

Q ,,,„ ^ ,■ rin-.jr.y. ^"^ W the doarine of fluxion?, z = »/ ;.' ■+- i'- —

q 7-.;, whichla.l expreflionbemg fubdituted for/. -^ ,y, •' ' ^ ^ "t" 7

Q\

gives ^y = p^- [f^:)

^ \ / ia.2L = ^/v/i4-A'; which being compared
with / V X, gives V = ^' i + /> , whence by taking the

V=/,P+P^— (/I -^^ + J Q + Q ? > fluxions on both fides, it becomes V = -^-^^ ; and

and taking tlie fluents M, N, &c. all equal to o. Therefore comparing this with

V= 'Pp+Qq+p^ + c, *'^^" gmexaX value of V, we have P = -_--f?--- and con-

f being the correftion, as before. ^ fl-quently from the formula [B] we have, _ flux.

We might continue thus to deduce from the general for- / /> \ . ^ ,

mula other particular ones, but the foregoing are fufficient \':;;r(i'::;rj') ) = °5 tnerefore / = a ,/ (l + /. ; ; and

for the folution of fuch problems as the limit of our article , C„,,^,.\,Z. a-- _,,-.,„,/ - , w _ - i

will admit of in tlxis place, which, for the fake of a more ^y iq"a""p = a + a p , or [a - i) p = ~ a , whence

ready reference, we will again repeat. /. = 4 == —~- ; or >' ^/ (l — aM = a i.

If thegeneralform V = M * + N v + P/ + Q 7 ;

taking the fluents v ^' {i — a) = « .v -(- c, which is

becomes V = N y + P /> equation to a risrht "line, as it ought to be.

then we have V = P /- + r [a^

or V =fUi+V p + c lb-] PuoB. III. .

when M is not equal to o. -Requiredthe curve of quickeft defceot between two giveo

2. If the formula be V = P /. + Q 7 points. Fig. 16. Plate Ijopcrlmetry.

then will V = Q 9 -f r P + <:' [.] Let A and B be the two given points, and A M B the
or V —J'M x + Qq + cV+c' [r/j required curve ; drav/ PM perpendicular to A C ; and put

when M is not equal to o. " ^^ ^ T •^' ^ ^' "" r''' f^^^^ ^'- *'''"' ''"" .'"^ '""«^ "•''!

. . . be rcciprccally as t!ie Iquare root of the height, it will bo

3. If the formula be V = N j- + P/ + Qy ,1^

• required to find / -^^, a niinimum, but x = ^/ (i'- .).

then will V ^Tp i- Qq -p y- ■{■ c [f] -' ^'-^

To which we may alfo add the following, j)'), whence / ~-i— -^-' ' =: C^'^^'^'J'I v =

4. IftheformulabeV = P^'f Rri *■'' V\j'

ISOPERIMETRY.

/ ' *, a minimum, which compared with the whence, x = „ — + + — hyp. loir, h + c' ;

J Vy Hp"* 2f 2 '^ ^ ^ '

minimum expreflion/V x, gives V = ^^ ^' "^ ^'^ ; whence ''>' """''"' °[ "I.ich equation, and that above, -vh. cU+ /.'>'

^/ ^ ^ 2yp , the relative values of x and _y are determined.

V = - ^ilLtn y + ^ , ,,hieh com. Pho«. V.

pared vrith formula [A], gives M = o; N = — Required the bracliyftochrone, or curve of quickeft Ac-

+ /'). p /

fcent, when the length of the curve is gi'

, P = —— -L _; Q^ -— Q^ g-j.^ This is an ifoperimetrical problem of the fecond order:

^ J'-i v y • \/ (' +^ ) thofe which we have been confidering have only one con-
Therefore, fince by formula £a] V = P^ + f ; there- dition enters, namely the minim.um ; but in the prefeat
. ^/ (i +/>') />• problem, befide the minimum property, the ifoperimetrical
tore m this cafe — = — — - — -)- c, alio enters ; and we have, therefore, to find the variation of

V y -.' y-v (I + /■)

(V — au), inftead of V. See Woodhoufe's Trad on Ifo-

whence ;; = cj or multiplying both nu- perimetry, p. 1:2.

V y • \^ (I + P) Here by means of tlie companion of y (V — au) x, witk

merator and denominator of this fradlion by x, it be- the minimum condition of the problem, we obtain

—r — c, wliich is reducible to ^ = V = -111L±^\ and u = ,/ (i + *n •

r) Vy ^ V -r/-;.

-J^fzr-^) • ^' '" ^'l"'''"" '° =* '5'cloid ; which, there- therefore V-cu, or V = ^.±t} - a ^ (i + fi\

fore, is the curve required. ^

PnoB. IV.

and confequertly.

V =

jzr -/ (^ + P) y' + C "TV "~ " ) ^

Required the curve which, by its resolution round its • •'' \ \ y -^

axis, generates the folid of ieaft refinance. Fig. 17. P_P_ .^

Let A BC be the required curve, which by its rotation V (' t- />')' i|^.

generates the folid, D A C, of Ieaft refjlf ance : draw PM Hence we deduce, by comparing this with the genVd

perpendicular to AB; put AP ^ J, PM = ^•, and the formula T A], ' f t> 6

arc AM = a: then we know from the principles of me-

chanics, that the refinance = / — , which muft

./ .v^ -'ty'
therefore be a minimum. Now this being put under
the form.

./ -v -'ty'

put under

Hence again by formula [a]

1p= (J_ _ ,) X -J

which being compared with the exprefllon / V x, gives "''* \~y ~ " ) ~ ' ^ U + / ; •
Y _ y P . whence again by reduAion,

P

the fluxion of which expreflion being taken, gives ■* "" ,/ [i — 2 a ^/ » + (a — - ) v] '

y _ p\y iSyp^ "*• yp*)p . where, by taking the fluents, we have the relation between

~l4-/i- (1+ P"Y " ^ ^"^ y* *^^ abfcifs and ordinate of the curve.

, , , If, inllead of the length of the curve, the area Iwd been

whence M = o ; N =^ — ^ • P = •^•^■^ "*" ^'P given, then fu x = /y x, and confequently we fliould

I + /■" (^ + PT ' have,

Hence by the foregoing form [a], and ufing - c for a W = V — au= ^iilLt£J - av-

correction, we have ^/ y ^ *

in which cafe.

yf
14/-

ludlion gi

_ iyp

'+yp'

Ct

which by re

'CS,

+ py

^['+pr

= ^yp\

and y

= TJ^^

7

+

but fince /

X '

pi =

j, we obta

n

■ ;: =

- .'i-

~ 7

'-'r.i

;

p =

p

Vyv{i+fy

,nd^^±£l_.,= £ - + .:

whence again,

which by reduftion becomes,

ISOPERLMLTRY.

{(+<ty) ^'.v. :■

and tlicrcfoiv

(• + P'-)

■*liic!i exprefiioii, when c — o, becomes

^'' ('-"'->') which, by redudion, becom

■whence the rekilive values of a- and y arc determined in
both tai;.s. p, or ^

Pk03. VI.
Required the folid of leail refiilance, amonjft all tlii ^ "

which, if ;: = o, reduces to

^. _ -y'

--^'-—i

('+/>=)*

fuhds oi equal capacity

. Here, tlie fame as in Prob. IV., we have V = — ^

rry---c
,/ [a' - {-y' - c)'j ' '

we iiavc

and fti X = f-v'^x, (- beinsf equal j.ijkq, &c.) (fee -m ■ i /i r i • . «•

Woodhoufe's-' Iloperimetry, p" .a^^ ; therefore V - u. . ""^ ^^^ ''^^^' %''' ^"1' S.mpfon's, but it i, reftricled,
*^ ■' ^ -' ' becauie c is not ncceirarily equal to o.

Phob. VIII.

The length of a curve being given, it is required to deter-
mine its nature, when the area is a maximum.

Here, by proceeding as in the foregoing examples, we
fliall have

V' =

yp

-~ — -_ — ay" (including t in the quantity :i).

H.nce P = -3.V/'__iL-'';L' and by formula [«]

I -r/.-
vhence, bv reduclion, we obt

5yp'+yp'

and therefore.

S'c-ay"-) (I -^f-y = 2yp\orl
\{c — iiy'.tlz' — 2yj'x j

<ftiich expreffions will furnifo the relative values of x and ji.
If, in'tead of the condition of equal capacity, that of equal

fuperficies be lubilituted, we have

V *^
V — <ja = V = -^i ay ,/ (i + ft"), and

V = ^/(i +p-)

and hence, by means of the formula [a],
Tliereforc,

y (i +/■')- ay

(I +/ )'

"yp

vMi + P)

V' -r P)

•whence we deduce from formula [^z]

/:* ,.- "y N^ (i +/■') =

I - p

syp^ + yp' _ "yp'

U+P'Y .ni-rp) '

'which, by reduction, becomes

• c [I +py- = 2yf>^ + ay {l + f))

?r, ci* = 2y_i' .i + ay iKi. ■

Prob. VII.
Given the length of a curve, to determine its nat
when the folid generated by its rotation is a maximum.
Making, as before, rr r=. 3 I4t59, &c. we fiiall liave

/Vi=/^_v^v,and/«.^ =// (. +p^-)i.
Therefore W orV — au — -zy — a v' ( i + /') ;
and talking tSie fluxion on both fides,

v'-2-.. ±t>L-^ ■

•comparing this exprefTion with the general one [A],

v.'c have P = — , ' , ; an

formula Va]
Vol. XIX-

vhich, being farther reduced, becomes

/,=!=, '' Ti - {c + ay)-}
^ A- {c+ay)

,^ \_l -[c ^ ay)'-'^'
the fluents of whi^h being taken, we have

x^c - ,^ll~ {c + ayy--^,
which is an equation to a circle.

P.fOB. IX.

Required the curve that generates tlie folid of the leaii
furiace, the area being given.

Here \ = 2-z y ^' (\ ■\- /.-), and u = y ;
therefore V, or X — au =^ z -^ y ^' [i ^ p'^ — ny,

and V = [I ^ ^/ ( I + /-) - «] v + -^:^^'-, p !

\' il -V P)
whence, by comj^arifon with formula [A],

v'(l +/-)'

then, again, by formula [j], we have

2.y..^^+p')-ay = -^£^+.,

V (I +/)

, , , , which, by reduftion, becomes
d, theretore, by .

P =

c +■ ny

I s o

s o

V U-y" - i': + "}'}']

If, inftead of the area, the length of the curve had been
ivcn, then we fhould have had

of Linn. Soc. v. lo. 71. Prodr. Nov. H'"'
Clafs and order, Tetramlria Monogynia. N .

ftii ^Jk = fx ^ [i +/»') ; and u
Therefore V = z-ry ^/ (i + />') —
and confequently, by formula [A],

whence, again, by formula [</] , we have

V (I +/■■)

ihcr.ce, by rcduflion,

('■~y -«) v/(i +f)

/ (1 +/),

+ <

and

Brown Tr
V. I. 36,'.
Ord. Pro.Y

EfT. Ch. PerlBBth (rather corolla) four-cleft, with .
llender permanent tube. No fcales under the genn -.
Style entirely decidnous. Stigma tapering or cyhndriL.;.
Not feihle, iwelling, hairy all over. Brozvii.

Mr. Brown, in the places above quoted, defnies 12 fpe-
cics of this genus, all natives of New HoJJand, fiich of
which as have come under the notice of other botaniii?
have been confounded with the Linnxan Pro/.a. They are
rigid flirubs, with fmooth /er.vcs, which are either flat or
tliread-Aaped, divided or entire. HeaAs tormina',, rarely-
axillary. Fhivcrs either very denfely imbricated '\n the
form of a ^ohoie JlrolUus, or fatligiate on a flattifli com-
mon receptnde, furnilhed with more or lefs of an invohu
frum, and befet with crowded deciduous fcales. — Exam-
ples of this genus are

I. anetlj/folrus. (Protea anethifolia ; Sahfb. Prodr. 48.
P. acufera ; Cavan. Ic. v. 6. 33. t. 549.) — Leaves once or
twice pinnatifid, thread fliaped, fHrrowed above : their feg-
ments nearly erefl. Branches fmooth. Tube of the fiower
dowsy; fegments fmooth, bearded at the tip.— Native of
heathy ground on the eait coaft of New Holland, near Port
Jaekfon.

I. arientotn/c/iiis. (Protea anemcnifolia ; Salifb. Pro^r. 4S.

Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 697. Andr. Repof. t. 332. P. tri-

daClylides ; Cavan. Ic. v. 6. 33. t. 548.) — Leaves once or

twice three-cleft ; fegments hnear, !lat, r»lhcr fpreading,

. fmooth beneath. Scales of the cone fponcjv. — Found ore-

Of all ifoperimetrical curves, drawn between B and N, ftony heaths near Port Jackfon. The fcrw/v are yellow.

We conlels this genus feems too nearly related to Mr,
Brown's Pctrophihi, with which it agrees altogether in.
habit, differing chiefly in the fruit of Petrophila being only
partially hairy. To this latter belongs Protea pulchelta^
figured by Dr. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 796.

ISOPSEPHUS, lTo4-'!?5'f, in ylnliquily, an appellation,
given to judges, who had equal jurifdidion and authority j
•. iM r i:_j.._ __r i — '' votes were equal

■ .^{z^y-a-Y-c'r

t-he fluents of which expreflion being taken, gives

- ■ .r = — hvp. log.

and therefore the required curve is the catenary.
Prob. X.

(f,g. 15.) to find B F N fuch, that B Z N (hall contain the
grcatell area, P Z being a fuadion of P F. See the fore^
going hillorical flcetch.

Let P F = y, and P Z a funflion of ^ = Y ; then/ V .>
correfpondsto/Y.v ; und/uxtof y' (i +p'j x.

Hence V + ,7 «, or V^ = Y + « ,/ (i + p').

V =

ipp

hence we have, by comparifon of formula [A]

^P ^.

V (I +/- )'
and hence, again, by form [«] is deduced

P =

Y + «./{! +/■■)

ud confequently.

.'[«

—

i^-

Y)']

c

-Y

(c-

Y

)i

likewife applied to a cafe where thi
on both fides. Another fenfe is given to it,, •viz. when the
letters of different words make up the fame fum, they were
faid to be imlr.^y. fr,,.:y.''iy, ; for the Greeks had no other cy-
phers to number with but the letters of tlidir alphabet ; 10
that a, iignified one, (3 two, y three, &c. But befide words,
the ancients had likewife whole verfes of this kind ; and it
is pretended that there are feveral fuch verfes in Homer.
Hilf. Acnd. Infcript. vol. iii. p. 311, feq.

ISOPYRUM, in Botany, from .m-r, equal or nie, and
TVfo:, wheat, a name adopted from Diofcorides, whofe
ta-oTTUfoy, however, is very difficult to afcertain. He defcribes
it as having the leaf terminated by a tendril. Vaiions plants
have been taken for it by different botanifts, amongft others,
furely with httle probability, the ^qullegia, or Columbine,
•which we mention here becaufe it appears to have induced
Linnaeus to choofe the name for the prefent genus, very
much akin to ^qmlegia, and dill more diilinguiOied for de-
licacy and ek>gance. — Linn. Gen. 282. Schreb. 378.
Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 1334. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 2. Ait.
Hort. Kew. V. 2. 271. Salifh. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 8.

306. Jufl". 233. Gzertn. t. 65 Clafs and order, Poly-

amlria Polygynia. Nat. Ord. Multifdiquje, Linn. Ranuncu-

the equation of the curve.

In the equation, as it ftands, there are two arbitrary

jletermined quantities a and c. The integration of the cqua- laceie, JulT.''

tion would introduce a third ; and to determine thefe three. Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. Petals five, ovate, equal,

we have given the two points B and N, and the length of fpreading, deciduous. Neftaries five, equal, tubular,, very
"Tc'r^T3r->/-./-MwT • fhort, inferted into the receptacle within the petals, three-
ISO POGON, in Botany, {vom im-, equal, and rayi,», a lobed at their orifice, the outer lobe largelL Stam. Fila-

heard, btcftufe the feeds are every where equally bearded, ments numerous, capillary, fliwter than tiie corcllaj anthers

S fimple.

I s o

fimpte. Pifl. Gormens feveral, ovate or oblong, fiipenof,
feilile. ftyles fimple, fcarccly fo long as the gcrmens ; ftig-
mas obtufe. Paic. Capfulcs feveral, foliile, leguminous,
oblong, of one cell and one valve, keeled at the outfide,
burfting at the inner edge. Steils numerous, attached in
two rows to the edge of the capfule.

Eli". Ch. Calyx n»ne. Petals five, deciduous. NeiTla-
ries tubular, three-cleft. Capfules felfile, of one cell and
one Valve. Seetls numerous, marginal.

1. \. fumarioides. Linn. Sp. PI. 783. (Helleborus fu-
warix foliis ; Ammann. Ruth. 74. t. 12.)— Stipulas awl-
frtaped. Leaflets pinnatifid. Capfules nearly cylindrical. —
Native of moill (hady places, near rivers, in Siberia, flower-
ing in fprirg and fummer. It is fometimes cultivated in
gardens, as being not only curious, but an elegant little
a'jnual plant, with the habit and glaucous hue of a Fmnarln,
to feveral of which genus its leaves bear a great refen.blance,
in tht-ir pinnatiiid obovate leaflets. The Jl-jivers, however,
are totally different, refembling a Thaliarv.m, fmall, whitifli,
fl'.ort-lived, on long fimple lldks. Capfules about ten or
fifteen, fpreading, pale green, near half an inch long,
pointed with the permanent ftyles.

2. I. thaliarol-ks. Linn. Sp. PI. 783. Jacq. Auflr.
t. 105.— Stipulas ovate. Leaflets three-cleft, dilated. Cap-
f;iles ovate. — Native of fliady rather moift places, in the
tnountains of Italy, Carnioja, Auftria, &c. flowering in
April and May, and foon ripening its feed. Root creep-
ing, perennial. Stem a fpan high or more, naked below,

■fmooth. Leaves temate, leaflets more or lefs three-cleft,
■broadifli, fmooth, refembling thofe of an ylqulkgia, or Tha-
iiSnim. Flotuers white, with yellow ftamens, not unlike
lomtiXmsW Anemone. Cap/uLs only tfm or three, ovate, on
a globular receptacle.

Such are the only certain fpecies. I. aqti'th-gmiles of
Linnaeus appears to be ?, nonentity, its fynonyms, as far as
they can be mtide out, belonging to jlquilegia ■vifcofii, w hich
is K;iller's If.pyrum, n. 1 190.

Mr. Sahibury, in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 8. .^oj, has
©•lablifiied, by the name of Coptis, a very natural genus,
though diflingnifUcd from Ifopyrum chiefly by having ftallced
germens and capfules. Of tiiis ore fptcies is IhHehorus tii-
fo'lius of Linnreus, Fl. Dan. t. 566; the other is C. ajj)!e-
nlfolii of Salifbury, of which we have fpecimens and a draw-
ing from Mr. Menzies, who gathered the plant on the weft
coad of North America. This lafl, ftrange to tell ! ap-
pears, by fpecimens from Thunberg, to be liib Tha/ielnimjti-
jiortieiim, Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 337, called in FL.Iap. 364.
Didjnaml/la Salvia: Jiniilis, though nothing can be kfs luit-
able than the latcer defcription. He informs us he had
never feen the flower, only the fruit.

ISORA, a Malabar name for fome fpecies of the He-
Uteres of Lirn ens, and adopted by Plumier to deiignale
that genus. Sec Helicteres.

ISOSCELES TlUAVGLE.of «7o.:, equaJ,zn6.^y.^\'>.;leg, is
a triangle wliich has two equal fides. In an ifofceles triangle,
FDE ■.PlateVlll. Geometry, fg. IOC.) the angles jr and «,
oppofite to tlic equal fides, are equal: and a line drawn
from tlie top or vertex F, cutting the bafe into two equal
parts, is perpendicular to the bafe. The fa.me line alfo
.bifects the vertical angle of the triangle. It appears like-
wife that if the equal fides be produced, the angles under
the bafe will be equal, the fum of thofe above and below
refpectively being equal to two right angles. And if the
vertical angles of two ifofceles triangles be equal, the two
triangles will be equiangular. Moreover, every equilateral
•tFiwgie ntuit be eqiiiangubr.

I S P

ISOTONIC Scale of Mufc, or the Equal Tem-
perament Scale, is that in which the oftavc is divided
into twelve equal parts ; of courfe, each half note is equal
I H- '4^2 = 51 £ 4-/4- 4rS-w, which is fometimes called
a mean femitone, and tliis, a fyllem of mean femitones. The
following table flicws fome of the moil ufeful particulars ot
this fyflein, -j/=.

c

2

3

1

.6989700

.500C0

612 V 4-

1-/4-53 "'

B

.7240558

•5297.?

561 S 4-

ii/4-4«,','«

b B

.7491417

.56123

510S 4-

Io/-f-44' ,;,

A

•774^275

.55460

459 s 4-

9/^-393 '"

*G

•799,^133

.6:996

40SS 4-

8/+35i '»

G

.8243992

.66742

357 s 4-

7/4-3o;im

;isF

.8-1 94850

.70710

306 S 4-

6/4 26i m

F

.S7+5708

•74915

255 X +

Sf+ iz:\m

E

.S996567

■79370

204 s 4-

4/+>7^ m

bE

.9347425

.84090

1535: 4-

3/+i3i "'■

D

.9498283

.89090

102 S -f

zf+ 81 .

*c

.9749142

•94387

51S 4-

/4- 4 A-

c

.0000000

1. 00000

Lensihs

2

f'ommon

of

Fa.n'sNota

im. ofiJidntm-als.

z

Ix,sari,I>m,.

Strings.

The laft column of this table was publifiied in tike
Philofophical Magay.ine, vol. xxix. p. 347 ; in the xxxyitli
vol. p. 47, fchol. 7, the temperaments of the concords
in this fyilem will be found, and in vwl. xxxv. p. 452»
he beats of all the concords. Broadwood and fome
other tuners of pianofortes pretend, it is faid, that
they tune them to an equal temperament, but which ii;
very much to be doubted. On the organ, it feems clear, ap
Mr. Smyth obferves in the Phil. Mag. vol. xxxvi. p. 435,
tliat an equal temperament never has been, and we may per-
haps fay, never will he praflifed : however many advocates
this fyflcm may have had among fpeculative writers, among
whom have been mentioned D'Alembert, Cav;i!lo, Chladiii,
Couperin, Davis, Des Cartes, Emerfon, Marpurg, Merrick,
Merfennus, Rameau, Ricci, &c. Mr. Farey, 1:1 propofintr-
what he calls his equal temperament, in the Phil. Mag. vol-
xxviii. p. G^, exprefsly ftated his objeiS to be, to enable thofe
to tune it who might wifli to try it, and not as recommending
its adoption. See Equal Tk.mpeuament.

ISPAHAN, in Geography, the capital city of modem
Perfia, fituated in the province of Irak, on the fmall river
Zenderud, which rifes in the mountains of Galabat, three
days' journey towards the north ; but Abas the Great, at a
prodigious expencc, pierced fome mountains about 30 leagues
from Ifpahan, and introduced another flream, fo that the
Zenderud was as large during the fpring, as the Seine at
Paris in the winter ; for, in that feafon, the fnows on the
high range of mountains melted, and very much fwelled the
river. The city is furrounded by walls of earth, which are
fuffered to remain in bad repair, and which are concealed by
the adjoining houfos and gardens. It has eight gates, which,
according to Chardin, could not be fluit ; and its flreets are
nan-ow, devious, and badly paved. This writer compute.?
its circuit, the fuburbs intlud'.d, at about 24 miles, and its
inhabitants, by the lowelt elHma'e, at 600,000. But the
royal fquare, or Meidan Sliah, and its grand market, the
palace of the Sefi, and thofe of the grandees, the mofques,
the public bath, and other edifices, are magnificent and
fulendid. Its canals, the plantations of loftv plane trees on
; R ^ ' botk

I s s

both fides of the flreets, and the frequent waterings of them,
contribute not only to its beauty, but its falubrity. The
royal fquare is 440 paces long, and 160 broad, and is lur-
rounded with a canal built with bricks, cemented with black
mortar, which in time becomes harder than free-ftone. The
royal mofque is fituated at the S. end of this fquare, and its
portico is richly ornamented with a thoufand figures of a rich
profufion of gold and azure ; the whole being alfo inlaid
with enamelled fquarcs, and a frieze encompaffing it of tlie
fame materials. The royal palace, and the " haram," or
•vvpmen's apartment, are very fpler.did buildings. The for-
mer is nearly five miles in compafs ; its great portico Ihmds
in the royal fquare, and is built to a great height with por-
phyry. By the Perfians it is regarded as facrcd. The
fuburb of Julfa, or Yulfa, was very large, and poffefTed by
the Armenians, whofe cemetery was near the mountains of
Ifpahan, called Kou Sofa, or a mountain in the form of a
terrace, and alfo Tag Rudan, the hill or throne of Ruftan.
This city is faid to be encompaffed by 1460 villages, the
inhabitants of which fubfiil chiefly by their manufactures of
filk and wool. Its environs are pleafant, and much diverfified
by the vicinity of mountains. Upahan was taken by Timur
Bee in the year 1387 ; when the inhabitants ranfoined their
lives by the payment of a large fum ; but an infurreflion
happening in the night, Timur ordered all the inhabitants to
be put to the fvv'ord ; and in this mafTacre it is computed
that 70,000 perfons were killed by the foldiers, and their
heads piled in heaps on the walls of the city. In 1722, it
■was taken by the Afghans, under Mahmoud, after a lorg
fiege, which occafioned'the death of many of its inhabitants
by famine. In 1727 it was recovered from tlie Afghans by
Nadir Shah. By thefe repeated attacks, Ifpahan was
f^reatly reduced, fo that a Perfian merchsnt allured Mr.
Hanway that not above 5000 houfes were inhabited. N.
lat. jz-' 24' 34". E. long, ^v- 50'.

ISPIDA, or K1KG-FI.SHEK, in Ornithology. See Ar.-
CEDO.

ISPIRA, in Geography, a town of Turkifli Armenia;
74 miles N.E. of Erzerum.

ISQUINTIA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guatimala ; 30 miles W.N.W. of Guatimala. N. lat.
•14" 32'. W. long. 93.

ISQUITENANGO, a town of Mexico, in the pro-
vince of Yucatan ; f;0 miles S. of Chiapa dos Efoagnols.

ISQUITEPIC, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guaxac^ ; 40 miles W.N.W, of Guaxaca.

ISRAEL, in Scripture Htjlory, Heb. ^{^liyS who
prevails with God, formed of n~iJJ*,_y?w«A, to govern, and
*7Jsf, el, God, a name given to the patriarch Jacob by the
angel who wrelUed with him at Mahanaim, or Penucl,
Gen. xxxii. I, 2. 28, 29, 30. This name was afterwards
apphedto the defcendents of Jacob in general, hence called
Ifraelites, as well as to Jacob himfelf, and alfo to the ten
tribes who formed a kingdom dillintt from that of Judah..
Thefe tribes revolted during the reign of Rehoboam, under
the conduft of Jeroboam, who became head of this new
monarchy, ftylcd "the kingdom of Ifrael" in oppoficion
to that of Judah. See Jew.s.

ISSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifland of
Lcfljos ; more anciently called Himcra. — Alfo, an ifland of
Illyria, in the Adriatic gulf, upon the coall of Dalmatia,
witli a town of the fame name. Strabo mentions it as a very
celebrated ifland.

ISSACHAR, one of the tv.'elve tribes of Ifrael, derived
from the fifth fon of Jacob, whofe lot was affigned to him
in one of the bcft parts of the land of Canaan. It was
fituated in Lower Galilee, and bounded by the Meditcr-

rrmean on the W., by Zebulon on the N., by the Jordan on
the E., which parted it from that of Gad, and on the S. by
the half tribe of Manafleh. Its moil remarkable places were
mounts Carmel and Gilboah, the valley of Jezreel, and
the great plain of Megiddo, called alfo the plain of Galilee,
and now Saba, from a cadle built -upon it, and famed, hke
that of Jezreel, for the many battles fought upon it;, and
alfo for the abundance of corn, wine, oil, &c. which it pro-
duced.

ISSAGUNGE, in Geography, a town of Plindooflan,
in Oude ; sc miles N.E. of Kairabad.

ISSAPOUR, a town of Hindoollan, in Oude ; 25 miles
N.E. of Lucknow.

ISSAW^RRA, a town of Hindooflan, in Oude; 15
miles S.E. of Kairabad.

ISSE He.\d, a cape of Denmark, at the northern cxtre-
in.ity of the ifland of Samfoe. N. lat. 56 3'. E. long. lo"'
26'.

ISSEDGN, or Essedon, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Scythia, on tlie other fide of the Imaus. — Alfo, a town
of Serica, fituated E.N E. of the former.

ISSEDONES, or E.S.SEDONES, a people of Serica ac-
cording to Ptolemy ; but Pomponius Mela places them in
the vicinity of the Palus-Mjeotides ; Pliny joins them to tlie
Sauromatre, a'ld afTigns them an habitation near the Col-
chide. Herodotus fpeaks of IfTidones as neighbours to the
Maifagetas, as a numerous people, and living to the W. of
the Cafpian fea. Herodotus, who fpeaks of the cuftoms
and religion of the IfTidones (1. iv.), fays, that when any one
of them has loft his father, all his relations bring him a num-
ber of cattle, whofe carcafles they cut in pieces, and in the
fame manner cutting the body of the deceated father, they
mix all the pieces of flefli together, and fervc them up at an
entertainment, referving only the head of the doceafed pa-
rent, which they fet in gold, and ufe as an idol, to which
they every year offer folemn facrifices.

ISSELBURG, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Cleves, on the Iffcl, containing a Lutheran and Calvinift
church ; 14 miles E.N.E. of Cleves. N. lat. 51 5^'. E.
long. 6' ^^'.

ISSELMOND, an ifland in the river Meufc, oppofite
to Rotterdam, with a town in it of the fame name.

ISSELORT, a town of Holland, in Guelderland,
fituated at the feparation of the Rhine and Ilfel near Arn-
heim.

ISSELSTEIN, a town of Holland, belonging to the
ftate of Utrecht, and feated on the river Iffel ; it is the ca-
pital of a fmall territory formerly belonging to William III.
king of England ; five miles S. of Utrecht.

ISSENBRON, a town of Bavaria, in the principality
of Aichftatt ; fix miles E.N.E. of Aichflatt.
- ISSER, a river of Algiers, which joins the Tafna, near
its mouth ; anciently called "Aflanus."

ISSESUCAR, a town on the S. coall of the ifland of
Java ; 70 miles S.W. of Batavia.

ISSICUS SlNu.s, in Ancient Geography, a gulf of the
Mediterranean fea, between Syria and Cihcia.

ISSIGEAC, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton,
in the diltrift of Bergerac ; nine miles S.S.E. of Bergerac.
The place contains 879, and the canton 8316 inhabitants, on
a territory of 210 kilionietres, in 21 comnjunes.

ISSIN, a town of Perlia, in the province of Kerman,
whither many of the inhabitants of Gomron retreat during
the unhealthy feafon ; fix miles N. of Gomron.

ISSINI, akingdom of Africa, on the Ivory Coafl, con-
fiiUng of 12 or 13 villages. From the Rio de Suero da

Cuila

I s s

Cola ■ to cape Apolloiiia, the coaft is low and even, ex-
tending itfelf for a courfe of 12 miles ea ft ward, bordered
w^th large trees, and covered with vil'lages, the chief of
which are Boqun, Iflini Pegiiena, Great IfTini, Albiar.i,
Tabo, and Akanimina. Tlic firfl (lands at a fmall diftance
fronn the fhore, near the mouth of the river Da Colla,
furrounded by woods and pleafantly fituated. Iflini Peguena,
and Great Iflini, are both fituated on the fea-coaft, at the
diftance of three or four miles, and between them is a number
of villages. Three of them are confiderable. Great Iflini is
built at the entrance of a fmall river, which, during the dry
feafon, is loil in the fands, but difcharges itl'tlf into the
fea during the rainy months. This town was pillaged and
burnt by the inland Negroes in 16S1 ; but has fincc recovered
its importance by the addition of a great number of houfcs
and inhabitants. Where the river empties itfelf into the fea,
it forms a fmall ifland, very commodious for building a fort ;
but no fiich defence has been attempted by the Europeans.
Great Iflini is celebrated for the purity of its gold, which
probably comes from the kingdom of Afliento, at the fource
of the Rio de Suero da Colla, a country rich in gold, but
little known to the Europeans. Eaftof Iflini are the little
diftridls and towns of Albiani and Tabo, the former fix
miles and the latter ten from it, both furrounded by high
groves of palms, feen at a great diilance at fea, and much
frequented by European fiiipping. A mile further eaft, and
half a mile weft of cape Apoilonia, flandsthe village Aka-
nimina, on a rifing ground ; commanding an extenfive fea
and land profpeft. The interior country between Eoqun
and this village, is high, rugged, and mountainous, but
affording fome fine gold, ivory, and formerly a few flaves.
The gold duft of thele two places is commonly found at the
depth of fix fathoms, for two miles a!ong the coaft ; and
the Negroes mix it with pulverized copper fo expertly, that
it requires touching to difcover the fraud.

ISSOIRE, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftria, in the department of the Puy de Dome, feated on
the Couze, near the AUier ; 15 miles S.W. of Clermont.
The place contains 509:, and the canton 14,696 inhabitants,
on a territory of ijj kiiiumetres, in 15 communes. N. lat.
4j- 32'. E. long. 3'' 19'.

ISSONG, in Botany, a name given by the people of
Guinea to afpecies of plant, which theyinfufe in water, and
afterwards boil, and then wafti the head with it, as a cure
for all kinds of the head-ach. It is a plant dcfcribed by the
botanical writers under the name of pifum veficarium fructu
nigro, alba macula notato, the bladder pea, with a black
fruit marked with a white fpot ; and called by the people of
Malabar, where it alfo grows very plentifully, uHnga, It is
alfo found in Barbadoes and Jamaica, and is there called
par/ley. Phil. Tranf N'' 232.

ISSOUDUN, in Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of a diftridt, in the department of the Indre,
on theTheols ; 18 miles N.E. of Chateauroux. The place
contains 10,156, and the two cantons into which it is divided
2^,297 inhabitants, on a territory of 662A kiliometres, in 27
communes. This place has confiderable manufadtories.
N. lat. 46" 56' 9". E. long. 1-59' 12".

ISSUABLE Tekms, in Laiw, a name applied to Hilary
or Trinity terms, from the making up of the iifues in thofe
Verms.

ISSUANT, Issuing, in Heraldry, is underftood of a
Lon, or other animal, in a coat of arms, that feems juft
coming out from under a chief, fefie, a houfe, a wood, or
tlie like ; and only ftiews half his body.

It is not very eafy to dillinguifli th& lion ilFuanl from, the

1 s s

lion naiflant : fowie fay the iffuant is that which comes OHt
from the bottom of the chief, fliewing his head, neck, the
tip of his fore-legs and his tail, againft the chief of the
coat ; whereas the naiHant has its rife about the middle of the
field, and fhews all his fore-part, with the tip of his tail, as
if he vi'ere rifing out of the earth.

ISSUE, in Common Laiu, has divers application?, being
fometimcs taken for the children begotten between a maa
and his wife — fometimes for profits growing from amerce-
ments or fines — fometimes for profits of lands and tenements' —
but more frequently for the point of matter depending in
luit, whereupon the parties join, and put their caufe to the
trial of the jury.

On all thefe occafions, in"ue has but one fignification, which
is, an elfett of a caufe preceding : as the children are the
eflecl of the marriage between the parents ; the profits grow-
ing to the king or lord, from the punidiment of any man's
offence, are the eflxjcl of his tranfgrefiion ; the point referred
to the trial of twelve men, is the effcdl of pleading or
procefs.

Ifllies concerning caufcs arc of two kinds ; that iipoK
matter of fadl, and that upon matter of law. An ifl"ue in
fafl is v.'hcn the phintifl" and defendant have agreed upon a
point to be tried by a jury ; and in"ue in lanv is when there
is a demurrer to a declaration, plea, &c. and a joinder
in demurrer, which is an iffue at law to be determined by
the judges. (See Demurrek.) Iflucs in faSl are either
general or /pedal. General, feems to be that whereby it is
referred to the jury to bring in their verdict, whetiier or no
the defendant hath done any fuch thing as the plaintilt' lays-
to his charge.

For example, if it be an offence againft any ftatute, and
the defendant plead not guilty ; this being put to the jury^
is called the genera/ i/fiie. — So, if a man complains of a pri-
vate wrong, which the defendant denies, and pleads no
wrong, nor di.Teifin ; and this be referred to the jury ; it is
likewiie the general ifTue. Speda!, is that, wherein ipecial
matters being alleged by the defendant in his oficncc, both
parties join on this point, and fo go to a demurrer, if it be
guj^lio juris ; or elfe to a trial by the jury, if it be qutJliQ
faQi: as in affault and battery, where the defendant pleads
that the plaintiff' ftruck firft.

Issue, Collateral. See Reprieve.

Issue, Feigned, in C/'an<:f;-js is ufed when a matter of facl
is ftrongly controverted, and the court directs the matter tQ
be tried by a jury : but as no jury can be fummoned to at-
tend this court, the fad is ufually direfted to be tried at the
bar of the court of king's bench, or at the alfizes upon a
feigned iffue. For, in order to bring it there, and have the
point in difpute, and that only, put in ifiue, an adion I's
brought, wherein the plaintiff", by a fiction, declares that he
laid a w^ager of 5/. with the defendant, that A was heir at
law to B, and then avers that he is fo, and tlierefore demands
the 5/. The defendant allows the feigned wager, but avers
that A is not the heir to B. : andthcreupon that iffue is joined,
which is dircded out of chancery to be tried, and thus the
verdicl of the jurors at law determines the fadt in the court
of equity. Thefe feigned ifl"ne3 fecra to be borrowed from
the fponjio judiciatis of the Romans ; and are alfo frequently
ufed in the courts of law, by confent of the parties, to de-
termine fbme difputed right without the formality of plead-
ing, and thereby to fave much time and cxpence in the de'-
cifion of a caufe. Blackft. Com. book iii. p. 452.

I.S.SUES on Sheriffs are for ncglefts and defaults, by amerce-
ment and fine to the king, levied out of the in"ues and pro-
fits of their lands ; and double or treble iflues may be laid on

aflicrif.

I s s

z fiieriiT for not returning w-rits, &c. But tliey mud "be
taken off before they are eftreated into the exchequer, by
Vnle of court, on good reafon fliewn. IfTues fliall be levied
on jurors, for non-appearance ; though on reafonable cxcufe
proved by two wicnefies, the juftices may difcharge the
ilTues. See Distress, Disthixgas, and Process.

Issue denotes, in Sur^;ry, an ulcer made dffignedly by the
praiSlitioner, and kept open a certain time, or even the pa-
tient's whole life, for the cure or prevention of a variety of
difeafes. The phyucian, in his praftice, has frequent occa-
fion to recommend the making of an iffue, and the furgeon
finds it a principal means of rehef in feveral important
cafes ; as, for inltance, the white-fwelling, the difeafe of
the hip-jeint, caries of the vertebra, S;c. Many perfons
-are never in healtli, or at leaft fancy themfelves aUvays ill,
xmlefs they have an iiTue in fome part of their body or an-
other. Making an iffue, indeed, is not unfreqaently confi-
dered as an imitation of nature, who, of her own accord,
often forms ulcers in various parts of the body (as is not
uncommonly conjectured) for the purpofe of difcharging
pernicious humours, wiiereby people are fiippofed to be freed
from grievous dilbrdcrs, and have their health preferved.
The humoral pathologiils were exceflively partial to thefe
notions, which, at the prefent time, wdl be found by
every experienced praftitioner to influence the mafs of
mankind, and render the formation of ilTues more com-
mon than perhaps is confulent wiih the better eltablidied
principles of mcilical fcience. Few old fubjefts will al-
low a fore of long Handing to be dried up, (as the
expreffion is,) without requiring the furgeon immediately
afterwards to make an iffue for then-,. When an ulcer has
exiiled a great length of lime, the confcitution may poffibly
become fo habituated to it, that the health may really fuffer
from its being healed. We have often feen ailhmatic com-
plaints, and levere head-aches follow the cicatrization of an
old ulcer ; but whether they would have happened, if an
iifue had been made in time, we caimot undertake to deter-
mine pcCtively, though the plan is commendable both as
rational and exempt from danger. Whatever may be the
fclidity of the theories which have been offered by medical
writers in regard to iifues, the prailitioner, v.ho has his
eyes open, cannot fail to fee the benefit often derived from
fuch means ; and if there be any unquelHonable fads in me-
dicine and furgery, we may confidently fet down amongit
them the frequent podibility of reheving one difeafe by ex-
citing anotiier of a lefs grievous and more curable nature.

Surgeons of the prefent day have only two ways of making
an ifiue ; one is with a lancet, or fcalpel ; the other with
cauftic.

The place for the ilTue being fixed upon, the furgeon and
his afliftant are to pinch up a fold of the integuments, and
with a lancet, or knife, make in them an incifion of fuffi-
tient fize to held * pea, or as many peas as may be thought
proper. The pea or peas are t'len to be placed in the cut,
■and covered with a piece of adhefive pkRer, a comprefs and
bandage. The peas firil inferted need not be removed for
three or four days, when fuppuration will have begun ; but
the ifiue is afterwards to be cleaned and dreffed every day,
and have frefh peas put into it. The preceding is the ordi-
nary method of making fuch iffues as are intended to contain
only one or two peas.

When the iffue is to be larger, which is generally proper
in cafes of difeafed vertebrae, white-fweliings, &c. the bell
plan is to delboy a portion of the integuments with cauilic.
The kali purum, blended with quicklime, is molUy pre-
ferred for this purpofe. The fituation and fize of the iffue

I s s

having been determined, the furgeon is to take care tliat the
cauilic does not extend its aftion to the furrounding part?.
With this view he is to take a piece of adhefive plafter, and
having cut a hole in it of the exaft fiiape and fize of the
ilTue intended to be made, he is to apply it to the part. Thus
the plailer will deirnd the adjacent Ikin from the cffecls of
the cauflic, while the uncovered portion of integuments, cor-
refpcnding to the hole in the plailer, is that which is to be
dedroyed. The cauilic is to be taken hold of with a bit of
lint or tow, and its end, having been a little moiilcned with
water, is to be fteadily rubbed upon the part of the ficin
where the iffae is to be formed. The frictions are to be con-
tinued, till the whole furface intended to be d;!lroyed ai-
fumes a darkifli corroded appearance. The cauilic maItT
may now be carefully waihed off with fome wet tow. Tiie
plailer is to be removed, and a linfeed poultice applied. As
foon 3S the efchar is detached, or any part of it is loofe
enough to be cut away without pain dr bleeding, the peas
are to be inferted and confined in their proper place with a
piece of adhefive plafter. Some ufe beans for the purpofe ;
others beads, which anfwer very weW, and have the advantage
of ferving for any length of time, when wafiied and cleaned
every day. If the iffue is at all of a longitudinal fiiape, the
peas, beans, or beads may be more eafily kept in their places
when ftrung upon a thread.

Iffues ought always to be made, if pofiible, in a fituation
where the peas will not be much difturbed in the ordinary
motions of the body, nor interfere with the aftions of the
mufcies. The interfpaces between the margins and infer-
tions of mufcies are deemed the moft eligible places. Thus,
iffues in the arm are ufually made jull at the inferior angle
of the deltoid mufcle, by the fide of the external edge of
the biceps. In the lower extremities iffues are often made
at the inner fide of the thigh, immediately above tlie knee,
in a cavity readily L'lt there with the fingers. Sometimes
ilfues are made upon the infide of the kg, juil below the
knee. The nape of the neck is a common place for them.
In caries of the vertebra; they are made on each fide of
the fpinous procefTcs. In difeafed hips they are formed in
a deprefTion juil behind and b-low the tiochantcr niaj.ir.
When the nature of the cafe does not fix the iiluation of
an iffue particularly, the arm fhould be preferred to the
leg, as iffues upon the upper extremity, cfpecially the left
arm, are much lefs annoying than upon ei:her of the lower
limbs.

The great art of keeping an iffue open for a long whiiei
is always to maintain an equal and eifeclual preffure upon
the peas, by which means they will be confined in their
places, and the granulations hindered from rifiag. Coni-
preffes of pafleboard and fheet lead will often be found
highly ferviceable.

IS-SUR-TILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
departmer.t of the Cote d'Or, and chief place of a canton,
in the dillrift of Dijon ; 4 miles N. of Dijon. The place
contains 1598, and the canton 10,170 inhabitants, on a
territory of ^jj kiliometrcs, in 23 communes. N. Lit.
47" 3 y. E. long. 5 9'.

ISSUS, in Ai.c'unt Geography, a town of Afia, in Gili-
cia, fituated on the fea coafl. This town was large, rich,
and populous. It is famous for the battle fought by
Alexander in the year 335 B.C. in v.-h.ich lie defeated the
Pcrfians, and took as prifoners the wife, motlier, and
daughters of Darius.

ISSY l'Eveque, in Geography, a town of France, in
"the department of the Saone and J-.oirc, aixl chief place of

a cantoi}}

1 s r

a canton, in the diftrid of Aiitun ; 19 miles S.S.W. of
Aututi. Tbe phice contains 171,, and the canton 5349
inhabitants, on d territory of 220 kilioiiictres, in 7 com-
tnur.es.

IriTAD, St. a fniall idand in the Grecian .Archipelago,
near the S.E. coafi of Argentiera.

ISTAKAR, a town of Perlia, rn the province oi Far-
Jjian (which fee), at a fniall diiUncc N. of Shiraz.

ISTAN, a town of Spain, in the province of Grenada ;
6 miles S.E. of Monda.

1ST ANNA, a country of Africa, E. of Benin.
ISTAPA, a town of Mexico, in the province of Cii'ia-
can ; 4a miles E. of Culiacan.

ISTAPAN, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guadalajara ; ij miles N.E. 01 St. Miguel.

I3TECHIA, a town of the Morea, in the gulf of
Coron ; 7 miles S. of Scardamula.

ISTEFAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province
of Natolia ; 20 miles N. of Sinob.

ISTENAZ, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province
cf Caramania ; 18 miles W. of Satalia.

ISTEPEC, a town of Mexico, in the^ province of
Guatimala ; 12 miles N. of St. Salvador.

ISTER, in yliicknl Geography, the name which the
Greeks gave to the river whicli we call the Danube ; which
lie.

ISTESSO, i.'IsTE.?so, Ital. in Muf.c, the fame found,
air, or interval. Domenico Scarlatti, in Rofcingrave's
edition of his firfl book of Leffons, has I'ljlijfo di/fi-rente ior
the fame air, varied ; and Padre Martini, for exactly the
fame thing, his Jlefo, JI(fifmo.

ISTHjEVONES, or IsT.EVOXEs, in Ancient Geography',
a people of Germany, who, according to Pliny (1. iv. c. 14."),
were lituated near the Rhine, and of whom the Cimbri, in
the interior of the country, formed a part.

ISTHMIA, lT?y.:z, or Isthmian Games, Ludl I/Ihmii,
were folemn fports, being one of the four facred games ce-
lebrated in ancient Greece.

They were called IJlhm'ian, becaufe they were celebrated
in the Corinthian iithmus, a neck of land by which Pelo-
ponnefus is joined to the continent.

Plutarch, in the life of Thefeus, tells us they were in-
ftituted by that hero to the honour of Neptune, in imitation
of Hercules, who had before inilituted the Olympic games
to the honour of Jupiter ; but Arehias refers their inlli-
tution to the honour of Melicertes, or Palxmon, fon of
Athamas, king of Thebes, whom the Latins call Portumnus.
Others fay they were inftituted by Niljs, fon of Neptune :
and others, by Sifyphus, brother of Athamas, king of
Corinth, about 1326 years B.C. Others are of opinion
that there were two diftinft folemnities obferved in the
lllhmus, one in honour of Meiicertes, and another in honour
of Neptune.

The moll probable account of the origin and fubfeqiient
renewal of thefe games, allowing, as it may perhaps be ne-
ceflary, for fome mixture of fable, is as follows : Athamas,
king of the Orchomenians, a people of Boeotia, having di-
vorced his former wife, named Nephele, by whom he had
two fons, .Phryxus and Hellc, and having married Ino, by
v.hom he had aho two fons, Learchus and Melicertes,
nr Mehcerta ; the latter perfecuted the children of the
former marriage, fo far as to make her hufband behevc that
the oracle of Delphos demanded the blood of Phryxu,';, as
tbe means of putting a Hop. to the famine of which ihc her-

I S T

felf was the caufe ; and the too credulous Athamas was
upon the point of facrilicing his fon to the fafety of his
fubjed^s; but upon information of his wife's whole manage-
ment, he flew her fon Learchus, and purfiied [no with
fuch eagernefs, that flie was found to throw herfelf down
with Melicerta, wliom (he held in her arms, from the top of
the rock Moluria, into the fea. A dolphin, we are told,
or rather the waves, carried Melicerta into the illhmus of
Corinth ; and the Corinthians, at the perfualion of Sifyphus,
the broihcr of Athamas, after having given him a fplendid
funeral, inilituted to his honour games, whicli obtained the.
name of lilhmian, from the place where they were cele-
brated for the firil time. Thefe games, in which were-
exliibited the fame trials of /kill as in the others, and chiefly
thofe of mulic and poetry (fee G.^me.s), having been in-
terrupted, probably by fome wars, were afterwards re-
ellablilhed by Thefeus (1234 BC), who confecratcd them~
to Neptune, whofe fon he pretended to be, as to the god.
who peculiarly prefidcd over the iilhmus of Corinth ; and
they were renewed fo regularly every five years, about the
middle of the month Plecatombion, that they were not
even difconlinucd after the city of Corinth had been de-
flroyed and reduced to aihes by Mumn.ius ( 146 B.C.) ; the
Sicyonians having received orders to celebrate them, not-
withftanding the public grief and defolation. When the
city was afterwards rebuilt, the new inhabitants refumed
the care of thefe games, and continued to exhibit them
with great regularity. Some time after, the Romans were
admitted to them, and celebrated them with fo much pomp
and apparatus, that beCdes the ordinary exercifes, a hunting
match was there exliibited, in which were prefcnted the
moll rare animals ; the city of Corinth ncgledling no means
by which they might pleafe their conquerors :. and their
fame was ftill incrcafed^ becaufe they ferved as aa era to
the Corinthians, and iohabitants of the illhmus.

Arehias and others fay, the conqueror's prize at thefe-
games was a crown of parfley. Plutarch .•xnd Strabo fay
it was at firil a crown of pine ; and that this was afterwards
changed for one of parfley ; but that at length the pine
was refumed ; and to this was added a reward of 100 filver
draahmx, or about 3/. 4j-. ']d. llerling.

Thefe games were held, according to Pindar, every three
years, or, according to Pliny, every five ; and were fo cele-
brated, and the concourfe at them was fo great, that only
the prime perfons of the moil remarkable cities could havr
places in them. The Athenians had only as m.uch room
allotted them as the fail of a Ihip, which they fent yearly to
Delos, could cover.

ISTHMUS, \a^uo., in Geography^ a narrow neck, or
flip of ground, which joins two continents ; or joms a
peninfula to the terra firma, and feparates two feas.

The mod celebrated ifthmufes are that of Panama or
Darien, which joins North and South America ; that of
Suez, which connefts Afia and Africa ; that of Corinth,
or Peloponnefus, in the Morea ; that of Crim-Tartary,
otherwife called Taurica Cherfonefus ; that of the peninfula
Romania and Eriflb, or the itthmus of the Thracian Cher-
fonefus, twelve furlongs broad, being that which Xerxes
undertook to cut through. The ancients had feveral de-
figns of cutting the ifthmus of Corinth, which is a rocky
hillock, about ten miles over ; but they were all vain, the
invention of lluices n.ot being then known. There have
been attempts, too, for ci'.ting the ifthmus of Suez, to
make a commi:nicu;ion bef.\cea the Red Tea and the Me-
diterrancaD.

ISTI.'JIUS

I S T

Isthmus is alfo applied, by the anatomift?, to fevernl
"parts of the human boJy, particularly tliat iianow part of
the throat, fituule betwixt the tsvo tonfils.

Alfo to the ridge that feparatcs the two noflrils ; and to
the paffage in that part of the medulla oblongata of the
brain which lies between the cerebrum and cerebellum, and
which reaches from the p'ace called anus to the fourth ven-
tricle. The upper part or cover of this conduit, or paflagc,
\vliich is betwixt the tettes and the foremofl vermicular
procefs of the cerebellum, and to which two it is tied
at its two ends, and to the procefFcs which come from
the cerebellum to the teftes at its fides, is called valenta
major; it is of a medullary fubflance, and its ufe is to
keep tlie lympha from falling out above the nerves in the
balls of the ikuU.

ISTIATZKA, in Geographi, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Tobolfli, on the Vagal ; 68 miles S. of
Tobolfli.

ISTI^, in Avcieut Geography, a town of the ifland of
Euboea ; fituated in the northern part of the illand upon
a mountain, nearly oppolite to the Pelafgic gulf, which
belonged to Theffuly. It was anciently called Oreos, from
its fituation, cjc- being a mountain. Its original inhabitants
:ivere driven from it by Pericles, and retired to the Eiliotide,
an interior country of 'i'btffaly ; and their place was oc-
cupied by a colony of Athenians, of tlie tribe Hciliaea. It
is now called Orio, or Oreo.

ISTIB, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in
Macedonia; 72 miles N. of Saloniki. N. lat. 41' 50'.
E. long. 22^ 48'.

ISTILLAR, a town of European Turkey, in Mace-
donia; 56 miles S.E. of Salonik'.

ISTIZER, a town of Ruflia, in the governtnent of
ToboUk ; 24 miks E.S.E. of Tobollk.

ISTLAN, a towu uf Mexico, in the province of Me-
choacan ; 60 miles N.W. of Mcclioacan.

ISTRE, a tow^n of France, in the department of the
mouths of the Rhone, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of Aix ; 18 miles S.E. of Aries. Tlie place con-
tains 21 I.I, and the canton 5922 inhabitants, on a territory
of 347 n kiiiometres, in 4 communes.

ISTRIA, a peninfula of Europe, bounded every where
by the fea, except on the north, where it is joined to Car-
inola. This peninfula was anciently a part of lllyrium ;
Tjiit being conquered by the Romans, between the firft and
fecond Punic wars, it was annexed to Italy. In the middle
ages it belonged to the patriarch of Aquileia, who was
invelled with it, as a mar<iuifate, by the emperor Henry IV.
In the year i igo the maritime part was for the moll part
conquered by the republic of Venice, abating fome inter-
ruptions on the part of the Auftrians. Venetian Iftria was
divided into 4 biflioprics and iS diftrifls ; it contained 6
large, and 12 fmall towns, or boroughs, 200 villages, and
loo,oco inhabitants, who were chiefly employed in agri-
culture, the produdtion of wine and oil, the rearing of bees,
the manufafture of filk, leather, tallow, and fait, and fifliing.
The grain, wine, oil, and fait, have been reckoned excel-
lent, and have afforded, together with the tunny fifh and
anchovy fiflicry, profitable articles of commerce. The
marble and lloue have likewife fupplied important branches
of trade. But the chief wealth of lilria has confided in its
foreils, which overfpread a great part of the country,
and yield abundance, not only of fire-wood and timber
for fhip-building, but alfo of game. By the treaty of
Campo Formio, in 1797, and that of Luneville, in 1801,
the Venetian part oif Iltria was ceded to Aullrja. But by

I T A

the treaty of Prefburg, in 1805, that part of the dates of
the republic of Venice, which had been ceded to the em-
peror of Germ.any and Auflria by the treaties of Campo
Eormio and Luneville, were united in perpetuity to the
king of Italy.

ISTRUP, or OlsTRUP, a town of the bilhopric of
Faderborn ; 12 miles E. of Paderborn.

ISTUNALA, a town of South America, in the go-
vernment of Tucuman ; 130 miies E. of St. Miguel de
Tucuman.

ISUNGO, a town near the cer.ire of the illand of Gi-
lolo.

ISVORA, a tott-n of Walachia ; 12 miks E.S.E. of
Brancovina.

ISURIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifland
of Albion, or Drilain, in the country of the Brigantes. It
is now Aldburrov.-, near Borougiibridge, and probably
derived its name from its fituation on the river Ure. Al-
though it is now a fmall village, it feems to have been once
tlie capital of the Brigantes ; being called, both in the
Itinerary of Antoninc ar.d in Ravenna's, " Ifurium Brigan-
tum."' The foundations of the ramparts may ftill be
traced.

ISWA RA, in H'mdoo Mythology, one of the many narnes
of Siva ; but it is fometimes applied, rather confufedly, to
other deities, being nearly equivalent to our lord, and fuf-
ceptible of equivocal application. Generally, however, it
is underilood of Siva, and fometimes has the epithet Maha
prefixed, giving Mahefwara, or the great Ifwara. Uiider
this form the name of his fakti, or confort, is Mahefwari.

ISV^'^ETOSTA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
the province of Skonen ; 8 miles N. E. of Chriftianftatt.

ITABIER, a town of the ifland of Borneo ; 30 miles
N. of Nogara.

ITABOCA, a town of Brazil, in the government of
Para, on the Tocantin ; 90 miles S. of Canuta.

ITACAMBIM, a town of Brazil ; 60 miles N. of Villa
Nova del Principe.

ITACORUSSA, a town of Brazil, fituated on the
Xiiigis ; 60 miles S.W. of Curupa.

ITAIARA, iu Ichthyology, a name by which fome have
called a Brafilian filh, of the turdus kind, of great beauty,
and a very delicate tafte, more ufually known by the name
juruncapeba.

ITAKA, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland
of Niphon ; 3^ miles S. of Ixo.

ITALA, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Demona ;
13 miles S W.of Meffina.

ITALAH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia. N.
lat. _:;8' 43'. E. long. 28^ 29'.

ITALIA, in Ancient Geography. See Italt.

ITALIAN, the language fpoken in Italy.

This tongue is derived principally from the Latin, and of
all the languages formed from the Latin, there is none wliich
carries with it more vifible marks of its original than the
Italian.

It is accounted one of the mod perfeft among the modern
tongues. It is complained, indeed, that it has too many
diminutives and fuperlativcs, or rather augmentatives ; but
without any great reafon : for if thofc words convey
nothing farther to the mind than the juil ideas of things,
they are no more faulty than our pleonafras and hyper-
boles.

The language correfponds to the genius of the people ;
they are flow and thoughtful ; and, accordingly, their lan-
guage rutis heavily, though fmoothly j and many of tbcir
2 words

I T A

ymtis arc lengthened out to a great degree. Tlicy have a
great talle for iniilic ; and to gratify their paffioii this way,
have altered abundance of their primitive words ; leaving,
out confonatits, taking in vowels, foftening and lengthening
out their terminations for tlie fake of the cadence.

Hence the language is rendered extremely mufical, and
fiicceeds better than any other in operas, and fome parts
of poetry ; but it fails in llrengtli and nervoufncfs : hence
aifo a great part of its words, borrowed from the La-
tin, become fo far difguifcd, that they are not eafily known
again.

The multitude of fovereign dates into which Italy is
divided, has given rife to a great number of different dialects
in that language ; which, however, are all good in the place
where they are ufed. The Tufcan is ufually preferred to
the other dialects, and the Roman pronunciation to that of
the other cities; whence the Italian proverb, -'Lingua
Tofcana in bocca Romaua."

The Italian is generally pretty well underltood throughout
F.iirope, and is frequently fpokcn in Germany, Poland, and
Hungary. A.t Conflantinople, in Greece, and in the ports
of the Levant, the Itahan is ufed as commonly as the
language of the country ; indeed in thofe places it is not
fpoken fo pure as in Tufcany, but is corrupted with manv
cf the proper words and idioms of the place ; v/hence it
takes a uevr name and is called Fruni Italian. See Lan-
guage.

TlALiAX Coins, Meafurcs, Marble, SUhs. See the fub-
■flantives.

Italian' School of Engraving. Engraving, with the work
of the fcorper occnfionaily intermingled with that of the
graver, had been pra'tifed in Italy, from time immemorial,
in oramenting thofe golden and fiiver vafes, falvers, clialiccs,
and other veflels of p'ate, which adorned the communion-
tables of the Catholic church, and the fide-boards of the no-
ble and opulent, when, about the middle of the fifteenth
century, Alafo, or Thomafo, Finiguerra, a goldfmith of
Florence, accidentally difcovercd the means of printing
from the incifions thus fculptured on the metal : fo that en-
graving on copper-plates, as it is now praftifed, with the view
of rendering impreffions on paper, is a fcion from the decora-
tive part of the art or trade of the goldfmith ; but which
has gradually far out-grown the parent tree.

Vafari, in his biography of Marc Antonio, has, with
great propriety, connecled his account of that dillinguifhed
engraver, with an hiilory of the difcovery which rendered
his art fo famous and fo extenfively beneficial. He fays
that Finiguerra, having performed an engravuig on a piece
of plate, and intending to fill up the hollows v/ith enamel ;
in order to try the eflecl of it previoufly to putting on the
tnamel, caii fome melted fulphur upon it, and, on taking it
ofl, perceived that the dirt (or charcoal with which he firll
tried his work) coUeded at the bottom of the ftrokes, by
adliering to tlie fulphur, gave an imprefCon of what he had
engraven. Struck with the difcovery, he repeated the ex-
periment, by applying moiftened paper to his engraving
inllead of fulphur, roUing it gently with a roller, and this
e\perinie:)t being attended with fuccefs, he imparted his
difcovery to Baccio Baldini, who was alfo of Florence,
bv whom it was communicated to Sandro BoticelH, and
pirhaps alfo Antonio Pollajuolo, and Andrea Mantegna.

The baron Heinnekin, however, believes that roUing.
prefs printing had previous exiftence in Germany, and fub-
feqnent writers (among whom is our countryman Strutt),
giving credit to the opinion of an author, who is fo generally
wo'thv of it as Heinnekin, have copied this behef, or «•

\'.l. X!X.

I T A

peatcd this alTertion cf the baron, perhaps witli too li'tlc re-
flexion.

An accidental difcovery of this kind, which might have
taken place in any country where paper vv'as known and
ufed, reflefts fo little real honour upon its birth-place, as to
be unworthy of half the importance which has been iiuliiC-
trioufly endeavoured to be attaclicd to it ; yet for this trivial
or fancied honour, the connoilfeurs and literati of Italy and
Geri^any have contended ; and we mnft allow, that the
mind of Heinnekin appears, in this indance, to have been in-
fluenced by an evident bias in favour of the prctenllons of
his country.

He oppofes, however, only conjefturc to the plain and
fimple fad of Vafari, which we have related above ; ai:d
tliough he, as well as others, have feduloully fought for evi-
dence in the dates of the earlielt German engravings, no
fuch evidence has been fouiid. No German print impreflcd
from an engraved plate, of which the date has not been fub-
fequently altered to iir.pofe on the credulous, has been, or
can be produced, as the prefent writer believes, bearii:g a;i
earher date than 1460, the year in which, according to Vafari,
the accident happened in the workfliop of Finiguerra, which
gave to Europe the means of printing from the iacifion of
tlie graver.

Finiguerra was born at Florence fon-.e time about the
year 1424, and died in the fame city at an advanced age.
He is reported to have lludied under Maffaccio. Pnibabiv
he learned drawing in the fchool of that mailer: and Baccio
Bandinelli, in one of his letters fays, that Mafo wcrk?d
with PolLijuolo and other contemporary artills, on the far
famed metal doors of the church of St. John at Florence.
About the year 1450, he engraved alfo for the church of
St. John, the PafTiun of Chrill on a facred vafe of gold,
in a very artift-like manner, though the figures were fmall.
This facl is reported in b letter from M. Gabuori to Ma-
riette; but of his other engravings we are compelled to fpeak.
with doubt.

Whether any imprejjions from the works of this artifl
remain to atteii his difcovery of printing, and corroborate
the ftatement of Vafari, is at the bell uncertain. Strutt has
mentioned diibioufiy, " The Seven Planets ;" which arc
really from the graver of Boticelli, and with better fliow of
reafon, a fmall plate of an artiil engaged in his profeflion,
which is marked with the letter F on a (tone, and is certainly in
the very carlieft flyle (for Baldini and Boticelli can fcarcely be
faid to have attained a flyle) of Italian engraving ; to wliicli
the foreign writers on art have added the twenty-four fol-
lowing fmall engravings, which are, for the moll part, of t!ie
circular form. According to Huber and Rolt they were
recogni/.ed as the work of Finiguerra by M. Otto, a well-
known amateur of Leiplic, by M. I'Abbe Zani of Parma,
and by the more celebrated baron de Stofch, the latter of
whom refidcd :i long time at Florence, whilll he was finming
his immenfe colleftion of works of art. All of thefe con-
noiffeurs iiave admitted them into their collections as the
work of Finiguerra; and Heinnekin, after attentive exami-
nation, has adjudged them to be his engraving and printing.

1. A conchant female, perhaps intended for a Venus.
On a flreamer furmounting the couch, is inferibod " Amor
vuol fc, odove fenonnc.' 2. The mak and female fup-
porters (a young man and woman) of the arms of the
Medicis, with a vafe of flowers, &c. The female is dreffej
in the Grecian talle, and holds two gir.iles. N. B, This
feems to have been printed from the cover of a round box.
3. A half-length figure of a young man with a parroquet
on his Ihouldes, playing the guitar, encircled by a border
of fruit. 4. An adolefeent inpid tied to j tree, his eyes
5 S bandaged.

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

bx-idagcd, nnd four fom;;!es tormenting him. 5. The fame
fiibjert, diiTerently treated. 6. Eight fmall ovals enclofed
in a circular border of fo'iage. In the middle are two pro-
tiles of character, a'ld in each of the rcit a little cupid
playing on fome mufical inllrumcnt. 7. A fimilar fvibjeft,
except that in a circle in the middle, a cavalier and lady are
reprcfcntcd dancing. 8. Another circle bordered with
fruit. In the middle part, a bear in a landfcape is attacked
by five dogs, and at the top are two cartouches, on the
fcrolls of which the arms of the Medicis are traced with
pen and ink. 9. Another circle, bordered with foliage. The
fubjetl a mufica! party, confifti:ig of a cavaher and two
ladies in a garden. 10. A monflrous vifage, the mouth of
which is extended by two hands, in a circular border.
II. Contains two profiles en medallion bordered with lau-
rel ; above them are three hunting fubjecls, in one of which
a dog is attacking a (lag, whilll ahare is efcaping. 12. A
lady careillng a unicorn. A dog is at her feet, and her
head enwrcathed wi'h flowers. 13. Judith and Holofernes,
in which the heroine is habited in the antiqae tafte. 14. The
f'.m;- i' ;bi -ci, except that Judith is here more richly drelfed
■:ier, and crowned. 15. A cavalier and lady
, prefs grove, vvhilil a youth plays the tam-
, Jaibn and iMedea, who appear as fupportcrs
i) an a;-:r!o;ial bearing. 17. Two fupporters to a fphere :
one of whom (the man) holds a II reamer, on which is written
" Amor vuol fe, a dove fe nonne ;" the other is a female
dreiTed m the antique talte, and holding the motto " Amor
r.on pico." iS. Another heraldic fubjad, in the mid 11 of
which a circular fpace is left blank for an arm.orial bearing.
The left fupporter is a young lady, and on the ri;Hit hand is
a cavalier holding a wreath of laurel ; a winged cupid is
fluttering above, and beneath, a dog is afleep. 19. An-
other circular armorial bearing, with a male and a female
fupporter. 20. A guardian angel, with expanded v.-ings
in a pontifical habit. 21. Cupids holding wreaths of flowers
and fruit; one with his eyes bandaged. 22. Bacchanals; in
the midlt of which is a- car drawn by cupids, furmountedby
a trophy of gabions throwing out fire. Some of the cupids
are plaving on inflruments of mufic, others bearii^ flambeaus.
The proceffion is led by one carrying a flag, on which is
vs-ritten " Ptirita,'' and clofed by another, whofe motto is
'•' Al fecogedit." 23. Two women elegantly attired, fitting
in a landfcape, fupporting a border of cornucopias. 24. Two
warriors, with each a knee on the ground, fupporting
an ocl*gonal efcutclieon, on which is a female with her
hands raifed towards heaven. N. B. The four latter are
ovals.

" An edition of the " Inferno of Dante," printed at Flo-
rence in the year 148 1, has long been fuppofed to contain
the earliell Italian engravings, excepting the maps to an edi-
tion of Ptolemy printed at Rome in 147S, of which the tiate
is afcertained, and to liave been the firil: book ever embel-
lifticd with copper-plate prints, in which human figures, or
other natural objefts, were attempted to be reprefentcd.
This is, however, a miftake. The extenfive and well
chofen bibliographical colledion of car! Spencer contains a
more pcrfcft book, printed alfo at Florence, (by Niccolo
Lorenzo della Magna,) but in the year 1477, which is four
years anterior to the " Dante." Its title is " Monte Santo
di Dio ;" its author Antonio Bettini, bifliop of Fuligno ;
and of the three engravir:gs it contains, one is much larger
than the embeilifhments of Dan'e.

" The prints that accompany both thefe books are the joint
performance of Baccio Baldini and Alefandrd Boticello, or
Boticelli ; and no..e of them difcover much (Icill either ia the
defign or execution. The fame artills have alfo engraven a

fet of the Prophets, fingle figures ; and a much larger pla'
than had yet appeared in Italy, of which the fubjcdl is " TI.l
Lafl Judgment," and where the damned are reprefented
in feparate places of torment, which refemble ovens, each
infcribed with a particular vice or mortal fin. But it mull
be add'.d, that all the engravings which thcfe artifts per-
formed in conjunttion, are Gothic, vulgar, and inferior to
thofe of their German contemporaries."

Baldini was a Florentine by birth, and was brought up to
the butinefs of a goldfmith. Judging from his engraving,
and his obfcurity in every other refpeft, he feems to have
been one of thofe men of flender talent, who are pretty
numerous in all times and places ; whofe mere want of em-
ployment affords them leifure to catch at, and avail them-
felves of the advantages of, the inventions and difcovt-ries of
others. From Finiguerra he obtained his method of print-
ing ; and Boticelli furnifhing him with defigns, he engraved,
■with the help of the latter, nineteen plates for the above-
mentioned edition of the " Inferno of Dante." The whole
of his other engravings, with which we are acquainted, have
been already mentioned.

Sandro Boticelli, furnamed Filipipi, goldfmith, painter,
defigner, and engraver, was born at Florence in the year
1437, and died in the fame city in 15 15. Though appren-
ticed to a goldfmith, he lludied the art under Filippo Lippi
the painter, and acquired fome reputation by his piftuies,
but more by his drawings. His biographers fay, that he
learned engraving (probably printing by ineaii.s of the roller)
of Finiguerra ; and befide the defigns for Dante's poem, and
thofe which follow, Vafari mentions with dillinftion, as his
very belt performance v.ith the graver, a print, entitled
" Le Triomphe de la Foi de Fra Girolamo Savanarola."

" St. Jerome on his Knees, extending his right Hand to-
ward a Crucifix ;" " St. Seballian with the Virgin Mary,"
ii.fcribed " O Malcr Dei, memento mci — O beate Zebaf-
tiano ;" a fet of twelve of " The .Sybils," with each a fcroU,
and eight Italian verfes beneath ; " The feven Planets."
(N.B. It is one of them, namely, the planet Venus, which
Strntt has copied, and afcribed to Finiguerra.) " The
Triumph of Paulus Emihus," infcribed on a medallion,
" Paulo Emilio Aug. ;" a fet of the "Vices" and " Pafilons,"
with " Innocence" and "Truth ;" "The glorified Sa /iourrifing
in Judgment, attended by the Prophets and Saints." The
three latter are of imall folio dimenfions ; and of the la(l of
all we have already particularly fpoken wider the title of
" The Laft Judgment," the joint produftion of Boticelli
and Baldini.

"Antonio Pollajuolo or Pollajuoli, %\ho was alfo of Flo-
rence, and born fome time about the year 1426, may with
more propriety be called an artift. From the antique
fculpture, which was now beginning to re-appear, he feems
to have learned attention to the anatomy of his figures : to
which moil important requifite of hiftorical art, Pollajuolo
has the diltinguifhed honour of having been the firiT; to at-
traft critical attention. He has (hewn his prcdiieftionTor
this lludy, by reprefenting the confpirators naked in the
m.edal which he cut to commemorate the affafiination of
Juliano, and tlie attack on Lorenzo de Medici ; and alfo
in a much larger engraving than had hitherto been executed,
of which the iubjeft is a battle, and wherein he has repre-
fented ail the combatants naked. There is an impreffion of
this very fcarce print in the Cracherodean colledion, printed
on reddifh paper : each figure is nearly eleven inches in
height ; the heads have fome faint dawnings of rxpi-clfion ;
and the fhadows are produced without croffirgs, by dia-
gonal lines, apparently done to imitate the hatcr-ings of a
1 en, and in the faire dircftion in which it is cu'lomary to
7 write ;

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

write : but the outlines and fliadows arc dry and hard, and
the forms vulgar and heavy. It is only by comparing Pol-
lajuolo with his contemporaries and predecefTors, that we
learn to refped his performances ; and it has even been faid
of his moft cek-bratcd work, (" The Martyrdom of St. Se-
ballian,") that it " exhibits only a group of half naked and
vulgar wretches difchargisg their arrows at a miferable
fellow-creature, who, by changing places with one of his
murderers, might with equal propriety become a murderer
himfelf :" fo little attention was paid even in Italy, at this
early period, to charadler and exprcfnon." Landfecr's
Left u res.

Like moft of the contemporary artifts of liis country,
PoUajuoli praftifed occalionally the feveral branches of imi-
tative art, which have fince become diftincl profeffions, and
was at once goldfmith, medallift, fculptor in reiievo, painter,
and engraver with the burin. Bartolucci v.-as his principal,
or at lead his iirft inllrudor ; but he worked with confider-
able credit, under Ghiberti, on the juftly celebrated metal
doors of the church of St. John at Florence. He alfo exe-
cuted the monument of pope Sixtus IV., which originally
f*ood in the chapel of that name, and has fince been removed
by the order of Urban VIII. to the church of St. Peter;
and that of Innocent VIII. ; which are both in bronze, and
are works of great merit. The plan of the Bclvidere palace
has been likevvife attributed to liim.

Of the prints now extant from the graver of PoUajuoli,
we know only of the following :

The above-mentioned large folio, wherein fix men are
reprefented fighting with fwords in a foreft ; an " Holy Fa-
mily," alfo in folio ; and two fmaller prints of '■ The La-
fcours of Hercules," in one of v.hich he is engaged with
Art2v.c, and in the other removing a column.

An obfcure village near Mantua gave birth to the che-
valier Andrea Mantegna, in the year 1451. Born in indi-
gence, he was obliged in his early youth to tend Iheep for
a fubfiilence ; but being gifted by nature with a happy
genius for the imitative arts, he employed all his leifure in
endeavouring to draw the objefts around him. F. Squar-
cione, that obfervant protestor of the fine arts, who was
thence furnamed the Father of Painters, difcovering the dif-
pofition of our young (hepherd for painting, took charge of
his education ; and conceiving for him an ardent affedion,
which increafcd with the increafing merit of Mantegna,
finally created him heir to his fortune.

Mantegna married the daughter of John Bel'ino of Ve-
nice'. Correggio became his dilciple, and the duke of Mantua
his warm admirer and patron : from his hands our artift re-
ceived the honour of knighthood ; and for him he painted
that celebrated pidure, which he afterwards engraved, and
which is now in the royal palace at Hampton-Court, of the
" Triumph of Juhus Csefar."

He executed feveral great works for pope Innocent VIII.,
who. invited him for that purpofe to Rome. He painted an
altar-piece for the church of St. Sophia of Padua ; and ftveral
piiStures for that of St. Juilinian, particularly one whicli has
been much admired for its colouring as well as difigr, in a
chapel belonging to that church ; finally, lie died in the
fame city (of Padua), highly honotired and admired, in the
yeari^ij; and a tomb, furmountcd by his buft, was raifcd
to his memory in the church of St. Andrew.

Mantegna contributed much to the advancomenl of Italian
engraving. "By his more intimate knowledge of tlie antique,
and his Tuperior ufe of that knowledge, he improved the
drawing, without materially altering tlic ftyle of engraving
of Pollajuolo, by whom he is prefumed to have been in-
ftruttcd in the new an. Indeed, as the local energies and

praftical perfeftions of painting were at this time fo impcr-
feiElly developed, it was much n-.orc natural, and i:i the fame
degree more wife, for engraving to imitate pen vud ink
drawings than to imitate piftures ; and the bcil of Man-
tegna's prints derive a pecuharity of cliarafter ar.d of val'.:e
from this circumdance. By intermingling the appearance
of the finer ftrokcs of the pen, ls it worked upward, in Ins
(hadows he foftened and mellowed tliv itronger lines ; fo that
the whole became a more appropriate vehicle of the obfcii-
rity he had in view : and the exait iin-)ilarity of his ilyle of
engraving to his own mode of drav.ing fufiiciently fiicv.f,
that to imitate pen and ink drawings was the boundary of
his aiin.

" A verj' curious pen and ink drawing from the hand of
Mantegna, of which the fubjeCt is an atter-pt to relt-ore a!i
allegorical pidurc which Apelles pain'.ed from an event in
his own life, is now in the pofleinun of Mr. Weil, prefidenl
of the Royal Academy. He engraved, from his own de-
figns, fometimes on copper, and fomelimes, as it is faid,
upon tin. " In his engravings, as in his piftures, his con-
tours are of a grand and decided charatler, fuilained
throughout by much of what has fince been termed the
noble fimplicity of the Roman fchool. His prints are not
few ; but confidering the early period at which they were
performed, are much more extraordinary than nun:erous.
The two " Labours of Hercules," in the Crachcrodian
CoUe&ion, ought probably to be reckoned among the
earliefl of Mantegna's engravings. Like thole of PoUdjuoIi,
they are printed on reddifli paper, and are dcfigncd in th •
fame heavy ftyle. His « Bacchanalian Procelnon" has dill
forrie confiderable remains of Gothic groffnefs ; but he has
here Ihewn his talent in compofition, and the fore-fliortenings
that occur are far better exprefied than we have hitherto
feen. The compofition of his " Battle of Sea-Gods and
Tritons" is wildly grand, with fuch a mixture of the gro-
tofque, as may lecm not improperly to belong to a fubjeft
which we fhoidd efteem out of nature, or beyond the limits
of the material world. The combatants in this battle arc
the offspring of his own fertile and vigorous fancy, gene-
rated by the fculpture of antiquity. Befide the Irilons and
fea-monders, here are the general forms of horfes and men ;
but, like the tawns and fylvan deities of the Greeks, tlieir
natures partake of the element in wliich they exid : — at
lead, the fpeclator is led to perceive that this intention ex-
ifted in the mind of the artid, and that (in the words of
.Ariel's fong) they have undergone " a fea-change, into
fomcthing rich and ftrange." Inltead of hair, fea-weed dc-.
corates the human heads ; and the fins and fcales of marine
animal.'; help to conditute the horfes and tritons. Their
weapons, too, are congenial witli themlelvcs : they fight
with fifli and filh-bones, and the ikuU of Ibme unknown in-
habitant of the deep ferves as a fliield.

" The heads of the horfes, as well as thofe of the fea-gods,
are animated by no inconiiderable portion of the ideal gran-
deur of the antique ; the anatomical markings, the coniiant
objcft of Mantegna's attention, are alio fuccefsfuUy ftudied
from the fame inedimable fourceof information : and in the
early imprefilons, the chiarofcuro lias more breadth, as well
as depth, than feenis to belong to the Italian art of this
early period, and is conducted through the whole with
maderly addrefs.

" A more flow and fedate magnificence moves his triiim-
phal proceflion of Julius Ca;far. The wild imagination
which revels in his recedes of the ocean, and his bacchana-
lian proceffions, is nearly excluded from . hence ; it but
ferves, in the flaming of the candelabra, to gleam through
« the fjioih of nation?, and the pomp of wars ;" or faintly
■; S ? difcovers

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

difcovcrs itfclf in other fubordinate accefTories as the fringed
ornament of (lately grandeur.

" In his Dance of females, he has fhewn fo much of the
graceful fimphcity and general air of Greek fculpture, as to
give rife to a belief that it has been copied from an antique
baflo-relievo : but till fuch a bafTo-relievo is fiiewn, it would
be unfair in us to refigu fo much of the merit of Andrea
Mantcgna as this compofition may claim. Thefe three
engravings abundantly demonllrate the wide range of his
tech.nical and inventive powers ; and (hew with what fuccefs
he could combine, or feparately exhibit, elegance, wilduefs,
and srrandeur, as occafion admitted or required.

" Some critics have thought that Mantegna's admiration of
the antique was too predominant in his works; that it too fre-
quently engron'ed his powers ; and hurried him too entirely
away from that contemplation of nature, which mud always
be one of the parents of originahty in art. Yet, if this enthu,-
fiafm be a fault, it is a fault proceeding fo nece{urily, and fo
in^mcdiately, from the localities of time and place, and the re-
d'.mdance of his merits, that it is as fecure of pardon from the
candid, as thofe merits are of praife." Landfeer's Leflures.

The monogram of this celebrated engraver, refembling that
of Marc Antonio, will be found in our Plali: I. of thofe of
the Ilahan School. The following lill is believed to contain
all his principal works, and it is not certain that he engraved'
any more than this lift contains. They are of folio dimenfions,
and fome of thenn very large ; — " The Madonna and Infant
Chrift," (copied by Strutt in his Biographical Dictionary
of Engravers); " Tlie Clioice of Hercules ;" "Hercules
overcoming Antxus," infcribed " Divo Herculi invido.''
" The Marriage of Eneas with Lavinia ;" " The Scourging
of Chrift ;" " The Entombing of Chrift," infcribed " Hu-
mani generis Redemptor ;" " The Defcent of the Saviour
to Hell ;"^" The Pvefurreaion of Jefus Chrift ;" " Judith
with the Head of llulofernes ;" and two grotefqiie monfters
fighting iv tlie prefence of two warriors.

The following are the principal fubjecls of M. Landfeer's
comments which are quoted above : — "A Bacchanalian Pro-
cefFion," in which both fawns and fatyrs are introduced ;
•' A Ba! tie between various marine Monfters ;'" "A Dance of
Four Females ;" " Tlie Triumph of Julius Cvsefar,'' engraven
on nine plates, wliicli, when joined, form a magnificent
friexe : but it is uncommon to find a colieflion where the
nine are complete.

Giovanni Marix da Brefcia, or Brixienfis, was a native
of Brefcia, in the Venetian territory, and was born A.D.
1460. He was an ecclefiaftic of the order of Carmelites,
and about the beginning of the fixteenth century, painted
" The Hiftory of Eliiha and Elijah" for the monaftery to
which he belonged. He alio prailifed goldfmithery ; but it
is his engravings, which are fomewhat numerous, that are
the proper lubjeil of our prefent notice.

Tile llyle of his uumual execution is not always alike.
in fome of his prints it is evidently formed on that' of An-
drea Mantegna, the linos which form tlie (hadows being
laid from one corner of the plate toward the other, without
any crofs hatchings, fomewhat neater than thofe of his great
exemplar, but very inferior to him in every otlier refpeft.
On other occafions he employed fecond courfcs of lines,
but his drawing is heavy, and his extremities not well
niark.'d : yet his prints, of which the principal are en-
till.d as follows, are mucl> foughr after by the curious : —
" The Virgin Mary fealed on a Bencii with a Book in her
right Hand, holding the Infant Chrift ;" " The Virgin
feated upon Clouds witii the Infant Clirill ; St. John Bap-
tift, St. Jerome, and three Carmelite Friars below," dated
1502 J " The Miracle of St. Gregory rclloring a Boy to

Life." It is a large folio of thirteen inches by nine, and is
infcribed " Opus fris io Maria" Brixienfis, or Carraclitarum
MCCCCCII." The manual part of the engraving of this
plate is in a mixed ilyle between thofe of Mantegna and
Marc Antonio. " The Hiftory of the Emperor Trajan,"
wherein the artift has complimented the reigning pope, by
introducing him at a balcony above.

Giovanni Antonio da Brefcia, the brother of the preced-
ing artift, was born at Brefcia fome time about the year
1461, and alfo became a Carmelite friar. He applied more
clofely to engraving than Giovanni Maria;, and lludied the
works of Mantegna with fomewhat better fuccefs. Yet
his outline is poor, though his manual execution is fufR-
ciently tl?ar and neat. We have fubjoined a lift of his
moft efteemed works, of which the bcft a]ipear to be copies
from Andrea Mantegna : — '■' Hercules vanquid^ing the Ne-
mean Lion,'' after Andrea Mantegna, infcribed " D. Here
in viclo ;'' two plates of " Hercules" and " Anta-us,''
after the fame mafter, one of them an upright 4to. ; " A
White Horfe," refembling that by Albert Durer, excej)t
in the back ground, a fmali upright ; " The Scourging of
Chrift," a large uprigh". Of thefe the earlieft and beft
impreffions are dated 1503, and a fecoud edition was printed
in 1509. " The Virgin and Child ;" "The Holy Family,
with St. Jofeph afleep ;" two plates of a " Satyr and
Female," infcribed " Victoria Augufta," on a tablet ;
" A naked Female repofing with au Infant, while a Satyr
is playing en a Pipe.''

Hieronymus Mocetus, or Jerome Mocetto, engraved both
on metal and on wood, and was born at Verona in the
year 1454. Strutt's account of him is as follows : — " The
prints by this ancient mafter are by no means common. He
worked with the graver only ; but did not excel in the ma-
nagement of that inllrumcnt. His ftyle of engraving bears
fome refcmblance to that of Robella. Though it is con-
Cdcrably neater and cleaier, he did not draw the naked parts
of the human iigure correSly. The extremities efjjecially
are very defeflive. The ftudy of the chiarofcuro was at
this time very little attended to. We muft not wonder,
therefore, at finding the works of this artill totally dcftitute
ofefTeCt. However, they are not without merit; though,
it muft be confcffed, that their fcarcity ftamps the greateit
value on them. We have by him, " The Refurrettion of
Chrift, with Four Soldiers at the Foot of the Tomb," ap-
parently fi-om his own defign ; " A Sacrifice," with many
(igures, from an antique bas-relief ; a middling-lized plate,
lengthways. Alfo feveral battles, with other fiibjefls ;
which are varioufly marked, as may be feen in our Plate I.
of the monograms, &c. of the Italian School of Enp-avers.

Nicoletta, or Nicolas da Modena, was a iia'.ive of Mo-
dena, and feenis to have (ludied architecture and perfpedtive
wilh more aCiduity than iuccefs. He is ranked as one of
the earlieft engravers ol the fchool of Lombardy ; and,
when we examine his work*, it fcems as if the name of en-
graving on'y had reached him ; and that he had been
obliged to work out his own fyilem. It is aftonithing, at

fo

lany engravers of confequence wei

and had produced fuch a variety of excellent prints, ti-
pecially Marc Antonio and his fcholars, that this man, who
was himfelf a painter, (liould have been fo much at a lofs,
not only in the mechanical part of the execution of his-
plates, b.it with refpcft to the coirpofttions and drawing
of them alfo. If tlieie rude proJuilions have any merit to
recommend them, it muft confift in the buildings and arcii:-
tedUiral ornaments, which he introduced into his defigns,
and with which he has freqiently crowded them in a very
ablurd manner.; he worked with ihe gruvcr only ; and ins
^6 lavgea

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Tsrgcd plates feldom exceeded the common folio Cze. He
ufually ilgned his name at length ; but, in fomc few in-
{laiices, he ufed the two monogiams \vhic!> wc have copied
itf our PlaU I. of thofe of the Ilal'um Sclnol. We have en-
graven by him, " The Adoration of tiie Shepherds," a mid-
dling-fized upright plate, marked with his name at k-ngth ;
" St. Sebaftian," a middling-fized upright plate, marked
%vith his baptifmal name ; '• Nicoleto,'' on a tablet ; an-
other " St. Scballian,'' infcribed with his monogram ; " .'" .
Jerome;" "St. George;" "St. Martin;" " A Triton
embracing a Syren ;" beilJe other works of Icfs ri>pute.

Benedetto Montagna, was born at Venice fome time about
the year 1458, and died at Verona in t jjo. He engraved on
copper, and the graver was the fole inftrument of his art.
His engravings are dated from a very early period of llie art
in Italy, and it is more than poflible thai -lie prints of Albert
"Durer, which were brought to Venice as an article both of
talle and commerce, and thofe of Marc Antonio, who had
now been following the profcffion of engraving for fome
time in that city, might induce him to take up the novel art
either as a matter of proiit or of curiofity. The efforts of
MonCagna, however, are but feeble ; his outline is exceed-
ingly defective, and his manual execution hailh and rude,
though in fome few inltances he attempted to afiift the blend-
ing of his lights and half-tints by means of ilipplintj.

Benedetto engraved from his own compofitions ; and the
refcmblance which fome of his prints bear to the earliell and
rudell produdlions of Marc Antonio, of which we lliall pre-
fently fpeak, may well be thought to ilrengthen our fuppofi-
tion, that from them he learned the rudiments of the art.
His engravings, of which the following will probably be
found the belt, are very rare, and are generally, if not
in every inllance, marked with his name at length : —
" An Holy Family," in which the Virgin Mary appears
feated, holding the Infant Chriil : St. John is Handing
bcfide her naked, and St. Jofeph appears below. A view of
a town, with a river and bridge over it, conilitutes the back
ground : at the top is the artill's name. " The Judgment
of Midas,' ' a fmali upright. A naked figure ilanding by
a tree, fomewhat larger. An elderly man and a youth;
the former playing 0:1 the bag-pipes, the latter upon the
vii.iin. A landfcape, with a hamkt in view, and an old
man feated on a bank, both hiiall uprights. Another land-
fcape, with three women on the foreground. A young
man fitting on a rock, paffmg a cord round a palm tree.
" The Rape of Europa." "Venus chaftifmg Cupid."

Strutt fays, that Rubetta, or H. Robetta, flourilhed in
1610. This is evidently a miltake. The French writers
on art, with much more probability, fay that he was born
at Florence in the year 1460 ; but the events of his life are
very obfcure, and liis engravings of no value but from their
antiquity and rarity, for they are wretchedly executed.
The fuiijed'ts of moil of them are devotional, and he fomc-
times affixed his name at length, and at others the initial
letters R.B.T.A. on a little tablet.

His moll elteemed engravings are, " Adam and Eve," a
fmall upright folio ; " Tlie Adoration of the Magi," of a
nearly fquare form; "The Refurreclion of Jefus Chrift,"
a fmall upright folio; and " The Golden Age," a large
upright folio.

Titian alfo etched fome plates about this time, probably
in the way of recreation, and it is faid, performed fome
engravings on wood. Among the former are feveral large
landfcapes from his own compofitions, the fubjeift of tlie moll
remarkable of which is a palloral, where a fliepherd is
playing on a (lute, before his Hock, bv the fide of a llream.
In aiioihcr a traveller is ikcpir.g by moL-aiiiiht. lie like-

wife etched an allegorical print of Death habited in tfi»
armour of a knight.

The moll remarkable of his wood-cuts, if thefe are really
by the hand of Titian, which appears very doubtful, are,
' The Marriage of St. Cathennc," a large upright, executed
in a flight but mallerly manner, and infcribed " Titianus
V^celiius Inventor Lineavit." "The Triumph of Faith,''
repr f.nted by a procefTion of patriarchs, prophets, evange-
lilis, apollles, faints, martyrs, preceding and following
Je''us Ciu-ill : it is compofed of from eiglit to ten prii-ts,
forming, when palled together, a very long frie/e, and dated
15c;. " The Dellruaion ..f Pharaoh and his Holt," a
very large print lengthways, compofed of fix parts. This-
is very rougli and rudely cur, and by no means equal to the
"Triumph of Faith," which is a very mallerly performance.
" Sampfon betrayed by Ualllah." " The Deli-ge," a
larger engraving, printed on two (heels, of whicir Papillon
fays, that it is very corret\ and admirable; but Strutt,
(who had feen the print) verj- properly obferves, that tliis
boalled precifion feems to make againll its being from the
graver of Titian, who would fcarcely have bellowed fo
much time and labour as mull have been required to compleat
it in fo neat and regular a manner.

Tlie famous fatirical engraving of an old ape and two
young monkics, in the attitudes of Laocoon and his fons,
\\hich was long afcribed to Titian, is now known to be the
performance of Nicolo Vicentino. It was done to fatirize
Baccio Bandinelli, who boalled of having executed a Lao-
coon, uhieh was fuperior to the ai.tique.

But Strutt thinks, and with great appearance of proba-
bility, that moll, if not all of the wood engravings afcribed
to Titian, are really the work of his younger brother Cefare
Vecelli, who alio produced a fet of 8vo. prints, executed in
a very fplrited and mallerly llyle, from the defigns of Titian,
of ancient and modern drefies, which was publilhed at Venice
in 1590; but perhaps there had been a former edition. The
title of t!ie edition of 1590 runs thus, " Degli Hubite
Antichi et Moderni di diverfe parte del mondo, Libri due
fatti da Cefare Vecellio;"' and in a fubfequent edition, pub-
lidied in 1664, it is more fully exprefied ai follows : " Rac-
colla di figure delineate dal gran Titiano, e da Cefare Ve-
cellio fuo Fiatello deligentemcnte intagliate."

A fingle print in cliiarofcuro, ferves to mark the talent, in
that mode of engraving, of Baldalfare Pcru/zi, an extra-
ordinary architect, painter, engraver, and antiquary of this
period. He is generally fuppofed to have been a native of
Sienna, but Vafari fays, and probably with truth, tiiat he
was born at Volterra, in the year 14S1. Befide buikling
churches and palaces at Sienna, and other parts of Italy, he
cmbelh(hed them with his pict;nes ; and wrote a trcatiie on
the antiquities of Rome. He left behind him a commentary
on Vitruvius, which Papillon informs us he intended, but
that the Iiand of death prevented him, to have illull rated,
with engravings on wood. It is reported, hut we cannc;!;
fay on what foundation, that lie was poifoned by IV.me-
artiit who envied his fuperior talents.

The print to which we have alluded is an upright folio,
reprefenting Apollo, Minerva, and the Mufcs, with Her-
cules expelling Avarice from their prelence. It appears to
be engraven on three blocks ; one for the outlines, another
for the half-tiut, and a tliird for the deeper (hadows. It is
executed in a bold and fpirited ftyle, and infcribed " BaL
Sen," over wiiich letters is a live-pointed (lar.

Domenico Campagnola was born at Padua A.D. 14R2.
He was the fon of Jerome Campagnola, the fculptor, and
the difciple of Titian. He chiefly excelled in landkape, and
lias produced a conlldecable luimbcr of prints, fome of which

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

are etchings and others engravings on wood, executed in a
bold ftyle, but very flight, and incorreft in his drawing of
the naked. He died at Venice in the year 1550, but lies
interred in the church of St. Anthony of Padua, near the
tombs of his anceltors.

Of his etchings the following are the principal : — " The
Adoration of the Magi and Kings," a grand compofition,
in folio ; " Csefar's Tribute Money ;'' " Our Saviour heal-
ing tile Sick;" " The Parable of Dives and Lazarus," in
large folio, etched on three plates, and marked " D.C. In
Luca Bertelh," &c.; " The Gift of Languages, or Defcent

of the Holy Ghoft," alarge circle, infcribed "-^Yv '^''5'"

" Tlie Holy Family, with St. Jerome and St. John," after
Titian, a large folio, dated 1517. Two circular prints,
one of which is " The Decollation of a Female Martyr ;"
" A Group of Warriors, attended by Fortune, flopping the
Progrefs of the Arts and Sciences." A landfcape, wi.h
Jupiter and Cahilo, after Titian. Another landfcape, on
the fore-ground of which is a chariot drawn by two bulls ;
marked D. C. ; a bacchanalian fubjeft ; a Venus, infcribed
" D.O. Camp. 1517."

The mofl; efteemed of his letter prefs engravings are
" The Holy Family," in a landfcape, v^'ith St. John and
other faints. The Virgin Mother is rcprefented fuckling
the Infant Chrift ; a folio print. A grand landfcape, in
which is introduced St. Jerome. Another large landfcape,
with a foldier and his family. Three children near a jjedef-
tal, one of whcm is contemplating a dog gnawing a bono.
" The Matracre of the Innocents ;" and "The Deilruaion
of Pharaoli and his Hoft," a large and grand work engraved
on twelve blocks after Titian, and marked " Dotnenico
del Greeche I5'49."

According to the teftimony of the author of the .^bece-
dario, Julio Campagnola, furnamed Antenoreus, was tlie
brotlier of Domenico ; Florent le Comte fays, that he floa-
rilhed, as an engraver, from I5'07 to 1517. He worked
entirely with the graver, but in two very different llyles,
one of which was his own invention.

The only two prints by Julio, with which we are ac-
quainted, exemplify this remarkable variation in his ftyle.
The iirft is a fmall upright (if " The Rape of Ganymede ;"
the execution of which refembles, in the manual, that of
Man- Antonio, though the drawing is very inferior. It is
infcribed " Juho Campagnola Antenoreus fee. ;" the other
is fomewhat larger, and reprefents St. John ftandirg, hold-
ing a cup and looking upwards. In this plate he has
entirely departed from his former manner. The back
ground is executed with round dots, made apparently with
a dry point. The figure is outlined with a ftroke deeply
engraven, and finilhed v>ith dots, in a manner fomewhat re-
fembling thofe prints which Demartcau engraved at Paris,
in imitation of red chalk. The hair and beard are expreffed
by ilrokes. It is a very extraordinary print, and proves the
antiquity of that mode of engraving, which has been erro-
reoufly confidered as a modern invention ; but its merit con-
fiOs chiefly in its fingu'arity ; for the drawing of the figure
is (hfi' and incorreit, and there is nothing' in the general
effect to recommend it.

About the time now under our confideraiion, there alfo
arofe in Europe another new mode of engraving, which fuc-
cefsfuliy imitated drawings waTncd with biftre, or thofe
ancient Greek piftmcs v.liicii were called monochroms by
tlie ancients. Mr. Landfeer lays, that "the title of engrav-
ing in ch'tarofcuro, was at that lime exclufively, and there-
fore improperly applied to this new mode of art,'' fince

chiarofcuro, or effeft of light and (hade, in a neceflary and
elementary part of every mode of engraving that goes be-
yond a mere outline.

The invention of prints in ch'tarofcuro is claimed both by
the Germans and Italians. The latter affert that foon after
the commencement of the fixteenth century, Ugo da Carpi,
a man of great ingenuity, difcovered a mode of imitating
flight drawings bv the means of different blocks of wood.
The Germans, on the other hand, produce feveral engrav-
ings by Mair, which are dated 1499, and one by Lucas
Cranach, dated 1500, which are prior to the time affixed
by the Italians for the invention by Da Carpi. This cir-
cumftance, even if we (hould fappofe that the prints by
Mair are the firft attempts in this ftyle of engraving, is
fullicient to prove the priority of the exercife of it in Ger-
many. Baron Heinnekin is of opinion that the chiarofcuros
of John Ulric are ftill more ancient than thofe by Mair.

There is, however, a material diftcrence between the
chiarofcuros of the old German mafters, and thofe of the
Italians. Mair and Cranach engraved the outhnes and deep
fiiadows upon the copper. The impreflion taken in this
ftate was tinted over by the means of a iingle block of wood,
with thofe parts hollowed out which were defigned to be
left quite white upon the print. On the contrary, the mode
of engraving adopted by Ugo da Carpi, was to cut the out-
lines on one block of wood ; the dark fhadows upon a fecond ;
and tlie light fliadows, or half tint, upon a third. The firfl:
being imprefied upon the paper, the outlines only appeared ;
this block being taken away, the fecond was put in its place,
their ccfincidcnce being fecurcd by a mechanical contrivance,
and being alfo imprefled upon the paper, the dark fliadows
were added to the outlines, and the third block being put
in the fame place, upon the removal of the fecond, and alfo
imprefled upon the fame paper, m.ade the demi-tints, and the
print was completed. In lome few inftances, the number of
blocks were increafed, but the operation was ftill the fame,
the print received an impreflion from every block.

Da Carpi, who firll praftifed this mode of art in Italy,
was born at Rome in the year i486. He ftudied painting
with his great contemporary Raphael, but appears to have
poflfeffed one of thofe minds which, in all ages, bear hard
upon reftitude, by preferring novelty to eftabhihed principle.
He painted an altar piece for the church of St. Regard, in
the execution of which he ufed no pencil, but laid on the
colours immediately with his fingers ; Michael Angelo being
importuned for his opinion of this work, fimply replied that
" it would have been better had he ufed his pencils."

It is probable that his paflion for novelty led him to
praftife that new mode of engraving on wood, which is now
under our notice, which alfo calling into aftion liis acquired
talents as an artift, enabled him to produce thofe niafterly
and fpirited imitations of the (ketches of the great painters^
from whofe works they are taken, which he fometimes
printed in green, fometimes in brown, and fometimes in other
colours, as his love of novelty and experiment directed.

Of thefe works, thofe which are moft fought after by the
curious, are as follow : — " A Sybil with Tablets and a
Stylus, with an Infant Genius holding a Torch," after
Raphael, printed in green, and, according to Vafari, the
firft work of the kind produced by Da Carpi. " Eneas
efcaping from Troy with his Father Anchifes," a large up-
right, from the fame mailer. " The Defcent from the
Crofs," an upright folio; "David beheading Goliah ;"
" The Slaughter of the Innocents ;" " Jefus preaching in
the Temple;" " Elymas ftricken with Bhndnefs ;" "The
Death of Ananias ;" " St. John in the Defart ;" " A Dead
Chrift on the Knees of his Mother;" and "Raphael con-

verfiiior

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

verfing with his Miflrcfs ;" are all after the works of this
great painter.

After Parmcgiano, he has engraven, a philofopher feated,
with a book open before him, and in tlie hack ground, to
the right, a bird, with its feathers plucked off; probably
intended for Diogenes, and the cock which he plucked in ri-
tlicule of Plato's definition of man. This is a large and
curious folio print, fome of the iniprcflions of which are
printed in four different colours. " The Holy Virgin, with
St. Sebaflian, and St. Nicholas." " A Satyr fathoming
Water with his Flute." All of thefc prints are of folio
dimenfions.

Dominico Micarino of Sienna, furnained Beccafiimi, was
born at Sienna, or in fome neighbouring village, in the year
J484, and died in 15-49 in tlie fame city, which, by his
various works in fciilpture, architccliu-e, paintin^r, and en-
graving, he greatly contributed to adorn He was of poor
parents, and like Andrea Mantegna, paffed the early years
of his life in keeping fheep. His family name was Mica-
rino ; but fignor Beccafumi, a difcerning citizen of Sienna,
obferving him bufied in tracing forms upon the fund with his
crook, conceived a favourable opinion of his natural abilities,
and raifed him from obfcurity.

From this kind patron, who fucceffively placed our young
artift under Antonio Vercelli, and Pietro Perugino, he took
the nameof BeccarV.nii. He travelled to Rome tocompleat
his ftudies from the works of Raphael and Michael Angeio ;
after which he returned to Sienna, where he was employed in
feveral works both in frcfco and oil, which acquired hiui
great applaufe, but nolliing contributed more to the
eftablilhment of his reputation than the Mofaic pavement
■tvith which he ornamented the cathedral of Sienna.

Micarino appears to have worked occafionally in all the
modes of engraving which had thei; been invented. He was
a very good engraver on wood, and particularly excelled in
chiarofcuro, fomctimes working from his own defigns, and
at others from thofe of Titian and other mailers. He alfo
etched feveral plates in a very fpirited ilyle, and we have
fome few prints executed by him with the graver only. In
thefe the hfind of the mailer is very evident ; the figures are
drawn in a fpirited ilyle, and the extremities are finely
marked, but, from want of fkiU in the management of the
point and the graver, the mechanical part of the work has a
harfli and unpleafing appearance to an eye accuftomed to
neatnefs and preciGon.

His engravings, of which the following h!l fpecifies the
principa', are fomelimes marked with his name at length,
and at others with the cypher which will be found in our
Plate I. of thofe of the Italian School. — A large foho print
of " The Nativity," after Titian, cut in wood in a very
fpi-ited manner. " The Holy Virgin embracing the Infant
Chriil," printed in chiarofcuro, in three colours, and pro-
bably from his own compofition. Four prir.ts executed in
the fame manner of " St. Peter," " St. Philip," " St. An-
drew," and "St, Jerome." "A Philofopher fitting
v/rapt in his Mantle." Portrait of pope Paul III. Three
engravings on copper, of v.'hich the fubjefts are groups of
academy figures; and ten engravings on wood of alchemical
fubjefts.

The next engraver of decided talent that Italy produced
was Marc Antonio Raimondi, whofe name marks a memo-
rable era in the hiliorv of engraving. He v/as bom at Bo-
logna in the year 1487 or 88, and died in the fame city about
the year 1539. Like many of \\k contemporaries rmd pre-
deceffors, he was brought up to the bufinefs of a goldfmith,
but ftudied drawing, in which he fo mucii excelled under
Fra.'icefco Raibalini, furnamed Francia, from his attachment
to whom, Raimondi. himfelf obtained the cognomen of

Francia. His earlicft prints, as far as is known, were
"The four Heroes," and " Pyramus and Thifhe," the
latter of which is dated in the year 1502, when he could
have been only 1 4 or ly years of age ; thefe early works are
both engraved after the defigns of this mafter, and the let-
ter F, which forms part of the monogram, affixed to them,
may be fuppofed to lland for either Francia or fecit.

Our artilt, however, is now generally known by his bap-
tifmal names. Marc Antonio. Being eager for improve-
ment in his art, he travelled to Venice, where he firlt met
with the works of the Geriran engravers, particularly a fct
of woodcuts by Albert Durer, reprefenting "The Life and
Paffion of our Saviour." Th?fe pleafed him fo much, that
he purchafed them, though they coft him nearly all the
money he had brought with him ; and he copied them v/ith
great exaftnefs on copper. Tlie deception, it feems,
aiifwercd well to Marc Antonio ; for, we are told by Vafari,
t!\at they were frequently fold for the originals. This cir-
cumllance, according to the fame author, coming at lalt to
the ears of Albert Durer, he complained to the fenate of
Venice of the injury which he had fullained, but ail the re-
drefs he could obtain was, that Marc Antonio fiiould not,
for the future, add the cypher or monogram of Albert
Durer to any of the copies he might make from his en-
gravings. This Itory, if true, is i;ot without its difiiculties,
and one of the moft ilriking is, that the copies which Marc
Antonio made from the Life and Paffion of Chriil, by Albert
Durer, have not the mark of that artiil at all upon tliem, but
the cypher of Marc Antonio only. Vafari indeed might
have millaken the life of Chriil for the life of the Virgin,
by Albert Durer, becaufe Marc Antonio copied them both
with equal precifion. The latter are much larger than the
former, and have the monogram of Albert Durer repre-
fented in the fame manner as upon the originals ; and to thefe
Marc Antonio has not put his own cypher, except upon the
lad plate ; but even that has the monogram of Albert Durer
alio. Of courfe, thefe prints will much better a.rec with
the llory above related, than thofe mentioned by Vafari.

When Marc Antonio quitted Venice, he went to Rome,
where his merit foon recommended him to the notice of Ra-
phael, who not only employed him to engrave a confiderable
nuinber of his defigns, but formed an intimate friendlliip
with iiim, and it has been faid, though without fufficient au-
thority, that he afiilled him in tracing and correfting the out-
lines upon the piatcs.

The firil plate he engraved from a drawing of Raphael's
was, " Lucretia ilabbing herfelf," in which he feems to have
exerted all his abilities to make it neat and delicate. Soon
afterwards he execi:ted the plate of "The Judgment of
Paris," which, though not fo neat as the former, has more
freedom and fpirit. Raphael himfelf was fo perfeftly well
plealed with the works of this admirable engraver, that he
fent many fpeiimens of them, as a complimentary prefent,
to Albert Durer, which he thought well wortliy of his ac-
ceptance.

The great reputation which Marc Antonio acquired under
the patronage of Raphael, brcugh.t many young Italian
artifts -o Rome, in order to Rudy under him; and among
them were the foUowii^g : Agollino dc Mufis, Marc dc Ra-
venna, Giulio Bonafoni, Niccolo Bea'rici, and Enea Vico,
who all of them became his pupils, and ;;s his name began
to be known abroad, Bartolemeo Beham, George Penz,
and James Binck, with others, natives of Germany, came
into Italy, and frequented his fchool. For engraving fome
plates after the defigns of Julio Romano, of which the fubjetts
arc taken from the lewd fonnetsof Aretin, he was committed
to piilon by pope Clen>ent VII., but recovered his freedom
through the intcrcll of Baccio Bandinelli.

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

After his releafe. Marc Antonio, to manifeft his grati
tude to Bandinelli, engraved, from a pifture of his, that
admirable print reprefenting the Martyrdom of St. Law-
rence ; and fucceeded fo happily, correcting carefully fcvcrnl
faults which were in the piAiire, that the pope, who was
a great lover of the arts, upon feeing an imprefhon from
the plate, pardoned his offence entirely, and took him under
liis proteftion. We now fee our artitt in the zenith of his
good fortune ; but his decline was dill more fuddcn than his
advancement : for the city of Rome being taken by the
Spaniards, A.D. ijzy. Marc Antonio loft in the pillage all
ihe wealth he had accumulated. He retired afterwards to
Bologna, where perhaps he died ; but of this there is no
certain account. The laft dated print we have by him is,
" The Battle of the Lapiths," engraved in 1539; after
which time, we hear no more of him, or of his works.
Malvafia indeed affirms, that he was afiaffinated by a noble-
man of Rome ; becaufe he had, contrary to his engage-
ment, engraved a fecond plate of the Murder of the Inno-
cents, after a defign of Raphael. This defign was certainly
twice engraved by Marc Antonio, with very fmall varia-
tions, as will be mentioned below. Baldinucci, following
Malvaiia, mentions this ftory ; and adds, that Marc An-
tonio was married, and that his wife was alfo an engraver
But the total Clence of Vafari as to this circumllance, re;i-
4ers it exceedingly doubtful.

The ftyle and the principal works of fo diftinguiilied an
artift, tiie founder of the Roman fchool of engraving, call
for particular comment. In his fifth lefture, delivered at
the Royal Inftitution, Mr. Landfeer fays, " The ftyle of
Marc Antonio poffeffes not the exteriors of oratory ; but he
pronounces every fentence fo diftinftlv, with a confidence fo
•modeil;, and an emphafis fo true to Raphael and to nature,
that thofe who attend are convinced, without being pei--
-fuaded. To fpeak without a metaphor, there is fomething
in his manner of employing his graver, fometliing dry, un-
ambitious, fevere, unattraftive to the fenfe ; which, by all
found critics, has been tliought to deferve praife, without
• defiring it ; and peculiarly appropriate to the works of a
-painter, who not merely does not require, but will not ad-
mit, the aid of foreign ornament.

■" The Dead Cliriil of Raphael, where the excefs of his
•mother's forrow is foftencd, but not fubdued, by her divine
vefignation, he repeated with variations ; of which the prin-
cipal are, that, in the fecond plate, the Virgin Mary ap-
pears much younger than in the firft, and her right arm
■divefted of drapery ; from which circumllance, it is known
-among collectors by the appellation of " The Virgin with
the naked Arm." The fecond plate is more delicately en-
graven, but is feeble, when compared with the mafterly
-vigour he has fhewn in the firft. The nudities are here
drawn with Marc Antonio's, infpired by Raphaels, ufnal
'fuperiority ; but the drapery and ground are foftcned and
enriched beyond the ordinary powers of Marc Antonio's
graver, and are fo much in the improved ftyle of his pupil,
George Penz, as may incline us to fufpeft that thcfe parts
Jiave been engraven by his hand. Whether Raphael autho-
rized or allowed Marc Antonio to fubftitnte the younger
•irgin, who leems more like the filler, for the elder, who
is the mother of Chrift, does not appear.

" In " The Virginof theralm," Marc Antonio difcovers,
if peffible, a ftjll more cxquifite feeling, and of courfe pro-
duces a more pcrfeA tranflation, of Rapliael. Chrift is be-
llowing his benediftion with the fublimily of infpiration ;
and St. Jolin receiving it with dignified and divine, though
infantile, fubniiffion. The fubordination of parts is jult :
ihe lyholc is perfectly graceful ; and the head of tlm Virgin
Mary, the moil gcaceful part of that whole.

" Marc Antonio's powers as an engraverappear not to hate
declined from their acme, in his martyrdom of St. Law-
rence, after Bandinelli. He not merely cppred, but his
long acquaintance with the works of Raphael enabled him,
and his gratitude to Bandinelli, who had obtained his releafe
from prifon, difpofcd him, to improve the drawing of bi&
original. The print is defective, yet not more fo than many
other of his works, in chlarofcuro : but, expreffion of the
textures of fubftances, and the exiilence of reflex light, are
here feebly acknowledged ; the folds of the draperies are
ample ; the drawing of the naked excellent ; and the charac-
ters of the heads far better than would feem to belong to the
reputation of Bandinelli."

The feveral monograms with which Marc Antonio
marked his engravings, from time to time, will be found in
Plate I. of thofe of the Halian School of Ergravers ; though
a great number of them were publifticd without any other
mark than an intelligent eye will perceive, in the peculiar
ftyle and purity of outline of this accompHftied artift.

Connoifl'eurs are extremely, and very juftly, obfervant of
the goodncfs of the imprelfions, in collefting the works of
Marc Antonio ; and early and well preferved imprelfions fell
for very confiderable funis. Since they were firft publifhed,
the plates have been fucccfTively the property of Thomafo
Barlacchi, Antonio Salamanca, Antonio Lafreri, and Ni-
cholas Van Aelft ; laftly, they became the property of the
print-dealer Rofli, at which time, after being frequently re-
touched, and of courfe very much impaired, they were, as
works of art, utterly worn out. Thofe impreffions are tlie
earlieft, and by far the moft valuable, which were taken be-
fore the name of any piibliiher was infcribed on them.

Baron Heinnekin, in his " Diftionnaire des Artiftes,"
printed at Leipfie, A.D. 177S, has given a complete cata-
logue of the works of Marc Antonio, to which the curious
reader is refen-ed, and from which we have extracted the
following lift of thofe which are held in moft efteem, be-
ginning with his portraits.

Portrahi. — An artift wrapped in a mantle, featcd, and in
an attitude of meditation ; a little table, pallete, and colours,
in the back ground ; fuppofed by Malvafia to be the por-
trait of Raphael, drawn and engraven by Marc Antonio ;
Aretin the Poet, wiih a long Latin infcription ; one of the
very fineft works of the artilt : the Emperor Charles V. in
his youth ; Pope Clement VII. ; both en medallion : Pope
Julius II. holding a bonnet: Prince Oclavius Farnefe.

Subjeas from Holy Writ. — " Adam and Eve," after Ra-
phael, a very fine and rare print, the fame which S'rutt has
copied and placed as the frontifpiece to his fecond volume
of the Lives of the Engravers ; " Adam and Eve expelled
from the terreftrial Paradife," after Michael Angelo ;
" Noah facrificing after leaving the Ark ;" " The Bleffing
of Abraham ;" " Cod appearing to Ifaac ;" " The Efcape
of Jofcph from Potiphar's Wife ;" '<■ David difcomfiting the
Pliihftines, and beheading Goliah ;" " David," an erecl
figure, with the head of Goliah, a very rare print % all after
Raphael.

'• The Adoration of the Shepherds," eith.er from a de-
fign by Marc Antonio himfelf, or after his firft mafter
Francia ; two plates of " The Murder of the Innocent":,"
after Raphael, in the fecond of which Marc Antonio li.;3
introduced the upper part of a fm.dl yew tree, called by
the Italians la Felchelta, and which does not appear in
the firft. Good impreflions of both thefc plates are ex-
tremely rare and valuable ; "An Holy Family :'' from the
thigh oftheVirgin Mary being immodcrate'y long, this print
is diftinguilhcd among connoiffeurs by the name of " The
Virgin of the long Thigh." Another " Holy Family,"
v.Uoein the infaut Saviour repofcs on the knees qf liis mo.

thor.

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

thcr, who is bcftowing her benedi£lion on tlie little St. John.
This ii commonly known by the name of " 1 lie Virgin of
the Palm." Another, called " The Virgin of the Cradle,"
from the circimiftance of tlie Infant Chrill; being reprefcnted
in his cradle ; and two plates of the " Virgin and Child ;"
all after Raphael.

An " Holy Family," after Michael Angelo ; a very rare
print of an " Holy Family," after Raphael, wherein St.
John is holding a reel, and St. Elizabeth is fpinning ; aii-
other " Holy Family," in which the Infant Jel'us is re-
ceiving a fifli from Tobit, diilinguiihed by the name of
" The Virgin of the Fi(h," and after a very celebrated pic-
ture which Raphael painted for the church of the Domini-
cans at Naples, and which has fince been in the gallery of
the Efcunal ; " The Holy Virgin fitting on the Clouds,
with the Infant Chrill." a plate which afterwards fell into
the poflTefiion of Agoitino Carrache, who re touched it, and
added two fine heads of Cherubs ; a fet (mentioned above)
of feventeen plates, coarfcly copied from the woiid-cuts by
Albert Durer, of the " Life of the Virgin Mary," and
marked with Durer's cypher, except the laft, which has
that of Marc Antonio. Thefe are in fniall folio, and very
rare. A fet of thirty-fix iniall uprights, from Albert
Durer's " Life of Chrill," marked with the ordinary tablet
of Marc Antonio.

A fet of thirty-fix fmall uprights, called " The Life and
PafTion of Chrili," copied from Durer, but marked with the
tablet of Marc Antonio. A duplicate fet of thefe arc by
fonie critics fuppofed to be the production of Wierix, or fomc
other of the difciples of Marc Antonio, and this fet bears
the cypher of Albert Durer. " Chrill at the Entrance of
the Temple, fiirroundcd by his Difciples;'' " St. Mary
Magdalen at the Feet of our Saviour ;" " Chrill celebrat-
ing the Paffover ;'' "The Defcent from the Croff," in which,
with the holy women, is introduced Jofeph of Arlmathea.
Three prints, which are known among coUeftors by the
title of " The Virgin of Grief." In one the Holy Virgin
with extended arms is lamenting over the dead body of Jeius
Chrift. In the fecond, ef which we have fpoken more par-
ticularly above, and which is alfo calleJ •' The Virgin with the
naked Arm/' the holy mother appears much younger than
in the firll, and a dead tree is omitted : in other refpeds the
two compofitions are alike. And in the third, which is alio
a dead Chrill, Jjis head reclines on the lap of the Virgin ;
mount Calvary is in the back ground, and three difciples
with Nicodemus are prefent. A glorified Chrift with the
Holy Virgin, St John the Baptift, St. Paul, and St. Ca-
therine, called "The Five Saints;" three of the cartoons,
viz. " The Death of Ananias,'' K'ngravcn in coiijunc-
tion with Agoftino Veneziano;) " Elymas llruck Blind,"
and" St. Paul preaching at Athens." Proofs of the latter,
before the two figures were placed within the balullrade of
the temple of Mars, are extremely rare and valuable. St. Ce-
cilia, with the Magdalen and other faints, known by the
name of " The Saint Ceciha with the Necklace;" " The
Martyrdom of St. Felicitc." A duphcate plate of this
fubjeft, in which the right ear of the faint is omitted, is
more fcarce and valuable than the former. " St. Catherine
refting on her Wheel of Martyrdom." A fet of thirteen,
of Jefus Chrift and the twelve apoftles. All thefe are of
folio ditnenfions, and after Raphael.

" The Martyrdom of St. Laurence," a large folio, after
Baccio Bandinclli, is a very fine engraving, which obtained
Marc Antonio's rcleafe from prifon, and recommended him
to the favour of pope Clement VII. '■ St. George and the
Dragon," either from a compofition by Msrc Antonio hijn-
VuL. XIX.

felf, or after his firft madcr Raibolini. "St. Gregory cele-
brating Mafs," from Albert Durer's wood cut, entitled
" The Mydcry of the Mafs."

Siihjeds from Profane Hijlor': and Grteh Mythology —
" The Rape of Helen," a grand compofition : " .^naas re-
treatinir from the Conflagration of Troy, bearing off Anchi-
fcs, and preceded by the young Afcanius ;" " Venus appear-
ing to .Aineas in the Difguifc of a Himtrefs;" (an early
work of the mafter;) " The Death of Dido;" " The
Death of Lucretia," infcribcd in the Greek language,
" better to die than live diflionoiired," and the fir!! plate en-
graved after Raphael by Marc Antonio ; a fubjefl, by fomc
termed " /ilexandcr the Great depoliting the Poems of
Homer in the Cofler of Darius," and by others " The
Books of the Sybils placed in the Tomb of Numa Pompi-
lius." A battle-piece, known ainong coniioifTeurs by the title
of " The Battle of the Cutlafles," all after Raphael, and iu
folio.

From the fame mafter he has engraven " The Three An-
gles of the Lodge (if Chigi," of v>hicli the fubjefts are,
ill. •' Jupiter carefling Cupid j" ad. " Mercury defcending
from Olympus," and 3d. " Cupid and the Graces.'' A very
grand compofition of " The Judgment of Paris ;" and
from Andrea Mantegna, " Mars, Venus and Cupid,'' of
which the collector fliould be careful to obtain thoie impref-
fions that were taken before the name of Roffi was added
as the publifiier. " Apollo leaning againft the Shepherd
Hyacinthus, and accompanied by Cupid," is either after his
firit mafter Raibohni, or from a defign by Marc Antonio
liimfelf. A tablet is here fufpcnded, from a tree, on which
is infcribed the date 1506, and A.E. ly is added, which
gives the year 14R7 as that of his nativity.

" The Triumph of Galatea" is a capital print, of which
the beft and rarell impreffions arc before any letters, and thofe
with the names of 'Van Aelft and Roffi are comparatively
worthlefs.

" Mount ParnalTus" is a large and grand compofition from
the celebrated piClure in the Vatican, except that Marc
Antonio has very properly fubfiituted a lyre for a violin ; tlie
inftrument upon which Apollo is playing in the original pic-
ture. It is not improbable tliat Raphael hitnfelf, having
difcovered the anathronifm, directed this emendation.

The above two are after Raphael. A very fine engraving
of a Bacchanalian fubjefl, with children bearing bafkets of
grapes, and Bacchus feated on a tub, is alio alter Raphael,
but was drawn by him from an antique bas-relief ; " Bacchus
and Silenus" is by fome critics faid to be after Julio Romano,
and " Hercules fmothering Anta-us,'' after Michael Angelo :
but others afcribe both thefe con^pofitions to Raphael.

" The Battle of the Lapithcr," the laft work of Marc
Antonio, is of the frieze form, dated 1539, and after Julio
Romano. Of " Orpheus" the defiguer is not certainly
known. " Pyramus and Thift)e" is after Raibolini.
*' Le quos ego," or Neptune appeafing the Tempell which
had difperfed the Fleet of jEueas, is Turroundcd by a bor-
der, in which are nine fmall compartments, containing ful»-
jeits from the TEneid, and is after Raphael. Impreflioiis of
this plate, before it was retouched, are rare and very valuable.
The difagreeable hardnefs which the abdominal mul les in
the figure of Neptune have acquired in the retouching,
renders them eafily diftinguifhable.

The above are all of folio dimenfions. In quarto. Marc
Antonio has engraven a fet of twenty amorous ;uid indecent
fubjefts after Julio Romano, to accompany the fonnets of
Aretin, of " The Loves of the Gods and GoddelFes," which
arc, as they certainly ought to be, exceedingly fcarce, and a
I'X fet

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

fet of thirty-two, of " The Loves of Cupid and Pfyche," XXVI.;" a profile of pope Paul TIL in a leathern capy
after Raphael, each accompanied by eight Italian verfes. the fame, wearing the papal crown, dated MDXXXVI.;-
Pottk Inventions, &c. — " Le Stre^ozzo," the defign of all in folio. Ferdinand king of the Romans, in 4to.
which is by fome attributed to Rapliael, and by others to Francis I., of France, dated 1536 ; a profile of the empe-
Michael Angelo. Sometimes it is called, " Raphael's ror Soliman, dated 15 _5J ; Barbarofia holding a turban ; all-
Dream," and probably with great truth, for though it dif- in folio.

fers from the reft of his works, yet it differs not fo much, Subjeas from Sacred Hijlory. — "The Creation," a folio

but that it may be the produftion of his mind, and it pof- plate, engraved partly by Agoftino and partly by Marc of

fcfies all the romantic wilJnefs of a nofturnal chimera. A Ravenna, and infcribed " Exc. Deus enim Omnia," &c.

monftrous carcafs is converted into a fort of triumphal car, " Abraham offering up Ifaac ;" " The Benediclion of

in which is feated a forcerefs ; it is drawn by naked men, Ifaac," dated 1522; the fame fubjeft, with fome trifling

and a youth mounted on a goat is blowing a horn. It is in variations, dated 1524; " The Palfage of the Red Sea,"

very large folio, and in the later imprelTions the initials of engraved in conjunttion with Mark of Ravenna ; " The

Agolliiio Vencziano are added to the mark of Marc Anto- Fall of Manna," a plate which prefumptively was begun by

nio. " II Morbetto,'' ©r The Plague, another large folio after Marc Antonio, and finillied by Veneziano, all after Raphael

Raphael, good impreffions of which are extremely rare, and of folio dimenfions. " Samfun bound by the Philif-

Three figures from Michael Angelo's Cartoon of Pifa, dated tines,'' a circular print, nine inches in dian:ieter, is fuppofed:

1910, and known among coUeftors by the title of " The to be from a compofition by Veneziano himfelf.

Chmbers." " II Pito," or The Triumph of Lave, an " The Queen of Sheba vifiting Solomon," after Raphael,

allegory, by fome fuppofed to be after Andrea Mantegna. has been attributed to the graver of Marc Antonio, but

" The Emperor Trajan crowned by Viftory," from a bas- is by Agoftino and Marc in conjunction,- and one of their

relief on the arch of Conftantine ; " The Chace of a Lion," early performances. It is of the folio fize.
from another antique bas-relief; "The Caifolette," a grand A fet of the four evangelifts, in 410. is after Julio Ro-
B acchanaliau proceffion, of the frieze form, nineteen inches mano. '•' The Annunciation'' is after Raphael, and en-
in length ; " An Offering to Priapus ;'' the ftatues of graven by the friends and fellow ftudents Agoftino and
Apollo and Cleopatra ; abas-relief of" The Three Graces," Marc ; " The Nativity" is after Julio Romano ;and both are
and a dance of nine children, all after Raphael. of folio dimenfions.

Agoftino de Miifis, furnamed Veneziano, from the place " St. John the Baptift in the Defert," of anonymous in-
of his nativity, and called in England Auguftin the Vcne- vention, dated 1532 ; perhaps defigned by the engraver him.
tian, was born at Venice fome time about the year 1490. feif. " The Mafiacre of the Innocents," a rare engraving.
He travelled to Rome for improvement, and became one of is copied from the celebrated print of Marc Antonio;
the moft celebrated of the numerous difciples of Marc Anto- " The Laft Supper," in folio, after Albert Durer ; the fame
Jiio, with whom he fometimes worked in conjunftion. From fubjccl in fmaller folio, attributed to Raphael ; " Chrill
the cuxumftance of his earlieft known engraving being dated bearing the Crofs,'' in folio, after Raphael, dated 1519 ;
in the year 1509, Strutt fuppofes that he began to ftudy " The dead Chrift," after Andrea del Sarto, a folio print,
Inider Marc Antonio, whilft that diftinguifhedmafter yet re- with which, as mentioned in our biography, the painter was
fided at Venice. Marc of Ravenna was his fellow pupil ; fo diffatisiied, as to refufe Veneziano the liberty of engrav-
and Vafari clalfes them among the very beft of the Italian ing from his works during his own lifetime. Another
ftudents who followed the art of engraving. dead Chrift, in fmall quarto, after Albert Durer, a very

When the city of Rome was taken and facked by the rare print; " The Archangel Michael,'' in folio, after
Spaniards in the year I jay, Agoftino retired to Florence, Raphael; " The Holy Family," in fmall folio, marked only
and applied for employ to Andrea del Sarto, who was then with the initials of our artift, and probably from his own
in high repute, but del Sarto, diftatisfied with the dead compofition ; another " Holy Family," after Francia, dated
Chrift which he had already engraved after his defign, re- 1516; "The Holy Virgin and Child, iltting on a Pe-
fufed to permit him to engrave any more of his pictures, deftal," fix friars and a nun are prefent, and above are two
Agoftino afterwards returned to Rome, where he followed angels, holding a tablet with an Ecce Homo, in folio ;
his profeftional purfuits with great fuccefs, and where he " The Crucifixion," with fix figures of faints and angels re-
died fome time about the year 1540. ceiviiig the blood of the Saviour, dated 1528, and alfo in

He generally marked his prints with the initials A. V , folio ; " St. Jerome," after Raphael, in quarto ; " St. Mar-
which were fometimes infcribed on a tablet. He imitated garet kneeling, and putting a Demon of the Serpent Form
the ftyle of his mafter with great attention, and, as far as re- to Flight, by means of the Mirror of Truth," an early per-
gards manual execution, with confiderablc fuccefs: fometimes, formance of Agoftino, engraved before he frequented the
indeed, he in this refpeit excelled Marc Antonio ; but in fchool of MarcAntpnio.

point of taftc, and in the purity and correftiiefs of his out- Subjeasfrom Greek Mythology and Hi/lory. — " Iphigenia en
line, he fell far fhort of that diftinguiflied artift. Tanride," an anonymous plate, in quarto ; "Diogenes lying

Good impreffions of the works of Veneziano are now be- on his Cloak near the Margin of a River," a fmall engraving
come extremely fcarce, and a compleat fet is hardly to be ob- after Baccio Bandinelli ; " "The Loves of Alexander and Rox-
tflined ; among them will be found a few, wherein he has ex- ana," an anonymous plate, in folio, the defign of which Vafari
preffed the flelh entirely by means of ftippling, in a manner attributes to Raphael ; " Tarquin offering Violence to Lu-
■which, being imitated by Boulanger, grew by degrees into cretia," in 4to. after the fame mafter; a very fine copy of
what is now termed the chalk manner of engraving. The Marc Antonio's print of Lucretia, in quarto, with Latin
following lift is beheved to contain the defcription or titles of verfes beneath. " Camillus redeeming the Tribute impofed
his beft performances. on Rome by the Gauls," and a naked figure of Cleopatra,

Portraits of Cliarles V. after Titian, fuperfcribed both in fmall folio, and after Bandinelli ; a fmall figiue of
with fixteen Italian verfes; another of the fame emperor, Mars, after Raphael ; " Vulcan prefenting Venus with Ar-
infcribed " Pjogenei dirum qtuntus fjc, &c. , J£x. faa rows,"' dated 1530, and " Venus feated on a Dolphin,"

botii

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

530th m folio, and after Raphael ; " The Aflembly of the engrave on his own account, and to n;aik his prints with his

Gods," engraved by Agollino and Marc of Ravenna ; at- own peculiar cypher.

tached to which, by the fame artill, is " The Marriage of Mark died at Rome about the middle of the ifith century.

Cupid and Pfychc," both after Raphael. From the fame Strutt fays of him that he " imitated the bolder Ryle of

painter, are " Lcdacarcfll-d by the Swan," in 4to.; " The engraving which was adopted by his matter, with great ac-

Fall of Phaeton," in folio ; and " Apollo and Daphne'' in curacy ; but when he attempted to follow him in his ncatcil

quarto; the latter of which is by fome falfely attributed to manner, he was not equally fuccefsful. He handled the

the graver of Marc Antonio. graver with more freedom than his fellow ftholar de Mufis,

" The Difpute between the Mufes and Pierides," an who, however, furpaffed him in neatnefs and precifion.

onymousplaje, in large foho^ attributed by Vafari to the Ravenna drew well, as his beft prints fufllciently teftify ;

pencil of RofTo, and by the French to that of Perin del
\'aga : this plate was afterwards re-touched and republiflied
in 1553, by Eneas Vico ; " The Metamorphofe of Nep-
tune intoa Horfe," in 8vo., after Julio Romano, dated 1516;
" A Bacchanalian Triumph," in 410 , after Raphael, or,
according to Mariette, after Raphael del CoUe ; " The
Entrance of Orpheus into Inferno," a fmall engraving,
after Julio Romano, dated 152 J ; "The Infant Hercules

though not with that purity of outline which dillinguifhes the
works ef his mailer ; neither are the extremities of his figures
marked witli equal corredtncfs or judgment. His works,
however, are jullly held in ellimatiou by the curious.

The ufual mark adopted by this artift is a cypher, com-
pofed of an R and an S joined together, which has been the
occafion of feveral niiftakes, not only with refpcft to his
works, but with refpecl to himfelf ; and has led feveral

deftroying the Serpents," in fmall folio, after the fame authors to fuppofe that there were two Ravennas, tli

maftcr ; " The Death of Antxus," in fmall folio, after
Michael Angelo, wherein Earth is perfonified as an old
woman, dated 1533 ; " Hercules killing the Nemean Lion,"
a fmall print after Raphael, dated 1528, and a frieze of con-
fiderable length, of which Mariette attributes the invention

named Marco, and the other Silveftro ; and they have beeii
confunied in this opinion by the declaration of Vafari, who
tells us, that Marco da Ravignano, for fo he writes the
name, marked his plates with an M and an R, which, in
fome few inftances, he certainly did. I'hofe, who do not

to Bandinelli, and of which the fubjeft is a female figure fuppofe there were two Ravennas, have imagined that thefe

on Olympus, blowing a trumpet, in prefeilce of the aflem- two letters were defigned for Raphael Sanzio, and placed

bled deities, upon the plate to denote that it was taken from a defign

allegoric Inventions, &c. — " An old Man feated on a by that mailer. This opinion, however, is eafily confuted ;

Bank, with a Cottage in the back Ground," one of the few for the fame mark is found on " The Slaughter of the In-

plates wherein Agoilino has ftippled the flelh with the nocents," after Baccio Bandinelli, and of courfe cannot, by

graver. Providence ; on a tablet held by two angels is in- any means, refer to Raphael. It certainly Ihould be read

fcribed "Caufar. Cognitio :" this is a fmall foho, and after Ravfmia or Ravignano, fculf Jit. He fometimes marked hit

Marc Antonio; " The Cumsen Sybil," after Raphael, in engravings with a fingle R without the S, and at others,

4to., and dated 1516 ; " The Cemetery," in large folio, as will be found in our PlaU I. of the Monograms, &c. of

after BandineUi. This is the print fometimes called " The the Italian School.

Skeletons of Baccio," wherein Death is reprefented tearing Of the engravings of Ravignano, the following are thofe

a book in prefence of various other ikeletons ; "The which are held in mod requell, beginning with the
Battle of Charles the Rafh," a fmall folio, dated 1518; Sacred Subjecls. — A fet of twelve, of the frieze propor-

«« The Climbers," being part of Michael Angelo's Cartoon tions, from Bible hillory, after Raphael ; " The Slaughter

of Pifa,in large folio ; " The Academy of Baccio Bandinelli," of the Innocents," a large folio plate, after Bandinel'i.° A

alfo in large folio; "A Combat between Five Warriors," duplicate plate of the fame fubjeft, difierently cyphered,

alfo faid to be from the celebrated Cartoon of Pifa, in 4to. ; and without the name of the painter ; " The Transfigura-

"The Three Marys (veiled figures), on their Way to tion," marked with an R on the bole of a tree, under which

the Sepulchre," in folio, an anonymous defign, but attri- a difciple is feated; "The Laft Supper," marked R, and

bated by Huber to Michael Angelo ; another from Michael from the fame original as that by Marc Antonio ; and

Angelo's Cartoon of Pifa, in 4to., a very rare print ; " A " The Virgin of the long Thigh," varied from that by

Shepherd careifing a Shepherdefs," in foho, after Raphael ; Marc Antonio, by the introduftion of a fmall keg, all in

•' An aged Philofopher meafuring a Diilc," after Dominic folio, and after Raphael ; " The Holy Family," after

Campagnola. A very rare print in 410., after Raphael, of Polidore, in foho. A fet of thirteen, of the Saviour and

\ Female refting her Right Hand on a Vafe ;' "A Dance Apoflles, in 4to., after Raphael, and diftinguifliable from

-cf Fawns and Bacchantes," of the frieze form, dated 1518,
after an antique bas relief, but by fome afcribed to Prima-
ticcio. A fet of fixteen plates of bronze and marble vafes,
from the antique, in fmaU folio, infcribed " Sic Romse An-
tiqui Scv.lptores," &c. Another fet of thirty-fix, in 4to.,
of grotcfque fubjefts, after Raphael, fome of which only
are marked with the cypher of Agoftino ; the reft are by
other pupils of Marc Antonio. A fet of forty-eight buftos,
in 4^0. " The Arch of Conftantine," in a circle, dated
i;i7.

Marco Ravignano, commonly known by the name of
Marc of Ravenna, was born at Ravenna in the year 1496.
He ftudied at Rome, and became the pupil of Marc An-
tonio, and co-difciple and friend of Agollino of Venice.

Raphael lived, ;. e. till the year 1520, our

thofe of Marc Antonio, by the cypher of Ravenna ; " The
Viftor)' of St. Michael," in fmall folio, after Raphael;
"The Cemetery, or Memorial of Death," in folio, after
Bandinelh, but differing fo widely from that by Agollino
de Mufis, both in particulars and the general compofition,
as to warrant an opinion that it is engraved from another
defign.

Profane SuiJcBs.-" The Rape of Helen," and « Alex-
ander depofiting the Works of Homer in the Coffer of Da-
rius," both in folio, and after Raphael. A pair in foho, of
" The Interview between Scipio and Hannibal," and
" Scipio's Victory over the latter," after Julio Romano.
A fmall anonymous print of an armed Jupiter, the defign of
which is attributed to Salviati ; " Venus quitting Juno and
Ceres," a fmall folio, from the fable of Pfyche ; "The

As long
two engravers worked together, after which each began to Triumph of Galatea," in large folio, marked with an R

3 T 2 ami

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF EI^GRAVING.

and " jHpiterand Antiope," in fmall4to.,all after Raphael ;
" Euridice in Liferno," engraved in the talle of Marc An-
tonio, apparently after Julio Romano ; " A Nymph and
Triton," in 4to, anonymous bnt after Raphael; " Polyphe-
mus, attended by Cupid, purfuing Galatea;" "The Triumph
of Galatea," and " Apolo as a Shepherd guarding the Flocks
of Admetus," all in 410., and after the defigns of Raphael.
A fet of three prints, called " The Nymphs of Marc An-
tonio :" the firll, accompanied by Cupid, is drawn by two
marine monflers, the fecond is watched by a fatyr, and the
third is drawing a thorn from her foot, all after Raphael ;
" The Birth of Venus," in folio; " Cupid mounted on a
Dolphin," in 4to. ; " Vulcan forging Arrows for Cupid,"
in 4to., all after the fame painter ; " A drunken Silenus,
fupported by two Bacchantes," an anonymous print, in
4to. ; " A Satyr holding a Nymph in his Arms," ano-
nymous alfb, but fuppofed to be after Julio Romano ;
and "A Combat between a Satyr and a Goat," of anony-
mous defign, both in 4to. ; "The Combat between En-
tellus and Daret," in folio, after Raphael; "Orpheus,"
in 4to. ; " Poefy," a duplicate plate, or copy from that
by ^Iarc Antonio, of the fame fubjeft, iu 4to., dated ij-42 ;
*' Infant Bacchanals," from Julio Romano, in folio. An
emblematical fubjeft, in which are reprefented a lion, a fox,
and a dragon, with the word " Ergo," an oval print.

yinlique Bas Reliefs, Statues, Ifjc. — A facrifice from the
antique, in 410. The fame fubjecl reverfed. A bas-
relief, from the arch of Conftantine, in folio. An an-
tique frieze with architectural decorations : the fubjccl is
three cupids, or genii, two of whom hold (hells, and the
other a trident. The original is preferred in Ravenna, the
native city of our artifl, in the church of St. Vital, with the
infcription " Opus hoc antiquum repcrtur Rnvenna; in aed
divi vitdlis MDXVIII. " A battle piece, in folio. A
female conduc^ting a lion towards a funeral pile. Not-
■withftanding that this print is infcribed witli the cypher of
Marc of Ravenna, it is fo much in the Ityle of Marc An-
tonio, that fome connoiffeurs attribute it to his graver. A
fet of four bas-reliefs from the Trajan column, in fmall
folio, and in a flight unfiuilhed manner. The antique
group of the Laocoon, a large upright folio, and exhibiting
the only inftance which has come to our knowledge, where
the artiil has infcribed his name nearly at length, omitting
only the letter A in Marcus. Another engraving of this
group, in folio, marked with the ordinary cypher of our
artift, and infcribed on the bafe " Prout in II. deneidos
P. V. Maronis." It is fuppofed by many that Raphael
made the drawing for the latter print : both of them are
rare and remarkable, as (hewing the exadl ftate of this
v/onderful monument of art at the time when it was dif-
covered.

The remainder of Ravignano's engravings from the an-
tique are, the equellrian ftatue of Marcus Aurelius, in
folio, infcribed " Sic Romx aca fculp. ante Portum Eccl.
&c." The three Graces. A naked female drawing a thorn
from her foot, called " The Venus of the Rabbit." Two
females with a calTolette or cenft-r, after Raphael. Statue
of a man fitting, infcribed " Roma in Capitoli," all in 4to.
Muti.ated Itatue of an emperor, marked with the large R,
a fmall folio plate.

Julio Bonafoni, or Bonafone, was a native of Bologna,
and for that rcafon is fomctimes called Bolognefe : he was
born in the year I4(y8, and died at Rome in 1564. He
hudled tlie rudiments of art under Laurent Sabatiri, a
Bolognefe painter, but afterwards became the difciple of
Marc Antonio. He worked from the pictures of Raphael,

Julio Romano, and other great mafters, and occafionally
from his own defigns. Excepting one or two fubjetks, in
which he called iu the affiftance of the point (which, how-
ever, he never well underftood the ufe of), his plates are
executed entirely with the graver, in a manner though
much varied from that of his tutor, yet evidently founded
upon it. It is neither fo firm, nor fo clear and mailerly.
His drawing is often heavy, and the extremities of his
figures frequently neglefted. The f Ids of his draperies
are feldom well expreffed, and the back-grounds to his
prints, efpecially his landfcapes, are extremely flat and ftiff.
However, with all theie faults, wliich are not always
equally confpicuous, his bed prints are not without their
merit ; and though not equal to thofe of his mafter, aie
held in no fmall degree of eftimation by the generahty of
collectors. One thing in particular is remarkable in them,
namely, the attempt which he has made of preferving the
maffes, and a breadth of ligh'. and (hadow, as well upon the
groups of figures, as upon the figures feparately.

Mariette has written a catalogue raifonce of 100 fe-
le£t engravings by this mailer ; and Mr. Cumberhmd a
fmall book, wherein he bellows on Bonafoni much more
praife than he deferves.

Bonafoni fometimes affi.xed to his prints his name at length,
fometimes he contrafted it, but not always in the fame man-
ner ; and fometimes he employed the monogram, which will
be found in our Plate I. of thofe of the Italian Engravers.
The moil cfteemed of his engravings are thofe which follow.

The Poriraiis of Pope Marcelle II. in 4to., anonymous,
and very rare ; Pliilippus Hifpaniarum Princeps, Caroli V.
filius," in large 410. ; Cardinal Bembo, aged 77, after Ti-
tian ; Raphael d'Urbino ; Michael Angclo Buonarotti, aged
72, in a circle; Francifcus Flori of Antwerp, a Belgic
painter ; Johannes Bernardinui Bonifacius ; and Niccolo
Ardinghello, Cardinalis, annum agens XLIII.

Sacred Suljstls. — "The Creation of Eve," after Michael
Angelo ; " Adam and Eve in Paradife :" they are fitting
in an arbour embracing each other ; and " Adam and Eve
after the Fall : " Adam is here digging the earth ; Eve is
fpinning ; and two children are prefeat. Thefe are in fma'l
folio, and from compofition^ by Bonafoni himfelf; "Adam
and Eve driven out of Paradife," a fmall folio, after Aniico
Afpertini ; " Jofeph fold to the Khmaelites ;" and " The
Cup found in Benjamin's Sack," both after Raphael;
" The Fall of Manna and Mofes llriking the Rock ;" on
the fame plate, after Parmegiano ; all in fmall folio ; " Ju-
dith leaving the Tent of Holofernes," a large folio print,
after M. Angelo; "The Nativity," defigned by the en-
graver, in 4to. Another of the fame fubjeCt, in folio, from
a grand comuofition by Julio Romano ; " The Adoration
of the Shepherds," in folio, of anonymous invention, but
attributed by Malvafia to Parmegiano ; " The Holy Fa-
mily," a fol-.o print, after Juho Romano ; another "Holy
Family," where St Jofeph is feated on an afs, defigned by
Bonafoni ; " A dead Chrift," after Raphael ; " The En-
tombing of Chriil," after Titian; "The Refurredion, "
defigned by Bonafoni himfelf; "St. Peter placed at the
Head of the Church," after Raphael ; " St. John and
St. Peter healing the Sick," after Perino del Vaga ; " St.
Paul preaching to the People," an oval, after Perino del
Vaga, all in fmall fo'io. A large folio upriglit plate,
arched at the top, of " The Lall Judgment," after
Michael Angelo, infcribed " Julius Bonafonius Bonon,
propria Michaeiis Angeli pidtura quae eft in Vaticano,
nigro lapillo exccpit in , sefque incidit ;" " JelTe, Da-
vid, and Solomon," in folio, from the celebrated piAure

1T^\MAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

in tm Siftine chapel, hy the fame mailer ; " St. Joacliim and
St. Ann prcfenting Mary their Daugliter to the High
Priclt," after Parmepriano ; " Chriit nieetin«r St. Peter at
the Gates of Rome," after Rapliail ; " The Virgin and
Cliild," after Parniegiano ; " St. Cecilia," after Raphael ;
«' St. George," after Jii'.io Romano;" «' Tiie Emperor
Augiiftus, and the Sybil," after Parmcgiano, all in fmall
folio. In 4to. a fct of twenty-nine prints, from " The
L,ife and Pafiion of Jefus ChriR ;" and in Svo. a fet of
thirteen, from " The Life of the Holy Virgin."

Profane Suhjeas. — " Achilles dragging the Corfo of
Hettor at his Chariot Wheels ;" after Primaticcio ; " The
taking of Troy," after the fame painter, a large folio, en-
graved on two plates ; " The Difperfion of the Fleet of
Eneas," after an anonymous, bat very indifferent defigii ;
«' Alexander and Bucephalus," in folio, from a compofuion
by Bonafoni ; " Cimon nourifhed by his Daughter," of the
frieze form, after Polidore ; " A Combat of Cavalry," being
the firft idea of Raphael for his battle of Attila ; " Scipio
wounded and retiring from the Combat,'' from a defign by
Bonafoni ; " The myllerious Saturn with his Three Sons,"
after Julio Romano. A fet of twenty-two fmall engravings,
defigned by Bonafoni, of the loves, difdains, and jealoufies
of Juno ; " The Rape of Europa," after Raphael, in large
folio; "Mars and Venus," in folio, after Primaticcio;
"Vulcan difcovering the Amours of Mars and Venus," in
4to., of anonymous invention ; " Venus attired by the
Graces," in 410., after Raphael ; " The Birth of Adonis ;"
«' The Triumph of Cupid and Pfyche ; " and " Phcebus in
liis Car, attended by the Hours, wirh Time walking on
Crutches before them, and a Man and Woman waking from
Sleep," are all in fmall folio, and from compofitions by the
engraver himfelf ; " The DetlruClion of the Children of
Niobe," after Perino del Vaga, dated 1541 ; "The Fall of
Phaeton," in large 410., after M. Angelo, and a group of
three females, after the fame mailer, in folio~

From yinliqm Sailpl'.ire and Architedure, iffc. — Small buflos
of Jupiter, Juno, Latona, Bellona, and Minerva, five plates ;
"Hercules and Dejanira ;" '.' A Satyr and Nymph ; " The
youthful Olympus holding a Flute ;" " The Flight of
Medea," a bas-relief ; a ditto reprefenting " A Female and
Two Children feated ;' "The Loves of the Centaurs,"
■with grotefque foliage, all in 410. ; " The Temple of Ju-
piter and that of Neptune," both in folio ; and a confider-
ab!e number of book-plates, the fubjeds of many of which
are from the amours of the heathen deities.

Jean Baptilla Franco, was born at Venice in 149S, and
died in th.e fame city, A.D. 1561. He learnt the principles
of defign in his native country ; but travelled to Rome to
perfeft himfelf by lludying the works of Michael Angelo.
According to Vafari, lie made a drawing after the fa::ious
Lail Judgment of that mafler, which paffed in his time for
a chef-d'oeuvre. Franco had an excellent tafte in defign,
and perfeft knoxvledge of anatomy. He excelled greatly
in the eorreftnefs of his contours, and the learned manner
in which he indicated the play of the mufcles. But as a
painter he was deficient : he knew very little of compoiition ;
or colouring, his pictures were therefore without harmony,
and hard. He felt their imperfeftions, and quitting paint-
ing, applied himfelf to drawing and engraving. Of whom
he learnt the art of engraving we are ignorant : it has been
faid he was of the fchool of Marc Antonio ; but the me-
chanical part of his engraving bears more refemblance to that
of Julius Bonafoni. He ufed the graver, and probably
that inftruinent alone, notwithttanding that many of his
prints appear as if done with tlie point. His talk was free,
and he v.orked ia a grand. ftyle ;" his figures were generally

well proportioned, and his attitudes various and well con.
trailed ; his heads were often fmall, but always well de-
figned and charaileridic ; and tha other extremities were
rendered with the hand of a mailer.

Franco generally marked his prints B. F. V. F. that is
to fay, Baptilla Franco Venetus Fecit ; and iiis bell en-
gravings arc as follow ; — " Abraham receiving Melchi-
fedec ;" " The Sacrifice of Abraham ;" and '• Mofes
ftriking the Rock;" all in fmall folio. "The Ifraelites
receiving Manni in the Defert ;" in large folio. " The
captive Kings brought before Solomon ;" ditto. " The
Adoration of the Shepherds ;" " The Virgin fitting at the
Foot of a Rock, carcffing the Infant Jefus, and in the
back ground the httle St. John ;" "St. John the Baptill
lying on the Earth ;" all in fmall folio. " St. Jerome hold-
ing a Death's Head ;" a large folio print. " Jefus Dif-
puting in the Temple with the Doctors of the I^aw ;"
«' The Difciples laying the Body of ChriH in the Tomb ;"
large folio. " Simon the Magician, praclifing his Impoftures
before the Apoftles ;" " A Cvclop in his Forge, with Cupid
at his Side ;" " Hercules bending his Bow againft the Cen-
taur NefTus ;" " Two Leopards, two Lions, a Wild Goat,
and a Griffin,'' from the antique ; "The Donation to tlie
Roman Church, by the Emperor Conftantine," after Ra-
phael ; " A Bacchanal," a grand compofition, from Juhu
Romano ; " Triumph of Bacchus," a grand compofition,
all in large folio ; " The Deluge,'' in fmall folio.

Jacques Franco was born at Venice fome time about the
year 1560 ; and probably of the fame family as Bap-
tifta. His talle in engraving bore much refemblance to that
of Auguftin Carrache, of whom he was the contemporary.
He was a good defigner, and marked his heads and other
extremities very well : among the number of his produc-
tions, the following are the moft efleemed : — Part of the
4to. engravings for the edition of Taffra's Jerufalem, which
was publifhcd at Genoa in 1590, after the defigns of Ber-
nardo Caftelli ; the reft are done by Augullino Carrache ;
a collodion of portraits of great men, publilhed in 1626,
dated 1 596 ; " The Crucifixion," a fmall piece, marked Gia-
como Francho fee. ; " St. Jerome," ditto ; " Hercules be-
tween Vice and Virtue," from an antique basreliet; be-
fides many other plates after Baptifta Franco.

Nicholas Beatrice, Beatrici, or Beatrizet, was a native of
Thionville in Lorrain, but iludied engraving in Italy, and
chiefly at Rome. He was born fome time about the com-
mencement of the fixtcenth century, and continued prac-
tifing his art at Rome till the year 1562, about which time
he probably died. Whether he became the difciple of
Marc Antonio, or of Agoilino of Venice, is not certainly
known : Strutt thinks he tludied under the former. A fc-
dulous contemplation and imitation of Marc Antonio's ex-
cellent print of " Neptune calming the Tempell," after Ra-
phael, certainly contributed to the formation of what litt'e
he poflefled that might be called (lyle in his art. Yet it is
much mere the merits of Michael --^ngelo, Raphael, and the
other great mailers after whom he engraved, than his own,
which makes his prints defirable, for he neither drew accu-
rately, nor had attained any confiderable powers in handling
his graver ; and his knowledge of chiarofcuro was but \xiy
fuperficial.

The opinion which was held by many colleclors, that
Beatrice was the autlkor of the engravings which are marked
with a fmall die, infcribed with the letter B, feems at length
to be juilly abandoned. They are the performances of a
fuperior arti'.t, and perhaps of iiartholomew Beham. T\v
marks wiiich do belong to him will be found in our P/ati I .
of the monograms of the Italian School 0/ Entra\crs.

The

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

"The prints by this artlft wTiicli are mod fought ;ifter, are
■tho'e -.vjiich follow, beginning with his

Poilrahs. — Pius III. with a Latin infcription ; Paul
HI.; Paul IV. dated in 1J58; Pius V. ; Hen'.y II. of
France, dated 1558 ; another of the fame monarch, with
accefTori^js, dated 1556 ; Hippolito Gonzague ; Don Juan
of Audria, in an oval, with the battle of Lepante in a car-
"•touche, and otlier accompaniments ; a fet of medallions of
the kingi of Poland. All the above are of folio dimenfions.

Snijecls from Sacred H'l/Icry " The Death of Abel," in

4*0.; " Jofeph interpreting the Dreams of his Brethren,"
in foho, after Raphael, one of the bell of Beatrice's en-
gravings ; " Abigail meeting David,'' a fmall folio, of
which critics have difputed, without fettling whether the
delign is by M. Angelo, Bandinelli, or Julio Romano ;
" The Nativity of the Virgin Mary," after Bandinelli ;
*' The Annunciation,'' after M. Angelo ; " The Adora-
tion of the Magi,"' after Parmegiano ; " The Holy Fa-
mily," after Jerome Mutien ;" "The Good Samaritan,"
after M. Angelo ; " Jefus Chrift on the Mount of Olives,"
after Titian ; " The Crucifixion,'' after Mucianus Brixia-
nus; "The Virgin in Grief," after M. Angelo; "The
Defcent from the Crofs," after N. Circignani ; " The Af-
cenfion,'' after Raphael; "The Converfion of St. Paui,''
after M. Angelo ; " St. Michael's Viflory over the Devil,"
after Raphael, all in folio ; " The Holy Virgin diftributing
Rofaries," a large oval print ; " The Adoration of the Holy
drofs," (an altar piece in large folio) ; " The Prep'cet Je-
remiah," from M. Angelo's pifture in the Silline Chapel ;
*' St. Jerome," after Titian ; " St. Elizabeth, of Hungary,
healing the Sick," after Mucieno, all in large folio ; and
■*' The Lall Judgment," a very large print engraved on fe-
■veral plates ; from the far famed pidture of M. Angelo.

Suhjefh from Profane Hijlory, &c. — "The Sacrilice of
Inhigenia," after de'l Vaga, or Salviati ; " The Rape of
Ganymede," after Michael Angelo ; "The Fall of Phaeton,"
lifter the fame nialtor : Si rutt fpeaks highly of this en-
graving, but fays it was not originally the work of Beatrice;
-" A Bacchan-.ilian Piece," after Michael Angelo ; " The
l^ream of Human Life," after the fame mailer; a very
fingular allegorical print, exhibiting the influence of the
paiTions, and faid, by fome, to be compofed and painted by
Michael Angelo, from a vilion which he really experienced ;
-" The Archers,'' from the fame mailer ; " Vcrtumnus and
Pomona," from Jacobo Fiorentino ;" "The Combat of
Reafon and Love," after Bac. Bandinelli, called here Bra-
din ; " Combat of five Men againft five ferocious Beails ;
two Lions, a Bear, a Bull, and a Wild Boar,'' anonymous,
marked 15^2, attributed to Julio Romano; " Battle of
the Amazons," after a grand bas-relief on a fepulchral urn
in the Capitol, a large piece, on two plates ; " The Battle
of the Dacians," from the Arch of Conftantinc, infcribed
" Tabula marmorea Pugnx Daci;e, &c. ; " The Emperor
Trajan in a triumphal Car;'' "The Pantheon of Agrippa;"
*' The Temple of Fortune," from a drawing by Raphael ;
all in folio ; " The Grand Circus," a large print engraved
on two plates; " Front of the Farnefe Palace," after Mi-
chael Angelo ; " The Statue of Mofes,' ' from Michael
Angelo; " Equellrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius,'' en-
graved in 1558 ; a Handing figure of Chrift, after Mi-
chael Angelo ; «- Statue of the Philofopher Anaximenes
reading," finee retouched, and re-named " St Paul ;"
-"The Caft;le of St. Angelo;" "Siege and taking of
Theonville,'' a bird's-eye view, dated 1558. Moll of the
above are of large folio dimenfions.

The foregoing artiils worked with the graver only, but
die art of etching Lad now travelled from Germany to Italy,

and Leo Daris, otlierwife called Leon Daven, or Louis
d'Avefne, who was the countryman and contemporary of
Beatrice, is believed to have been among the very firfl who
praftifed it in Italy. He was born fome time about t'tie
year 1500 : ftudied at Florence and at Rome, and returned
to France, perhaps to Lorrain, or ftill more probably, to
Fontainbleau, with Primaticcio, after whofe compofition!
his principal works are for the mod part engraved.

His ft-/le is fingular, and though not inimitable,has not often
been imitated. His plates are chiefly etched in rather a coarfe
but fpirited manner, in (hort hatchings : his lights are kept
broad and clear, but his {hadows want degradation, his
outhnes arc ftifi" and hard, and his heads, hands, and feet:,
are not correftly drawn. The following lift will probably
be found to contain his bell engravings .• — " Venus blinding
Cupid,'' defigned by the engraver, in 4to. A pair, of
" Jefus Chrift," and "The Holy Virgin," each furrounded
by a glory and heavenly hoft, after Primaticcio ; from whofe
prftures Daris alfo engraved, an ■" Holy Family ;" "The
viclorious Saviour;" " Alexander and Bucephalus," an
oval ; "The Marriage of Alexander and Roxana ;" " Cleo-
patra ftanding under a Tent, holding the Afp in her Hand,
and refting the ether on aVafe;'' " The Continence of
Scipio; " The Rape of Europa ; " " Danae in the Shower
of Gold," an oval ; " Jupiter preffing the Clouds to
caufe Rain on the Earth;" "Venus bathing," a grand
compofition, where there is in the back ground an old
woman bringing refrefhments, in a fculptured border ;
" Venus entering with Mars into a Tub ;" on the fore-
ground are cupids playing with the arms of Mars, and
two women witli vafes ; " The Forges of \'ulcan ;'' " The
Rape of Proferpine ;" " The Chace of a Stag ;" " The
Repofe of Diana after the Chace ;'' ({he is lying by the
fide of her game with a dog under her arm) ; marked Fon-
tainbleau ; " Hercuhs undreiTing to enter the Bath with
Omphale," dittos " Hercules in the Arms of Omphale,
furprifedby Fawns, with Flambeaus ;" " Cadmus preparing
to combat the Dragon :'' " The Mafquerade ;' " The Ele-
phant and the Caravan,'' all in foho, and after the pictures
of Primaticcio.

After Roftb, our artift^ has engraven " Francis I. of
France' furrounded by his Court ;" the fame monarch en-
tering the Temple of Glory; " Venus and Adonis ;" and
" The Difpute between Neptune and Minerva." — .'\fter
Lucas Penni, " The Trojan Horfe ;" " Jupiter featedon his
Throne ;" " Pfyche approaching the Dragon-guarded
Fountain ;" and " Parnaffus with Apollo and the Mufes." —
After Julio Romano, " The Combat for the Body of Pa-
troclus;'' after Parmegiano, "Circe and UlyflTes," and a
battle, after an antique bas-relief, all in foho.

Lucas Penni was born at Florence fome time about
the beginning of the fixteenth century, and was the brother
of Giovanni Francefco Penni, furnamed II Fattore. He fre-
quented the fchool of Raphael, and ftudied a confiderable time
under Perino del Vaga. He poffeiTed confiderable merit as
an hiftorical painter, and George Ghifi of Mantua has en-
graven from feveral of his pictures. After vifiting Genoa and
Lucca, he travelled to England, where he was employed by-
Henry VIII. ; he afterwards went to France, and praftifed
the fine arts for a while at Fontainbleau. On his return to
Italy he applied himfelf to etching and engraving, and we
have feveral meritorious prints from his hand ; he fometimcs
worked from his own defign, but oftener from RoiTo and
Primaticcio. His mark was ufually compofed of an L and an
R joined together, of feparate ; for he chofe to add the word
Romanus, or the Roman, to his name, or the initials of it j
but it is necelTary to caution the young collector, with re-

fpea

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

^eft to tliefe marks, all of which will be found in our
Plate II. of monograms of the Ita'Aan Engravers, becaufe
they were iifed by other mailers greatly inferior in point of
abilities to Penni, and to (late that his engravings are not only
executed in a very fpirited ftyie, but alto accurately drawn.
He chiefly etched, but at times worked with the graver
only..

The foUowincr is a lift of his principal works :— " Two
Satyrs giving Wine to Bacchus ;" " Leda drawing Arrows
from Cupid's Quiver ;" " Sufannah at the Bath furprifed by
the Elders," all of which are from Rcffo : but the four fol-
lowing are from I'rimaticcio ; " Abraham facrificing Ifaac;"
" The Marriage of St. Catherine ;'' " .Tupiter nietamor-
phoiing Califto into a Bear ;" and " Penelope at work
with her Women," all of which plates are of folio dimcnfions.-

At the fame period with Penni lived Francifco Marcolini,
of Forli, an ingenious engraver on wood, who engraved,
printed, and pubhtTied a volume, entitled " Giardino de
Penfieri," ornamented with wood cuts after Jof. Salviati.
The fubjefts are emblematical and fatirical, and are executed
•with confiderable delicacy for that mode of engraving.
Marcolini was alfo an architeft of no mean talent.

Another engraver on wood, Giovanni Niccolo RolTiliani,
or Vicenlino, alfo lived at this period, he was of Venice ;
of mediocre talent ; engraved a few fubieds after Raphael,
and " The Entry of Henry TIL into Venice."

Battiila Vicentino, fo called like Rofliliani, from his
birth-place, has been fometimes miftaken for him. Accord-
ing to Vafari, he was born at Venice in the year ijoo,
a.id engraved, in conjunftion with Baptift del Moro, fifty
fubjefts of landfcapes and ancient edifices, in a firm ai-.d
agreeable ityle ; thefe are chiefly of folio dimenfions, and
among them are Monte Quirlnalis, the Colifcum, &c. Sec.

The Ghifi of Mantua, each of whom was fuccefiively termed
the Mantuano, were a numerous family of artiils. Jean Bap-
tifte, the patriarch of this Mantuan race, was born at the
commencement of the lixteenth century, and, according to
Vafari, was the difciple of Jnlio Romano, and he was
occaUonally painter, tlatuary, architect, and engraver. In
the latter art he worked with the graver only, and his ilyle
bears refemblance to that of Marc Antonio, when mingled
with the work of his pupil Peaz, as in the celebrated print
of " Neptune rebuking the Winds," where the Hnes of the
fhadows are gradua'ly blended into ftipplcd light. Baptifta
underftood the human ligure, but his drawing is mannered,
and his effefts deficient in harmony.

His ufual mark v.ill be four.d in our Plate I. of mono-
grams of the Italian School, and his principal engravings are :
a large folio, of which the fubjett is a " Naval Combat,"
from a compof'tion by himfelf, dated IJ^S; fome heads
of warriors, hclmcted, in 410. ; " The Holy Virgin fuck-
ling the Infant Chrift," in ^to. dated 1530; "David
beheading Goliah,' ' in folio, dated 1 540 ; " A Warrior
eloping with a Female," probably the Rape of Helen, 1 5-59;
"A River God,'' after Lucas Penni, in 4to. ; "Mars,
Venus, and Cupid," in folio ; " The Conflagration of
Troy," a capital print from his own defign, of large folio
dimenfions.

Georgio Ghifi was born at Mantua A. D. 1)24. He
was the nephew, or, as others fay, the fon of Jean Baptifte,
whom we have mcmioned above, and appears to have learned
from him the rudiments of engraving, though in the
progrefs of his ftuaies he much improved the ftyle of his
predeceffor.

Georgio was eminently fuccefsful in the technical and
academical parts oi the art : in particular he (ludied the
•rstrcmities of lor h'jman figure with much attcction ; and ex-
4

prefled the knitting of the joints and turns of the limbs with
confider.-ible accuracy. The knees of his figures efpecially,
lie frequently drew in a manner which has been juftly ad-
mired. There h, indeed, a famenefs of ftyle in the drawing
and marking of his figures, which has made it fufpeded that
he always drew from the fame individual model, and thus ob-
truded a manner of his own, inllcad of rendering the forms of
the great painters after whom he worked in all their variety.
This may be the reafon why he has lucceed. d fo indifferently
in working from Michael Angclo ; whole forms he to a cer-
tain degree c.iricatured : the fwellings of the mufcles being
too powerfully cxprelTed, the lights became divided, the
maffes confufcd, and the necelfary degrees of loundncl's im-
paired in the efl'eft. Thefe faults may be but too obvioufly
feen in " Tlse Lall .liidgmciit," engravodafter that celebrated
mailer, where the dorfal and abdominal mufeles, as well as
thofe of the limbs, are marked in a heavy, affected, and
unplealing manner.

Such defefts as thefe, however, which do not always pre-
dominate in the works of Georgio, are often more than
counterbalanced by the degrees of' truth and beauty which-
are found in them.

Indifferent impreffions of his prints are by no means^
rare, but Inch as arc finely printed and well preferved ap-
pear but feldom, yet without feeing them, it is impoffible
to form an adequate idea of the merits of this engraver.
His monograms will be found in our Place I. of thofe of
the Italian School: and the following are among his molt
juftly valued performances.

" The Myller\- of the Trinity,'' from his own compo-
fition ; " Tl'.e Prophets and Sybils" of Mfchael Angelo ; :
a fet of fix upright folios from the pictures in the Siftine
chapel ; " The Laft Judgment'' of Michael Angelo, a very
large upright, arched at the top, engraved on ten or eleven
plates The portrait of pope Julius II. after Raphael; and
from the fame mafter, " A Holy Family ;' " The School of
Athens,'' very large, and "The Difpute of the Sacra-
ment.''

His print of "The Dream of Raphael" is of doubtful
orig-inal, for while fome call it by this name, others term it
" Michael Angelo's Melancholy." It is of large folio di-
menfions, dated in Ij6l, and reprefents an aged philofo-
pher contemplating a fliipwrecked veftel, while a nymph
advances towards him : in the back-ground are ftrange and
fantailie appearances. Bafan fays that P.aphael had no hand
in it, yet the words " Raphaelis uibinatus inventum,'' are
affixed to it, and the ftyle of compofition and defign appear
to juflify the infcription.

bf a long 4to. fize are, a female fitting in a boat,
to whom an old man is bringing a new-born infant, of
anonymous invention ; and a winged female holding a globe.
The remainder are in folio, viz. an allegorical print, in
compliment to the birth of the- prince of the hou.fe of
Gonzague, after Julio Romano ; " Cupid and Plyche
crowned by Hymen,'' and " The Birth of Memnon," bot'ti
from the fame mafter ; the latter one of the fineft engraving.^
from the hand of Mantuano; " Ccphalus and I'rocrii, "
from the fame ; " The Interview between Scipio and Han-
nibal, previous to the Battle of Zama ;" " Regulus reviled
by the Carthaginians," and " Regulus tnclofed in the
Calk," all after the fame mafter ; " Venus at the Forge of
Vulcan," is after Perin del Vaga ; " Mars and Venus,"
after Raphael del Reggio ; " Diana and Endyinion," aftvr
I.ueas Penni ; " The Adoration of the Shepherds" is very
large, and engraved on two plates, after Angelo Bronziiii ;
" The Lall Supper," after Iv. Lombart ; " Herculi's
vanquifliing the Hydra of Lcrna," after Bertano Man-

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

tuano ; and nfter tLe fame mafter, " The Judgment of
Paris," " The Grecian Heroes before Troy," " The De-
ftrudion of Troy," and " The Cemetery," fometimes
called " The Refurreclion of dry Bones," a fine fpecimen
of the artiiVs ability, wherein flveletons, tombs, and ema-
ciated figures form a grand compofition.

Adam Gliifi, alfo known by the cognomen of Mantuano,
was a younger brother of George, and engraved much in
the fame llyle, though he was certainly fomewhat inferior
to his elder brother, both in correftnefs of outline, and the
ability with which he handled the graver. The cypher
with which he fometimes marked his engravings, will be
found in our Plate I. of thofe of the Italian School, and
among his beil works are tlie following : — " Nativita de
Noftra Signore," aft-er Julio Romano, which is thus treated:
In the lieavens is the Deity furroundcd by the heavenly
lioft ; lower in the compofition is the Holy Ghoil, fur-
roimded by a radiance, and on the earth is the Holy Virgin
and Cliild, and St. Jofeph ; " The Prefentation in the
TcmpL-," after Nicolas INIartinelli ; a group from the
marble of Michael Angclo, called " The Virgin of Pity,"
of which the fubjeA is a dead Chrift laying acrofs the
knees of his afflifted mother. Colleftors fliould be careful
to no:e, that in the early impreffions, as the plate came
from the hands of Adam Ghifi, the back ground is blank,
bat it has lince been re-touched, and a landfcape back-
ground added by Ant. Lefreri, who, however, has affixed
)iis own name to the print. The above are all of large
folio dimenfions.

In 4to. our artift has produced, " Mars preparing for
Battle," and " Diana preparing for the Chace," cither
after Julio Romano, or from defigns by himfelf; " An-
gelica and Medora ;" " Diana and Endymion ;" " Her-
cules and loli;" " The Clioice of Hercules;" " Two
Cupids conducting a Car with a river- God ;" and " Two
Cupids riding on Dolphins," both of the oval form ; and
" The God Pan playing on the Syrinx, with Venus and
Cupid lirtening."

Diana Ghifi, of Mantua, was fitter to the two preceding.
The year of her birth has not been recorded. She was
a woman of confiderable ingenuity, and probably learned
drawing and engraving from her brother George, whofe
llyle file fucccf^fully imitated. She employed no mono-
gram or cypher, but marked her engravings, of which the
following are the principal, with the name of Diana, fome-
times without any addition : — " A Converfation Party of
three Figures," and " The Holy Family," both of anony-
mous invention, and perhaps done from compofitions by
hcrfelf ; another " Holy Family," in a landfcape ornamented
with ruined edifices, after Correggio, in large folio, dated
1 577 ; another " Holy Family," after Raphael, where the
little St. John is prefeiiting a fcroll to the Infant Saviour,
while St. Jofeph, in the back ground, repofes on the bafe
of a column, in folio; " The Virgin Mary carefling the
Infant Chriil," after F. Salviati, in fmall folio ; " The
Holy Virgin and Child fitting on Clouds, and attended by
liic Archangels Gabriel, Michael, and Raphael :" this plate
is probably engraved from lier own compofition, and the
earlier impreffions are without the infcription " Regina
Angclorum :" it is in large folio; " The Inftitution of
the Papacy, or St. Peter appointed Head of the Church,"
after Raphael ; " The Woman taken in Adultery," after
Juho Romano ; " The Heroifm of Horatio Codes," after
the fame mailer, all in large folio ; " The Continence of
Scipio," in fmall folio ; and " The Birth of Cailor and
Pollux," which latter is perhaps the very belt of Diana's
engravings, are alfo after Julio Romano.

We (hall add to this lift but one more, natriely, " The
grand Feftival of the Gods," after the fame great painter,
done from the celebrated pifture in the palace del T. at
Mantua. It is a very large produftion, which Diana,
from a motive of convenience, has engraven on three plates.
Of Domenico del Barbiere, better known by the name
of Fiorentino, we (hall fay but little ; for, as an engraver,
he merits not much, though he painted in ftucco, under
the fuperintendence of Roflb, with coiifiderable abihty.
He was born at Florence in the year I Jo6, or thereabouts ;
and travelling to Fountainbleau in the year 1544, worked
with credit from the defigns of Primaticcio and Rofib. His
engravings, which are executed in a ftiffand incorreft manner,
are fometimes marked with his name at length, with the
occafional addition of Fiorentino, and at others with the
cypher which will be found in our Piute II. of the mono-
gram, &c. of the Italian Engravers,

Befides feveral plates of groups, and fometimes fingle
figures, from the Lail Judgment of Michael Angelo, he
engraved a " Repofo," in which the holy family are attended
by angels, in large folio ; " A dead Chrift," from Salviati ;
and an antique Banquet, from Primaticcio, both in fmall
foho ; " Mars and Venus," from Roflb, in 410. ; and " An
Angel, or Figure of Fame, Handing on a Globe holding two
Trumpets," in folio.

We have now to fpeak of that extraordinary artift,
Frrsncefco Mazzuoh of Parma, more commonly known by
his cognomen Parmegiano. He was born A.D. 1505,
and died, at Cafiel Maggiore, at the early age of 3J ; yet
in that fliort life very high degrees of excellence were at-
tained in the art of painting and etching, notwithftanding
that no inconfiderable portion of it was fruitlefsly fpent in
alchemical purfuits.

For an account of his merit as a painter, fee Mazzuoli.
He acquired the firft rudiments of art under the tuition of
his two uncles at Parma, and at the age of 16 furprifed tlie
partiality of relationfhip, and even aftonifiied the exifting
tafte of that part of Italy, by the produftion of a piclure
of " St. John baptizing the Saviour in the River Jordan ;"
but the fame i-f Raphael and Michael Angelo foon at-
trafted him from his native city to Rome, where he remained
till Rome itfelf was facked, ftudying with ardour from the
works of thofe great artiils, yet at times retarded, in no
trifling degree, by his unfortunate prediledion for alchemy.
It has been flated by fome writers, and is generally be-
lieved, that Parmegiano (if not the inventor of etching)
was the firft Italian who fuccefsfuUy praftifed that art.
Strutt fays of him, with great jnilice, that " in the etchings
of this great mafter we difcover the hand of the artilt,
working out a fyftem, as it were, from his own imagina-
tion, and ftrivingto produce the forms he wanted to exprefs.
We fee the difficulty he laboured under ; and cannot doubt,
from the examination of the mechanical part of the exe-
cution of his works, that he had no inftruftion. It ap-
pears to be fomcthing entirely new to him without the
knowledge of any thing better. We know that he cer-
tainly was not the fini inventor of etching, becaufe it was
praftifed in Germany before he was of age to attempt it ;
yet It appears as if he had been unacquainted with the prior
difcovcry, or only knew of it imperfeft ly by report ; and in
the latter cafe he might have been nearly as much at a lofs as
in the former. The fpirit and genius which appear through
the clouds are fuch as julUy render his etchings exceedingly
valuable ; and on this account they have been often copied,
and fometimes indittVrently. Tlie mechanical part of them
is fcratched in with the point, often badly corroded with
the aquafortis, and re-touched with the gvavcr, without

the

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

tlie leafl appearance of knowledge as an engraver. But lope engaged with her Women at Embroidery •" « Dio

looking beyond thefe defeds to the fwect charaftcrs of the genes bufied with mathematical Diagrami at the entrance

heads, to the elegant turns of the figures, and to the beauty of his Tub ;" and a fmall folio of the " Adoration of the

and limplicity of the compofition of thefe rude Htetches, Magi," ' in chiarofcuro.

what is wanting in the excellency of the mechanical part Antonio de Trente was born at Trentin AD i i:o?i

of the art, is abundantly fuppiied to the judicious eye, in He lludied under Parmcgiauo, though but iliree years oldcr

the fire and anmiation of the maRer. The copies are al- than himfclf, and became a painter of fome merit, and an

ways better than the originals, with refpeft to the regularity excellent engraver in chiarofcuro, which latter art he ia pro-

of the workmanlhip ; but even the bell cf them are exceed- fumed to have learned from ITgo da Carpi. His llvle of

ingly defective in llyle and fpirit, fo that they are eafily engraving is by no means elaborate, and his extremities are

diftmgui(hcd upon comparifon. Good mipreffions of the often negleaed, yet his prints are valued by connoifTours

originals are very rare ; fuch, I mean, as are not re-touched. Rcipefting the robbery of his mailer, of which Hubcr lias

From the fou'nefs of the copper upon whicli he engraved, accufed him, though we have thought it right to mention

and the little (Icill he had in managing the aquafortis, his the report, we fiiall not very llrcnuoudy inlill on tho fad

etchings are feldom clear or perfeA in their appearance. Authors agree that the plates and blocks were reftored after

though fome mdeed are greatly fuperior to others in this a time, and differ in the name of the robber ; under fuch

refped ; and thofe perhaps he executed in the latter part circumilances it would furcly be unfair to brand with cyclo-

of his life. pedian notoriety the memory of Antonio de Trente.

«' It is alfo faid that he engraved many prints on wooden His moit remarkable prints are, " The Virgin Mary

blocks in chiarofcuro j but it is much more likely, as embracing the Infant Chrirt," from Beccafumi ; anotluT

Bafan juftly obferves, that he was only the defigner and " Virgin and Child," from Andrea del Sarto ; " The Tibur-

djredlor of thefe works, and that they were executed by tinian Sybil, pointing out the Saviour to' the Emperor

Ugo da Carpi, Andrea Andreani, and other mailers." Augullus ;" (which latter was printed in green ink,) after

The alarms of war, much more the dillrefs and horrors Parmegiano ; a man holding a lyre ; a back view of a man

ofa Cege, are deftruftivetothe purfuitsof anartift. When leaning againft a bank, with a'fernale head at fome httle

Rome was taken by the Spaniards, Parmegiano retired to dillance ; " Circe receiving the Companions of Ulydcs," of

Bologna, whither misfortune purfued him. Many of his de- the oftagon form ; " Pfyche fainted with divine Honours,"

figns, etchings, and cliiarofcnro blocks, \vere here ftolen of the fame oftagonal fliape ; all of folio dimenfions, and

from him by an engraver, whom he retained in his fervice, after Parmegiano ; " The Martyrdom of St Peter and

and whom Huber calls by the name of Antonio de Trente, St. Paul," a ftill larger print after the fame mafter, is par-

and De Piles, Antonio Frontana, They were afterwards ticularly mentioned by Vafari, in his life of Marc Antonio,

recovered, or recovered in part ; but whether by legal pro- Nicolas Vicentino, known under the name of Boldrini,

cefs, or the remorfe of Antonio, has not been explained, an engraver on wood, was born at Vienna fome time about

Poor Parmegiano was for a time almoil diftracled by the the year 15 lo. Of this ancient engraver there is very little

event, which, with a debt due to the church, and other mif- known, but it is fnppofed he was a pupil of Titian, from

fortunes, drove him from Bologna to Caftel Maggiore, whofe defigns he commonly worked. There is a large

where he foon after died of a fever. --^^ — :-.i-- ir_ ,- ■ ,, , , _ .

The moll important of the prints from the hand of this
great mafter, are, " Mofes and the Burning Bufh," a fmall
plate, and apparently one of his firfl attempts in etching ;
" Jofeph folicited by the Wife of Potiphar," and " Juduh
with the Head of Holofernes," both in fmall 410. ; an an-
tique facrifice ; a fet of thirteen fmall uprights, of Chrill
and the twelve apollles ; " The Virgin Mary receiving In-
fpiration from the Holy Spirit ;" " The Adoration of the
Shepherds," a fmall upright ; " The Marriage of St. Ca-
therine," in fmall 410.; "A Holy Family," where the
Virgin is feated, and the Saviour is lying in a cradle ; another
" Holy Family," where St. John is prefenting a baflcet of
flowers to the Infant Chrift, in folio ; another " Holy
Family," in larger folio, where a bilhop and a faint are
introduced ; a very rare print, done with the graver, marked
and of folio dimeniions, of which the

upright print by him, repre'.enting Venus naked, fitting on
a bank with Cupid, and a fquirrel appears behind on the
branch of a tree; the figures, back-ground, &c. are exe-
cuted in a bold, free ftylc, chiefly with a fingle ftroke; but
there is fome crofs hatching in the deep fliadow.c. It ia
marked Titianus inv. Nicolas Baldrinus Vircentinus in-
ciabat, 1,66. The following are among his beft engrav-
ings, which are very rare : — A portrait of Jean Enron de
Schwarzenberg, f.irrounded with a border of warlike im-
plements, after Albert Durer, in folio ; " The Adoration
of the Kings," after Titian, marked with the cypher cf
Boldrini ;" another large print of •< St Jerome at Devotion
at the Foot of a Rock," in a landfcape ; " Saint Scbaftian
and St. Catherine," with four otherfaints, of a large fi/.c: both
this and the lall are from Titian ; a large print reprefenting
a mountainous landfcape, with animals, a female leadmg a
Franc. Parm. fecit," and of folio dimeniions, of which the cow, and a young man carrying a large tub ; anottier larce
fubjeft is alfo an " Holy Family;" "The Entombing of print of an old ape between two young ones, entwined w;Th
Chrift," a fmall upright folio, which Guido has copied of a fcrpcnt, intended as a fatire on the boaft of Baccio Baiidi-
the fame fize ; "The Refurreftion of Chrift," in 4to. ; nelli, that his Laocoon furpaffed the antique. This wood cut
A Shepherd leaning on his Crook ;" " A Mother inftrudl- has been attributed to Titian by fome authors, and to Bol-

ing her four Daughters ;" a back figure of a man with a
woman feated by his fide ; all from his own compofitions.

After Raphael, he has etched the celebrated cartoon of
" St. Peter and St. John healing the lame Man," in fmall
folio ; of which Strutt fays, that it is one of Parmegiano"s
fineft and moft determined etchings, adding, " we fee he
has mixed his own fweet manner with that of Raphael, in
the treatment of the heads, and it feems to me to lofe
nothing by the alteration."

We conclude our lift of his etchings with thofe of " Pene-
VoL. .XIX.

drini by others.

To Antcnio Salamanca, who was born at Rom.e in
the year ijoo, liave been attributed a whole length portrait
of Bandinelli; "God creating the Animal World," after
Raphael, both in large folio, with fome other works,
which are marked with one or other of the three mono-
grams, which will be found in our fecond plate of thofe of
the Italian School ; yet Strutt doubts wbether he was the
author or only the pubhfticr of thefe engravings.

Giovanni Giacomo del Caragho, or C.-".ra}ius, furnamcd
3 U Jacobu*

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Jacobus Veronenfis, was born at Verona in die year 1512,
and died at an advanced age at Parma. Caraglio went to
Rome to iludy under Marc Antonio Raimondi, whofe ftyle
he imitated with great luccefs, and he occupies a dill:in-
jruiihcd rank among the engravers of Italy. He was a very
clever deiigner, and pofTefl'ed great knowledge in drawing
tke lunnau iigiire, efpecially the Iieads, which are in general
very cliarafterillic and exprellive, but his draperies are not
fo well drawn ; the folds are not broad enough, and not
fufficicntly varied ; and moil of his prints are defeftivc in
the management of the eliiarofcuro. Caraglio was alfo very
ftilful in engraving gems, and executed fome medals which
added to his reputation.

Sigifmond I. king of Poland, being informed of the merit
he pofFefled, invited him to his court, where he lived to a
Jiappy old age, rich in royal favour, and furrouiidod by his
friends and pupils. He commonly marked his prints with
his name, and occallonally with a cypher, which will be
found in our fecond plate of monograms of the Italian
Engravers. The following are among his bell works; " The
Virgin fitting with the Infant Jefus under an Orange Tree,"
marked Jacobus Veronenfis ; in 410. ; another quarto plate
of "St. Anns,, and other Saints, with the Virgin kneehng,
holding the Infant Clirill," marked as the former. A large
folio print of "A Holy family," from the famous pifture
by Raphael, done for Francis I. fince well known by the
fine engraving of Edelinck. This one is without names, but
there are proofs with the name of Caralius ; another " Holy
Faniily,"' after Raphael, reiji-efentirig the Virgin holding tlie
Infant Jefus on a cradle, and careffing St. John, who is pre-
fented by St. Ehzabeth, in folio.

F. de Poilly has engraven this fubjsfl with the infcription
" Delicix mere efie." " The Marriage of the Virgin,"
from Parmegiano, in large folio. " The .-Annunciation of the
Virgin," marked " Titiani figurarum ad Cofareni exemplar.
Jac. Caraglio,' in large folio. " The Supphcation of Tan-
talus," after the fame maik-r, in large folio ; " The Rape
of Ganymede," after Michael Angelo : this plate is attri-
buted to Caraglio, but it is without his name, in 4to. ; a
print in 4.to. of an anatomical figure liolding a ikuU in its
hand, fitting on a ferpcnt, from P. Roffi del. ; " Hercules re-
ceiving the Arrows of the Centaur Ntfins," likewife from
Rolli, in large quarto ; " Hercules killing the Robber
Cacus," after the fame, in large quarto ; a large fquare
folio print, reprefenting a number of young men and women
cuhivating a garden, in the middle of which is a ilatue of
Priapus, after the fame painter ; a fet of tv.-enty prints in
4to. reprefenting the ftatues of the heathen deities, with
their attributes, in niches, from Rolli. Profefi'or Chrill
fays of thcfe, that " the figures or ftatues of the heathen
deities, which appeared r.nder his name, are not by him ;
I find, thefe ancient plates come originally from James
liinck." But here he is certainly millaken ; thofe by Cara-
hus are dated i ^26 ; and the copies by Binck i jjjo ;' which
is four years poilcrior to the firll publication of llicm.

" The Loves of the Gods," in twenty fmall upright
plates from Perin del Vaga ; a large folio plate of " The
Contcfl between the Mules and the Pierides ;" " The
Death of Mcleagcr," and " The Creation of the Univerfe,"
both after Periu del Vaga, in large folio.

Jean Baptillc d' Angelo del Moro, fiirnamed Torbido, was
boril at Verona in tlie year 15 12. In his youth he fre-
quented the fchool of Titian, but afterwards became the
difciple of Francefco Torbido, called II Moro ; whom he
inherited, botli in his name and fortune. Del Moro was both
painter and engraver, and in the former art was cfteemcd a
gocd colourillj his etchings are flight but fpiritcd, and he

drew the extremities of the figure in a very mafterly ftyle.
Among his works, we find fitty very fine landfcapes which
he engraved in coniurdtion with Baptilla Vicentino, of whom
we have before fpokcn, and alfo the following; "Tlie
Nativity," after Parmegiano, in folio ; " The Virgin
bathing the Infant Jefus, with the little St. John," in folio ;
•' A Holy Family," wherein angels are liiiniftering to the
Holy Virgin and Child, an anonymous compofition, but
certainly after Raphael, in folio ; another " Holy Family,"
from Raphael, in large folio ; a battle piece, in large
folio ; " The Martyrdom of St. Catherine," from Berna-
dino Canipi of Cremona ; another large foho print, repre-
fenting a Ihepherd, with his crook, accompanied by his dog,
and vifited by an angel ; without names. There is a very
grand compofition by Julius del Moro, brother to the pre-
ceding artirt, preferved in the faloon, of the grand counfel
at Venice, entitled " Papa Aleffandro terzo die dona al
Doge li llandardi e trombe nclla Chiefa di S. Giovanni."

Marc d'Angrlo del Moro was the fon of Jean Baptifta,
and was borit at the fame place, in the year 1 531. He
ftudied under, and was not inferior to, hi? father, either in
painting or engraving. We are acquainted witli thirty of
his engravincrs, which are executed with confideruble ability,
among which are the following; — "The Nativity, or the
Adoration of the Shepherds ;" "A Holy Family ;" "The
Adoration of the Kings ;" and " The Baptifm of our Sa-
viour ;" all of large folio dimenfions. This artill; died at
Rome at an early period of life.

iEneas Vico, or Vicus, or Vighi, was born at Parma
A.D. 1512. It has been fuppofed tha: he learned the
principles of defign of Julio Romano ; and that, hearing of
the great reputation which Marc Antonio had acquired at
Rome by his engravings, he went to that city, and became his
difciple. He was a man of talent, thoUj;h inferior to his
mailer ; neither his chiarofcuro nor his manual execution arc
commendable ; and in the latter a certain impatience of tern-
per is but too obvious ; "yet he underllood the human figure
very well, and, when he plcafed, could draw corrcclly. But
in many of his produflions the extremities are hard and heavy,
and the proportions neglected. His engravings are neither
fo neat nor fo clear as tiiofc by Marc Antonio. Indeed. he
fuccecdcd bell when he attempted a more open ihle ; a good
fpecimcn of which is, a female figure, with lier right arm
extended, over which appears an owl flying in the air, from
Parmegiano ; it is a half flicet print, dated 1548.

Vico fometimes engraved on wood, and it appears th; t
his fmall works done in this ftyle are ranged among his firlt
produclions. Of this number is a portrait of Charles V.
furrounded with emblematical figures, in an oval, compofcd
with tafte, very correclly drawn, and cut with great care.
Upon a piece of a ruin, which ferves as a tablet at the bot-
tom, is this infcription; " Inventvm fevlptvmqve ab aenea
vico parmcn fc." But Vico was alio ;.n antiquary, and pub-
liflied a tra£l on medals, embelliP.ied with engravings by him-
felf, and a colleftion of tliirty-fix ])lates of engraved gems
after the antique. This artilt ended Iiis days at the court of
Alphonfo II. duke of Ferrara, but in what year his bio-
graphers have not recorded. Of his numerous engravings,
the following will probably be found to poflefs the nioft
merit. — Four medalhons. Portrait of John of Medicis, in
large folio, dated 1 550. Portrait of Cofmo of Medicis, in
his youth, in large folio. Portrait of Alphonfi), duke of
Ferrara. A facrifice, in the antique talle, dated 1542, in
4to. of his own compofing. A plate in fmall folio of the
Three Graces. A Roficrucian fubjedl from the life of Vir-
gil, infcribed " Virgilium ehidens meritas dat fccmina
p^nas, Rorax, 1542." " The Army of Charles V.

affiii!

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

pafling tlip Elbe," from a compofition of liis own, a large
upright plate, in an oval ; " The Battle of the Amazons,"
the fame, inforibed " Bcllum Amazonum," dated 1,4^;
" Vulcan working at his Forge, with Venus on a Bed behind
him." In the fu-ft imprefiions of this plate, Mars was re-
prefented with Venus, from Parmcgiano, " Tlic Combat of
the Centaurs and Lapitha>," after Roffo, in large folio,
dated 1542 ; "The Difpute of Cupid and Apollo in tlie
Prefence of the Cods," from Baccio Bandinelli ; " The
School of Baccio Bandinelli," with his port-rait, after Par-
niegiimo ; " The Converlion of St. Paul," after F. Salviati,
all in folio ; " St. George and the Dragon," from Julio
CarrAtini'.s, a very rare print, in folio ; " Judith with the
Head of Holofcrnes," after Michael Angclo's celebrated
piclnre in the Silline chape!, in folio; "Jupiter and Leda."
and a large folio print of a bacchanalian fubjcft, both from
the fame mailer, marked Euea Vico, 1546. (This fubject
has been alio engravc-.i by Beatrizet.) " Chrift taken from
the Sepnlchrc," after Raphael, in folio. Another dead
Chrift, fupportcdby Jofeph of Arimathea, with the Virgin
and otlier females bewailing him, a middling-li/ed upright
plate, from Raphael ; " Lucretia ftabbing herfelf," with a
Greek infcription ; " Venus and CupiiT," (this has alio
been engraved by Marc Antonio) ; " The Annunciation of
the Virgin," a fmall plate from Titian. A fet of vafes
from the defigns of Polidoro da Caravaggio. A fet of fi.''ty
plates, of drelfes of different nations. And one of the Tr.:-
jan column.

Martin Rota was a native of Sebinigo in Dalmatia, he
ftndied at Rome, where he palTed his youth, but afterwards
removed to Venice, and remained there till towards the clofe
of the fixteenth century. Huber fays he was born in 1561,
but this mull be a miilake, fince his print of " Jefus Cluilt
meeting St. Peter," after Raphael, is dated in 1 j68. It
is uncertain by what mailer he was inftrufted in tlie art of
engraving ; but his works prove him to have been a man of
great abilitie.-. He drew the human figure very correctly,
and marked the extremities in a very maflerly (h le.

Rota worked entirely with the graver, which he managed
with great delicacy, and without drynefs, though his plates
are not very highly liniflied. Among his works is a fet of
portraits of the Roman emperors from Julius Cacfar to the
emperor Alexander Scverus, which he pubhflied at Venice
in I J70. He commonly marked his prints with his name,
and I'ometimes with the fmall wheel wliich will be found in
our Plate II. of monograms, &c. of the Italian Engravers,
and which conllitntcd a fort of pun upon his family name.
His principal works areas follows. — " The Laft Judgment,"
a middhng-fized upright plate, dated 1569, from Michael
Angelo Buonarotti. This excellent engraving, which is
juftiy conf dered as the chef d'ccuvre of Martin Rota, has
been copied very exactly bv Leonard Gaukier ; the dif-
ference, however, is oafily difcovered by comparifon, the
copy being much inferior to the origuial ; that is, fuppoling
the original to he a good impreflion. But a more (hiking
diflinclion is to be ieen in the face of the portrait of Michael
Angelo, which is introduced in a fmall oval at the top ; it is
turned towards his right Ihoulder in the original, and towards
his left llioulder in the copy. " The Relurreftion," from
his own defign, dated 1577, executed in a very delicate
flyle. Another " RefurreAion" executed in a very coarfe
fty'e ; " The Slaughter of the Innocents," from his own
defign, in fmall folio ; " Paying Tribute to Ca:far," three
figures, fcen as low as the knees, in folio ; " The Mar-
tyrdom of St. Peter the Dominican," a middling-fized up-
right plate from Titian. A " Mary Magdalen," after the
fame mailer, in 410 ; " Prometlicu* chained to a Rock,' after

the fame ; " The Satyr Marfias fla)-ed by Apollo ;" " Our
Saviour appearing to St. Peter at the Gates of Rome."
after Raphael, in folio ; " A Laft Judgment," from hia
own delign, a very fine plate, dedicated to the emperor Ro-
delplms'll. dated 157^:;, in folio. Another " Lall Judg-
ment," alfo from his own deiign, which remained unfiniflied
at his death, but was com])leated under the care of Anfelm
Boodt. It is dillinguiflied from the former one, by two fe-
male figures in the middle of the piclure, inllead of an angel ;
this latter is the mod rare, but the former is the fined en-
graving. " The Battle of Lepanto, and Defeat of the
Turkilh Fleetj" from his own defign, dated 1572, in large
folio, a very rare print, as are alio the good impreffions of
all the plates of this mailer.

Jerome Porro was born at Padua in the year 1 J20. He
is not mentioned by Strutt, and very little is known of the
events of his life, except tiiat he refided for fome years in the
Venetian territory. He appears to have been a man of a
mechanical turn of mind, and more remarkable for patient
indufiry, than for fugh talent as properly conftitutcs an artill.
Huber fays, he invented and condrudled a fort of faihng
car, large enough to contain thirty perfons, and there is
yet prefcrved at Parma an engraved curiufity from his hand,
of which it is dilTicuIt to fay, whether it exhibits more pa-
tience or want of talle. The fubjcct of this print is " Tiie
Pafllon of Chrill," and the hatchuigs, which conttitute the
fliading, are found, on near infpeftion with a magnifying
glafs, to confilt of very delicate writing. Hence the chiaro-
fcuro is not effective, and the writing is not legible.

Among his other works, are a fet of plates for an edition
of the Orlando Furiofo, which was printed at Venice in the
year 1 ,-48, and is now become very rare. A fet of an hun-
dred vignettes for " Les Impreffi degli Uomini illullri de Ca-
millo Car.iilli ;" and a fet of letter-prel's engravings, neatly-
executed for a book, of the funeral ceremonies ot the an-
cients, by Thomas Portacci, printed at Venice in 1591 ;
this was the lall, and perhaps the bell, work of Jerome
Porro.

About the fame time lived Antonio Fantuzzi, or Fon-
tnzzi, an obfcure Italian engraver, who elched a confiderablc
number of plates in a coarl'e liyle, refenibliug that of Tem-
pella. He lludied under Primaticcio, ar.d marked his prints
either with his initials, or the cypher which will be found in
our Plate 11. of the monograms, &c. of the Italian En-
gravers. Though his prints poffefs not much merit, rarity
has conferred on them an imaginary value, and they are
fought after by the curious, particularly a bacchanalian fiib-
ieCt, where Silenus is followed by a nujiiber of Satyrs, after
"Roffi, dated I J4.3 ; " The Contell between the Mufes and
Picrides," in large folio, after Primaticcio ; and, after the
fame mailer, " Alexander and Roxan?," and "Alexander
and Thalellris," dated 1^43. A large print from the
hillory of Pfyche, of Jupiter, Minerva, &c. in an oval ;
and "Titan rcpofing on the Surface of the Sea," in folio, after
Bologna.

Now alfo lived Andrea Schiavone, furnamed MeldoUa, a
celebrated hillorical painter, who performed fome etchings
fomewl'.at in the taile of Parmcgiano, and a few prints in
chiarofcuro, among which are, " T!i-- Finding of Mofes,'*
in fmall folio, after Parmcgiano ; " The Flight into Egypt,"
in 4to.; and " A Holy Family," in folio, after Parme-
giano, in all of which the hatchings appear as if of white
chalk on » blue ground ; in the " Refurredlion of Lazarus,"
the hatchings are of gold colour on a blue ground, and the
fame in " Chrift laid in the Sepulchre," both of v\hieh are
after Parmcgiano ; " St. Peter and St. John," after the
cartoon of Raphael, is executed in the fame manner, as is
3 U 3 alio

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

alfo the " Rape of Helen," in folio, from a compofition by
Schiavone himfelf; for an account of whofe merits as a
painter, fee Schiavone.

Paolo Farinato was born at Verona in the year 1522, and
died in 1604. He learned the firft rudiments of art of
Antonio Badaia, but afterwards became the difciple of
Nicolo Golfino. His genius, which began to unfold itfelf
at A very early age, inclined him to hiftorical painting, and
he continued, occafionally, to praftife that art until a late pe-
riod of life. A pifture from his pencil, of " The Miracle of
the Loaves and Fiihes," adorns the churcli of St. George at
Verona, and he painted feveral for the Efcurial, where lie
pafled fome years.

Farinato's Ryle of engraving was bold, free, and decided,
and couliils almoft entirely of etching : he fometimes marked
his plates, which are fomewhat numerous, with his name at
length, and at others with the initials P. F. or P. V. F., the
V ftanding for his native city of Verona.

His bell produttions in this art are, a figure of " St. John,''
a fmall upright, a ditto of " St. Jerome kneeling ;'' " St.
Mary Magdalen, feated with a Book and Crucifix, &c. ;"
" The Holy Virgin with the Infant Chrill and St. John,"
in folio ; " Angels bearing the Crofs," a fmall upright ;
"Venus and Cupid;" and" Venus at the Forge of Vulcan ;"
both in folio. They are all after his own compofitious.

The three following engravings are by Horatius Farinato,
who was the fon and pupil of Paolo : he was of very promif-
ing talents, but died at an early period of life. Strutt fays
«' he would have equalled the greatell matters ;" but this
may be faying a little too much. They are after his father's
compofitions, which may be one reafon why they have gene-
rally been confounded with his v/orks.

" The Invention of the Crofs, with St. Francis and the
Hoiy Women.'' a large folio print, marked P. F. inv. Ho.
F. V. fecit. 1 5-83 . Another Ivirge folio, of " The Deftrnc-
tion of Pharoali's Hod," marked Ho. P. F. inv, 1585, and
" An Holy Family w.th St. John."

Giacomo Batiila Fontana was born at Verona A. D.
1J24. He worked at Venice great part of his life, and
died in the fervice of the emperor. He defigned as well as
engraved, and we have feveral flight etchings by his hand,
executed with the boldnefs and freedom of a mailer, though
the drawing is by no means correft. Of thefe it may fuffice
to mention the following: — Several fubjetls from Virgil's
Eneid, in folio, from his own compofitions ; " The Vifion
of Ezekiel,'' in large folio •,' "The Martyrdom of St.
Peter, the Dominican, in a Foreft," from the famous
piaure by Titian ; (Martin Rota, and Le Fevre have alfo
engraved from this pidure.) " The Battle of Cadova,
between the imperial Troops and the Venetians," a raiJdling-
lized plate, lengthways, from Titian ; " Our Saviour on the
Crofs,'' in lar.e folio ; and twenty-eight fmall plates from
the hiftoryof Romulus, including a dedication to Ferdinand,
Archduke of Auftria, dated 1573.

Dominito Maria Fontana was born at Parma in the year
1543. Strutt has miilakenly dated his birth in 1673. He
learnt drawing in the fchool of Bologna, and engraved chiefly
after his defigns. Le Compte and others have confounded
this artill with Dominico Fontana, the famous architetl.
The following are fome of his works : — " A Flight into
Eo-ypt ;" the fcene lies in a mountainous landfcape ;
" St. Jolin preaching in the Defert," in large folio ; " Our
Saviour fpeaking to the Women of Jerufalem, on his way
to Mount Calvary," in folio, dated 1584 ; " Mount Cal-
varv," with a Latin and German infcription ; " The erect-
ing'of the great Obelilk, Licforc th6 Church of St. Peter at
Rome," wuh all the apparatus neceffary for the elevation of

fuch an immenfe mafs, marked Dom. Fontana inv. Seb.
Bonifacio fc. 1586, a very rare piece, engraved on three large
plates.

Veronica Fontana, who engraved fmall portraits in wood
with confiderable neatnefs for that mode of art, was
daughter to the above, and ftudied the art of defign under
her father and Elizabeth Serani.

Chriftofano, or Chriftopher BerteHi, was a native of
Rimini, in the duchy of Modena, and appears to have
lived about the end of the fixteenth century, though his en-
gravings are not dated. He worked entirely with the graver,
but in a ftiff mannered ftyle.

From whom he learned the art of engraving is by no means
certain, and by no means important, as he neither invented
a fl:ylc of engraving, nor improved on thofe aheady known.
He engraved after Correggio and other Italian mailers ; and
the following are among his works : a Portrait of Oftavius
Farnefe, duke of Parma, in folio ; " The Converfion of
St. Paul,"' a very grand compofition, from Pordenonc,
marked " Per me Chriftofano Bertelli,"' in large foho ;
" The Virgin with the Infant Jefus, and four Saints," after
Correggio, in folio ; another of " The Virgin and Cliildj
with St. George,'' from the fame painter ; a folio print,
reprefenting the different ages of man, marked Chriftofano
Bertelh, fc.

Ferrando, or Ferdinand Bertelli, was of Venice, and
contemporary with the preceding artift, to whofe family he
probably belonged ; he worked after many of the Venetian
mafters, but did not much diftinguilh liimfelf, and we there-
fore only mention the fi.llovviiig of his works: "Our
Saviour healing tlie Sick," marked Farinati pinx. F. Ber-
telli, exc. 1)66, of largo folio lize ; " Our Saviour on the
Crofs," after JuUo Romano; "Venus repofing," after
Titian, marked Nic. Bertelh, 1566. Specchio della Vita
humana. In Venezia per F. Bertelli, 1566. Another, in-
titled " Omnium fere gentium noftrae statis habitus, a F.
Bertelllo a:neis typis excufs. Venet. 1569," in foho.

Lucas Bertelli, hkewife a native of Venice, was a print -
ffller, but engraved fome plates in the ftvle of Cornehus
Cort ; among which are the following : — A portrait of
Hippolita Gonzaga, a daughter of Ferdinand, figned Lucas
Bertelli, exc. in 4to. ; " The People of Ifrael tormented
by Serpents," after Michael Angelo ; a folio print of
" The Baptifm of our Saviour," figned as before, with
four verfes at the bottom, beginning " Non illi Chriftiani
latices," &c. ; another folio print of " The Magdalen
wafting our Savour's Feet ;" " The Flagellation," after
P. Farinati, in large folio, infcnbed as before ; " A Cruci-
fixion," in large folio; " The Defcent from the Crofs,"
where Nicodemus is holding the nails, a meritorious print,
figned as before ; " The Four Evangelifts fitting at a Table
in the Temple, with their Attributes," from Michael Coxie,
in large folio; "The Laft Judgment,'' after J. B. Fontana ;
" An old Woman and Children, warming themfelves at a
lar^e Fire," with eight verfes, after Titian, in foho. N. B.
This engraver tlouriihed towards the clofe of the fixteenth
century.

Fredericio Baroccio, was born at Urbino in the year 152S,
and died at Rome A. D. 1612. He learnt the principles of
defign under Battifta Franco at Venice, whom the fuperi-
ority of his genius very foon enabled him to furpafs. He
went very young to Rome ; ftudied with the pupils of
Raphael ; and, according to De Piles, was employed by
pope Paul III to paint feveral fubjcds in frefco. Baroccio
painted both portrait and hiilory with the greateft fuccefs,
and particu-larly excelled in facred fubjefts ; it is Add that

ITALIAN SCHOOL OV ENGRAVING.

he generally painted his Virgin Mai-ies from his lifter, and
Infant Clirills from his little nephew.

He engraved feveral pictures from his own compofitions,
which, though flight, and not well managed with refpcft to
the mechanical part, are neverthclefs moll admirable, on ac-
count of tlie exprefiion and excellent drawing difcovered in
them. His heads are very beautiful and charadleridic ; and
the other extremities of his figures finely marked. Amidd
all the difiiculties he appears to liave met with, in corroding
his plates with the aquafortis after he had etched them,
and his unfltilfulncfs in handling the graver to harmonize and
finirti them, the powvrs of a mailer appear like the orb of
the fun, xvlien feeii through the thin clouds of morning.
The following are among his bcft engravings, all of which
are from his own compofitions. A fma!l print of " The
Virgin and Child," which was never completely finifhed
at tlie bottom ; " The Virgin and Infiant Jefus in the
Clouds," finned F. B. V. F. in'^4to. ; « The Annunciation,"
a large upright plate, of which the good impreflions are
very rare ; " St. Francis receiving the Stigmata," a fmall up-
right plate ; " The extatic Vifion of St. Francis,' ' in which
our Saviour and the Virgin appear to him, a large upright
plate arched at the top, efteemed the moll cai)ital of the
engravings of Baroccio.

Battiila da Parma, or Parmenfis, was a native of Parma,
born A. D. 1530. Huber, without adverting to dates, fays
" he was probably a difciple of Parmcgiano ;" now Paripe-
jjiano, as Wv have already dated, died in the year 1540.

The truth ■«, Battiila ftudied at Rome, but under what
mafter it is not known ; and here he praftifed the art of en-
graving in a ftyli- fosnewhat refembling that of Cornehus
Cort.

Among the motl e;>eemed of his prodnftions are the fol-
lowing : — " The Virgin and Child appearing to St. John
the Divine," from Frederico Baroccio, ligned Baptiiia
Parmenfis fee. Roms 1588, in folio; " Phihppus II. Hif-
paniarum Rex, 1589," in large folio ; " Chnil baptifed in
the River Jordan," Bapt. Parmenfis dcdicavit, in large
folio ; " The Chaftity of Jofeph," in large folio, dated
1592 ; and ♦' Mount Calvary," a very grand compofition,
marked as formerly.

Jacques, or Jacobus Parmenfis, was another artitl, probably
of ilie fame family, irom whofe hand we have a print exe-
cuted in the ftyle of Caraglio, of " The Martyrdom of St.
Peter and St. Paul," and a ir.iddling-fized print lengtliv.ays,
from Parmegiano ; it is executed with the graver, in a flight
ftvle, and has often been attributed to Caraglio, but the
heads and other extremities are not fo well drawn as we find
them in the works of that artift.

Gafpar ab Avibus, likewife called Gafpar Patavinus, or
Padovano, was born at Padua in the year 1530. He ap-
pears to have been the pupil of George Ghili Mantuanus,
whofe ilyle he imitated, but never equalled. His prints are
dated from the year 156./ to 1580, and figned in different
manners, fometimes with the monogram of Gafpar, which
will be found in Plate U. of thofe- of the Ita/mn En-
gravers.

We (hall notice the folloiving of his produftions : a print,
in large folio, of " The Marriage of the Virgin Mary,"
from Paul Vcronefe, infcribcd Gafpar ab Avibus Citadel-
enfis fecit, 1577 ) " The Woman taken in Adultery,"
marked with his cypher ; " The Scourging of our bleffed
Saviour," a large upnght piate, figned Galpar ab Avibus
Citadelenfis fecit, Lucx Bertelli Formis ; " Our Saviour
crowned wuh Thorns,' ' marked as before, in large folio ;
*' The Laft Supper," from Lamb. Lombard, in large

folio ; '• Apollo on Mount ParnafTus, w ith Pegafus and the
Mufes, Homer, and Virgil," from L Penni ; a large vo-
lume in folio, in five pans, containing the portraits of the
Emperors, Archdukes, Princes, &c. of the Auftrian fa-
mily. Each portrait is a whole length figure, ornamented
with an appropriate border. Here Gafpar has changed his
ufiial manner cf engraving, and fomething more of the Ilyle
of the Sadelers appears in it : the figures, though ftiff, are
neatly engraven, and well proportioned.

Giovanni Battifta Cavaleriis was born at Laghcrino fome
time about the year 1530. He worked at Rime from
I350 to 1590. His Ilyle of engVaving bears confidcrabJe
refomblance to that of Eneas Vico, the difciple of Marc
Antonio ; though he has not, in every inftance, attained
the fame degree of excellence.

Cavaleriis underllood the mechanical part of his art very
well ; but his prints are defective both in chiarofcuro and
drawing, particularly in the extremities of his figures. He
was a very induftrious engraver, and, according to the abbe
MaroUes, his works amount to upwards of three hundred
and twenty-feven ; a great part of which, however, were-
but copies from the engravings of other mailers He fome-
times figned his prints with his name, and at others with hie
cypher, which will he found in Plate H. of thofe of the
Engravi'rs of Italy.

Among the moll efteemed of his works are the Frontif-
piece and Heads to the " Lives of the Popes,"' dated 1588 ;
tlie plates to a work on the " Life and Miracles of ApoUi-
naris, firll Biihop of Ravenna," in folio, which are coarfely
etched, and flightly finifiied with the gr.iver ; " Ecclefis
AngHcanx Trophia," in folio, from Nicolaum Circignano;
•• The Ruins of Rome," from Jean Antonio Dollius, in
30 plates ; " Jefus Chrill teaching among the Doiflors,"
from his own deiign ; " The Laft Supper," from his own
defign ; " The Statue of the Virgin of Loretto ;" " The
Houfe or Chapel of Loretto, and the Miracles which were
fuppofed to be done there," 1569; " The Celebration of
the Jubilee of 1585," in the back-ground of which is a view
of the cathedral church of St. Peter. (Here the engraver
is called, for what reafon has not been explained, Triden-
tinus.) And " A Naval Combat againft the Turks," for
the Viook of Ciacioni, of folio dimenlions.

" The Virgin of Silence," wliere the Virgin is readings
and the infant St. John making a fig'i not to dillurb the
deeping Chrift, accompanied by St. Jofepli, from Michael
Angelo, is in large foho ; " The Converfion of St. Paul,"
after a piclure of Michael Angelo, in foho; "The Mar-
tyrdom of St. Peter,'' in large folio, all figned with the
engraver's name; «' The Apoftle St. Paul," after Michael
Angelo, in large folio ; " The Animals returning from the
Ark," after Raphael, of the fame fi/.e ; " Moles diewing
the Tables of the Law to the People," from the fame maf-
ter ; " The Miracle of feeding the five thoufand," in two
large plates ; " Jefus Chrill appearing to St. Peter at the
Gaes of Rome," with the cypher of the engraver, dated
1569; " The Battle of Conftantiiic againft Maxentius," a
large upright, all from Raphael ; " The Slaughter of the
Innocents," after Bavcio B'andinelli, a grand compofitior.;
which was likewife engraved by M..rk of RaveniJa ; " Su-
fannah and the Elders,'; from Titian, in folio, dated 15S6 ;
" St. John preaching in the Wildtrnefs," from .vndrea del
Sarto ; a large fo'io print of •• The Delcent from the
Crofs," from Daniel de Voltcrro. The fame fubjeft was
engraved by Dorigny. " The Virgin fcated on the Cloudsj
with the Infant Jefusand .Angels miniftering to her," from
Ijvio Agrcdi, in 'large folio ;•* The Elevation- of the

Crofs,:*

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGR AVING.

C'rofs," from tV.e fame ma(l?r, figned " Opus Livio Agrelli
loilivenfis, Ronii incidabat, Joan.. Bapt. de Cavalleriis,"
in large folio.

For an account of Paul Veroncfe, who etched fome plates
about this time, and is a dillinguiflied ornament of the Italian
I'chool, fee the article Caguahi.

Cefar Veccliio was bora at Venice fomc time about the
year 1530, and died in the fame city. He was the younger
brother of the celebrated Titian, and probably the engraver
of thofe wood-cuts which are generally attributed to that great
artill. We liave by this mailer a fet of prints in oiiavo, etched
in a free fpirited ilyie, from the defigns of Titian, of the cof-
tume, or various dreffes, ancient and modern, of different
parts of the world: they were pubhlhed at Venice in the
year i 590, entitled " De gh Habiti antichi et moderni di
diverfe Parte del Mondo, Libri due fntti da Cefare Ve-
cellio." In the year 166+, another edition was publidied,
more complete than the preceding, where the title is more
fully explained, thus, '■ Raccolta di Figure delineate dal
gran Tiziano, e da Cefare Veceilio fuo Fratello, dehgente-
ment e intagliate."

Jofepii Porta, otherwife called Salviati, dtUa Gi'afag-
rano, was a native of Callelnuovo Grafaguano, born in the
year 1535. He was the difciple of Francis Salviati, whole
name he alTumed. He fettled at Venice, where he painted,
both in oil and frefco, witli great fuccefs, and performed
feveral meritorious cmrravings on wood. M. Papillon fays,
that he has feen twelve prints by this mailer, executed on
wr.od, of which the fubjefts were " Tlie Prophets,'' and
"The Sybils," " Pfyche finding Cupid aflccp," and "A
Cjiemill in his I^aboratory," a print ten inches by fixteen.
He continui's : " But I alfo pofl'cfs a print bv this mailer,
much fuperior to the preceding, of " Jefus thrift on the
Grafs, accompanied by the Virgin, Mary Magdalen, and
St. John," at whofe feet is a little tablet, with the name of
Jofeph Salviati. The charac'ters are very admirably cx-
preiVed, and the excellence of the defign equals that of the
execution." Porta's engraving of the Academy of Arts
and Sciences, a very fme compofition, in fmall folio, proves
tliat in this inftance Papillon is no cxaggerator. Andrea
Zucchi, and many other Venetian artills, have engraved from
the pictures of this mafter, who died at Rome in the year

Julius Sanuto, or Sanutus, was born at Venice A. D.
1536, but is very little known. Among the fmall number
of plates executed by tliis artill are the following : " The
Birth of a monllrous Child," figned Jul. Sanutus. Venet.
fee. This print is executed with the graver in a coarfe
heavy ftyle, with fmgle flrokes, without any crofs hatch-
mg, and bears great refemblance to a wood-cut. " Venus
and Adonis," after Titian, from the gallery of the king of
Spain, marked Giul. Sanuto exc. 1559 ; " The Fable of
Apollo and Marfias," a very fmgular compofition, from
Corrcggio, engraved on three large plates ; on the middle
plate of which is iiitroduced the Parnafliis of Raphael.

Of Dominico Vitus it is only known that he was a native
of Italy, l)orn fome time about the year IJ.;6, and that he
continuc-d to engrave at lealt till tlie year 1580.

He was an ecclefialtic, of the order of Val-Ombreufe, a
monallery fituated in the Apennines, and was probably in-
ftrufted in engraving by Agoftino de Muiis, whofe flyle he
imitated, and not unfuccefsfully. He engraved feveral
plates after contemporary painters, and like'wife from the
antique.

We have, by him, " St. Joachim holding a cenfer," from
a defign by Andrea del Sarto, dated ijSoj " St. Bartho-

lomcvi-," infcribed "Dora. Vitus Ordinis Valifumhrofa ^fo-
iiacluis excidit, Romae, 1578;'' a fet of fmall plates of
" The Paffion of Jefus Chnft," furroundcd with borders of
birds, beads, and fifties ; feveral antique ftatues, marked
" Dom. Vitus fee. ;" " Jupiter and Califto," in 410. ; and
" A River God," from the antique, of the fame fize.

Raphael Guidi was born at Florence in the year 1 5-40,
and, judging from his works, appears to have been inftrncied
in the fchool of Cornehus Cort, or Agoftino Carracci. He
worked entirely with the graver, which inilrument he har.dkd
with much facility. He drew correctly, and the extremi-
ties of his figures are very well expreffed. Though Guidi
cannot be faid to have equalled Carrache, yet liis prints
manifeft that he was a man of very fuperior talents. Tin;
following prints are by him, and will probably be foui-d
among his beft performances ; '• King 1) " 'i "1 "-'■■■' ■■•: tl.e
Harp," from Jofephine, in folio (the !,i ,en

engraven by Eg. Van Pandercn) ; " T' ...ter

Chriitopher Schwartz, in folio; " Ji'in i . . "i the

Sepulchre," from F. Baroccio, dated 1598 ; '■ ..En^iio carry,
ing his Father from the Burning of Troy,' from the fame ;
" Jupiter grafping his Thunderbolts," from Pohdoro ; ar<d
" Vulcan" from the fame mailer, both in folio. In larger
folio, and engraved with much freedom after" Jofephine, is
"The Fall of Icarus."

Bartolomio Paffarotti was born at Bologna in the year
1J40, and died in the fame city A.D. 1592. It is very
likely that he learned drawing in the fchool of Thadens
Zucchero. Bartolomio was the moft eminent of the luimerous
family of artifts of his name, and excelled both in hiiloricat
fubjeCls and portraits. Huber claims for him the honour of
having been the founder of the celebrated Academy at
Bologna, where the Carracci fo much dillinguiftied them-
felves. He was a painter of great m.erit, and Ph. Thomaf-
fin, C. Cort, Aug. Carracci, and many other artifts, have
engraved after his pictures. He likewife produced many
etchings from his own defigns, and from thofe of F. Sal-
viati, and P. Perugino, of which the following are beft
known, and probably pofTcf? moft merit.

" The Virgin and Child, accompanied by St. John," from
his own defign, in large folio ; " The Vifitation of the Vir-
gin," a rich compofition, after F. Salviati ; figned Bart.
Pad'arotus fee. a very rare print, in large folio, and another
large folio print of " The Marriage of Jacob and Rachacl,"
from P. Perugino.

Marius Kartarus, or Mario Kartaro, was born in Italv
fome time about the year 1540, but the time and place of
his death are unknown, and the events of his life are fome-
what obfcure. Bafan fays that " Marius Kartarus was an
engraver, who flourifl^ed in Italy about the middle of the
fixtcenth century ; Rodolphus Fuft-li calls this engraver
Marius Cartari, who, in the year 157S, engraved ar Rome
the portraits of the twenty-four firft Roman emperors, from
Julius Caefar to Heliogabalus. And Strutt thinks " that
he was probably a German, though he refided at Rome, and
learnt t"he art of engraving in his own country ; he copied feve-
ral of the engravings of Albert Durer with fomc degree of
precifion : they are executed entirely with the graver ; but
his principal works are etchings in a'coar.'"e, incorred ftyle,
fniiflied with the graver. Some of them are vei-y large, and
in general from his own defigns." Kartarus common-
ly marked his prints with a monogram, which will be
found in our fecoiid plate of thofe of the Im/ian Engravers,
and never with his name at length. The following are among
his moft diftinguilhedprodudions : " The Adoration of the
Shepherds," in a very neat ftyle, executed with the graver

onlv :

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

only ; " Our Saviour crowned with Thorns," a large up-
right plate, nlfo executed with the graver ; *' Diana and En-
dyniion," a large plate lengthways ; " Chrill praying in tlic
Garden of Olives," from Albert Durer, marked on a tablet
1567, Uoms, in folio ; " St. Jeroni featcd in a Chamber,"
from the celebrated print of the fame fubjedl by I'Jiirer.
" The Defcent of Chrift into Hell," from Andrea Manteg-
na, etched in his rough ftyle, in folio ; " The Lail Judg-
ment," in large folio, from the famous pidure by Michael
Angelo, in which print the oval at the top, that in the ori-
ginal picture contains the pai iter's portrait, is left blank.

Andrea Androani, called Mantuano, was born at Mantua
in the ye.ir 1,40, and died at Rome in 1^)2:;. He learnt the
elements of his art in the place of his nativitv, but went after-
wards to lludy at Rome. Andref.ni engraved on wood only,
in the ftyle diftiiigiiifhed by the appellation of cliiarofeuro ;
which he performed by the help of two, and fometimes three
blocks, but never more. Among his own countrymen, he
had Ugo da Carpi, and Antonio da Trento for models,
whom he feeins to have followed very clofely in the early part
of his time ; but at length he carried the mechanical part of
the art to a far greater degree of perfection. His great
merit, as an artift, is acknowledged by all who are converfant
in prints ; his drawing is executed in a very mafterly Ityle,
and with great fpirit ; the heads of his figures, though (light,
arc characterilHc and exprefiive ; and he has difplayed great
judgment in the management of the various tints.

The number of prints by this mafter is very confiderable,
for befides thofe which he performed himfelf, he procured a
great many engravings by other artills, retouched them when
occafion required, and, adding his cvplier, fold them as his
own productions. This difingenuous artifice, altogether im-
worthv of him, renders it very difilcult to dillinguini his
works iirecifely ; for, after all, it is molt likely that many
prints are attributed to him, in the engraving of which he
had no concern. He commonly marked his prints with one
of the cyphers which will be found in our fecond plate of
Italitm Monograms. The Abbe de Marolles midakenly calls
this artift Andreoffi ; others have millaken him for Andrea
Mantegna, who lived nearly a hundred years before him, and
others again for Albert Altdorfer, on account of the limi-
larity of their monograms. We have endeavoured to ex-
clude his adopted engravings from the following lill; of his
works, and to feleft the beft of his own. A portrait of
Albert Durer ; " The Pavement of Sienna," after a draw-
ing bv Francefco Vanni, from Domenico Beccafunii Sanele,
con filling of eight fubjects, faid to be the moll rare of all
Andreani's engravings ; " The Deluge," from Titian, a
very large piece, on three plates : " The Army of Pliaraoh
pafllng the Red Sea," from the fame ; " The Adoration of
the Magi,'' from Parmegiano, in fmall folio ; " The Purifi-
cation of the Virgin," from Salviati, in folio, dated 1608 ;
" The Virgin and Cliild, worfiiipped by a Bifhop,' 'half figures,

to whom he attributes many prints in cLiir-obfcure). A,a-
otlicr " Entombing of Chrill," from Raphael da Fteggio, a
fmall upright plate, half figures; " St. Peter pieaeliing,"
marked with the name of Pohdore, and the cyjjhcr of /\n-
drani, 1608; " St. Sebailian, with a Billiop,' and ihe Vir-
gin and Child, in Rays of Glory," marked l-'redericus Ba-
rutius Urbinas, in large folio ; an emblematical print, repre-
fenting the Chriftian after his fpiritual warfare in tiie prcfent
life, received as viclorious into heaven, and crowned by Chrift ;
it is figned Baptilla Franco de Venife, and bears the cypher
of Andreani, in large folio ; a perfonifieation of human
life, reprefented by a female figure aftailod by the pallions,
figned Jac. Ligotus, inv. et Andreani 15S J, Fircn/^, in large
folio : there are different imprcflions of this plate, both
with and without the chiarofcuro. «' The Raj^e of the:
Sabines," from a group by the fcnlptor Govan. Bologna;
three feveral views, dated IJS4; anoiher print of the faiue
fubjecl, from a bas-relief of the fame i>ia;ler, on three blocks,
dated I J85 ; " The Triumph ot .Inlius Ca^far," from An-
drea Mantegna, the original of which is at Hampton Court,
it is cut on ten blocks of wood, including the title, and
dated 159S ; a large print of a fcenein a play, intitled " Or-
tenfio," reprefented by the academicians, called Intronati,
in the prefence of the grand duke Cofmo I. at Florence,
from the defign either of Marco Ricci, or Bart. Neroni.

Jacques, or Giacopo Palma, ufually called the younger,
in contradiftinftion to his uncle Giacomo, who was a very
eminent hiftorical painter, was a native of Venice, born.
A.D. 1544, and died in the fame city in the year 1628.
Giacopo became the difciple of Tintoretto, whofe ftyle he
followed during the earlier part of his life, but he after-
wards ftudied with great care and attention the works of
Titian and other great mailers, to complete his tafte. Palma
has etched a number of free fpiriled plates in a flight llyle,
to which he frequently iigned his name at length, and fome-
times ufed the monogram of a palm-branch, croffin<' dia-
gonally the letter P, which will be found in our Piute IT:
of Italian Monograms.

The following are by him, and are his moft eftccmed
prints : — " .Samlon and Dahlah," after Jac. Franco ; and
" Judith and Holofernes,'' both middling-fizcd plates length-
ways, marked with his name ; " The Nativity," in fmall
4to. ; " A Holy Family, worlhipped by St. .lerome and St.
Francis," halt length ; " St. John in the Defert," in 410. ;
« Tlie beheading of St. John," the fame ftj.e ; " St.
Jerome in Conference with a Pope," in 4to. very rare ;
" Pallas fitting on a Trophy, holding a little figure of Vic-
tory in her Hand," in large 410. ; "Paying Tribute to
Cxfar," the fame; "The Woman taken in Adultery,"
the fame ; " Chrift anfwering to the Phavifees, when they
difputed his Authority," the lame ; "Chrift ajjpearing to
St. Thomas," half length figures; " Two Men in Tar-
tarus," the fanie fi/.e ; " An Ectlefiaftic, and a naked Fi-
from Al. Caflblani, with the artill's cypher, and the words gnre, with two Boys underneath," with the monogram of

Andrea Mantuano, Pittore Sanefe, IJ91, in large fol
" The Virgin, St. John, and Ir.fant Jefus, accompanied by a
Saint," from Giac Ijgozzio, in folio. Another folio print
of " Our Saviour h-'aling the Lepers," from Parmegiano ;
" Jefus Chrill healing the Paralytic," from Franceflb de
Nanto da Sahandia, in folio ; " Chrift departing from Pilate,
who is waftiing his Hands," one of his moil finifhed pro;-
duclions, on two blocks engraved from a bas-relief of Govan.
Bclogna, in large folio ; " Chrill bearing the Crofs," after
Al. Caflblani. with the name of d' Andreani in Sienna, 1591,
in folio ; " The Entombing of Chrift," a large folio prmt,

the artift ; m 4to.

Dominico Pellegrino Tibaldi, who excelled in the three-
arts of painting, engraving, and architecture, was born at
Bologna xV.D. 1546. He was the fon and pupil of Pel-
legrino, known by the name of Tibaldi da Bologna, after
whofe compofitions he etched feveral fpirited plates. The
following Ihort lill will probably be found to contain the
beft of Dominico's works on copper: "The Virgin of the
Rofe," after a piclnre by Parmegiano, in the gallery of
JDrefden, in folio ; "A View of a Fountain at Bologna,"
from John de Bologna, figned Domm. Tibaldi. 157c, in

dated 15QI, from Giuf. Seolari Vicentino, pittore excellente large folio ; "The Trinity,' a grand compofition, after
(Papillone mentions a Jofeph Scolarij an engraver on wood, Horace Samncliini, in large folio j and a priiii reprefeiiting

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

" Peace, laying the Inftruments of War at the Feet ot

Camillo Procaccini was born at Bologna in the year
IJ46, and died at Milan in 1626. He very probably
learned the principles of painting from his father Ercole
Procaccini. Huber pronounces him the precnrfor of the
Caracci, and calls our attention to the fubhmity of his con-
ceptions, and the grandeur of his tafte. He refided chiefly
at Milan, where he painted a great number of pifturcs, and
died in that city at the advanced age of eighty. He amufed
himfelf much with etching, which he performed in a bold,
mafterly ftyle. The heads of his figures are often admirable,
and the other extremities very finely marked. Among
others, the following etchings are the produdion of his
needle : — " A Repofe of the Holy Family," in which
Jofeph is reprefented in the front, a fore-(hortened figure
lying upon the ground, and leaning upon the faddle of
the afs, a middling-fized plate, lengthways ; another " Holy
Family,'' in which Jofeph is reprefented giving an orange
to the Infant Chrilt, a fmall upright ; another " Repofe,"'
where the Virgin is reprefented fuckling the Infant Jefus,
in folio ; " St. Francis receiving the Stigmatics," dated
.1592, in folio ; (Juftin Sadler has engraved the fame fub-
jecl. ] " The Transfiguration of our Saviour," a large
upright plate, of which it is very difficult to find a good
impredion.

Julius Crefar Procaccini, the brother of CamiUo, men-
tioned in the preceding article, v.as bom at Bologna in the
year 154S, and died at Milan in the year 1626. He learned
ihe principles of painting of his father, but completed his
ftudies under the Caraccii. He excelled in hillorical com-
pofition, and his works are very much efteemed. He etched
for his occafional amufement, but we have never feen more
than a fingle fmall plate by him, of whiv.h the fubjeft is
" The Virgin and Child.'

Bernardino PalFer-^ or PafTeri, was born at Rome fome
time about the year 1542, and refided there inoft part of
his life. In painting he pofTeffed fome talent, and appears
to have imitated the Zuccheri, but the attitudes of his
figures are, to a certain degree, forced and uneafy. In the
Abecedario he is called an univerfal engraver, but for what
reafon is not known, unlel's it means, that he occafionally
^iraftifed all the branches of that art which were then in
vogue. It is certain that he has engraved a confiderabte
number of prints, which, in general, he firft etched, and
afterwards finilhed with the graver, in a bold, eafy, and
loofe ilyle. His works prove him to have been a man of
cbility, but his drawing is not alv.ays correal, nor are the
characiers of his heads always beautiful, or well chofen.
He often figned his nam.e at length ; and fometimes ufed a
monogram, which will be found among thofe in Plate II.
of the /lalian School. The following are the names of a
few of Ills works, which are by no means uncommon: —
" A H.>ly Family," where the Virgin is reprefented with
a Bohemian boimet, dated 1383, in 410. ; " The Life of St.
Bruno," reprefented on feveral middhng-fized upright
plites, in 4to. ; and a confiderable number of Holy Fa-
milies, Madonnas, and other pious fubjects.

Ventura Salimbene, called Bevilaqua, was born at Sienna
jn the year 1555, and died in the fame city in 1613. He
learned the rudiments of his art of his father, Angelus Sa-
limbene, who was tlic difciple of F. Zucchero. He was
half brother to Francefco Vanni, whofe ilyle of painting
he imitated ; at Rome he chiefly worked in the library of
tJie Vatican, and the church of St. John de Lateran. We
have feveral flight etchings by this artitl, in a bold, mafterly
lijle, and among them the following, all from his own

compofitions : — " The Marriage of the Virgin," a fma!
upright plate, dated 1590; "The Salutation of the Vir-
gin,"' in folio, IJ91 ; a large folio plate of " God appear-
ing to the Virgin feated in the Clouds, furrounded by An-
gels ;" " St. Agnes," a half-length figure in 4to. ; " The
Baptifm of our Saviour," and " Jefus Chrift appearing to
St. Catherine of Sienna," both in fmall folio.

For an account of the merits of Antonio Tempefta, as a
painter, fee the article Tempesta, Antonio. Fertile and
vigorous in his invention, and various and verfatile in his ar-
tiilical powers, he took up the pencil or the etching point
with equal facility, and alraoft with equal fuccefs. Though
he delighted in cavalcades, battles, proceffions, and fuch
other fubjetts as called forth his copious powers of compo-
fition, his prints are exceedingly numerous, amounting, ac-
cording to Le Gomte, to eighteen hundred, and according to
Mariette, to no fewer than two thoufand !

Tempelta's ilyle of etching, in perfett unifon with the
general character <;f liis art, was bold and free ; the hghts
are kept broad on his fingle figures ; his figures are often
grouped with grandeur, and he poiTclles a certain ardent
livelinefs of e.xpreifion, both in his human figures and ani-

From this aggregate of his merits, fome dcduftions
muit, however, be made. The mufcles of his horfes, which
frequently occur in his battles and hunting pieces, are ge-
nerally overcharged ; his draperies are not elegantly drawn ;
his lights and (hades are not collected into broad mafles, fo
as to give unity of effect to his cliiarofcuro, and his etchings
are often coarfely corroded, fo as to deftroy the clearnefs and
value of the middle tints.

Tempefta did not always mark his i)rints with the fame
cypher. We have collefted his various marks, and they will be
found in our Plate II. of the monograms, &c. of the Italian
Engravers. The following lift is feletled from the beft cata-
logues of his works : — " Our Saviour crucified between the
two Thieves," in large folio, very rare ; a fet of middling-
fized plates, lengthways, the fubjefts of which are taken
from the Old Tellament, and commonly known under the
name of " Tempefta's Bible ;" a fet of a hundred and fifty
prints, from " Ovid's Metamorphofu," in 410. ; a folio
print of " Diana and AAxon ;" " The Entry of Alexan-
der into Babylon," of the fame fize ; a fet of twenty-four
pieces, entitled, "Vita S. Antonii Abbatis, See."' in 410. ;
•' The Labours of Hercules,'' in thirteen plates of octavo
dimenfions, comprifing a frontifpiece and dedication ; " The
Four Ages of the World," reprefented by the manner of
living at thofe different periods ; four hunting pieces,
namely, a flag hunt, a hare hunt, a wolf hunt, and a wild-
boar hunt, in oftavo ; another fet of chaces ; another fet
of four of field fports ; two fubjedls of battles between the
armies of the ancients, in folio ; two more, of modern bat-
tles ; another battle, dedicated to the duke of Gra\'ina,
dated 1 600 ; another fet of fix battles, with a frontifpiece,
infcribed " Facunda quam fit — oliens ex. Tempeftus f. de
Wit ex. ;'■ all of folio dimenfions.

Of the illuftrious family of the Cai'acci, we have already
written as painters, fee the articles Caracci Lodqvico,
Agostino, and Annibal. It remains to add fome ac-
count of their merits as engravers, and to point out their
beft produQions in this art to the notice of connoilfeurs
and coUedors.

Lodovico has left us a few fmall prints from his own
compofitions. His pradice was to etch his dcfigns, and
employ the graver in giving them a few finiftiing touches :
hence his plates are flight, free, and mafterly ; with the ex-
tremities of his figures tolerably well defined, and ftill better
underftood :

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

■ohderftood ; as is fufficiently obvious to an intelligent eye.
He generally marked his prints, of which we feleft the fol-
lowing as the moll worthy of notice, with the initials of his
name, but not combined in a cypher. " A Madonna and
Child, furromded by Angels," in 410. ; " A Holy Family,
wherein St. Jof -ph is leaning his Head upon his Hand ;"
" The Holy Virgin fuckling the Infant Chrift ;" « A
Holy Family, in which the Virgin Mary is reading a
Book," all in fmall folio ; " Samfon killing the Lion," in
4to. ; Frontifpiece to the poems of Cefar Rinaldi, and a
folio print of the armorial bearings of die family of
Bonfigliovoli, in which the figures of Hercules and Mer-
cury are allegorically introduced.

Agoftino Caracci was the fon of a tailor of Bologna,
•who, defiroas of educating his family in a fupcrior manner,
intended Agoftino for a fcholar, but a ftrong inclination for
the purfnits of the fine arts becoming very manifeft, the father
was induced to alter his defigii, a; :;1 placed his fon under a
goldfmith: here he learned the rudiments of engraving, for
the Bolognefe goldfmiths of that lime were accuftomcd to
ornament their produclions with engraving, which was often
executed with a degree of tafte and beauty correfponding
■with the general e.\i'Aing ftale of art.

From this purfuit, however, the great fuccefs of his
y^ inger brother Annibal, as a painter, appears to have at-
trafied him for a time, and he placed himfelf for inftruftinn
in that art under Fontana, then under Pafleroti, and finally
under his coufin Ludovico.

Under thefe mailers he attained a degree of excellence
in the art of painting, of which we have already fpoken,
but was afterwards induced, from local circumllances,
■with which we are unacquainted, to refume the graver^ and
for further improvement went to ftudy in the fthool of
Cornelius Cort.

The profefTor Fufeli fays, it was « a fwgiihr modejly
•which prompted him rather to propagate the fame of
others by his graver, than by fteady exertion to rely on his
own powers for perpetuity of name :"' but he who has pro-
duced the engravings which we (hall enumerate, even if he
had done no more, muft certainly have pofiefled fome fteadi-
nefs of exertion, could fcarcely, indeed, have been " lefs af-
fiduous than his brother," and might furely rely on the art
which he did prattife fo fuccefsfully, for perpetuity of
name.

The truth has been, that his great merit as an engraver
remains unimpaired by time, and unimpeached by pofterity,
while his picture of " The Three Nymphs in the Garden
Scene of St. Michael in Bofco," was nearly <' in a ftatc of
evanefcence," when M. Fufeli was in Italy.

Strutt fays that Agoftino imitated the ftyle of Cort " fo
exa<ftly, with refpcft to the mechanical part of it, that were
it not for the great fuperiority which appears in the drawing
of the prints of Caracci, it would be difiicult to dillinginfti
them from each other: a ftriking inftance of wiiich may be
feen in "The Holy Family with St. Jerome," from Cor-
reggio, which was engraved by both artifts."

Agoftino Caracci worked entirely with the graver, in a
bold free ftyle ; and his drawing of the naked parts of the
fi^'Ure are admirable. The heads are remarkably fine ; and
the extremities arc marked in the moft accurate and mafterly
manner. His draperies are frequently ftifF, and crofted with
a fquare fecondftroke, which gives them an unpleafing elTeil.
But, perhaps, his greateil defect is the prevalent fault of the
age in which he lived, namely, the httle attention paid to the
cniarofcuro. The lights are too much fcattered, and left
imtinted, as well upon the dift-ancej, as upon the fore-ground

Vol. XIX.

and principal objefts ; which not only deftroys the har-
mony of the efFett, but gives a flight unfinifhed appearanctr
even to the neateft engraving. Bafan fpeaks of him in thefe
words : " This excellent artift, equally verfed in the fclcnccs
and fine arts, treated his engravings in fo perfeft a ftyle, that
one knows not which to admire moft, the correftnefs of hi*
drawing, or the beauty of the performance. All yo'.ino-
artifts ought carefully to obferve, with what facility and perl '
fcftion he exprefied the extremities of his figures, and wi;i»
what art he executed even landlcape with the graver."

The engravings of Agoftino are numerous, though their
dimenfions, generally fpeaking, are large. The following
lift will be found to contain thofe of moft merit and impor-
tance. His prints arc marked either with the initial letter^*,
or fome contraction of his names, but not combined in a
cypher.

Port rain anil Hiflorkal Prints from his own Compnfitions. —
Anthony Caracci, the father of Agoftino and Annibal, a
fmall print, but very rare ; his own portrait ; Henry IV.-
of France, at the age of thirty-fix ; the em.peror Auguftui,
en medallion, with a reverfe ; butt of Cofmo I., with orna-
mental figures ; a fine fem.ale head, cited by Malvafia ; por-
trait of a duthefs with a pearl necklace ; portraits of Jean
Tomafo Coftanzo, the princefs Chriftiana of Lorraine,
Ulyftes Aldrovandus, Marc Antonio Raimondi, Titiano
Vecelli, Anthonv Carrachi, as St. Jofeph ; " Adam re-
ceiving tlie fatal Apple ;" " The Virgin and Ciii'd ;" " The
Virgin fuckling the Infant Jefus ;" " A Repofo ;" " The
Virgin in the Clouds, with the Infant Jef-.is," was engraved
by Marc Antonio, after Raphael ; but Aiigullino, having
got the plate into his pofTeffion, added two fine heads of
Cherubs ; " The Virgin in Heaven, giving the Scapulary
to a Saint," a very fine engraving ; " The Virgin fitting on
a Step near St. Jufeph and an Angel, accompanied by the
Infant Chritl and St. John," a large folio print, very rare ;
" The good Sainaritan," in folio. (Tlie impreflions of this
plate, without letters, are very rare ; and thofe with the
name of Bertelli are re-touched.) ''The myftcrious Cru-
cifix," where a female figure reprefents Chriftianity and
another Judaifm, in folio ; " The Refun-eflion of Jefus
Chrift," in folio ; " Le Nome di Dio," reprefenting the
pope and fenate of Venice fupphcating the Virgin and
faints to intercede for them, in an oval, furrounded willi
acceftbries, and fubfcribed " Luc. Bertelli furmi:," but with-
out the name of Auguftino, who certainly engraved it, in
large folio; " The Pea-hen, with Diana en Medallion ;"
beneath is a landfcape, with the fable of Salmacis and Her-
maphrodite ; and lower down in the plate are three ovals,
with the difpute between Neptune and Minerva, the Three
Graces, and a buft of Minerva ; thefe are all on ore plate,
in large foho ; the frontifpiece to the book of Aide Ma-
nuce, entitled " Vita di Cofimo de Medicis," in folio.
Another frontifpiece, after Antonio Campi, for the book,
entitled " Cremona Fideliffima," in fol. (This is a very
rare book, confifting of thirty-three portraits, engraved by
Auguftino.) Nine plates, from Taftb's " Jofufalem Deli-
vered," publiftied A.D. 1590. The reft of the plates for
this work were engraved by Giacomo Franco j " St.
Francis receiving the Stigmatics," a large folio print ; " Tho
Girdle of St. Francis," a grand compofiiion, reprefcnti:;g
a faint diftributing the girdle of his order to difieic-nt Chrif-
tian fcdts ; a large folio print of " St. Jerome kneeling at
the Entrance of his Cave.'" There arc imprelGons of this
plate when it was about three parts finiflied, wiiich are ex-
tremely rare ; the remaining part is a mere ikctch, marked
with a very free touch. An infucftion-of Uuo print flicw.-!

3X "ia»

riALIAN bCLiOOL OV ENGRAVING.

«ru!i what eafe an J Tigour Auguftino managed liis tool.
There are impreffions of the fame plate, quite linillied, by
F. Villaxena, his pupil. 'I'wo landfcapes, in folio, with
figures; " Cupid conquering Pan," infcribed " Omnia viiicit
amor, 1599 ;" " Eternity in the Cloud?, furronndcd by
fiinale figures," in folio ; " Pcvfous in the Clouds fight-
ing with the Sea-monlier :" both this and the former one are
theatrical fcenca.

Til fol/oznin^ an from fie PiUures of varicvs other Maflers.
— " A Child blowing Bubbles," from Goltzins, very

Jacob keeping the Flock of Rachacl," X5S1, after

foli

Denys Calvart ; "Judith," a half figure, after Laur. Sabba-
tius, both of the folio (ize ; "The young Tobias conduced
by an Angel," from Raphael da Riggio, (it is miitakenly
marked " Raphael d'Urbain" ), in large folio ; " The Prefen-
tation in the Temple." figned Horace Saniacchini, pinx. in
large folio ; " The Virgin and Child giving the Keys to
St. Peter, accompanied by olh:»r Saints;" Id. pinx. in
folio; " The Adoration of the Kings," ligned Balthazar,
Peruzzi pinx. very large, engraved on feven plates ; the
f^ime fubjeft repeated, where one of the kings is kifTiiig the
feet of the Infant Chrilt. There are imprefiions cf this,
both with and without the name of the painter, Marco del
Moro ; " The Virgin and Child, with Mary Magdalene,
St. Jerome, and nn Angel holding a Book," from Cor-
reggio, in large folio. This picture, kr.own under the name
of t!ie Day of Correggio, which was in the a:adeniy at
Parma, is at prcfent in the mufeum at Paris. " An Ecce
Homo," accompanied by the Virgin and other half fignres,
in large folio, from the fame mailer ; " Our Saviour ihewn
to the People," hzlf figures, after Vefp. Strada ; " The
Body of our Saviour, fi:pported by an Angel," half
figures, the fame fize ; «' The Cruci.>ixion, or Mount Cal-
vary," in three very large plates, from Tintoret ; " The
Body of our Savionr on the Knees of his Mother,"'from a
marble group by Michael Angvio, in large folio ; " The
Nativity," from Andrea d^el Sarto ; « The Virgin
crowned in Heaven by the Trinity," from Aug. Moftaert, in
folio ; " A Holy Family," from Fred. Barroccio. An-
other "Holy Family, with St. John prefenting a Scroll," with
the words " Ecce agnus Dei," from Raphael, in foho.
Another " Holy Family, with St. Michael," from Laur.
Sahbatini, in folio ; " The Virgin fitting in a Crefcent with
the Holy Infant," from the fame mailer, in folio. Another
«' Holy Family," placed high in the print, with St. An-
thony and St. Catherine lower down, from Paul Veronefe,
in large foHo ; " The Holy Virgin opening her Cloak to
proteft Two Monks," in folio. Another large folio print
of " The Marriage of St. Catherine," a grand conipofition.
A very large upriglit print of " The Martyrdom of St. Juf-
tinian," on two plates, all from Paul Veronefe ; " The Holy
Trinity, in a radiance of Glory, between Two Columns,"
from Titian, in large folio ; " St. Paul reftoring a Saint to
Life," from .-\ntonio Campi, infcribed " D. Pauli Mira-
cnlum in Neronis palatio faftum ;" " The Virgin and
Child furronnded by Angels," from Julius Canipi ; " The
Virgin repofing, with the Infant Jefus and St. Jofeph," from
Bcrin Paffcrus, in folio ; " The Virgin," a half figure,
from Giacomo Francia ; '< St. SebalUan," in folio, from
Fiangio Francia; " The Virgin fiickling the Infant Jefus,"
from Jac.Ligotius, in folio; " St. Jerome," half ler^gth,
from Vann. in folio; «' St. .Jerome contemplating the
Virgin in Heaven," in large folio, from Tintoret; "The
Temptation of St A.ntony," in large folio, a print which,
being without the name of Augullino, has been miftakenly
»tltibuted to C. Cort.; " Mercury, and the Three Graoes,"
5

in finall folio ; " Wifdom, accompanied by Peace, purfuin^
the God of War," the fame fizc, both from Tintoret ; and
" Eneas faving his Father from the Deilruttion of Troy,"
a very large upright plate, from Barroccio.

The etchings of Annibal Caracci, the younger brother
of Agollino, and author of the Farncfe Gallery, are per-
formed with all the firm confidence and fire of a mailer.
They are held in high and deferved e'.limation a;Tiong artiRs
and connoideurs. and no collection of the produftions of the
Italian School {liould be v.i'.hout good impreffions of the
following : — " Chriit crowned with Thorns," from a fimple
and admirable conipofition of his own, wherein the elevated
dignity, yet meek fubmiffion of the Son ef God, is con-
trafted to the brutality of the fcoffers, in a moft affeiiting
and wonderful manner. In the opinion of Strutt, and
of the prefent writer, this is one of the very fine!! etchings
of Annibal Caracci. It has been often copied, and in fome
inilances tolerably well ; the original is infcribed " AC.
inv. et fee. 1606." " A dead Chrill on the Lap of the
Holy Virgin," commonly known among colleflors by the
name of the " Chrifl du Capprarole ;"' ■' The Adoration
cf the Shepherds," called by the print dealers " The little
Crib, ' from the circumllance of one of the (hepherds in-
troduced, being leaning againfl a manger, nearly in the
middle of the conipofition : this alfo has been copied feveral
times. The above are both cf 410. dimenfions.

Of the fame fizc are " 'i he Adoration of the Magi ;"
and "Chrill and the Woman of Samaria." " A. Holy
Family," where Jofeph is feated, leaning againft a column,
holding a bock, is a fmall plate lengthways ; " The Virgin
holding the Infant Chrill and giving Drink to St. John," is
diflinguiflied by the name of " The Virgin of the Porrin-
gcr," another Imall plate lengthways ; " The Defcept of tlie
Holy GhoU," a fmall upriglit plate, nearly fquare ; " Su-
fanna and the Elders," a middling-fized plate, nearly fqnarc;
" Jupiter and Antiope," a fmall plate lengthways, aated
I J92 ; " Siienus and two Satyrs," a fmall circular plate, of
about eight inches and a half diameter, the border of which
is ornamented with vine branches and grapes : this is com-
monly called the " Diili" of Annibal Caracci, having been
engraved for the bottom of a falver, belonging to cardinal
Farnefe ; " The Virgin fupporling the Infant Jefus, who is
afleep," in 410. ; " The Virgin of the Nightingale," where
the Infant Chrid is taking a bird from the hands of St.
John, of the fame fi^.e ; " St. Jerome of the Speftacles,"
a half figure ; a finall plate of " St. Francis fittirg, holding
a Skull en his Knees and a Crucifix in his Hand ;'' another,
in quarto, of " St. Francis kneeling at the Foot of a Rock,
whh a Difciple before him ;" " Apollo playing tl:e Lyre,
with Pan, or Maifyas befide him, biting his Fingers," a very
rare print, in oclavo ; " An old Man fpeaking to two other
Figures," of the fame fize : " Venus afieep, with Cupid ob-
ferved by a Satyr," in quarto ; another " Venus alleep,
witii Cupid and a Satyr,'" of the fame fize; " The Triumph
of Bacchus," iii quarto : of this fubjeft Annibal engraved
a duplicate plate, as is faid, with the view of inilrui::^ing
Lanfranc in the art of etching. " Acis and Galatea watched
by a Satyr," in folio.

Francefco Caracci, commonly termed Fiancefchini, was
the nephewof Agollino and Annibal, and was inftrufted in
the arts of defign by Lodovlco. With fuch opportunities
and ftiong natural talents, he in a fliort lime attained an ex-
traordinary knowledge of tlie human figure, which he drew
fo correftly, as to afioniili his learned relatives, and Strutt
thinks he might have attained a reputation equzil, if not fu-
perjor, to any of the Caracci t but his unfortunate propen-

fities

ITALIvVN SCHOOL OF LNGRAVING.

fities to dcbaucliery nipped all thefc fair promifes in the bud.
He died in an hofpi'al at Rome, A.D. 1662, aged only 2S
years.

Francefchini etdied witli ability fomc few prints from the
compofitions of his uncle Annibal, among which are the
following. He ufiially marked his work with the mono-
gram, which will h; found in our P/«.V II. of tlie Italian
Maftfrs : — 'The Madonna and Child feated on a Cloud ;"
" St. Charles Boromius kneeling before a T:ible, contem-
plating a heavenly Light ;" two plates of " Angels tejch--
ing the LelTon of Mortality,'' of which our Ert il himfelf was
fo heedlefs ; a fet of four plates of i'luftrious women of
antiquity: n mcly, " Semiramis,'" " Lucretia,'' " Artc-
milia,'' and "Portia" Tliele latter arc after Lodovico
Caracci, and are very rare, and all his prints are of fmall
dinienlions.

Of that dillinguifhed engraver Cherubino Alberti, who
was living at the period now under our review, we have al-
ready detailed the biography, and d'.'f.-anled on the leading
traits of his excellence, under the article Alberti Che-
KUBIS'O. His monogram will be found in o-ir Plaie II.
©f thofe of the Italian School ; and v.e are now enabli-d to
render our fcL-A lift of his performances foinewhat more
copious, by the addition of the f )llowing : — the Portraits
of Pope Gregory XIII. in an ovul, with acceffory orna-
ments ; Pope Urban VII. companion to the above ; Henry
IV. of France, alfo in an oval, with accompaniments ; and
Pietro Ange'o Bargco ; all of folio dinienlions, and from
pi&U'-es by Cherubino himfelf.

Hijlorical Suhjecls from his Ofjn Cmr.pojilions : — "Judith,
with the Head of Holofernes, and a Sword,'' in folio ;
" The Nativity," a ijrand compofition, dedicated to Pope
Clement XII. infcribed " En Deus Omnipotens,'' &c. both
in folio, and marked with his cypher ;" "The Flight into
Egypt," where the afs is led by an angel, accompanied by
St. Jofeph and Elizabeth, in large folio ; another foiio print
of " The Virgin and Child with St. Jofeph," figned with
Cherubino's cypher ; " The Body of our Saviour, carried
through the Clouds by two Angels," infcribed "Mignum
pietatis opus," S:c. in folio ; " The Virgin and Clikl in the
Clouds, furrounded by Cherubinis' Heads, and two Angels
llrewing Flowers," entitled " Regina CtEli," in folio ; an-
other folio plate, of " St. Catherine of Sienna ftigmatized,
and fupported by two Angels,'' 1574, marked with the
artill's cypher; " St. Chrilliana and St. Francis ftigmatized,
accompanied by two Angels,'' 1^99; " St. Charles in the
Clouds furrounded by Angels, proltrating himfelf before the
Virgin and Child," 1612, all of folio dimenfions ; fix fub-
jefts for ceilings, of children, after the piclures by Alberti,
painted at Tivoli ; fix genii in the air, dedicated to Car-
dinal Vifconti ; the firll is infcribed " Ex pifturis, quas
Cherubinus Albertus in ejus Villa Tufculana pinxit, has
ipfemet incidit, 1607," in large quarto.

Hijlorical Subjeas from various other Majlers : — Standing
figure of " Sufanna leaning againft a Pedeftal," on which
is written, S. Sufanna Vir. & Mart.; lower down, Alexander
Albertus inv. dedicated 'o Cardinal Ruftici, in large folio ;
" Our Saviour on the Crofs," to the left is the Virgin, to
the right St. John with extended arms, from Michael An-
gelo, in folio ; a large folio print of " St. Jerome fitting
meditating on a Crol.s, " from the fame mailer, engraved at
Rome, AiD. 157 J ; another in folio, of " St. Andrew bear-
ing a Crofs,'' Pi'graved in 1580, and taken from the Laft
Judgment of Michael Angelo ; two other t'-gures, in folio,
from the Lalt Judgment, one infcribed " Nuda Veritas,"
the oth^r, " Petit ad .iEtliera :'' thefe are very fine engravings,
and dated 1591 ; the figure of Charon, accompanied by

two others, and fomc heads, from the fame La!l Judgment,
engraved A.D. I57|, in folio ; " Prometheus torn by the
Vulture, ' painted tor an angle of ihe Siftine Chapel, in
folio, engraved A.D. 1580; a group of four fifrures,
namely, " Tlie Body of Our Saviour ;'' " The Virgin ;"
" Nicodennis ;'' and " Mary Magdalen ;" in folio. The
original fculpture by Michael Angelo, from which this en-
graving was made, was taken to Florence, and placed be-
hind the altar of the cathedral, with the following iiiftrip-
tion : " Poftremum Michaelis Bonarotx opus, quamvis ab
artifice ob vitium marmoris negleftum, eximiiim tamen artis
canon. CofmusIII. Magnus Dux Etruri;E Romx jam
Kreftum hie. P. I. anno MDCCXXII." Three prints rc-
prcfenting "The Creation of Adam and Eve ;" " Adam
and Eve chafed out of Paradife ;"' and " Adam and Eve
fubjccled to Labour,'' Romi, Polidorus de Caravag. invent.;
a large frieze, of " The Death of the Children of Niobe,"
in five plates ; another frieze, of " The Rape of the Sabines,"
witii a Latin infcription ; " The Triumpli of Camillus," in
the antique tafte ; "Pluto,'' a figure holding a flambeau;
" Fortune,'' with her left foot on a wheel ; " The Prefenla-
tion in tlie Temple,'' from Raphael: it was publiihed after
the death of Alberti, in folio ; " The Refurredion of
Chrift,' a grand compofition, with an angel fitting before
the door of the fepulchre, dated 1628, in folio; " Jefus
on the Mount of Olives," where an angel prefents limv
with a chalice, dated IJ74, and publiflied in 162S, in folio,
from Roffo ; this, as well as the laft, was publiihed after
the death of our engraver. "A Holy Family," in large
folio, after Raphael, engraved in 1582 ; a foHo prim of
"Jnjjlter carediiig Ganymede," from the Vatican, by Ra-
phael ; two more from the Vatican, on the fame plate, ol
"The three Graces;" and "Venus quitting Juno and
Ceres," 1582; " The Adoration of the Magi," a grand
compofition, after Rodo, dated IJ74; "The Traisfigura-
tion," m.arked with Alberti's monogram, from the iame
maftcr, IJ74; "St. Stephen ftoned," an architeftiual de-
fign for a grand tabernacle, on two plates, Rome I)75> in
folio, all from Roffo ; " Tiie Baptlfm of our Saviour,"
after Andrea del Sarto ; " Tile Miracle of St. Philip Beiiiz-
zio," where thofe who had defpifed his exhortations wire
ftruck dead with lightning, from a piclure by Andrea del
Sarto, IJ82 ; a folio print of "The Guardian Angel con-
ducting the youthful Tobias," from Pellegrino Tihaldi,
1575; " Our' Saviour in the Garden of Olives, v.ith hiR
three Difciples," engraved by Perin del Vaga, and Ch. Al-
berti, in folio ; " The Nativity, or the Adoration of the
Shepherds ;" over head is a glory of angels, infcribed
" Glia in Eccis," in large folio, on two plates, from Thi-
dcus Zucchero ; another " Holy Family," where the Vir-
gin holds the Infant on a cradle, from the fame mallor ;
" Tiie Flagellation," from a pidlure by T. Zucciiero, in
the church of the Cosfolation at Rome, in folio, dated
I J75 ; " The Convcrfion of St. Paui," a grand folio print,
from the fame maftcr, dated 157^; ; " The Body of our Sa-
viour in thcArms of God the Father, furrounded by Angels,
with the Inftrumcnts of the Paifion," from the fame ; "The
Aifumption of the Virgin,'' cnj;raved in IJ77, from 'i'.
Zucchero, and dedicated to pope Theani, in large folio ;
another Aifumption, a large print from T. Zucchero, en.
graved in 157 I ; " The Virgin crowned in Heaven," from
the fame mailer, engraved A.D. 1572.

We have already treated of the biography and merits of
Lodovico Cardi, furnamed Civoli, both as an engraver and
painter. (See the article C.vnni Loniivic*.) Hi; mono,
gram will be found in our Plate II. of thofe of the Italian
School.

3X2 Chriftophor

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Cliriftcpher Lederer was born at Nuremberg in the year
1 560. He travelled to Italy in his youth, for the fake of
Undying the arts to advantage; and here, for feme reafon which
lias not tranfpired, he changed his furname for that of Corio-
lano, or Coriolanus. He refided at Venice for fome years,
where, according to Vafari, he engraved on wood a fct of
portraits of celebrated artifts, a work which other writers
have (li'd more midakenly afcribed to his fon.

Nowas thefe portraits firll appeared in the year 1568, if
Chriftopher was born in 1560, as Huber reports, and Bar-
tholomew not until 1590, they could not have been engraven
by either of the Coriolani. Again, he is faid to have en-
graven for the anatomical work of Vefaliu?, of which the
drawings were fupplied by Titian, but as this celebrated
book lirll appeared in 1542, Lederer's blocks muft have
been for fome fubfequent edition, if he cut them at all.

It appears much more certain that he engraved the figures
forUlyffcs Aldrovandiiii's work on natural hilloq-, and for
another book, entitled " Ars Gymnaftica," &c.

Bartelomeo Coriolano was the fon of Chriftopher, and
was born at Bologna in the year 1590. He learned the
rudiments of art in his father's houfe, but finifhed his ftudies
in the Bolognefe academy.

In return for the dedication to pope Urban VIII. of a
capital work which he engraved on wood, after the Caracci,
Guido, and other great mafters, that pontiff bellowed on
him a penfion, and the order of knighthood. According
to PapiUon, our artift pretended to be a defccndant of Caius
Martins Coriolanus, the great Rom.an general, but this is
moll likely a mere joke, fabricated on the occalion of his mi-
litary, or equeftrian title.

He likevvife engraved in clair-obfcure, and his produc-
tions in that ilyle are very much elleemed by connoifleurs.
He had a good talle in delign, his heads are finely charac-
terized ; and the other extremities of his figures are very
'.yell marked. In general he ufed no more tlian two blocks
of wood ; on the firll he cut not only the outlines, hut tiie
darker ihadows in imitation of hatching with a pen ; the
fecond ferved for the ha'if tints ; and «ith thefe two blocks,
judicionfly managed, he produced a pleafing effcft. He
ligned many of his prints with his name at length, and
tlie addition of the word Eques, which is known to be fyno-
mmous with knight. The following are among his molt
elleemed productions : " St. Jerome meditating before a
Crucifix," a fmall upright print from Guido ; this is
rijgravedon three blocks of wood, and infcribed " Barthi'l.
Coriolanus, Eques, fculpfit, Bonon. 1637 ;'' " Herpdias
with the Head of St. John," alfo in clair-obfeure, and from
Guido ; " The Virgin and Infant Jefus, afleep under Dra-
pery," on wood, from Guido ; the fame fubjcd, in clair-ob-
fcure,'very finely executed, both in 4to. and marked Barthol.
fee. 1630 ; another " Virgin and lleeping Chrifl," from F.
Vanni, in clair-obfcure, not marked, in large 4to. ; " Peace
and Plen:y," from Guido ; " A Sybil fitting, liolding
Tablets," both in 410. ; " The Fall of the Giants," a large
upright print, on four feparate (licets which pafte together,
in clair-obfcure, " The Seven Wife Men tranfported to
Bologna," in large folio.

Thcrcfia Maria Coriolano, was the daughter of this artifl:,
and learned engraving of her father, and painting of Eliza-
beth Sirani. We only know of a fingle etching by her ,
of " A Virgin and Child," half figures.

Giovanni, or Jean Batilla Coriolano, was brother to Bar-
tholomew, and was born in the year J 596, in Bologna ;
where he became the fcholar of Valifco, a painter of fome
eminence.

As a painter, B:iti(la never acquired any great degree of

reputation, but he engraved both on copper and Wood, his
worlio en the latter material being however greatly fupe-
rior to liis engiavings on copper. - The following may be
reckoned among his bell produdions : a portrait of Vin-
cent Gualdi ; another of Fortunatus Licetus ; another of
.Toannes Cottinius, Patricius Verienfis, Coriolano, fe. all of
quarto dimenfions ; the ftatue of the Virgin in a palm-tree,
commonly {lyled " Our Lady of the Palm," before v/nich
is a fmall altar : " The Miraculous Image of the Virgi.i,"
from Guido ; " Chrift crowned with Tliorns," from Lodo-
vico Caracci ; " A fleeping C'lpid," in chiarofcuro, very
rare, after Guido ; a triumphal arch in Iionour of Louis
XIII. in folio; " Paul Macii Embleniata," being a
fet of eighty-three prints, of which twcuty-feven are by
Corio'ano, and the reft, by O. Galli, and A. Parifini.

Giovanni Luigi Valefio, was born at Bologna in 1561.
There were two other engravers of thi.s name, who lived ionie
time about the fame period, and probably belonged to the
fame family ; but as their produ£lions have nothing re-
markable to recommend them, we will pafs them over in
filence. Giovanni frequented the Bologr.efe academy, and
has engraved feveral things in a good tatle. Moll of his
prints confiil of allegorical and emblematical defigns,
froncifpieces for books, and other ornamental plates ; fome
of which he marked with a monogram, which will be
found in our Plats II. of thofe of the Italian Engravers.
The following are among his moil elleemed produdlionsi
■" The Virgin with the Infant Chrift feated on her Lap,"^
a finall upright plate ; " Venus threatening Cupid," and
" Venus chailifing Cupid," its companion, two fmall up-
right plates; '< Hymen with two Lions at his Feel,''
and " A Group of Genii," from Lodovico Caracci, in
folio.

Jean Frederic, the fon of Matthew Greater, of Straf-
bourg, was born at Rome fome time about this period.
Our countryman, Strutt, has entered into rather a length-
ened argument with the foreign writers refpedling the
date of Jean Frederic's birth, of which his merits as an
artill do not appear to render him worthy. What does
it fignify when or where men are born, who are poircfled
of no greater talent or talle than this engraver ? or whe-
ther or not there was a Frederic and a Jean Frederic alfo i

The fon of Matthew Greuter, of whom we have given
fome account in our GekMAN School of Engrai'wg, relided
at Rome, being educated to the profeffion of engraving
by his father. Here he engraved a confiderable number
of plates with commendable induttry, working with the
graver only : but he neither drew well, nor poUefTed feel-
ing for art that might in any degree fupply the place of
drawing ; yet his prints, of which we fhall only mention
a few, are lometimes fought after by the curious. " Her-
cules in the Garden of the Hefperides," from Pietro da
Cortona ; " The Forge of Vulcan," after Lanfranc ; and
" A Battle," from Temptfta, both in large folio. " The
Death of St. Cecilia," after 'Dominichino, a large plate,
nearly fquare. An emblematical fubjeCl relative to the
progrefs of Chrillianity, a largfe folio print, from Roma-
nelh ; and " A Madonna and Child, with St. Francis kneel-
ing,'' from a compofition by hiirifelf, arched at the top,
of folio dimenfions, and dated 1623.

He alfo engraved feveral portraits, and other fubjetls
from Guuio, Vouet, Stella, And. dc Anconc, and oilier
mailers.

Francefco Vanni, a very celebrated hiftorical painter, was
born at Sienna A.D. I563, and died in the fame city in
1610. He was iiril the difciple of Salimbini, afterwards of
Pall'arotti, and at lall of Giovanni de Vecchia ; though in

preforence

TTALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

preference to all' there, he adopted the (lyle of Fred. Bar-
roccio. We have four fmall etchings by him : tiie Ipirit,
beauty, and correftnefs of drawing that appear in thofe
prints, makes it to be regretted that he etchjd fo little.
The fiibjefts of thefe etchings are as follow : " The Vir-
gin contemplating the fleeping Chrift ;" " St. Catherine of
Sienna receivin;; the ftigmata, or Brand;" " St. Francis
recriving the Stigmata ;" and " The Ext,itic Vifion of St.
Francis," the faint is a half figure, and ai; angel appears
above playing on the violin. Huber fays that the beauty
which is difcoverable in tliis print cannot be too much ad-
mired. AgolHno Caracci engraved from the fame defign,
with fome variations.

Giovanni Maggi, or Magius, was born at Rome in the
year i jfi6, and is better known as an engraver than as a
painter ; we have by him many (light etchings, which are
not worthy of any very great commendation. In 1618,
he pubhflied a colleftion of all the principal fountains in
Rome, which he engraved in conjundion with Domcnico
Parafachi. He undertook to engrave, on a very large fcale,
the plan of Rome, with all the ilreets and principal biiild-
. ings, &c. but wanting money, the enterpri/.e was never
performed by him. We have by him, the portrait of a
cardinal, as large as life ; a landfcape, with figures, ruins,
&c. infcribed " J. Mains, v. et fee. ijgj ;" and " Fignra
della Vita Humana, Joh. Maius fee. 1600," in large folio.
Fr^ncefco Villamcna was born at Aflifll, a city of Italy,
in 1566, and died at Rome in 1626 He went to Rome
under the pontificate of pope Sixtus V. and itudiedtlie bell
piftures and ilatues there. He ftndicd engraving under
Cornelius Cort and his fcholar AgoiHno Caracci, with
whom he was contemporary. Villamena drew with con-
fiderabie ability ; he engraved in a bold open ftyle, and pro-
duced a clear but not powerful effetl ; his lights, though
broad, are too much fpread over the whole engravine, which
makes his prints appear unfmiihed. But iliis defeft was
com.mon to the artills of that age, and thefe faults in the
prints of Villamena, are amply compenlated by the beauties
with which they abound, particularly with regard to the
expreffion of the heads, and the excellency of the drawing.
Tlie extremities of his figures are alfo very finely marked.
Some of the engravings of this artifl are performed almoil
entirely with fingle ilrokes, without any crofs hatchings
laid over them ; and it was perhaps from them that Mellan
originally took the hint, which afterwards became the
marked peculiarity of his ftyle. The number of Villamena's
prints is very confiderable : M. Mariette mentions three
hundred and fixty ; and he marked them either with his
iiame, initials, or monograms, which will be found in our
PLiie II. of thofe of the Jtal'inn School, we (liall mention the
following, from his own defigns ; a portrait of cardinal
Csfar Baronius Soranus, in folio ; and four other portraits
of men of rank ; " St. Therefia in her Cell writing, under
the Infpiration of the Holy Gholl," in folio ; " Mary
Magdalen penitent in the Defert, crowned by an Angel,"
if) 4to. ; " St. Francis praying before a Crucifix," in folio;
a fet of fix grotefque little figures, one of which is a beggar,
accompanied by two children ; a fet of five faints, three of
which are from his own defign, and the two others from
Ferrau Franzoni, in fmall folio ; " St. James, appearing in
the Air, to the Army of Ferdinand," a very grand com-
pofition ; " A Mnn, angered by a Crowd of People, fight-
ilig in his own Defence ;" a large prim lengthways, com-
monly called The Boxers ; a middling-fized plate, in which
is reprefeiited John Alto, the antiquary, (landing in one of
the ftreets of Rome. The following prints are
' From ■various other Majli,ri.—*' Mofts exalting the Brazen

Serpent," from Ferrau Franzoni ; " A Holy Family, wiA-
St. John, Ehzabeth, and St. Ann," a middling-fized upriglkt
plate from Raphael, dated 1602. Villamena repeated tliis
fubjcct, and dated the fecond print 161 1. " The Salutation
of tlie Virgin," a large upright plate, from M. Arconio*;
" Tlie Virgin and Intant Jefus worfliijjped by St. Franci.s;"
" St. Bruno, with his Companions, doing Penance in the
Defert," a large plate lengliuvays from Lanfranco; " Chrill
taken from the Crofs ;" a large folio plate, arched at the
top, from Baroccio ; another " Annunciation of the
Virgin," a grand conipofition from Hipp. Andrcafius, in
large folio; " The Prefentation in the Temple ;" a mid-
licg-fized plate lengthways, from Paulo Veronefe ; " Sf.
Bernard, and the Virgin in the Clouds," after F. Vanni ;
" Alexander at the Batt'e of Arbolla," from Ant. Tem-
pefta ; a large plate, lengthways, reprefenting '• Hercules
holdiug-the Globe, with the armorial bearings of Cardinal Ar-
rigoi.i," from Aibano ; another fubjedl of tlie fame kind wuli
the arms of Cardinal Barbcrlni ; the fame fubji-dl with the arms
of Spain, all which arc of large folio dimeaSous ; the bible
of Raphael in twenty plates, fifteen from the Old Teftamcnt,
and five from the New, intitled " La facra Genefi figurata.
da Rafaele, iutagliala da Francefco Villamcna, .dedicata al
Cardinal Aldobrandino, Rom. 1626."

Leo.nardo Norfini, who afl'umed the name of Parafole,
from its being the family name of his wife, was born at
Rome in the year 13:70, and died in the fame city, at the
age of fixty. He was an engraver on wood of fome merit,
and was much employed by A. Tempefta. At the com-
mand of pope Sixtus V. he engraved the plants, &c. for
the herbal of Caftor Durante, the pliyfician of that pontiff.

The figures in Norfini's engravings, after Tempella, are
correclly drawn, and executed in a finillied ftyle, for that
mode of art.

His fon, Bernadino Norfini, lik^wife engraved on wood ;
he frequented the fcliool of Jofephine, and began to make
fom; progrefs in painting, when he died at an early age.

Ifabella Parafole, the v.ife of Leonardo, was a v\oman of
great ingenuity, and compofed a book of patterns for lace-
and embroidery, of tiie prints in which Ihe engraved on wood.
She likewife did a great number of plants for a herbal of
prince Cefi of Aquafparta.

Jrrminica Parafole, a lady of the fame family, equally
dillinguifhed herfelf by engraving on wood ; and there is by
her hand a large print of " The Battle of the Centaurs,"
from A. Tempella ; it is coarfely executed, though with
much fpirit ; but the drawing is not correft.

Odoard, or Edward Fialetti, was born at Bologna A.D.
1573, and died at Venice in 1638. He learned the rudi-
ments of deiign of J. B. Cremonini, but afterwards travelled
to Venice, and finiihed his (Indies in the fchool of Tinto-
retto. He was an hillorical painter as well as engraver,
and his works in both arts are fpoken of with the warmelt
commendation ; Bofchini mentions thirty-eight pictures by
Fialetti, which he painted for churches and other public
buildings in Venice. He etched a great number of plates
as well from his own defigns, as from thofe of other artills.
His etcliings are execued in a (light, but malterly ftyle.
He drew correctly, frequently lelefled or invented vory
graceful attitudes, and compofed his figures with muchtafte.
If he had left no other telUmony of his merit tlian his prints,
they would have been iufficient to prove that he was a man
of very great abihty. He generally marked his prints witli
a cypher, which will be found in our Plate II. of thole of
the Iialiiin School. We fliall mention the following pcoduc-
tions of his graver, as well worthy of the notice of the con-
noifleur. A long frieze feom his own compofition of tritons,

firens.

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

firens, dolphins, and other marine chimera ; " The Marriage
ofCana in Galilee," a middling-fized plate lengthways, from
Tintoretto ; four fabjefts from Le Pordonone, " Venus and
Cupid ;" " Diana at the Chace ;" " The God Pan ;" and
"A Man holding a Vafe ;" " The Paftimes of Love," a fet of
twenty fmall upright plates, from his own deligns ; entitled
" Scherzi d'Amor exprefii da Odoardu Fialetti, pittore in
Venezia ;" a book with ftudies for drawing, in folio, pub-
lidied at Venice A.D. 1608 : a book of the coftumes of
different nations ; and another of antique friezes, after Poli-
Oo Ziancalei.

Guido Reni, the celebrated hillorical painter, was born at
Bologna in the year 1575, and died in the fame city in 1642.
He learned the elements of drawing of Denis Calavcart,
whom he quitted, to ftudy in the Bolognefe academy. But
of his great talents as a painter we fliall treat under the
article Rexi, and have onlv to notice him here as an

There are a great number of prints by his hand, which
are etched in a bold, free ilylc. His heads are beautiful
and exprefiive, and the other extremities are drawn with all
that talle and judgment which might be expefted from fo
great a inafter ; though they are very fliglitlv e:tecutcd,
their intrinfic beauty, and the vigorous but difcriminaiing
intention of the srtiil, which is every where apparent to the
eye of tafte, have damped a high value on them, which they
juftly deferve. Simon Cantarini, called II Pefarcfe, copied
the ftyle of etching of Guido with fo much precifion, as
fometimes to deceive the eye of the unwary connoiffeur ;
but in general, the extremities of the figures in the plates
of Cantarini, are not marked with that admirable tafte fo
difcernible in the works of Guide.

He fometimes marked his plates with his name, or mono-
gram, which is among thofe of the Italian engravers in our
Plalell. The following are among the produftions of his
hand, the whole number of wliich, according to Mariette,
amoimt to two hundred and eighty-nine.

From hh own Compan'wni. — A buft of pope Paul V. in
oval, very rare ; the profile of a man ; another, with a long
beard ; •' The Virgin with the Infant Jefus, with St. Jofeph
in the back ground," in 4to. one of the tineft engravings of
Guido ; " The Virgin with the Infant Jefus afleep at her
Breaft ;" a fuhjeft which Guido has treated in three dif-
ferent ways; another "Virgin and Child, with a Book ;"
the only plate which Guido has executed entirely with the
graver ; three other holy families, reprefentcd in different
ways ; " St. Chrillopher, with the Infant Jefus on his
Shoulders, going over the Sea;" " St. Jerome praying
before a Crucifix, in his Cave," in 410. ; "Cupid contem-
plating a female Figure, who holds a Compafs and Tablet ;"
" Two Children carrying a third on their Shoulders,"
ia 4to.

The following are after other matters : " A Glory of
Angels,'' after Lucas Cambifi, in folio. This print is
reckoned Guide's mafter-piece. " The Entombing ef
Chrili," a middling-fized upright plate, from Parmegiano,
a very fine print ; " The Infant Chrift fitting on his Mo-
ther*."; Lap, laying his Hand on the Tabernacle, with St.
Jofeph," from Aug. Caracci, falfely attributed to Annibal,
in 4to. ; " The Virgin Mary fuckling the Infant Jefns,"
from Caracci, in 4:0 , executed on a blank ground ; " The
Charity of St Roch," dated 1610, in large folio. Thefe
are the principal engravings of Guiuo, of the whole of
which Adam Bartfch of the library at Vienna has given
a very good catalogue.

For an account of Francifco Brizzio, the pupil and af-
fiflant of Agollino Caracci, fee the article Bkizzio; and

for the biography of Horace Borg'.ani, who lived alfo at
this period, fee Borgiani. The monogram ufually affixed
by the latter to his engravings will be found in Plate 111. of
thofe of the Italian School.

Raphael Scaminofi, or Schiaminoffi, was born at Borg
S. Sepolcro in the year 15S0. He v.as the difciple of Ra-
phael dall Colle. He performed fome few engravings oa
wood ; and there are a confiderable number of etchings by
him, — Florent le Compte fays a himdred and thirty, — which
are executed in a bold dark ilyle. There is a coarfcnefs ia
them, which gives them a difagrceable appeai-flnce at firll
fight ; but on examination, they will be found to pofTef*
great merit. His knowledge of drawing feems to have been
very extenfive ; and the characters of his heads arc ftriking
and appropriate. His monogram is copied in Plate HI. of
thofe of the Italian School.

The following are fome of the bed productions of his
needle ; " The Virgin and Child," a middling-fized up-
right, infcribed " Raphael Schianiinofuus, Piclor ex Civitate
Burgi Sanai incidebat, A.lLi. 16.3;" " St. Francjis
preaciiing in the Defert," from his own compofition ; a fet
of the twelve ApolUes; a fet of fourteen fmall plates^
lengthways, intitled " Myfleria Rof;trii beats Marige Vir-
ginis," publifiied at Rome, 1609, all from his ov.-n defigns ;
the fifteen Myfteries of the Rolary, in folio ; " The Mar-
tyrdom of St. Stephen," a middhng-fized plate, length-
ways, from Lucas Cangiagi ; " Mary Magdaku carried
away by Angels," after the fame, in folio; " The Vifita-
tion of the Virgin," from Banoccio, in foho ; a middling,
fizcd plate, lengthways, from the fame mafter, of " A Re-
pofo ;" " The Holy Virgin in the Clouds, with St. Cecilia,
and another Saint," from P. Veronefe, in folio ; " The
Virgin Mary on a Globe, fui rounded by Angels," from
B. Caftelli, in folio ; a fet of twelve wood-cuts of the
twelve Apoftles ; another fet of portraits of the firll twelve
Caefars, from Tempella, alfo engraved on wood.

Jean Lanfranc. This diflinguilhed artill wa» born at
Parma A.D. 1 581, and died at Rome in 1647. He firll
ftudied under Auguftino Caracci ; but on the death of this
mailer, went to Rome to complete his ftudies under his
brother Annibal, where he was knighted by pope Ur-
ban VIII.

His merit as a painter will be treated of under the article
Laxfrakc. We (hall fpeak of him here only as an en-
graver.

The mode of art which he praftifed was etching, and his
etchings, though hafty productions, pofFefs merit. He
commonly marked his plates with his name, or initials, but
not combined in a cypher; and his moft etlecmed prints are
mentioned in the following fhort lift : " The Triumph of a
Roman Emperor," in large folio ; " An Emperor ha-
ranguing his Soldiers," the fame ; the Bible of Raphael,
from pitlures in tlie Vatican, engraved in conjunction with
Sifto Badolocchio, (of whom we Ihall next proceed to
fpeak,) and dedicated to Annib. Caracci, 1607, in 4to.

Sifto Badolocchio was of the family of Rofa, born at
Parma in the year 1581, and died at Ro.me in 1647. He
was the contemporary and fellou-ftudent of Lanfranc.
There are fome pidturefque little etchings by him, in which
we dilcover correclnefs of detign, and facility of handling
his tool. He marked his prints, of which thofe that foU
low are held in moft efteem, Sifto B. " Tne Statue of the
Laocoon," from the antique, in large folio ; " The
Apoftles and the .Angels, with the Chandeliers of the Cu-
pola of Parma," from Correggio, lix plates in folio ; " A
Holy Family, with St. John," a fmall upright plate of
half figures only ; Raphael's Bible, from the pictures of

Raphael

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Raphsel in the Vatican, fmall plates, lengthways, engraved
conjuintly with Lanfranc.

OAavi'iis Leoiii was born at Rome in I5»2, and, under
the in'.lruftion of his father, he acquired fome dejjree of ex-
cellence as a painter. As an engraver, he is believed to
have been felf-taiight ; for, exceijtiiig the hints which he
might have borrowed from Boiilanger and Agoftino of
Ve'iiice, he imitated none of his prcdecefTors. There are a
fet of twenty portraits, chiefly of diilinguifhed artills, from
his hand, engraved iu a lingular and ftrikmg manner. The
hair and draperies are executed with llrokes ; the flelh is
done in round dots ; and the dark parts of the eyes and (liarp
(hadows being afiilled with ftrokes, which are managed in a
ikilful manner, produce a pleafitig effecl. Thefe heads are
finely drawn, and fome of them finithed in a much higher
ftyle than is ufu;'.! with painters, when they take up the
point or the graver. The following are among the por-
traits : Eques Ottavi Leonus, Lodovico Leonus, Johannes
Fraccifcus Barbtiri, Marcellus Provenzalis, Eques Chrif-
topuer Ronchalis de Pomcranciis, Eques Jofcph Cefar Ar-
pinas, Antonius Tempeita, Thomas Salinus, Don An-
tonius Barberinus, Pierre Jacopo Martello, a poet, wiiofe
portrait is adorned with paftoral allufions.

Remigio Cantagallina was born at Florence in t j8:, and
died in the fame city A.D. 1624. He for fome time fre-
quented the fchool of the Caraccii, but afterwards learned
(with his two brothers Antonio and Giovanna Francilco)
engraving of Julio Parigi. Remigio drew extremely well
with a pen and ink, and Ibmetimes, with great good icnfe,
imitated this mode of art in his etchings.

His etchings are chiefly after his own defigns, though he
fometimcs engraved after other mafters ; and it is no fmall
addition to the fame of this artiil, that C=*llot and Delia
Bella were hi^ pupils. The cypher which he commonly
ufed is copied in PL-ile III. of the monograms of the Ita'ian
School. We ihall fpecify the following of his works:
«• The AfTumption of the Virgin, wherein (he is crowned
by two .Angels," in 4to., after Callot ; four finali land-
fcapes, dated 1609, from Rofli ; a fet of fix landfcspes ;
another let of twelve, in oftagons, with the cypher of the
artift ; another fet of fix ; another fet of nine and twenty
prints, the fceiies of an opera ; and the reprefentation of the
fete given on the Arno, at the mniriage of the prince of
Tufcrmy, from the deiigns of Julio Parigi, in folio, 1593.

We now approach two artills, both of them difciples of
CantagJilina, of a very dilTez-ent kind from any of their
predeceflbrs, of more enterpriling fpirit and more original
powers, if not of more vigorous intelleft, than the fchools
of Italy have yet prcfented to our notice : but having al-
ready treated of the biography and profefiional meiits of
Callot and Delia Bella, (fee the articles Bella and Cal-
lot,) before our claffification of the engravers into the fe-
veral fchools of Europe was determined on, we can do little
more in this place than add more copious liils of their very
eilimable engravings.

The number of C pilot's engravings, confidering the fliort
period of his life, is not lefs wonderful than the various
multitudes of fi^rures by which fome of them are peopled.
The bell catalosrue with v^liich we are acquainted is con-
tained in the third volume of the Baron Heinnekiii's Dic-
tionary, from which we have extracted the principal, in
conformity with our plan.

Subj:as from Holy fFnt, and iIk Monlttfb Lfgends « The

Paffage of the Red Sea," in 4to. of which con .oilTeurs are
defirous of pofTefiing each of the two different dates in winch
the plate was printed. «' Elias and the widow of Sart pta ;"
«Ecce Ancilla Domini," or » The Annunciation/ ' after

Matteo Rofelli, in 410. This is a rare print, and is dirtin-
guiflied from another of the fame fubjtdt, culled " The
little Annunciation," as well by its being without the en-
graver's name, as by its Latin iiifcription " St. John
preaching in the Dtfort," 410. " The Parable cf the
Hufbandu'.an fowing Seed." with a L.itin infcription, 410.
This platL is folely the work of the graver. " Ecce Homo,"
after Stiadan, folio, engraven at the age of eighteen,
" Chrilt bearing the Crofs," a fmall oval, engraven on a
filver plate. " The Crucifixion, with the Virgin Mary,
St. John, and Mary Magdalen, embracing the Crofs," a
fmall and rare print. " The Entombing ot CiiriK," after
Ventura Salimbini, the work of the graver alone. " Our
Saviour with the Difciples at Emaus." " The Virgin
Mary with the infant Chrill," an oval. Another, wherein
the Virgin is embracing our Saviour, 4'.o. Another of
the Virgin, after Andrea del S.irto, wherein is introduced
St. John and Elizabeth, 410. Another, after P. Farinati,
with the infants Chrid and St. John, folio. " Our Lady,
with three Ears of Corn," 410. " A Holy Family," in-
fcribcd "Minor fervi ct majoris, &c." 4to. Another Holy-
Family, after Sadeler, in 410. entirely performed with the
graver. " The Adumption with the Cherubim," 8vo.
There is another of this fubjec^, called •■ The little Af-
fumption," in an oval. •• Benedicite," another Holy Fa-
mily, 410. " The Triumph of the Virgin," folio, dedi-
cated to Charles IV. duke of Lorraine, and Bar. folio ; " St,
John the Evangelill in the Ifle of Pa'mos," in 410. nearly
fquare ; " St. Francis :" of this fubjeft there are two eii-
gravings, rne known by the name of " The little St. Francis
of the Tulip;" and the other termed " The Tree of St.
Francis," at the foot of which are feveral monks at prayers,
410, nearly fqnarc ; " The Temptation of St. Anthony,"
tl-.e firll pliite of this fubjeft, (whicli is a large folio,) is de-
dicated to Moiif Phlippeaux de la Vri! iere, beneath it are
Latin verfes with his coat of arms, and it is dated in 16^5.

As Fufeli has painted three pidurcs from the fame fairy
fcene in Sh.ikfpeare's Midfummer Night's Dream, fo Callot,
to (hew that his imagination was far from being exhaiilled on
the fubiect of the temptation of St. Anthony,, has engraved
a fti'l larger plate from this celebrated legend, which is very
confiderably varied from that of uhich we have fpoken ; and,
tliough not' the bell, the fecond is by much the fcarcell print
of the two ; for the plate, having been materially damaged
by accidental contacl with fome acid, a good imprcClon, be-
fore the accident, is now rarely to be mot with. " The
Martyrdom of St. Lawrence," a fmall oval; " Ti;c Mar-
tyrdom of St. Sebaltiaii :" this is a large and grand crm-
p'ofiticn, in form of a frieze. " St Nicholas preaching in
a Wood;" "The Miracle of St. Manfuette :" this is re-
ported to be the earhe;! of Callot's etchings, it is in folio,
and il;e (hadows are exprefied by broad and coarfe hatching?,
and aimoll, if not quite, every line in it is re-entered with
the graver. St. Manfuette was a bifhop of Tours, who is
here rcprefented aii relloring to life the fon of king Leucon:?,
wlio had fallen into a river in reaching for his tennis ball.
" The twenty-three Martyrs of Japan," in 8vo. ; " The
Infant Prieil, or carrying the Holl," a fmall plate, for which
Callot himfclf is faid 10 have entertained fo great partiality,
that he occafionally wore it, as fome of the fon ii^n orders
cf nobility are worn, fufpended from a button hole cf his
waiitcoat. The proofs vhich were taken before the plate
was perforated to admit the ribbon or ftring are rare, and
are clieemed valuable among connoiiTeurs. " A Nun kntci-
ii.g before a Crucifix," in 410. : tliis piece is known by li^c
na'me of " Santa Terefa," but it appears from the infcriplioii
iliat it is the portrait of Marie Vidtoire, the foundrefs of the

convent

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

sconvcnt of the nuns of tlie Annunciation, at Genes, who
died Dec. i;, 1617. " The PofTefTed," or the Exorcifm,
after And. Bofcoli, in foHo, entirely the work of the
graver. "TheCourfeof Human Life," after Bernardino
•Poutti. Tliis is a fet confiding of four plates, which are
vulgarly called Hell, or Purgatory. "Vita beatx Marise
Virginis Matris Dei, Emblemata delineata :" a fet of 27
plates in i2mo. " Glonofiffima Virginis Deiparjs Elogia,"
jconfitting of nine plates of dcvotionarfubjeds, 8vo. " The
Kew Tellament," cop.fi Ring of twelve plates, inclnding
the title. N.B. The moll valued impreffions of this fet, are
thofe which were printed before the infcription that Fagnnni
inferted underneath the engravings. " The Paffion of Jefus
Ciu-ift," confiding of fcvcn finely executed plates in 410.
" The Paintings in the Ciiurch of St. Peter at Rome," con-
"iiftin J; of twenty-nine or thirty plates, in 8vo. of which
the fubjeds are the Ads of the ApolUes. Thefe are the
plates of which we have fpoken in our biography of Callot,
as engrared at Rome, with the graver alone, under the di-
reftion of Philip ThomalTin. " Vita Hiftoria Beats: Maria
Virginis, Pariliis," fourteen plates, including the title and
tail piece. Thefe may be dittinguifned from Callot's other
plates, in honour of the bled'ed Virgin ; by the infcription
(' Attributa bearse Marijc." " Maie'and Female Penitents,"
iix plates, of which the fubjefts ar- i. The Title by Ab.
BolTe : 2. St. Jerome ; 3. St" John ; 4. St. Francis ; 5. St.
Mary Magdalen; 6. The Death of the Magdalen. " Salva-
toris beatx Marias Virginis fanftorum ApoHolorum icones,"
a fet of fixteen plates in 8vo. publidied at Paris,in 1631.
" Martyrium Apodolorum," afet of fixteen finely engraved
jilates, in i2mo. " The four little Bariquets," a fet of four
fmall plates, of which the fubjecls are i. The Marriage of
Cana ; 2. TheRepall at the Houfe of the Pharifee ; J. The
•Lord's Slipper ; 4. Our Saviour with the two Dii'ciples.
" The Life of the Prodigal Son," in i2mo. pubhdied by
Ifrael in 1635. " Sulta d'alcunimiracoli, etc." after various
mafters, foriy-one plates in i2uio. "Lux Clauftri," re-
prefenting. under various emblems, the fweet ferenity of a
religious life, and confiding of tvventy-feven plates with an
hidorical title. " The feven Mortal Sins," on feven plates,
12n?o.

Batiks, Sieges, i^c " A General on Horfeback," an

army in flight, fiirmounted by a hat and feathers, and the
truntheoii of command, fmall. "A Pidol diot," a grand
review of cavalry. " Defcent of the Troops into the Ifle
of Re:'" this engraving is of an oblong form, and is en-
clofed in an ornamented border. " The Siege of Re," a
fet conliiUng of fix large engravings in ornamented borders ;
the borders a:'e engraved on feparate plates, and four plates
r,f writing accompany the fet. Thefe w^ere engraved at
Paris, under the patronage of the king of France. " The
Siege of RochcUe," embellidied in the fame manner, and
alfo done under the patrona>;e of the French king. The
portraits of the king, and of Gadon of France occur in the
borders. "The Siege of Breda," a fet confiding of fix
large engravings, and two double leaves of engraved writing,
recording the events of ihe fiege : thefe plates were engraved
for the Infanta of Spain. " Battaglia de ri Teffi et del re
Tinta," a large engraving, which is ufually called " L'Evan-
tail," or " The Fan," on account of its form. It is en-
■clofed in a border, and rcprefents a curious firework which
was played off on the Arno. The words Teffi and Tinta al-
lude to the weavers and dyers (tiflerand and teinturier) who
at that time enjoyed great privileges at Florence. " The
Heroic Ac?iions of the.Medici," after Ant. Tempefta, cn-
jrraved on fifteen folio plates, and without any etching.
Xbe impreffioas from thefe plates, which are found in tjie
4

« Galeria Medicia," are not efteemed the beft. ■"The
Great Miferies, or Horrors of War :" thefe admirable com-
pofitions are a fet of eighteen 410. plates, and were pub-
Llhed by Ifrael in 1633. They were followed by " The
Lcd"er Evils of Vv'ar," on feven Svo. pl.ites, including the
title, (which is by Ab. Boffe,) publiflied in 1636. " Mili-
tary Exercifes," on fourteen fmall plates, publiflied alfo by
Ifrael. " Combat at the Barrier," a fet confiding of eleven
plates including the title. Thefe prints are of different forms
and fizes^ They were originally pubiilhed by Ca'dot him-
felf, at Nancy, in the year 1637, but have fince undergone
fome alterations; the work is in 4to. "-Naval Engage-
ments:" thefe confift of the vidories gained by the
grand duke of Tufcany over the Turks, and are alfo in
4to. dated 1617. " Seven Tilting Pieces," in 4to. en-
graved at Florence, four only of thefe bear the name of
Callot. " Jouds and Tournaments," a fet of five fjirited
prmts in Callot's bed manner, in 4to. of which the fubjeCts
are, l. A plan of the Jouds and Tournaments 2. A Battle
enclofcd within ov.d hds, infcribed " Uno Degli abatti-
ments ; 3. Several fquadrons in battle array, ci'ciofed in a
fimilar manner, and infcribed " Modra della Guerra,
d'Amore ;'' 4. Parties of cavaliers racing in a circle ;
5. Four triumphal cars chara6teridic of the quarters of the
globe, drawn by appropriate animals, and infcribed " Carra
del Afia," &c. ; they were publiflied at Florence, and are
after the defigus of Callot's firft Roman mader, Giulio Pa-
rigii. " La Guerra d'Amore," confiding of four 4to.
plates, from the defigns of the fame mader. They repre-
fent the ballets, &c. celebrated at Florence on the occa-
fion of the arrival of the prince of Urbino, by the grand
duke and Tufcan nobility on the plain of St. Croix.

Profane and MifceUaneous SubjeSs. — " The Giants," a
large folio plate, in which Callot has introduced an affembly
of the heathen deities, Temple of the Mufes, &c. " The
Giants druck by Jupiter's Thunderboks," in folio, of the
oval forni, and iiow very fcarce. " Pandora," a folio plate.
The gods are here reprefenled as affembled on Olympus,
with Jove armed with thunder on its fummit. " Catafalque
de I'Empereur Mathias," a folio plate, dated 1619, andin-
fcribed " Efleque celebrati in Fiorenza," &c. " A Gamb-
hng Houfe," a foho plate, the fubjedl a night-piece, with
gameders ; Callot afterwards repeated this engraving, re-
verfing the right hand to the left. " The Punifliments,"
in 4to. ; this is regarded as one of the chef d'oeuvres of the
mader, not only on account of its intriiific merits,, but of
the great number of figures contained in it, of tiie com-
pofitioD and grouping of which we have already fpoken.
Its fubjedl is the execution of various criminals. In the
mod pcrfeCl impreffions of this plate, a fmall fquare tower
appears above the houfes, a little to the left of the middle
of the print, and a very fmall image of the blefied Virgin, is
placed at the angle of a wall which forms the corner of a
flreet, and is alfo near the middle of the engraving.

The following are generally known among colleftors by
the name of the t liree ovals ; " The Adoration of the He-goat
or the Sabbath ;" " An Altar, with two fmall Figures at
Prayers ;" " A veiled Female, danding before the Tlirone of
an Emperor.''. "Effeque della Regina d'Elpagna," con-
fiding of twenty-fix plates in Svo., after Ant. Tempeila.
Of thefe Callot himfclf engraved only eight, the remainder
are by Tempeda himfelf, or by anonymous artids ; " The
Whipis or Fantafies" of the noble Jacques Callot, fourteen
fmall plates of whimfical fubjefl?, publiflied by Ifrael in
1635 ; " Capriccie de varii figure di Jacobo Callot in aqiia-
forti," on fixteen fmall plates engravcdat Florence ; " The
Caprices," which are copies of the above, engraved .at

Nancj.

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Nancy. Beneath the title of the latter is infcribcd " excud.
Nancy,'' but the Florentine fet is executed with fu-
perior talle and feeling ; " Varie figure di Jacobo Callot,"
on feventeeij fmall plates, including an hiilorical title ; " Balli
di Stefania,'' on twenty-four fmall plates, including an hif-
torical title : each plate contains three figures ; " Varie
figure Gobbi di Jacobo Callot, fatte in Fiorenze,"' a fet
of fixteen fmall plates, generally called, in England, the
Hunchbacks, or Pigmies. This is a droll fet, and as the
author may be faid to have here prefented us with a back
yiew of nature, the title page is a figure who (hews his pof-
teriors. Callot repeated this fet with fome variations " Les
Guerra di Callot,'' twenty-five plates in 8vo., which are
much fought after by connoifTeurs. On a piece of drapery
in the title page, is infcnbed " Capitano di Baroni ;"
•' March of the Bohemians," on four 4.to. plates in form of
friezes. Thefe are proba'oly done from his lively recollec-
tions of the gang withwhom he firft travelled from Lorraine
to Florence; " Nobility, or the Fafhions of the Times,"
twelve plates in 8vo., on which are pourtrayed fix of either
fex with very amufing backgrounds.

There are four other fimilar prints, but of a larger fize,
by Callot, which are very finely executed, and which con-
fiil of the collume of the inferior orders : i. A Woman in
a Corfet trimmed with Fur 2. A Villager fpinning. 3. A
Countrywoman walking with a Ba(ket on her Arm. 4. A
Woman with her Face feen and Petticoat turned up. " Tra-
gedia del Co. Bonarelli," on fixteen quarto plates, with a
portrait; "The three Interludes of Florence," in 4to.
after Giulio Parigii. Thefe reprefent a feftival given at
Florence during the carnival, and are rare, particularly the
two latter ; the plates for " A Voyage to the Holy Land,"
confiding of forty-eight in 8vo. which Callot engraved for
a Grey friar, with whom he had formed afriendfliip, and who
publifhed this voyage ; " The Twelve Months of the
Year:" thefe twelve prints are rare ; they are after Jodo-
gus de Moraper, in 4to., and folely the work of the graver ;
" The Four Seafons," in 410. extremely fcarce. Thefe
prints are copied from four engravings that the Sadelers en-
graved after Baffan ; " The current Coin of Germany,
Italy, &c.'' ten fheets, engraved at Nancy for Gallon of
France, and publiflied at Paris by Ifrael Silvellre in 1662 ;
" A Woman fitting in a Field," a child in her arms, and an-
other eating fruit, ii feated under a tree, a fmall engraving, and
yery rare ; two fmall prints, called by the French colleftors
•' Deux Filenfes aflifes," and " Deux Dames qui fe promi-
nent," arealforare; " "Two Females habited al Allemande;"
" A female Gardener with an Afs ;" and '• An old Man,
accompanied by a little Boy,'' are fmall plates, with land-
fcape backgrounds.

The following farcical fubjects are executed on fmall plates,
in the fame ilyle as the celebrated " Beggars" by this artill,
and with equal fpirit, viz. " A corfiic Figure,'' (a fort of
Falllaff, with a large belly and wearing a fword) ; " Two
Harlequins," who are dancing in grotcfque attitudes; and
"A Buffoon,'' " A Scaramouch," and " A Pierrot," three
plates with theatrical backgrounds ; " A Comb Merchant,"
another comic figure, bearing a pedlar's pack on his back,
and holdmg a comb in his kind.

Topographical and otkr Landfcapes. — " View of the Lou-
vre, with the ancient Tower ot Nefle,'' a folio plate ; " View
of the Pont-Neuf at Paris," ditto. Thefe are of the bed of
Callot's landfcapes. Another view of the Pont-Neuf was
engraved byour artiit in 1629, in which the ground was etched
by Silvellre. This is a 4to. plate, and the im;;reirions which
are (on account of their rarity) moll in efteem, arc thofe
which were taken before Silveitre tauthed the plate ; " The

Vox.. XIX.

Parterre of Nancy," where many pcrfons are walking, a
piece in the long and narrow form of a frieze ; " Tlie Gar-
den of Nancy," an extremely rare print, infcribcd Jac.
Callot, inv. et fee. ; " La Carriere," the new ftieet of
Nancy, in which is introduced a caronfiil and tilting. match.
This is alfo in the form of a frieze, and the earlier iniijrefllons
are without the name of Silveitre ; "La petite Place dc
Sienne," in 4to. ; " The Great Fair of Madonna del Impru-
netta," called in England " The Great Fair ©f Florence,'' on
account of its having been engraven in that city. It reprcfents
a fair which is annually held in honour of the miraculous
conception ; and isefteemcdone of the mod capital, as it is
one of the largeft of the engravings of Callot, being in
length twenty-fix inches and fixteen in height. It confifts
of a bird's-eye view over a vart area, which is terminated by
the church of the holy Virgin, and more remotely by didant
mountai-ns. Within the area thoufands of figures, grouped
with apj)ropriate tade and (kill, arc engaged in all iIk' vari-
eties of bufinefs and entertainment which is prefented by an
Italian fair held under a genial (Ivy. It perfectly fuT<rells
Milton's idea of ""

'^ The bufy hum of men,"
and is in truth a furprifing prodinftion, (uch as modern art.
and modem attention almoll would turn from in defpair : yf t
fo fuperior was the patic.it attention of the public of two
centuries ago, and the patient (]<iii of our artiil, that Callot
copied this print, on account of the groat demand for it,
and even, as fome authors have afferted, engraved a third
plate of the fame fubjeft, with {i^mv (light variations.

The fird plate, which was publiihed in the year 1620, is
didingui(hed from the fccond, by the words " jn Fhiren'z.a"
which appear below at the right hand corner of the margin
of the plate, whereas in the fecond plate, the words in the
fame part of the margin are " fc FUji-mtia — el excudit Niwcij"
which latter word has occafioned it tO be contradiftiiigui(hpd
among ooiinoi(rcurs and dealers, by the title of " The great
Fair of Nancy." The fird plate may alfo be known to perfons
of tade and difcernment, from the fecond, by its fuperior
ftyle of execution : there is a certain fpontaneoufnefs, the
refiilt of original feeling, in the fird, which could not be
copied even by the author himfelf, without fome fymptoms
of redraint. The fcarcity of good irapreflions alfo makes
it bear a much higher value than the copy : for as it was far
lefs fuccefsfuUy corroded with the aquafortis, the number of
good impreffions which the plate produced was much more
limited.

A third plate of this fubjeft is mentioned by Rod and
Huber, but the prefcnt writer has not feen it, nor does it
appear to have been feen, — at lead it is not mentioned — by
Strutt. Perhaps the copy by Savery may have led thefe
authors into error on this point. The copy" may exfily he
known from thofe by the hand of Callot, l)y it« interior
merits, and by its being reverfed. " La petite FoiiT," (tlir
little fair) othcrwife called "The Players at Bowls," is not
properly the reprefentation of a fair, but of a village fete.
Peafants are dancing in a ring, and the muficians arc feated
in a very large old tree, which Jias all the appearance of being
a portrait. The players at bow's, are a group at the right
hand corner ot the print. Strutt fays, thai " this is one of
the fcarced of Callot's works, and it is very difficult to meet
with a fine imprelTion of it, for tlie dillance and other parts of
the plate failed in the biting.'' It is an oblong folio, and
the proof impreffions, which, of courfe, are mod fought
after, are before the name of Callot was engraven. A
landCcape, in tlie front of which are two pilgrims. It is
in 4to. and without tlie name of Calh.t. " A Sing Hunt :"

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

in the ordinary impreffions of this plate, the fmall and dif-
taut wild boar hunt is fcarcely feen . It is a folio, and of the
frieze proportions. " A double Rock in the Middle of the
Sea :" on the top of this double rock are two eagles with a
bannerol, and an infcription in honour of Columbus, in
4to. ; " The two jolly Mariners," a well executed plate,
in 4to. ; four landfcapes, lengthways, in fmall 4to. ; " The
Grand Thefe,'' two emblematic plates in folio, dedicated to
the duke of Lorraine ; " A Vine Arbour," a fmall 410.
plate, the fubjcCl of which is a fete before the door of a
country public houfe, with an infcription on the margin,
fignifying that this is the lajl plate engraven by the late
Jacques Callot, to which the aquafortis was not applied till
after his deceafe ; from which it may be prefumed that
the death of our artift was fomewhat fuddcn.

The following Portraits are alfo from the graver or etching
needle of this dillinguiflied engraver. Cofmo III. grand
duke of Tufcany, in an ornamented oval. Fian^ois, grand
duke of Tufcany, ditto, in 4to., very rare. Charles III.
duke of Lorraine, in 4to. rare. Louis de Lorraine, prince
of Phalfbourg, onhorfeback, 4to. Le Marquis de Marig-
nan, a general in the fervice of the emperor Charles V. 410.
Donatus Antellenfis, fenator, commonly known by the name
of " The Senator," in an oval, 410. rare. Charles de
Lorme, firll phylician to Louis XIII., in an ornamented
oval, 4to. Giovanni Domenica Peri d'Archidoffa, in an
ornamented border, commonly known by the name of " Tlie
Gardener," in 410.

The reader may perhaps be pleafed to be informed that a
fmall portrait of Callot himfelf has been drawn and en-
graved by Michael Lafne. It has the following infcription,
" Jacobus Callottus Nobilis Lotharingus Calcographus.''

The engravings of Delia Bella are little lei's numerous
than thofe of Callot ; though the largcll of Callot's exceed
the dimenfions of any of thofe of his fuccL-ffor. Their merits
were in many refpeCls very fimilar. If with the elegant
lightnefs of form and exquilite tafte of Delia Bella, we feem
more in the fairy land of engraving, Callot pofTefied more
perfpicuity, more firmnefs of outhne, and greater powers
of corapofition ; yet they are twin brothers m point of ex-
cellence, and, to the prefent hour, unrivalled in their de-
partment of art, though it mull: be aibued that Monf.
Berthaud, the Parifian, has of late years made fome very
near approximations toward the merits of Callot and Delia
Bella. We are enabled to add the following lift cf feleft
prints by the latter, to the fcanty lift of Struit, which the
reader will hnd affixed to our biography of Delia Bella : —
A portrait of Delia Bells drefled in the Perfian habit,
drawn and engraved by himfelf. Other portraits of Sigif-
mund Boldrini, a noble Milanefe. Mouit-Joy St. Denis,
king at arms, with a grand funeral proctifion in the back
ground ; a very rare print, in 8vo. Horace Gonzales, in
an oval ; likewife very rare. Ferdinand II. emperor of the
Romans, in folio. Bernardo Ricci on horfeback, furnamcd
II T^defchino ; Ferdinand II.'s jcfter, in folio. St. An-
tonin, archbiftop of Florence, kneeling on the clouds,
Delia Bella's earlieft engraving.

Jiijlor'ical SuhjiCis, isfc. — "■ St. Anthony, mounted on a
Monlter with two Heads, a Man's and a Woman's," in-
fcribcd " Super afpidcm et bafdicum ambulatis ;" a fmall
upright plate of " The Departure of Jacob with Rachael
and her Tick ;" " Jacob's Journey to Egypt in queft
of Jofeph," in 4(0. ; " 'Hjc Battle of the .^mnlekites," of
the fame fize ; a fmall upright plate of " St. John, leaning
his right Hand on a Lamb ;" a fmall upright print of
" The Virgin fitting with the Infant Jefus ;" another
•' Virgin and Child ;" another. o£. " Ttie Virgiii fuckling

the Infant," on a white ground ; " A Repofo," in a circle j
another " Repofo," where, in the background, S/t. Jofeph
is leaning againft a tree, reading, in 410. ; " A Flight into
Egypt," furmounted by cherubs heads ; another fmall up-
right print of the fame fubjecl, reprefenting " The Holy
Virgin, with the Infant in her Arms, fitting on an Afs,
led by St. .Tofeph ;" another " Holy Virgin fuckling the
Infant Chrift, ' infcribed Caracci inv. in a circle; "The
youthful Saviour explaining the Sacred Writings to his
Mother and St. Jofeph:" in the clouds is God and the
Holy Spirit, a very rare little print, firft etched, and after-
wards finifned with the graver ; a very rare print, entitled
" Effigie del gloriofo Martyre Sto. Benedetto ;" the dif-
covery of the miraculous image of " Notre-Dame del Im-
prunetta," n -ar Florence ; " The Church Triumphant,"
an allegorical figure, clothed in a prieft's garment of white
linen, and crowned with a tiara, with one foot on the earth
and the other on the fea ; a' fmall folio print of " St. Prof-
per defcending from Heaven ;" a nearly fquare print of
the tyrant Piialaris, enclofing Perillus in the brazen bull,
from Polidoro ; an antique bas-relief of a female with her
face covered, from tlie fame mafter ; a fmall (landing figure
of Lucretia, from Parmegiano ; a fmall plate, nearly fquare,
of three children holding above their heads a wooden difli,
on which arc three verfes, from Guido ; an antique bas-
relief of a female, ftanding, trying to flop a ball ; a folio
print in a fquare ornamented border, of a foldier on horfe-
back. galloping away with a female, called " Clovis and
Clotilda," very rare ; a failor, of whom a beggar is afking
charity ; a young failor, fitting on a hillock ha^f covered
with his cloak, laying his hand on a dog's head, with other
figures ; a fmall print of four Turks, half length ; another
of three, with a negro and a boy ; the huutrefs holding a
dog, a fingular engraving, marked twice with S. D. Bella ;
an eagle, with extended v/ings, devouring a lien ; above, in
a circle,' are two horfes efcaping, and a multitude of fpec-
tators, in fmall folio ; " The Philofopher's Stone," in large
4to. a very fine and large print ; " The Fan," or a fete on the
Arno, an oval print, which was long attributed to Calloit;
a perfpeclive view of the catafalque of the emperor Fer-
dinand, and of the interior decoration of the church, with
the arms of the family of Mcdicis, in folio ; a grand Thefes
fupported at the canonization of Francis Solanus Condelier,
at Rome, a rare print, in large folio ; a plan of the fiege
of Rocheile, figned Stefano Delia Bella del. et fecit ; a large
upright print of the plan cf the fiege of Arras, done for
cardinal Richelieu, figned as before ; the Repofoir, or feaft
of God, a large print, lengthu ays, of which it is very diffi-
cult to find a good imprenion ; a view of ti.e Pont-Neuf at
Paris, a large print lengthway.-; : the firft impreffions of this
plate were taken before the weathercock was added to the
lleeple of St. Germain I'Auxerrois; a folio print of the
Calile of St. Angelo ; on the foreground are groups of

T'jf fof/oivinj are In S.-ts. — Two landfcapes ; two other
landfcapes in the tafte of Silvcftre ; fix different views of
the Pont of Livourne, in large folio ; the four feafons,
reprefented in ovals ; the four elements ; eight marine fub-
jedfs, in the ftyle of Callot, entiried " Divers Enibarqiie-
nients, faits par S. D. Bella," dedicated to Lorenzo de
Medicis ; fix prints of vafes, in 410. in a rich and ex-
quifilc talle, and very finely executed ; fix landfcapes, in
circles ; four very fine landfcapes, with figures, in folio ; four
views in Rome, namely, the temple of Antoiinus Pius,
the arch of Conftantine, the temple of Coixo-d, and the
celebrat''d vafe in the gardens of the Medicean palace, in
which Delia Bella has introduced his own portrait ; three
8. grand

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF F.NGRAVING.

grind fiibjcAs of battles, i. A naval combat before the iOe
of Re ; 2. Tlie dcfcent of the Eiiglidi in the ifle of Re ;
^. The defeat and capture of general Lambay, with a plan
-of the battle : thcfe three plates were drawn and engraved
by Delia Bella, for the bi^ok of Valdor, entitled '< friom-
phes de Lonis le Jufte ;" twelve prints of Moors, Hun-
garians, Afiatics, and Africans, on liorfeback, in circ'es,
with very fine backgrounds, in 410. ; a fet of fixteen fmall
fquare fubjeifts, reprefenting warriors, hunters, (illiers, and
pealants, &c. very rare, and attributed by fijn.e to Callot ;
another fet of eighteen, intitled " Raccoila di rari caprieci,
nuove invenzioni di CarteUi et Ornamenti, pofTi in luce dal
Sign. Stefano Delia Bella," of ditfcrent fizes ; another fet of
twenty-eight, intitled " Vues d'edifieeset d'endroits publics,
mife au jour par Ifrael Siivc!lre," in folio ; more than half
of thcfe views in France and I taly are engraved by Delia
Bella ; a fet of twenty-two, intitled " Divers grifFonenicim
et cpreuves a I'eau force, faites par Sief. Delia Bella," of
different fizes : this fet has often been reprinted and en-
larged, and the gcod imprefiions are now become very
fcarce ; a fet of five of Death preying upon the human
(pecies of all ages, with fine backgrounds ; and orie entitled
" La fixie.T.e mort," a melancholy fubjeft, bcg.m by Delia
Bella, under his unfortunate malady, and fiiiifhed by his
pupil Galiftrucci.

Antonio Francifco Lucini was alfo of Florence, and
bors in ihe fame )-ear with his countryman Delia BelU,
from the iludy of whofe works, and thofc of Callot, he ap-
pears to have formed his ilyle. His plates are marked
with one or other of the monograms which will be found
in our Pto HI.

His principal works are a fet of fixteen vci-y rare prints
of the battles and afTanlts of the Turks diM-iiig the fiege
of Malta, from the piftures by Maltia Perez de Alefio, and
a fete on the Arno, of foho dimeufions, after Delia Bella,
dated 1634.

Francelco Cozza has been already noticed as an hiftorical
painter in frefco. (See Cozza.) His prints confill of
fpirited etchings, in ^vhich the manual part is executed with
more neatnefs than has often been attained by painters. In
" St. Peter's Contrition," he has flievvn much good draw-
ing, though the print is flight. The tnher works we (liall
mention from hi^ hand are, " A penitent Magdalen," and
" A Roman Charity ;'' they are all from his own cem-
pofitions, and of folio dimeufions.

Csefar Baffano, or Baflanus, was bom at Milan in the
year 1584. Under whom he Ib.idied has not been afcer-
tained. He worked entirely with the graver, and his
ftyle bears .confiderable refemblance to that of Cornelius
Cort.

The moll confiderable work in which he was engaged,
and which he executed in conjunttion with Falcini and
Ciamberlanus, is a fet of fixteen plates, entit ed " II Santo
Senato de Giefa," a very rare work, which both Hein-
nekin and Strutt have omitted to mention. It confills of
heads of the Virgin Mary, Jefus Chrift, and the ApolHes,
feleded and engraved from pictures of the very lirll cele-
brity.

The other known engravings of Baffanus are, a portrait
of Gafpar Afellius ; an architeftural Fror.tifpiece for ?.
work by Francis Piccolini, in folio; and " The Nativity,"
of the lame dimeufions.

His coadjutor Ciamberlano, or Ciamberlanus, was ori-
ginally a do6l«r of laws, but quitted the ftudy of jurifpru-
dence for that of engraving. The cypher which he affixed
to his prints will be found in P/ate III. of the monograms of
the /inlijn SJioo! 0/ Engraven ; iind WE have already men-

tioned the leading events of his life under the article Ciam-

BEItLANO.

The principal engravings by this artift are " A dead St.
Jerome, lying on a Stone," after Raphael ; a fet of ten
p'ates, after different mafters, in Svo , conlilling of devo-
tional fubjefls ; "Angels holding tlie Inftruments of the
Crucifixion, Pafuon, &c. ;" another fet of fourteen, in
fmall folio, after Raphael, of " Jefus Chrift and the
Apoftles ;" " Jefus Chrift on the Mount of Olives, com-
forted by an Angel," from Al. Cafolani, in folio; « Jefus
Chrift appearing to Mary Mandalen in the Garden," from
BaiToccio, in large folio ; " Chrift appearing to St. Tlie-
refia with his Crofs," i6jj, in foho; two fubjefts of
Tl.efes, dated 1628, in large folio.

Giovanni Francelco Barbicri. — Guercino da Cento is the
name by which this juftly celebrated painter is moft com-
moniy known ; for an account of w liofe great merits as a
pniiiter, fee the article BAnniEiu Giovanni Fkancisco.
As an engraver, he has left but few memorials behind him ;
but thofe are executed with jireat freedom and fpirit, in a
manner much refembling thofe admirable drawings of his
with a pen, which are held in fuch higli eftimation : " St.
Anthony of Padua;" " St. Peter in Grief," both half
len:rths, infcribed "Joan F. Barbicri f. Id.," in folio;
" St. John," the fame ; " St. Jerome before the Crucifix ;"
a portrait of a man with a hat on, and a curled beard ; par.
trait of a female with curled hair ; and a buft of a man in an
eaftern coil«nie, all of folio dimeufions ; are probably all the
prints that Guercino ever produced.

Luciano Borzoni was born at Genoa in the year IJQO,
and died in the fame city in 1645. He learned the elements
of art of his uncle Phihppe Bertolotto, and Caefar Corte.
His pictures pofTefs much merit, are wtil coloured, and
carefully executed. He painted with the fame fuccefs in oil
as in frefco ; and whilft painting the ceiling of the church
della Nunzlata, he unfortunately loft his 'ufe by a fall fronv
the fcaffold.

He left three fons, all artifts, among w^hom Francifco
Marie diftinguifkedhimfelf moft, by painting landfcapes and
marine fubjefts.

Borzoni etched many of his own compofitions with a con-
fiderable portion of tatte, among which the following will
probably be found to poftefs moft merit : a portrait of
Guiftiniani; "St. Peter delivered from Prifon ; ' "The
Vulture prey in? on Prometheus;" all of which are in Ato.
Some Holy Families, MadonnaS; and o'her devotional fub-
jefts, coiiilitute the remainder of his works on copper.

Vefpafiano Strada was the fon of a Spanifli painter of
fome eminence, but was born at Rome in the year 1591,
during the refidonce of his parents in that dty, where he died
at the age of thirty-fix.

His works confift of etchings from his own compofitions,
executed in a painter-like ftyle ; flight and rapid, but maf-
terly and free. Thofe held in moft eftimation arc " Pontius
Pilate producing Chrift to the People," half figures, m
fmall folio ; the fame fubjeft, of the upright form ; "St.
Catherine adoring the Infant Chrift," in 4to. ; " Chrift
crowned with Thorns," in fmall 4to. ; "The Holy Fa-
mily, with St. John," ditto ; " The-Holy Virgin fupportcd
by Angels." His plates are generally marked with the
initial letters of his names.

Of Alefl'andro Algardi, a Bolognefe artift, who lived at
this period, we have already treated. (See Ai.gaupi.)
To the engravings we ha\e mentioned by him, the coUeftor
fhould add " The Cries of Bologna," confifting of eighty
4to. prints after Caracci, engraved by Algai-d^ in conjunc-
tion with Simon Guillain.

5 Y 8 T!>e

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

The etchings of Spagnoletto ( for an account of whofe
extraordinary talents as a painter, fee the article Ribera)
■are executed in a bold, firm, and free ftyle : his chiarofcuro
is broad, powerful, and pleafing ; and he drew with ad-
mirable Hull. His heads, hands, and feet, are marked in
a maftcrly manner ; and among the former, thofe of his old
men, which he was fond of introducing into his compofitions,
are defervedly admired.

In P/,7te 111. of the monograms of the Italian Engravers,
■will be found the various cyphers with which he occafionally
marked his performances, of which the following are juftly
held in elkem : " A dead Chrill ;" " The Martyrdom of
St. Bartholomew,'' both of folio dimenfions ; in fmall folio,
" A penitent St. Jerome, with an Angel blowing a Trum-
pet.'' (Note. — There are two plates of this fubjeft, in one
of which the angel is omitted.) Another St. Jerome, a
fmall upright, where a (ItuU lies on the ground, and the
faint is reading ; a folio plate of « Bacchns made drunk by
Satyrs," dated 1628; two fmall heads of old men, one of
them with the face covered ; " Dante crowned with Laurel,
fitting in a Defert ;" " Dtin Juan of Aullria on Horfeback,"
a folio plate.

The above are all from his own compofitions ; and we
know of but one work of Spagnoletto that is after another
painter, namely, " A Repofe, during the Flight into
Egypt," from Charles Saracenus, wherein angels are
foothincf the holy travellers with divine mulic.

Olivfero Gatti was of the Bolognefe fcliool, and ap-
parently ftndicd engraving under Agoftino Caracci. He
was boi-n at Parma in the year 1598 ; but the time or man-
ner of his death have not been recorded.

Gatti worked chiefly, if not entirely, with the graver ;
and his prints have a confiderable Iharc of merit. He at-
tended bat little to the textures of various fubltancei, and
hence his e.Kecution is fomewhat dry ; but he poffeffed that
firft requifite of a good engraver, — found drawing.

His bell prints are " St. Francis Xavier kneeling on the
Sea-diore to take up a floating Crucifix," from his own
compofition, and of foho dimenfions ; a half figure of " The
Holy Virgin careffing the Infant Chritl," in 410., after
Garbieri ; "St. Jerome embracing a Crucifix,'' a foHo
plate, after Auguftino Caracci, dated 1602 ; an emblematic
or heraldicjnbjecl from Lodovico Caracci, reprefenting an
armed knight, furroundcd by Jupiter, Hercules, Neptune,
Apollo, and Pallas, and an 'armorial bearing fupported by
two river gods, of a folio fize ; and a fet of four ovals, in
4to , after Pordenone, of which the fubjefts are " The
l)eity forming the World," "The Creation of Adam,"
" Abraham's Sacrifice," and " Judith with the Head of
Holofernes."

Giovanni Baptifta Vanni was celebrated to a certain de-
gree in the three arts of architeclurc, painting, and engrav-
ing. ' He was born at Pifa in the year 1599, and died at
Florence in 1660. He frequented difl"erent fchools, and is
believed to have learned etching of Julio Parigi.

His etchings are performed in a painter-like manner, with
freedom and fpirit, but are deficient in corrednefs ; and are
marked cither with the initial letters, or fome contraftiou of
his names. Of thefe the inoit diihnguiflied arc " The Dome
of the Cathedral at Parma," after Correggio, engraved on
fifteen plates, and dated 1642 ; " The Martyrdom of two
.Saints,'' alfo from a picture by Correggio ; and " The Mar-
riage of Cana in Galilee," a laj-ge foho print, engraved 011
two plates, alter Paul Yeronefe, dated 1637, 'and juftly
reckoned the mafter-piece of "Vanni.

Giovanni Baptifta Mercati alfa produced fome fpirited
etchings about this period. He was a native of Sienna,

born about the beginning of the feventeenth century, but
refided for the greater part of his life at Rome. His prints
are flight, yet manifell fome tafte ; and he etched both hif-
tory and landfcape.

The following will probably afford the coUeftor the molt
fatisfaftory fpecimens of his powers : a fet of fifty fmall
plates of the ruined edifices of Italy, in a ftyle which might
be fufpefted to be borrowed from that of Silveftre, if Sjl-
veftre had then appeared ; a fet of four of the bas-reliefs
which adorn the arch of Conftantine, of the folio fize, and
circular form ; " St. Bibian refufing to facrifice to Jupiter,"
after Pietro da Cortona, in folio, dated 1626; and " A
Holy Family, with St. Catherine," a fmall folic, after
Correggio, dated 1620.

Giufcppe, or Jofcph Cremonefe, was born at Cremcna in
the year 1600, and refided at Ferrara. There is a piftiire
of Lis, of St. Mark, preferved at the church of St. Ben-
net, at Ferrara, which is mentioned with great praife in
the Italian tour of Cochin. The following prints of me-
diocre pretenfions are engraved by this artift from his own.,
defigns : — " Samfon and Dahlah ;" " David, with the Head,
of Goliah ;" a kneeling figure of " St. Roch,'' all of folio
dimenfions ;" " David contemplating the Head of Goliah ;''
a bifhop of the order of St. Bernard j and, a ftudy of a
naked female ; all of quarto fize.

Pietro, and Jacques-.Antonio StefFanoni, father and fon,-
were born at Venice, the father in the year 1600, and the
fon in 1620. They went to Rome, where they engraved iij-
conjunction with each other. There is a book, etched by
Pietro, of inftruAions in drawing, confilting of forty plates ;
and fome prints for a work of antique gems, by Fortunius
Licetus. This book was firft printed at Rome A.D.
1627, and reprinted by J. A. Steil'anoni at Padua in 1664.
We have, among others, the following etchings by the
fon, which pofl'efs fome merit : — " The Virgin and Child,
with St. John and feveral Angels," known by the name of
" The Virgin of the Swallow," from L. Caracci ; another
" Virgin and Child, with St. John," half figures, from
Aug. Caracci, both in quarto ; a middling-fized upright
print, of "A Merchant and his Family reduced to Beggary;"
two more fubjefts of Holy Families, from Aug. Caracci ;
" Tlie S aughtei of the Innocents,'' from Guido ; " The
Miracle of St. Antony of Padua," from Lorenzo Pafli-
nelli, in large foho ; and " The Mai-tyrdora of St. L^rfula,
and her Companions," of the fame fize.

Jean Baptifta Pafcalini, or Pafquahno, was born at Cento,
a village near Bologna, A.D. 1600, and frequented the
fchool of Cyrus Ferri ; though he does not appear to have
made any meritorious progrefs in painting. He engraved a
great number of prints from various Bolognefe painters,
but particularly from his countryman Guerchino ; whofc
bold fpirited ftyle in drawing with a pen he attempted to
imi'ate with tlie graver, but he did not pofl'efs fulBcient
command of that inftrument to fiiccecd, neither is it at all
adapted to fuch a purpofe. The etchings of Pafcalini, ac-
cording to Huber, always convey the idea of original com-
pofitions, but in this praife we cannot confcieutioutiy join.
Thofe ainong them which are entitled to moil commendation,
are " St. Felix, a Capuchin, kneeling before the Virgin and
Infant Chrift," in foho; "St. Diego," from L. Caracci,
marked J. B. Centenfis ; a large folio print of " The Death
of St. Cecilia,'' from Dominicliino ; "The Aurora," a
large print lengthways, on two plates, from the celebrated
picture of Guido, which has lince been finely engraven by
Giacomo Frey, and alfo by Audenardc.

The follo'wing Subjc&s are from Guerchino : — A fm.all print
of " Jefus Chrift diftating to St. John ;" a large upright

print

nWLIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

print of " The Refurreftiou of Lazarus;" " Chrift giving the
Keys to Peter," a niiddhiig-fr/.cd upright ; " Chriil taken into
Cullody in tlie Garden of OUve;," in" folio ; " The Appari-
tion of the Angels,, wiio flicw to Mary Magdalen the In-
flruiirtents of the PafTion,". in large folio ; " The Pilgrims on
their way to Emaus," in t|\iarto ; " The Incredulity of St.
Thomas," in folio ; a fmall folio print of " Orpheus playing
on the Violin ;" two Holy Families, both in quarto ; " St.
Charles Borromeus ;" a middling-fr/.ed upriijht, entitled
" St. FeUce Cappucino miracuiofamente redufcita unfan-
ciuUo morto ;'■ and " Tancre4 and Erminea," dated 1620.

Of Anduka C.VMASSEI ; the two Cuurii, Fu.iNCESco
Berdiki i C.VMiLLE Cosciio, and Giui-io Cari-io.ve,
who all lived at I his period, we have already treated: as,
fee thefe articles refpeftively.

Giulio, or Julius Ca;far Venenti, was born at Bologna in
the year 1 609. He learned drawing under Philip Brizio,
who' was of the fchool of Guido, and o:ie of the bell of his
difciplcs. Veneiiti was a gentleman of fortune, and not
profeffionally an art ill, yet the meritorious plates which he
etched con ainori, have been thought worthy of a place in
the Italian fchool. His etchings are performed in a flight
ftyle, are marked with one of the two monograms which we
have copied in rlrJe 111., and their fubjeds are — " The
Guardian Angel," in quarti ; " Mithridates prefented with
a Cup of Poifon ;" " Tancred and Clorinda," all after D.
M. Canuti ; " Tlie Virgin of the Rofe," after Parmegiano,
all in fmal! folio ; and " The Holy Family repofing," after
Annibal Caracci, in larger folio.

For the biography of Franccfco Grinialdi, furnamed
BOLOGNESE, fee that 'article. His etchings are performed
with painter-like freedom and fpirit, and in thofe of land-
fcape in particular, he difcovcrs a founder knowledge of
perfpeftive, than perhaps had yet appeared in Europe, and
his trees are ably characlerized.

Of liis numerous plates, which are almoft entirely from
his own compofitions, we fliall mention as worthy of pre-
ference— a rich landfcape, with builduigs, and finiermen on
the fore-ground ; another, in which the baptifm of our
Saviour is introduced, both in folio ; two ditto, in larger
foho, of mountainous fcenes, with figures and ruined build-
ings ; two ditto, of the upright form, after Annibal Ca-
racci, in one of which is a river winding through foreft
fcenery ; four ditto, from the fame mailer. His view of
Cartel Gandolfo is a well-knc-.vn and juftly admired produc-
tion, which will long continue to be a favourite iludy with
landfcape painters, and of which there has been a finely
engraved copy produced in our own country by Vivarcs
and Chatelain.

Agoltini Mete'ili (the elder), was a native of Bologna,
born A.D. 1609. He ftudied fucceffively under Gabriel
Ferrantini and Dentone, and, befides his merit as an en-
graver, excelkd in painting architeftural ornaments botli in
frefco and in oil. He was invited to Spain by Phihp IV.,
and died at Madrid in the year 1660.

His etchings arc performed with no inconfiderable por-
tion of talle, and we believe are entirely of an ornamental
character. His fet of forty-eight friezes are after his own
defigns. Twenty-four plates of ornaments, are pr.rtly taken
from the defigns of F. Curti, and are partly engraven by the
younger Metelli, of whom we are about to treat.

GiofeiTo Marie Metelli was the fon and fcholar of Agof-
tino, and was bom at Bologna in the year 1654. After
acquiring the rudiments of art from the inllruitions of his
father, he fucceflivcly frequented, for his improvement, the
fchools of Albano, Guercino, Del Torre, and Can;arini.

TliC plates of Giofeffo confiit chiefly of etching, which

he e:cocuted in a flight manner. His chiai-ofcuro is
feeble, his drawing incorreft, from halle or negligence, and
he gave no attention wiiatever to the art of exprcfllng the
textures of various fubltances ; yet what he did, could only
have been done by the praftifetl hand of an artill, and this
circumllnnce combined with the iutrirific merits of many of
the pidlures after which he engraved, have made his prints
(wliich ate fo:r.ewhat numerous) fought after by the cog-
ncfceiiti.

The various mono, ramswith which he occafionally marked
them, will be found ill Plate 111. of thofe ufed hy the //,;-
Han Majiers, and among his bell works may he ranked the
following : — A fet of twelve large upright folio prints,
from the moll efl;eemi'd piftures in the churches of Bologna ;
a fet of twenty, from the hiftory of Enca^, painted by the
three Caracci, in the Favian palace at Bilogna, in large
folio; a fet of forty, in fmall folio, and of the upriglit
form, of "The Cries of Bologna," from Annibal Caracci ;
" The Adoration of the Sheplierds," a large upright fo-
lio, from Corrcj^gio ; "The M irtyrdom of St Erafmus,"
from Pouflin ; " David and Guliah," from Titian ; " The
Invention of tli^ Crofs,'' from Tintorct, all in large fJio ;
" Lazarus at the Gate of Dives,'" after Paul Veronefe.

He alfo produced feveral plates from his own compofition':,
particularly " Tiie four-and-twcr.ty Hours of human Fe-
licity," which were publiflicd at Bologna in 167J, and to
which he afterwards added two plates, fo that the complete
let confills of twenty-fix ; and a fet, of which v.-e knew
not the precife number, called " Metelli's Collection of Pro-
verbs,'' publifhed in the year 1678, both of which feries are
now become exceedingly rare.

Pietro del Po was Ijorn at Palermo A.D 1610, and died
at Naples in 1692. He travelled to Rome, and was muctj
employed there in the adornment of churches, both as painter
and architect, and alfo by the Spanifli ambailador.

Del Po engraved a tonfiderable number of platea which
confitl of etching mingled with the work of tiic "raver. .
The general ftyle of his art appears to be lludied from that
of Doniinichino ; and the moil diilmguiflied of his prints
are " St. John Bapti.1 in the Wildernefs;" " Tlie Woman
of Canaan ;" and' " A dead Chriil on the Lap of the Holy
Virgin," all in folio, and after Annibal Caracci ; " The
Madonna and Child attending to the divine Harmony of
Angels;" "St. Jerome on his Knees, confolcd bx.aii
Angel;" andafet of the cardinal virtues, "Prudence," "Juf-
tice," " Temperance," and " Fortitude," all in large folio,
after Doroinichino; "The Annunciation;" " The Nativity ;'
and " The Flight into Egypt," in folio, afier Pouffin j
" Achilles and Ulyflcs," after the fame mailer; "Venus
and Cupid vifiting the Forge of Vidcan," after Sirto Ba-
dalochio ; and " Neptune in his Chariot," after Julio Ro-
mano, of the o£lagon furm ; all of folio dimenfions.

Giacomo del Po, andhislillerThercfa, the fon and daughter
of Pietro, alfo etched feveral plates, in a ftyle rercmbhng that
of their father, among which is " Sufanna furprifed by the
Elders," after Caracci, a folio plate, engraved by Therefa,

Simon Cantarini, furnamedll Pefarefe, was born at Pefaro,
a city of Urbino, in the year 1610. He learned the rudi-
ments of art under Ridolfi, but afterwards became one of
the moil diilinguidied of tlie pupils of Guido, whofe ftyle,
both of painting and etching, he imitated with fo much iuc-
cefs, that the work.- of the difciple are not untrequer.tly
miftaken for thofe of the mafter.

Cantarini died at Verona, at the early age of thirty.eight.

He produced a great number of prints, which are for the

moft part of religious fubjedls, and of which Adam Bartfch

lias formed a catalogue wlijch we bdi^ve is complete. .

'j Among

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

'Among thefe are feven of what the Italians term RcpoTo';,
during the flight into E^'ypt, three, of which the Huly
Family is the fiibjeft, and four, of tlie Madonna and Cliild ;
they are after his own compodtions, and of 4to. dimen-
fions.

The remainder that are ■worthy of feleftion from the
works of Cantarini are, " The Beatification of the Holy
Virgin ;" two plates of " St. John Baptift in the ^Vildcr-
ncfs;" " The Martyrdom of St. Sehallian ;" " St. An-
thony of Padua on his Knees adoring the Infant Saviour
furrounded witli a Glory of Angels," in folio ; a fmall
print of " St. Anthony of Padua kneeling before an Altar,
holding the Infant Chrift in his Arms ;" " St. Bcnoit curing
the Demoniac," from Louis Caracci, in folio; " A
Guardian Angel conducing an Infant to Heaven ;" " ,Iu-
piler, Neptune, and Pluto, doing Homage to C?.rdiral
Borghefe," who is reprefented in heaven furronnded by
genii, who difplay the attributes of the four cardinal virtues,
in large folio ; this print has been millakenly called the
Quos ego, and it is one of the fincll engravings by Pefarefe,
though long attributed to Guido; " The Rape of Europa,''
in foHo, a ven' fine print, and very rare ; " Mercury and
Argus ;" " Mars, Venus, and Cupid, at the Foot of a
Tree," from P. Veronefe, both in folio ; " Venus and
Adonis, with Cupid," in 410. ; " Love aad Fortune," in
4to. (connoifTcurs attribute this print to Pefarefe, though
it is marked •' G. Renus in. & fee."); and a frontifpiece to
a book, reprefeuling a coat of arms, fiipported by two
angels, blowing trumpets ; at the bottom is a river god
. leaning on an urn ; a very fpirited etching.

Giovanni Andrea Sirani was born at Bologna in i!'>io,
and died in the fame city A.D. 1660. He was fuccofiively
the difeiple of Cavcdone and Guido, and imitated the ilyle
of the latter, both in painting and engraving, with fuccefs.
We have fome mallerly etchings from his hand, which may

■ be regarded as original works, liiice they are from com-
pofitions byhimfelf; thefe he commonly marked with liis
initials, G.A.S. or I.A.S. The following are generally,
and we think juftly, efteemed among his beft produftions : —
" Judith, with the Head of HolofeVnes, ' half length, in the

.background is an old woman, in folio; "The Virgin and

■ Infant Chrift fitting on a Cufhion, with St. John at her
fide," in an oval (this is from Guido) ; a fmall print of
" St. Michael overpowering Satan," a middling-fized up-
right print of " A Sybil fitting on a Bank, liftening atten-
tively to an Angel, who is placed behind a Pedeftal," from
Cuido ; " The Rape of Europa," (this print is attributed
to Sirani, but it is not in his llyle)'; " Apollo flaying the
Satyr Marfyas," a fmall upright plate in an oval; " Saturn
fitting on the Clouds," in 410. ; " Cupid ftanding on a
Dolphin, (hooting an Arrow into the Sea ;" a bacchanalian
lubjcft of four children, one of whom holds a flalk and
goblet.

Elizabeth, was the mod diftinguinied of the three
daughters of G. A. Sirani, who were all artifts ; and was
born at Bologna in the year 1638; flic learned the rudiments
of defign and, painting of her fathjT, and her hiftorical
pictures are mentioned with the greateft commendation.
She died at the early age of twenty-fix, as it is faid, by
poifon, adminiftered by fome that were envious of her great
reputation. There are many etchings by her hand, exe-
cuted in a flight, fpirited ftylc, but the extremities are
finely marked ; among which the following are the moil
elleemcd : a middling-fi^ed upright plate of " The Virgin
of Grief," furround; d with the Initruments of the Pallion,
and accompanied by Angels; " The» Virgin with the
l-nfant Jefus, whom ihe holds on a Cufiiion, with St. John,"

in a circle : this very rare and excellent print was engraved
by Elizabeth, at the age of nineteen, from a pidture of hef
own, and is reckoned her bell produt'iion ; a fmall half
length of " The Virgin, with her Hands crolfed on her
Breaft;;" "St. Enitace," magnificently habited, in the aft
of proftrating himfelf, flriking his breaft with his hand,
in folio; " The Decollation of St. John," on the fore-
ground is a profile of Herodias, accompanied by two of her
women : this print has been retouched in many parts with
the graver, and is not executed in the ilyle of Sirani: yet her
name is affixed to it, and its authenticity may therefore
be regarded as doubtful ; " Lucretia ftabbing herfelf," de-
dicated to the prelate Palcotti.

Lorenzo Luli was born at Bologna in the year 161 2.
He was a favourite difeiple of Guido, who was accuflomed
pleafantly to call him his gentleman of tiie bed-chamber ;
yet the improvement of a ftudent is not always in proportion
to the favour of his mailer, and Loli never attained any
great degree of excellence as a painter ; but there are many
etchings by him executed in a free fpiriled ftyle, from Guido,
Sirani, and his own defigns, of which the following are held
in moft efteem : — " A Flight into Egypt," in folio; " A
Ho'y Family, with St. John and Elizabeth ;" anotlier
" Holy Family, with St. Jofeph leaning on a Pcde'tal in
the Background," a fmall upright ; two plates of " The
Madonna and Child," one a fmall upright oval ; " The Af-
fi'.mption," where the holy Virgin is rejjrcfented as ft;indmg
on a crefcent, and angels vvorfliipping (this is a rare print, and
one of the very be!l produftions of Lo!i) ; " St. Jerome in
his Cavern;" " Mary Magdalen meditating on a -Crucifix
and Skull," both in 410. ; the latter is perhaps the only
plate up<m which this artift has worked with the graver;
" The Holy Virgin in a Radiance of Glory," in folio ;
" The Recompence of Study," a fmall plate, wherein Genius
and tlie Sciences are reprefented as leaning on the horn of
Plenty; " Hercules combating the Nemean Lion," and
" Perfeus and Andromeda," both of the folio fize ; " Th&
Infant Hercules ftrangling the Serpents ;" " A fleeping
Cupid;" " Cupid breaking his Bow;" three fmall plates
of intant bacchanalians.

Contemporary with this artifl: was Gafpar Dughet (fur-
named PouiTin from his very diftinguiflied brother-in-law
Nicholas). For the biograpliy and general merits of thefe
great artifts, fee the articles Dughet and Pol'.ssin. Gaf-
par etched a few plates with Ipirit, (though not equal to that
of his pencil,) among which are a fet of four landfcapes i:i
circles, of a fmall folio fize ; and another fet of four, fome-
what larger.

Jean Dughet, the brother of Gafpar, received in ftrudlions
both from him and Nicholas Pouflfin, yet never attained la
eminence either in painting or engraving.

The following prints from his hand are admitted into the
portfolios of the curiou.s, much more on account of tiic
original piftures by Pouffin, whence they arc taken, thaH
from their intrinfic merits as etchings ; namely, " The kvon
Sacraments," from the fet of pictures painted for the
Commandeur del Pozzo, which differ in many refpefts from
thofe which were in the royal colleftion of France, and are
now in the marquis of Stafford's gallery ; thefe are in folio,
fo large that each fubjedt is engraved on two plates. " The
Judgment of Solomon;" "The Birth of Bacchus;" and
•' Mount Parnafl'us," arc alfo in large folio.

Pietro Tefta, fometinies called among the Italians Luc-
chefini, from the place of his birth, was born, of indigent
parents, in the year 161 I, and poverty appears to have at-
tended him through life, notwithtlandii g his merits. From
his youth lie manifelled a violent inclination to purfue the

iinc

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

fine arts, and it is faid, travelled from Lucca to Rome in the
haWit of a pilgrim. Here, i-cgnrdlefsof external appearances,
and eren of the ordinary means of fubfillence, he employed
his time in drawing with the utmoll affidiiity from the an-
tique (latiies, relievos, and ruins, and in iludying from the
celebrared piftures with which that great metropolis
abounded.

Under fuch circutnftanccs, and entirely unknown to the
great, Telia was focn reduc d to dillrefs ; according to one
of liis biographers, his fituation was mod miferable, havitig
fcarcely wherewithal to cover his nakednefs, or fatisfy the
cravings of hunger, and in this fituation he was found by
Sandrart, fitting among ruins, abftradled from all around
him, and copying an antique hss-relief.

Struck with fuch meritorious raggcdncfs, and naturally
benevolent, Sandrart took our young enthufiaft home with
him, provided him with food and raiment, employed him
to make copies of tiie great works in the JulUnian gal-
lery, recommended him to other employ, introduced him to
the fchools of Dominichino and Pietro da Cortona, and
would in other refpeils have rendered him a focial being, as
well as a great artift, but for Telia's natural averiion to
company and converfation, which was fo great, that even his
patron could feldom obtain a word from him.

His propealities to art, folitude, and lilence, which, vvitli
Sandrart's friendfliip, condufted him to the high degree of
excellence which he attained, occafioned alfo his death. In
reaching for his hat, which the wind liad blown into tlie
Tiber, as he fat drawing alone, upon the banks of that river,
he unfortunately fell in, and was drowned in the thirty-ninth
year of his age.

Tiie following fummary is partly copied from the ju!l efti-
mate which Strutt has formed of the merits of this artill. He
drew with great ta'.le, aiyd marked the extremities of liis
- figures in a very mafterly manner. Tlie charailer of his
Leads are lin*ly expreffed, and the female faces are often very
beautiful. When tlie extravagance of his fancy did not
hurry him beyond the bounds of nature, hib outlines are cor-
rc£l and elegant. The draperies of his female iigures efpe-
cially, are ample, flowing, and eafy, and the forms of the
naked parts beneath are accurately and fuiliciently indicated,
witliout academical oitentation. Yet, though his com-
pofition is frequently grand, and many of his figures higlily
graceful, it mull be owned that awkward and conllrained
attitudes are fometimes introduced.

His ilyle of etching is mafterly and free, bearing fnpe-
rior rcfemblance to that of Antonio Tempefta, and every
where animated by the wild energy of his nature; but his
light and thsdes are not coUefted into broad malTes, and of
courfe his chiarofcuro, like that of moil of Italian engravers
of the age of Teita, is deficient in force.

The monogram with which our artiil ufually marked his
engravings, is copied in our third plate of thofe of the Italian
Majlcrs. His prints, in general, of which Mariette poiielled
Linety-two,are held in higli requeft by artillsand coiinoiifeurs,
and among them ilie follosving are diftinguifhed. They are
all of folio dimenfions, and forae of them very large.

" The Sacrifice of Abraham ;" " Angels miniilering to
the Holy Family,'' an emblematical fubjeil, in whi^h the
Infant Saviour is embracing a crofs held by angels, very
large ; a large upright print of " Our Saviour crucified
between the Tuo Thieves;" " Tlie Martyrdom of St.
Erafmus," infcribcd " S Erafme oia pro nobis;" "St.
Jerome at Devotion ;" " St. Roch and Two Bi(hops pray-
ing for a Ceffation of the Ph-.gue ;" " The Sacrifice
of Camnui," who having drunk of a pc-ifoned cup at
the celebration of her uiarriage with Siuorii, the alla.Tm

of her firft hufband, prcfents Iiim with tlie cup, a lar^e
print ; " Thetis plunging Achilles into the Styx ;" " Achil-
les dragging the Body of HeClor round the Walls of
Troy ;" " The Death of Cato ;" " The Sacrifice of Iphi-
genia,'" an allegorical print in honour of pope Innocent X.
with his medallion on a monument ; " Soera'.es, at a Table
witlihis Friends ;" " The Study of Paintmg,'' dedicated to
cardinal Francotti ; "The Lyceum of Painting," infcribod
" II Liceo dclla Pittnra," (with a dedication) ; '« The Pal-
fions explained ;" " Merit recompenced, and ParnalTus tri-
umpiiant ;" " The Triumph of Love ;" and " The Triumph
of Bacchus."

Jean Csfar Teila was born at Rome in the year i6j6, and
palled for the nephew of Pietro, whole ftyle of engraving
he imitated. The following (wc are all we know of his
works. A fmall quarto portrait of his uncle, entitled
" Petrus Tefta Lucenfis, Piclor ac Incifor celeberrimus.
Cefar Tefta fc." " The Death of Dido, with Iris pluck-

off the Fatal Lock

The Centaur Chii

Achilles to play on the Lyre, ?,nd throw the Javelin ;"
" The Emperor Titus confulting the Prophet Bafilides on
his Expedition againll Jerufalem,'' from a piclure by P. Tef-
ta, in the church of St. Martin du Mont, at Rome ; all of
large folio dimenfions : and a very large and very rare print
of " The Laft Communion of St. Jerome ;" from a pidlure
by Dominichino, which has fince been engraved by Farjat
and Giacomo Frey.

Hyacinth, or Jacinto Gemignano, or .leminiani, was born
at Piitoia in the year 1611. from whence he travelled to
Rome, avid became the difciple of Pietro da Cortona. Here
lie reiided for many vcars with great reputation. - He after- -
wards returned to Puloia, and died there at the age of
feventy.

His plates are not numerous, and confift almoft entirely
of etchings, performed in a flight manner, and from his
own compofitioiis, of wlijch the following are the chief.

A fet of twelve, in quarto, of groups of children va-
rioufly occupied ; " Cleopatra dillolving the Pearl," in folio,
and another folio plate from the reign of Semirainis, entitled
" Semiramis jurat non niii deviato holti rehgaturjium ca-
pillos.''

Giovanni Batifta Bolognini was born at Bologna A.D.
l6[i, and died in the fame city in the year 1688. He was
intlructed in the principles of painting by Guido, and foon
became one of his beft pupils. He painted in the Ilyle of
his mailer, and his works are held in very great cReeni.

We have many fpirited etchings by Bolognini, from tlie
compofitions cf' Guido, which are executed in a flight
ftyle, refembling that of his mailer, but inferior in merit ;
among thefe, the following will probably be found moft worthy
of the coUedor's notice. " A Crucifixion," with St. John and
the tv/o Maries, Handing at the foot of the crofs, in foiio ;
" Bacchus and Ariadne," a large print, lengthways, en-
graved on three plates; " St. Peter receiving the Keys ;''
and " The Murder of the lonocents," all of foLo dimen-
fions.

Salvator Rofa, (for an account of whom as a painter fee
Rcs.\, S.VLVATOK,) was born at Rinella, in the environs of
Naples, A D. 1615, and died at Rome in 1673. ^'^ etch-
ings, though bold, prefent not the dilcrimiuatmg and cha-
racleriftic ruggednefs of his pencil. . His drawing is incor-
rect ; the heads of his figures are occafionally characleriilic,
bat generally mean, but his chiarofcuro is broader and bet-
ter than is to be found in the gcnerjlity of the etchings of the
Italian painters. Yet it is to be obfcrved that, in point of
executive. posver and feeling, his prints are far from being
always alike. In his " Alexander viliting Diogenes," his

line

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

line is dvy and inexprefiivc, while in his " Meditation of De- obfcure, is alfo afcribed to Cafliglione ; " The Adoration

mocritus,'" and his allegorical pri.st commonly known by the of the Sheplu-rds ; a night-fcene with " The Interment of

title of the " Genius of Salvator," he has tntered much St. Peter and St Paul j" another night-piece, with the

more into the detail of forms, and expreSTed the fuWlances efFeft of torch-light, of which the fubjetl is " Philofophers

of the bones, reptiles, &c. which lie ftrewed about, with tafte vifiting a Cemetery," all of folio dinienficns ; two of the

and with truth. proportions of a frieze, of which one is " Pan inftrufting

The cypher with which this great mailer marked his etch- Apol'o on the Flute, ' and the other " Sileiius with his

ings, v.hich amount to between eighty and ninety in num- Flute, and a Shepherdefs playing the Tympanum ;" " A

ber, all from his own compofitions, will be found in our Combat between two marine Horfes ;" " A drunken Si-

P/fl/.- I'll, of thok oi the Itcliiin School. lenus, with three Satyrs; a bacchanahan fubjeft, with a

The following lift of his prints will be found nearly, if fatyr on the ftatue of Priapus ; a menagerie of hens, turkey

not quite, complete ; — An octavo bock, containing 60 plates cocks, and drakes ; alandfcape, infcribed " Gio. Benedetto

of banditti, in various military and other dreffes, fome tingle Cafliglione. Gen. fee. 1658;" another landfcape in form

■figures, and others in groups; a fet of fix, confilling of tri- of a frieze; "A {hepherd Boy watering his Flock;"

tons, nereids, and other marine monfters, in the lengthened " Shepherds riding and on foot, conducing their Flocks ;"

proportion of friezes; a fet of four, in fmall folio, of "Apol'o " A Capuchin Friar, marked witli the letter T, difcovering

and Daphne," " Glaucus and Scylla," " Ceres inflrufting the Body of St. Jerome," in folio; and eleven fmall

Phytali in the Art of Agriculture," and " Jafon and the vignettes of various fizes, finifhed with the dry point.

Dragon;" of the fame fize are two plates of " St. William Bernardino Capitelli was boin at Sienna in the year

.doing Penance," and " A Soldier fieeping on his Shield." 1617, and received ihftruclions both from Cafolani and

" Plato with his Difciples in the Garden of Academus," RutiHus Mr.netti, but never attained to any confiderable

" Diogenes throwing away his Cup," " Democritus me- eminence. In his ftyle of engraving, he mingled etching

ditaiing," " Alexander vifiting the School of Apelles," with the work of the graver, but his execution is ccarli?

and " Alexander vifiting Diogenes," are of the fame large and heavy, and his outline incorrecV. Among other plates

toho dimenfions : in the lall, Salvator Rofa has committed of lefs importance, he engraved the hfe of the patron faint

a tircat and palpable blunder, for Diogenes is defiriug (Bernard) of his native city, on 12 fmall plates; "The

Alexander not to intercept the rays of the fun, yet is him- Miracles of St. Anthony of Padua.'' a folio plate divided

felf placed between the fun and Alexander ; a'l academy of into compartments ; " A Repofo," from his mailer Rutilius

philofopliers, which is infcribed " Ingenius liber PiAor," Manelti ; " The Marriage of St. Catherine," after Cor-

and "The Genius of Salvator Rofa," are alio in large rcggio ; and " Ceres drinking at the Cottage Door," after

f)lio ; and in ftill larger folio are " The Execution of the Eifhiemer, from the fame pidlure which count Goudt has

Tyrant Polycrates,'" a very grand compofition ; " Tiie Dif- engraven in a very fuperior manner.

covcry of CEdipus on Mount Cytiicron ;" " The Death of Gracomo Pictini, or Piccina, was born at Venice A.D.

Regulus ;" and ^of the upright form) " The Fall of the 1657. Under what mafter he ftudied is not known, but

Giants." he worked chiefly with -the graver, in a (liif laboured ftyle.

Carlo Sacchi of Pavia, whom Strutt, by miflake, ha~ without much effeft ; and the outlines of his figures are

called a native of Batavia, etched a few plates of fmall im- exceedingly incorrecR. His brother William was likewife

portance about tliis period. He was born in the year a. Venetian engraver, and engraved the porti-aits for the

1616, (ludicd under Roifo. and died in his native city in " Conchifia Alelte," of .1 B. Fabri. Giacomo, on fome

1706. " The Adoration of the Shepherds," from Tintoret, of his plates, ftylcs himfelf engraver to the king of France,

and " The wife Men's offering," from Paul Veronefe, two The moll confiderable works he executed were a fet of

large upi-ights, are among his bed produiSions. 30 portraits of the principal Venetian painters, affixed to

Now alio lived Luigi, or Aloyfius Scaramuccia, who an account of their Hves ty Carlo Ridolfi, pubhfhed at

obtained the addition of Perugino, from the place of his Venice in 1 648; moft of the plates for a book, entitled

birth. He fiudied under Guido, and, as an hillorical " Le Glorie degli Incognita ;" a portrait of Alexander

painter, attained fome eminence, but never reached beyond Farnefe ; " Diogenes, with' his Lanthorn, fitting at the En-

ir.cdiocrity as an engraver. Among his beil prints are, trance of his Tub," from P. Liberi ; " A Holy Family,"

" Chriil crowned with Thorns," a folio plate after Titian ; from the fame painter ; " Judith with the Head of Holo-

*' Venus and Adonis," after Annibal Caracci ; and a large femes at her Feet," from Titian ; and " A Holy Family,"

folio print after Lodovico Caracci, from the legendary hillory in a landfcape, from the fame, all of folio dimenfions.

of St. BencdiiS : The devil, it feenis, had canfed a large Giovanni Battifta Galcllrucci was born at Florence

ilone, v.iiicii was to be ufed in building a certain church, A.D. l6r8. He learned the rudimeiits of painting of

to be immoveable, and the faint broke the fpcll by the Francifco Furini, and was clecled a member of the Academy

fervency of his prayers. of St. L>ke at Rome, A.D. 1652. He is mentioned as

Of Benedetto Cailiglione, an arfift of very fuperior a painter, but is much better known as an engraver. He

powers, who engraved fcvtral large plates at the period engraved in a neat, correft, and mailerly ftyle, and was for

now under our review, we liave already treated. (See fome time the pupil of Delia Bella, after whofe death he

C.\STiGl.iONE, Giov.iNNO Bk.\dktt<j.) His monogram finirtied fome plates which had been begun by that mafter.

may be fcen in Pi'tHe III. of thofe of tlie Italian Engravers, His ftyle bears fome rcfemblance to that of Podefta. There

and l!:c following talleful produclions from his hand, may area great number of prints by his hand, which in general

with advantage be added to thofe contained in our former are marked with the cypher, which will be found in our

lift; — "The Genius of Caftiglione," a folio print, which FlaU III. of the monograms of the Jtalitm Majhrs, and

is generally placed as a frontifpiece to co'Ieftions of his of wliich Jean Jacques RofTi has given a catalogue,

works ; a fet of fix heads, of which one is the portrait of Of thefe the moft confiderable are, a fet of antique gems,

the artift ; " Tobit going forth to bury the Dead, with an in four volumes quarto, with explanations by Leonard

EfFeft of Night," in foho ; another from the hiftory of Agoftino, publilhcd at Rome in the years 1657 and 1659 ;

Tobit, whicli appeared without a name, and is in cluir- fevcval fcts of antique bas-reliefs and friezes, from Pohdoro

Caravaggio,

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF LNGRAVING.

■Caravagpio, which appeared under the title of " Opere di
Polidoro de Caravags"" ;' " Jtihn liaptill beheaded in
Prifon," from BattiUa Ricci ; " Paris receiving tlie Apple,"
and " The Caduceus of Mercury," from Aniiibal Caracci,
both in quarto ; and tlie Maufolea of the family of cardinal
Mazarin ; a fet of fix prints in folio, from the Abbe El-
•pidus Benediftus.

Giovanni Francefco Venturina was born at Rome in the
yeir 1619, where he ftudied and rclided for many years,
but afterwards removed to Florence. To judge from the
ftvle of his works, it would appear that he was the difciple
of Gaileftrucci, oral leall worked ui:der his direftion, after
his removal to Florence. From the defigns of that mafter,
'he has executed a good number of prints in a neat pleafin^
■ftyle, from which we fclect the following, as affording the
moft fatisfattory fpecimens ot his talents : " Diana and her
■Nymphs fporling," from Dominichiiio ; "The Pulpit of
St. peter," from Bernini, in folio ; a fet of bird-eye views
of palaces and gardens in and about Rome ; and a fet of
fountain", from Rofa of Tivoli, being a continuation of the
fountains in Rome, engraved by Falda. He alfo engraved
after Polydoro Caravaggio, and other painters.

Giovanni Batiila Bonacini, or Bonacina, was born at
Milan about the year 1620, and woi-ked in his native coun-
try, and at Rome. His prints are executed in a ftiff la-
boured ilyle, entirely with the graver ; and he appears to
have ttudied in the fchool of Cornelius Bloemart ; but he
never arrived at any fuperior degree of excellence. Of his
works we fnall only mention the following : four portraits,
in folio, of pope Clement IX., Guido Vifconti, Ermes Vi-
conti, and Giovania Battilta, Count Truchi ; " The Al-
liance of Jacob and Laban," from Pietro de Cortona, in
folio ; " The Virgin with the Infant Jefus, and St. Martin
kneeling before him," from the fame mafter, which is cf-
teenied a capital print, in large folio ; another " Holy Fa-
mily, with St. John and St. Catherine," a middling-fized
uprin"ht plate, from Andrea del Sarto ; and a medallion of
pope Alexaader VII., with an explication, from Bernini,
in folio.

Flaminio Torre was born at Bologna A.D. 1621, and
died at Modena in 1A61. He learned tlu- principles of
painting from Cavedone, and completed his ihidics in the
fchool of Guido. His chief excellence was in copying the
pictures of the moll celebrated mafters, which he did fo very
•exaclly, as to render it nearly impoflTible to dilliiiguifh the
ropy from the originaL He etched feveral plates is a good
llyle ; and he had copied the pidures of the Caraeii, in the
palace of count Fana, at Bologna, for the purpofe of en-
graving them, when, at the age of forty, he died at Mo-
dena, whither he had been invited by the duke ; and they
vere afterwards -engraved by Metelli from Torre's copies.
From among the prmts of Torre we felect tiic following, as
jnoft worthy of attention : " The Virgin and Child, ac-
companied by St. Framis and St. Jerome," a middling-
fized upright, from Lodnvico Caracci ; " The Patron
Saints of the City of Bologna," a large upright plate,
from Guido; and " Pan conquered by Love," a fmall up.,
right, from Aiigoftino Caracci.

Pietro Francifco Mola merits a diflinguifhcd place both
among the painters and engravers of the Italian fchool. He
was born, according to fome author.-?, at Codra, a village
■on the frontiers of the Milanefe, in the year i6og : whilll
others afSrm that the place of his birth was Lugano, and
the time 162 1. From his childhood his talents were pro-
niifmg, and his father, who veas a painter and i^rchiteft, fe-
■conding tliefe early difpoliiions towarj the fiuL" arts, placed
V^L. XIX.

him fird in the fchool* of Jofephiii?, and afterward in 'hat
of Albano, at Rome.

\Vhen he quitted the latter, he travelled to Venice, and
ftudied the works of Titian, Tintoretto, Baflan, and Paulo
Vcronefe, with great affiduity, and' with fo much advantage,
that it is laid Guerchino became jealous of his progrefs, and
that this jcaloufy occafioned his return to Rome, whern
queen Chriftina allowed him a penfion, and where he was
patronized by the popes Innocent X. and Alexander VII.

His friends feemed to multiply as his merits increafed.
He accepted an invitation to France from Louis XIV. ; but
during an altercation which he had with prince Pamlili,
refpccting the value of a ceiling which he had painted, he
was feized with a violent paroxyfm of headache, and expired
in about fix hours.

For an account of his peculiar merit as a painter, fee the
article Moi..\. His etchings, though (light, are performed
" with a mafters hand and poet's fire." To a vigorous
ftyle of handling, he added corrcftTiefs of drawing. He oc-
cafionally etched, as he painted, both landfcape and hillory :
his heads in the latter are beautifully ciiara61eriftic, and care-
fully drawn ; and in the former, Jiis trees and his various
grounds, &c.' are touched with confiderable talle.

" The Madonna fuckling the Infant Saviour," a fmall
upright, from his own compofition ; " A Holy Family,
with Angels prefenting Flowers to Jefus Chrift," in folio,
from Albano ; " Jofcph difcovering himfelf to his Brethren,"
in fmall folio ; and another " Holy Family with Angels,"
a folio print of the upright form, from his "^wn compcfition ;
will be found among the beft etchings of Irancifco Mola.

Of the latter print, coUeftors ftiould, if pofiiblc, obtain
the impreffions as the plate came from the hand of Mola ;
for it was afterwards worked upon with the graver by foir.e
linlliilful perfon, wl;o has much impaired the freedom and
beauty of the etching.

Giovanni Baptifta Mola, born in the year 1622, wag
brother to Francifco, and was alfo the difciple of Albano.
He etched a few plates, the ftyle of which bears a diftant
and inferior refemblance to that of his brother, as may be
fcen in a 410. prii:t, after Albano, of " Cupid drawn in his
Chariot."

Carlo CeHo, or Cefius, was born at Antrodoco, a village
in the late territory of the Roman pontiff, in 16:6, and
died at Rieti A.D. 16K6. He liudied as a painter under
Pietro da Cortona, but is much better known by his en-
gravings th m by his pidures. His plates are chiefly etched
and harmonized with the graver in a free and mafterly man-
ner. He drew corre£l!y ; and the extremities of his figure*
are in general finely marked, though flight, and in the broad,
bold ftylo of a painter.

Among the number of Cefio's engravings, which is con.
fiderab'e, th.e following will probaijly be four. d moft worthy
of feleclion : the frontifpiece, in 4to., to " Diicurfi dclla
Mufica;" and "The Holy Family," in an oval, both from
his own compofitions ; two folio prints of " St. Andrew
proftrating himfelf before the Crofe," after a celebrated pic-
ture painted by Guido in conjumStion with Dominichino ;
and " The Woman of Canaan," after Annibal Caracci ;
the Farnefian Gallery, confifting of forty-one platef, after
the fame mailer; the Pamphilian Gallery, confifting of fif.
teen plates, after Pietro da Cortona, of which the fubjeft is
" The HiUory of TEneas ;" '< The Life of St. Auguftin,"
after Lanfranc, confifting of four very large and four fmaller
folio prints, engraved fro.m pidlurcs wliicli adorn the church
of St. Auguftin at Ronje.

Andrea Podefta was bom at Genoa in the year 1628, and
^.2, became

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

became the difciple of Andrea Ferrari. Strutt fays, that
" as a painter it docs not appear that he greatly diftinguifhed
himfelf; but feveral fpirited and mafterly ctcliinsrs, which
he produced, prow him to have been a very fi<iif"ul artiil.
Tlie heads of his iiujures are finely charaftciized, and the
Other extremities arc well exprefied."

Among the bed of Podefta's prints, which in general are
marked either AND. P., or /Ind. P. in tt fee, are the follow,
ing ; four Bacchanalian fubjects, in large folio, after Titian,
one of which is from the celebrated piftiirc of " Bacchus leap-
ing from his Car to greet Ari:idne," which was lately in the
collection of the earl of Kinnaird, and from which Mr.
Bone has executed a moil exqiiilite copy in enamel ; " Love
cultivating the Arts," an allegorical print in folio, dedicated
to Guido ; and a pair from " The Life of St. Liego,'' after
Caracci, alfo in folio.

For an account of Carlo Maratti as a painter, fee the ar-
ticle Maratti. He was born at Camerino, in the mar-
quifate of Ancona, A.D. 1628, and died at Rome in 17 13.
Strutt fays, with great juilice of his etchings, that " they
arc executed in a free and fpirited iij'le; much neater, and
better finiihed, than thofe of painters ufually are. The cha-
racters of the heads of his figures are Finely expreffed ;" and
their graceful airs have been the fubjett of frequent com-
Bjendation.

His engravings are fomewhat numerous, and are held in
great eftiniation. No collection of the works of the Ita-
lian mafters ftiould be without good imprefTions of the fol-
lowing : — A fet of ten, from tlie Life of the Holy Virgin,
rfter his own compofitions, in quarto ; " Heliodorus driven
from the Temple," after Raphael, a large folio print, arched
at the top, and engraven on two plates ; " The Flagellation
of St. Andrew," after Dominichino ; " Jole;)h difcovering
himfelf to his Brethren," after Francifco Mola, of folio
dimenfions ; " St. Charles Borromeus interceding for thofe
afflifted with the Plague at Milan," a large upright, from
Pietro Perugino ; and (of the fame form) " Chrilt dif-
courfing with the Woman of Samaria," after Annibal Ca-
racci ; befides feveral plates of the Madonna and Bambino,
of various fizes.

Giovanni Batifta Cavazza was born at Bologna in the year
1620. He was fuccelFively the difciple of Cavedone and
Guido, and painted feveral pictures for tlie churches of his na-
tive country. He likewiie engraved fome fubjects for his
amufement, among which are the following : — " Chrift on
tlic Ciofs ;" " The Refurrection of Jefus Chrill ;" " The
Death of St. Jofeph ;" and " The Affumption of the
Virgin ;" all of folio fize.

Dominico Maria Canuti was born at Bologna A.D. 1623,
and died in the fame city in 1684. This extraordinary ar-
tiil, by the force of his own natural genius, acquired fo
much knowledge of delign and colouring, that Guido be-
held his works with ailonifliment, and received him among
his pupils with pleafure.

Befides his pictures, we have a good number of etchings
by his hand, in the llyle of Guido, wiiom he furpaffed in
R->atnefs, fminiing, and bcldnefs, if not truth, of fore-lhort-
ening, which has ever been held one of tiie difficulties of
art; though, in the general excellency of his drawing, and
the fpirit of his outline, he has not equalled that great artilt.
He commonly marked his prints with his name, or initials,
among them the following will probably be found moil wor-
thy of feleftion ; — Three portraits of Ludovico, Auguf-
tino, and .Annibal Caracci, in 4to. ; " The Virgin feated in
the Clouds, with Chrill Handing by her," a fmall upriglit
print, from his owu compofition ; "St. Roch;'! and "St.

Francis praying," a fmall upright plate, from Guido, ,j
marked " Doins. Ma. Canuti fee.''

Laurentio PafincUi was born at Bologna in the year
1629, and died at Parma in 1700. His inllruttors in the
rudiments of art were Andrea Barone and Simon Cantariiii,
but he alio frequented the fcliool of Flarainius Torre. From
Bologna he went to Turin, and from thence to Mantua
and to Venice. At Mantua he was employed by the duke
in the adornment of his caille at Monmirola, but at Venice,
ilruck with the fuperiority which he perceived in Paul Ve-
ronele, his ftyle of painting, and his notions of art in ge-
neral, underwent a complete revolution. He afterwards re-
turned to Bologna and ellablifhed a fcliool.

In Cochin's Italian Tour, he fpeaks highly of Pafinelli's
picture of "The RefurreClion" in the church of Si. Fran-
cis, and his few prints are fought after with julLifiable
avidity by the connoiiTeurs. They are chiefly from his ov.n
compufition, and to the beft of our knowledge " St. John
preaching in the Wildernefs," (a very fine etching,) and
" The Martyrdom of various Saints," in one compoiition,
afford the bell fpecimens of his talents in this art ; both are
of large folio dimenfions.

Of Luca Giardano, who was now living, we have already
treated pretty much at large (fee the article Giahdano).
YiSi fa prejlo attended him in his voluntary offerings lo en-
graving, as well as in his devotions to the filler art. Yet hi*
taffe allowed him to delineate the heads, hands, and feet in his
etcliings in a good ffyle, and hence his works on copper are
of a mafterly chnrafter, though they poffefs not the levcrity
of the higheft clafs of hiftorical or epic compofitions. His
.« Deffruclion of the Priefthood of Baal in the Prefence of
Elijah and Ahab," and " St. Anne received into Heaven
by the Holy Virgin," \vhich are both of folio dimenfions,
will at leaft juftify thus much of approbation, as would alfo
the following fubjects from the Life of Chrill, which are all
in fmall folio, and from his own compofitions. " The Holv
Virgin and Infant Chrill ;' " St. .loleph and St. John ;'"'
" The Penitent Magdalen ;" " Jefus Chrift; difputing with
the Dodors ;" and " The Woman taken in Adultery."

Horatio Brun, or Brunette, was born at Sienna A.D-
l6jo, but refided chiefly at Rome. He worked principaliy
with the graver, imitating, though not very fuceef^fullv,
the ftyle of F. de Poilly. "The Golden Age," " The
four Seafons," " The Prodigal Son guarding Swine," a
fet of animals, all in folio, and an allegorical prii.t of flili
larger dimenfions, which has been called " Numa Ponipi-
lius, and the Nymph Egeria," are among the bell of his
engravings.

Lorenzo Tinti was born at Bologna in the year. 1634,
and was a difciple of Andrea Sirani. He was a painter of
fome merit, and he engraved many prints, a.Toiig which is
the frontifpiece to the Herbal of D. Hyacintlie Ambrofini,
which was printed at Bologna in 1666. He worked for
fome time at the court of Modena, where he engraved the
pompous funeral of Francis I. duke of Modena, from
Francifco Stringa. He alio engraved from the celebrated
mailers of tlie Ijolognefe fchool, and from the pictures of
Elizabeth Sirani.

Francifco Vaccaro, or Vaccari, was born at Bologna
A.D. l6_;6. He fiudicd under Albano, and wrote a Irea-
tife on perlpeflive, for which lie engraved the plates, and
dedicated the work to counfellor Beccatelli. He likewife
engraved a fet of twelve perfpeclive views of ruins, foun-
tains, and edifices in Italy. He continued to flouriftl as an ar-
tiil until the year 1670, after which we hear no more of him.

Giofeffo Zarlatti was born at Modena A D. 1639, and

learned

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

learned the rudimental principles of art of J. B. Spezzini, a
Genocfc painter. He was an enjjraver of mcric, and exe-
cuted feme plates in a very fpirited and plealing ilyle. His
h"ads were goiieially beautiful, and his attitudes elegantly
chofen. It is to be regretted that he died early, and en-
graved but little ; nor arc we able to fjjecify any of his works.

The name of Bartoli, (for whofe life fee Baktoi.i,)
fhould have been honoured with a more ample lilt of his
bell produftions than we were able to give at the time of
publifliing the third volume. TIk- collector will probably
be highly gratified to polfefs the following.

farious Jlnliqucs A fet of thirty-three, intitled " Ad-

miranda Romanorum Antiquitatum ac veteris Sculpturx
Veiligia ;" with remarks by Bellori under each ; a hun-
dred and thirty-eight prints in folio, intitled " Romans
magnitudinis Monumenta ;" a fet of iifty-two, intitled
<' Veteres arctis Auguftorum triomphis infignes ;" a fet of
feventy-eight in large folio, intitled " Colonna di Marco
Aurelio, con brevi note da Gio. Pietro Bellori;" a fet of
one hundred and twenty-eight prints, intitled " Colonna
Trajana, di Alfonzo Ciacconi ;'" and another fet, coiifilling
of one hundred and thirty-two, intitled " Sepolcri antichi
Romani ed Etrufchi, trouvati in Roma ;" the aqueduft
which conducts the water from Civita Vecchia, with various
views in and about Rome, in four large prints ; a grand
fepiilchral urn of ftone, fi-om the Capitol ; two fubiecls
from the Aldobrandini Marriage, intitled " Nova Niipta in
geniali Talamo ;'' ninety-four in folio, intitled " Le Pitture
antiche dele Grotte di Romi« del Sepolcro do Nafoni, in-
tagliate da Pietro Santi Bartoli & Francefco Bartoli fuo
figlio, RomE," lOSoand 1706; a folio print, intitled "An-
tiquiffimi Virgihani Codicis Fragmenta & Piclura ;'' and a
hundred and nineteen pieces, intitled " Le Antiche Lucerne
Scpolchrale ;" a coUeftion of old pictures, correftly copied,
from coloured drawings made by Bartoli, Paris.

After various Italian Majlas. — A fet of friezes, from the
Bible, on the chimney-pieces of tlie Vatican, by Raphael,
in twelve fmall pages ; another fet of the Hime, in fifteen
leaved ; another fet, from Raphael, intitled " Leonii X.
admiranda virtutis imagines ;" a fet of forty-three, of or-
naments and figures, intitled " Parerga atque ornamenta in
Vaticani Palatii Kiltis,'' by Raphael ; a fet of four, of the
divinities in cars; "Jupiter drawn by Eagles;' "Mars
byHorfes;" "Diana by Nymphs;" and "Mercury by
Cocks;" the hillory of Conllantine in friezes of different
forms, from the Vatican. " Giove che fulmina di Giganti ;'
(Jupiter accompanied by all the Gods, deflroying the
Giants,) from the celebrated pifture by Julio Romano, at
the palace of T at Mantua, in nine leaves; " The Hillory
of .St. Peter,-' from Lanfranc, in folio.

Various feparate Suhjecls from Italian Majlers, — " The
Adoration of the Kings," from Raphael, (engraved on
three plates,) of large folio ; one of the linell productions of
Bartoli ; " The Infant Jupiter nouriflied by the Goat
Amalthea," from Julio Romano ; " Hylas ftolen by the
Nymphs;" " Sophonilba prefented to ^ia^ini(^a ;" " 7'he
Continence of Scipio," all of fulio ^v/.c, from the fame
painter; " St. John fhewing Chrill in the Dcfert," from
P. F. Mola; "The Birth of the Virgin," from Albano ;
" The Marriage of the Virgin, " from a pifture by Nieolo
Beretoni, in the church of St. Lorenzo in Borgo ; " Da-
niel inthe Lion's Den, " after an altar-piece by P. de Cor-
lona ; " The Virgin in Heaven with the Infant Jcfus, and
Saints," from L. Caracci, all of folio dimenfions ; " The
Mother and Wife of Coriolanus proftrate at his Feet ;"
•' St. Charles Borromeus brouglit by an Angel to tlie Tomb
wf Vetallo/'- both from Ann. Caracci.

The foUown^ are from his otun Deji^ns — An oval, in 4to.
of " St. Stephen receiving the Crown of Martyrdom ;"
" St. Bernard chaining Satan ;" a large folio print of the
theatre crefled in the cathedral of St. Peter, for the
canonization of St. Peter of Alcantore, and " Mary Mag-
d.ilen,'' engraved conjointly with Falda ; the fepulchral mo-
nument of'pope Urban VIII. infcribed " Petr. Sanc^. Bar-
tohis del ct fc. ; " and an ancient maufoleum, from Tivoli,
with the figure of a lion, from P. de Cortona, in large folio.
The grand catafalco, or funeral proccfilon of Sobicflci,
king of Poland, after Sebaftian Cipriani, in large folio, was
engraven by Francefco Bartoli, a Roman by birth, and the
fon. pupil, and fucceflor of Pietro Sante, who fometimes
worked on his father's plates, but was inferior to him in
talent and reputation.

Giovanni Baptilla Falda, a very excellent engraver of
landfcape and architecture, was born, in the year 1640, at
Valdu^gia, in the Milaneie, from whence he' travelled, for
profeffional improvement, to Rome. Whofe difciple he
was does not appear ; but he executed his plates in a clear
neat ilyle, bearing no fmall refemblance to that of Ifracl
Silvellre. He dreiv and engraved a great number of views
of palaces, churches, gardens, &c. in Rome and its environs,
which he enriched with fmall figures, drawn and engraved
w^ith great talle. And in the year 1676 he engraved a very
large view of Rome on twelve plates. His works ai'e nu-
merous, and defervedly held in high eftimation. Among
them the following will be found to deferve the particular
notice of the connoiii'cur. Two fine views of the fquare of
Navonne, intitled "Fontana in Piazza Navonna,'' and " Altra
Veduta in Piazza Navonna," erected by Bernini, in folio.
Two other vieus, in large folio, of the Bafilico at the Va-
tican, and the fountain of the Balilico. A very large view,
lengthways, of St. Peter's, with twelve of the moil celebrated
edifices in Rome, on the fame plate, very rare. A view of
the interior of St. Peter of the Vatican, with the beatifica-
tion of St. Francis of Sales, m large folio ; and a very
large view of the caitle and bridge of St. Angelo, from
Bernini.

Matteo Thommafo Piccioni was born at Ancona A. D.
i6;7, and became a member of the Academy of St. Luke
in the year l(i^^. Piccioni holds a dillinguilhcd rank among
thofe artills who worked in Mofaic, and executed in that
ftyle the pictures of the cupola of tlie chapel of St. Peter
at Rome, in conjunction with Fabius Chrilloferi and Ho-
race Manenti. He etched fome few plates, among which
are the following, all of folio fize. " St. Luke painting
tlie Virgin," from a picture by Raphael; "The Ad.)ra-
tion of the Shepiierds," from Paul 'V'eronefe ; " A Holy
Family," from tlie fame painter; " The Virgin wilh the
Infant Chriil, who is reprefented fleeping, and St. Jolin at
his fide," from Andrea Camalfei ; and "The Infant Mofes
carried by liis J.Iother in the Ark of Bulrulhes," from the
fame painter.

Dominica Maria Bonarera was born at Bologna about
the beginning of the lall century : he learned the principles
of drawing and etching of his uncle, D. M. Canuti. Among
his works, thofe that he executed after Titian for an edition
of the anatomical work by Vefalius, for the life of lludents,
are the moll eftecmed, many of which, after being etched,
were finilhed with tiie dry point. A monogram, which
was common to him and i)ominic Barricre, will be found
in our Plate III. of thofe ufed by the Italian Engravers;
and the following are fclefted from the catak)gues of hig
works, as thofe moll worthy attention ; " ,St. Ann teaching
the young Virgin Mary to read," from Dom. J^I. Camiti,
IB folio J " St. Tlicreiia with the Infaiil Chrill ;" " The

JZ2

Martyr-

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Martyrdom of St. Chnitiana," all of the fame fize, from
Canuti ; " St. John baptizing Chrill in the River Jordan,"
from Albano, in large folio. ; " St. John preaching on the
Banks of the Jordan," from L. Caracci ; " Lot with his
Daughters," from Ann. Caracci; and the dome of the
cathedral church at I'arma, reprefenting "The .-Ufumption
of the Virgin, with tiie Apeitles and Angels," from Cor-
regirio, all in large folio.

. Ambrogio Bel'ozzi, or Bezutius, an eminent painter and
engraver in aquafor'is, was born at Milan A. D. 1648, and
died in tl^e fame city in 1706. He iludied for fo;ne time
under Giofeffo Danedi, called Montalti, but afterwards went
to Rome, whero he itudicd from the antiques andthemoft cele-
brated pictures, and Liftly, in the fchool of Ciro Ferri. His
greateft merit ■eonliiled in painting bas-reliefs, friezes, and
other architeftiiral decoration?; but he etched fome few
plates, and among them the following. A portrait of Cor-
reggio, in profile, of 410. fize ; and the apotheofis of a
princefs, the bull of whom was engraved by Bonacina, and
the r.-mainder by Befozzi, from Cefare Fiori, in folio.

Girolamo, or Jerome Rofii, or de Rubeis, the elder, was
born at Rome A. D. l6-}.o. He learned the principles of
3vt under Simon Cantarini, and J. B Buoncone. He exe-
cuted a few flight but meritorious etchings from various
Boiogp.ofe painters, among which are the following. A por-
trait of pope Pius v., from Scipio Gatana, in an oval ;
" Two. Cupids playing together," a fmall upright plate
from Gucrcino ; " The Virgin and Child, accompanied by
St. Francisand St. Jerome," a middling-fi zed upright plate, in-
fcribed '■ Hieronimus de Rubeis pidlor delineavit incidit ;"
." St. Charles Borromeus kneeling before a Crofs," from
Antonio Caracci, a rare' print ; and "St. Nicholas before
.the Virgin," from Francis Bonaviila, both in large folio.

Girolamo Roffi, or de Rubeis, the younger, w^as born at
Rome A. D. i68j:, and was probably a relation of the
above-raentioned artift. He always rehded at Rome, and
engraved ,a confiderable ncmber of prints, after different
Italian painters. He worked in a ftiff heavy llylc, with the
graver alone, without much efFeft or correclnefs of drawing,
and engraved a confiderable number of portraits of the car-
dinals of his time ; forming a feries, which has fmce been
continued by Pazzi and others. Rofli likewife engraved
fome portraits-of painters for the Fiorentir.e gallery. His
beft hiftorical works are, " The Virgin and Child," from
Correggio ; " La Zingara, or the Repot'e in Egypt," where
the Virgin is dreued in the Egyptian fafliion, from a pitlure
■by Ann. Caracci, both in folio ; and " The Martyrdom of
St. Agapita," a large plate, lengthways, fram J. Oda/.zi.

Giovanni Batilla Tellana, was born at Genoa in the year
1649, and refided chiedy at Rome, where he engraved many
plates from the pictures of various Italian mafters. In con-
junction with V/illiam Vallet and Stephen Picart, he exe-
cuted the portraits of the heroes of antiquity, for Jean An-
relo Canini, from antique gems and medals. He engraved
in a very pleafing ftyle, not unlike that of Mellan. The
following prints afford fatisfattory fpecimens of his talents.
Two heads, of Socrates and Alexander ; and another pair of
Al'pafiaand Cleopatra, in 4to., for the work of Caniui ;
" The Guardian Angel," in large folio, from Pietro da
Cortona; and " The Baptifm of Conftantine the Great, '
from Aug. Caracci, of the fame fize.

Giofeffo Tellana was born at Genoa in the year i6jo.
Whether he was the brother, or how lie was related to the
above-mentioned artill, we are unable to alcertain. He re-
fided at Rome, where he engraved many plates in the llylo
of Giovanni Battifta. He was employed m a work whicii
appeared at Rome in iGSo, under the title of "Portraits

of Cardinals now living," and from the reff of his works
the following may be felefted as affording fpecimens of liis
abilities both in portrait andhiftory. A portrait of brother
Jerome Comitibus, from P. de Cortona, in foho ; " St.
Margaret of Cortona kneeling before a Crucifix ;" a fub-
jeft of a Thefes, reprefenting a Hydra, and Religion hovering
in the air, holding a portrait of pope Alexander VII. On a
little llreamer is the following infcription ; " Accedite et il-
luminamini," both from Cortona, of folio fize ; and two

portraits, Flavins Card. Chifius, after M. Morandi, and
Aloyfius Card. Homodeus, Jof. Tellana del. et feu. both
in 410.

Crecentius de Hunufris, or de Onofriis, was born at
Rome in the year 1650, and died at Florence fome time about
the clofe of the feventeenth centurv. He was the pupil of
Gafpar PonfUn, and painted a great number of landfcapes in
the llyle of that mailer.

He alfo engraved landfcape in a very good taile, and we
have an engraving by him, from a picture by Carlo Maratti,
of " Diana at the Chace," for the prince Livius Odefcal-
chi, which is executed with freedom, and in a purity of ilyle
luperior to moll of the landfcape engravings of that day.
Tliis, and a landfcape with a waterfall ; an Italian land-
fcape with water and figures, (both in folio,) and two heroic
landfcapes, one with Jupiter and Mercury, the other with
Apollo in the clouds, both in large foho, afford excellent
examples of the talents of this artill.

Giovanno Giofeffo dal Sole, was a native of Bologna, and
became both a painter and engraver of fome eminence. He
received his firll indruftions of D. M. Caniiti, and after-
-wards became the pupil of Lorenzo Palinclli. He fucceeded
in engraving both hillorical fubjefls and landfcapes ; and died
at Bologna A.D. 1719, aged iixty-tive years. We have fe-
veral etchings by him, from his own compofitions, among
wliich are, " Jupiter and Juno prefenting JNlars with a
Buckler," from a cieling by PaiinelH, painted for General
Monteculle, in folio ; and " St. Francis Xavier preaching in
the Indies," a large upright plate, from the fame mailer.

Vincent Vidloria, or Vittori?., was born at Valencia
A.D. 165B. He travelled whiiil very young to Rome,
and frequented the fcliool of Carlo Maratti, where he made
great progrefs. He poffeffed confiderable knowledge of
anatomy, and his portraits are particularly elleemed. Vic-
toria is likewife celebrated as an antiquary and a connoiffcuf
in works of ancient art ; and poffeffed an excellent cabinet
of gems, medals, and various antiquities ; he was honoured
with the titles of antiquarian to the pope, and lirll painter
to the grand duke of Tufcany. Among other literary
productions, Vittoria is the author of " Obfervazioni, fopra
la Fellina pittrice de Malzafia," a work which the celebrated
J. P. Zanotti has endeavoured to refute. The portrait of
our artiil may be feen in the collection of thofe of the great
painters of the Florentine fchool. He died at Rome A.. D.
1712, aged 5 I years. Among many prints that he etched
in a fli5.rht ilyle, the following are the bell, " The Virgin
and Child m the Clouds, with John the B:ipti(l, St.
Francis, and other holy Perfonages below," from Raphael,
infcribed "Vine. Victoria del. et fculpt." rare; "The
Lall Supper," and ''i'he RefurreCtion," both in large
folio, from Ciro Ferri.

Giovanni Girolamo Frezza, was born at Cancmorde, near
Tivoli, in tile year i66o. He learned engraving at Rome,
under Arnold de Wellerhout, and executed a great number
of prints, after various Italian mailers, in a neat careful
ftyle, liniflicd highly with the graver ; but v.ithout any force
of cliiarofcuro, or boldnefs of execution. Someliraes Frezza
imitated that llyle of Meiian, whicii conliils of fuigle courfes

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

of lines, yet not very fuccersfully, and we are obliged to
fay of his numerous prodiiftions, that the extremities of his
figures in general are but poorly marked, and his drawing,
though not very incorreit, is fomctimcs lieavy. Among his
engravings the following are hold in moil eileem. The Ve-
rofpian gallery, conlilhag of feventeen folio plates, including
the title, from Albano, publill\ed at Rome in 1704 ; " The
Virgin fitting under a Tree feeding the Infant Chrill," from
L. Caracci ; « A Holy Family, with the Infant naked in
the Arms of the Virgin," from Carlj) Maratti, both in folio ;
" The Alfumption of th; Virgin," dedicated to pope Cle-
ment XI. ; and " The Judgment of Paris," dedicated to
the marquis Pallavicino, both from the fame mailer, of folio
jizi ; " La Zmgare," or the Repofe in Egypt, where the
Holy Virgin is roprcfented in Egyptian attire, from Correg-
gio, in large foho; a middlinglized upright plate of " The
D-fcent of the Holy Gholl," from Guido, very rare; " Po-
lypheme on a Rock, and Galatea on the Water with
Nymphs," a folio print ; " Polypheme hurling a Rock
af'er Acis and Galatea," in two plates. A fet of fix, in-
cluding the title, from pictures in the chapel of St. Ann,
in the church of the Madonna, at Monte Santo, from
Nicolo Bcretoni, in folio. The firil and fecond plates for
ithe Crozat colleclion, one reprcfentiiig '• Venus," the other
" Pallas," from antique paintings, in large folio, and the
celebrated Centaurs (known by the name of Furietto), done
by Arilleas and Papiasof Aphrodifium ; and preRrvedin the
mufeum Clementinum, from drawings by P. Batluni, and N.
Honophri, in large folio.

Giofeffo Diamantini was born at Romania A. D. iTjrto,
and fpent the greater part of his life at Venice, where he
died in the yeai- 1722. Heinnekin, who has le't us a cata-
logue of his etchings, feems to fay of this mailer, that his
greatcll praife was having inllructed Rofa Alba Carriera.
Yet, according to Strutt, who profeil'es, however, to have
feen but few of his works, " Diamantini etched in a free maf-
terly ilyle, with a fine point ; the defigns are fpirited ;
the actions of the figures are often very graceful, and
the heads and other extremities of them drawn in a fupe-
rior ftyle."

He was honoured with the title of chevalier, and hence
he often marked his prints, " Eques Diamantinus in. f." The
following are among the beft of his works, almoil all from
his own compofions. " Hagar in the Defert," in an oval,
of quarto' fize ; " A Holy Family, with St. John," in folio ;
" The Marriage of Canaan," from Paul Veronefe, in folio ;
" The dead Body of Chrill, fupported on the Tomb by
an Angel," in an oval, dedicated to Gregorio Fab. ; " Dido
on the Funeral Pile, with Diana or Iris in the Air,"
in an odlagon ; " Venus, Ceres, and Pomona,' dedicated
to D. D. Ferdinand ; "Mercury and Flora in the Air,"
dedicated to D. Aloyfis Pifani ; " Night purfued by Phof-
phorus, or the Morning Star," dedicated to Marc Angela
Flavio C'lmmeni ; " Tiie Sphere, or Ailrono.my," dedicated
to Angelis, all of folio lize ; " Siiturn, or a river God, with
two Cupids," uf octagon form ; a middling-li/.ed upright
print of " The Fj!1 of Pliaeton ;" a fmall oftagonal print
of " Mercury a, d Argus ;" " Venus and Adonis," an oda-
gon ; another '• Venus and Adonis," in quarto; a fmall
octagon of "^Jupiter and the Republic of Venice;" a fma'l
upright print >( •' Time, or a river God fitting, and a Child,
with Ills Eyi'S banded, lying near bim, accompanied by a
Mufe ;" a middling-Czed upright orint ot " Tiine and
Flora, crowned by a Ge'ius;" " Strength, or Hercules
fitting by a Nymph, accompanied by Plenty," in an ofta-
gon ; a fmall upright print of " Mars and Venus ;" two
more fmall uprights of " Diana a:id Eiidvmion ;" aud
6

"The Sacrilicc of Iphigenia ;" "Boreas llcafing avrz.f'
Oritiirea," in a folio oCtagon ; a Imalloval print of " Juilicil
and Peace ;" four fmall upright emblematical I'ubjefts ; two
large fquare ditto ; and two other emblematical fubjeds, ona
a large hexagonal plate, and the other an ova!.

Giofeffo Niccolo Nafini was born at a fliort diiVancc from
Sienna, A.D. i66o. He learned the rudiments of art from
his father Francilco N:\fini, but was fent to Rome at the
age of eighteen, and entered the fchool of Ciro Ferri, under
whom he iludied two years, and acquired not only great
command of the pencil, but a fine talle tor dellgn. He was re-
commended by his mailer to tiie grand duke Cofmo HI.,
for whom ho copied the pidures of Pietro da Cortona, in
the Pitti palace ; in which he fueceeded fo well, that the
duke rewarded' lam very handibmely. He was hkewile ho-
noured with knighthood by the eui;eror Leopold, and had
many other favours conferred on him by the great.

The ilyle of Nafini bears fome refemblance to that of
Paul Veronefe. He died at Sienna in 1 7:^6, aged feventy-
fix. We have one fmall upright etching by this artitl, re-
prcfenting " The Virgin with the Infant Chrill and St,
John," from a compoiition of liia own.

Cxfar Fantetti was born at Florence A.D 1660. The time
of his dcccafe has not been recorded, and of the events of his-
life it is only known that he worked at Rome after various ■
Italian mailers.

He engraved, in conjundion with Pietro Aqui'a, the
paintings in the Vatican, known under the name of Raphael's ■
Bible ; the firil thirty-fix, and the fortieth, are etched by
him, and the remaining fiitcen by P. Aquiia. F.inte:ti alfo '
engraved " Chriil praying m the Garden of Olives," in ■
folio, from L. Cavacci '; "Charity, with Two Cliildren," "
from Ann. Caracci ; " Latona ini.illed by Niobe,'' in large
folio, from tiie fame painter ; " The Death of St. Ann," '
of the fame fize, from Andrea Sacchi ; and >' Flora fur-
rounded with Cupids in the Air,'' from Ciro F'.ni ; in an
oval of foho fize.

Francifco Bruni was a nntive of Genoa, and an engraver.
He was born in the year 1660, and died in 1726, but we
are not acquainted with the par ticuiars of his life, and we
only know of the following print by him, " The Alfump-
tion of the Virgin," in large folio, from Guido.

Lodovico Mattioli was born A.D. 1662, at Crcvalcone,
in the principality of Malferdn, and died at Bologna i-.i 174J.
At an early age he was fent to itudy in the Ichool of Carlo
Cignani. He drew with a pen in a very pleafing ftyle ; and
etched from his own compofitionsand iliofe ot ;lie Caraccii,
and other gre..t mailers, but ei'petiahy after G. M. Creipi,
with whom he contracted a very iniimite fricndlhip. Among
the etchnigs of Mattioli, the following will be found molt
worthy of notice : a landfcape, with ruins and figures, itt ■
quarto ; " The Aniiunciation," from L. Caracci, of the '
fame fize, a very rare print ; " The Circumcifion," in fo!i(>
from the fame ; " The Nativity," from Aug. Caracci, of
the fame fize ; " The good Samaritan," irom Ann. Ci«
racci ; "The Dexth of St. Jofeph," from Francefciiini j -
" The Martyrdom of St. Peter," from Crefpi ; a figure
of " St. Anthony," andanother of •' St. Vincent Ferreri,"
all of folio fize, from Crefpi ; " St. Luke," a note of inv'»
tation en.;raveJ by Crefpi, a.d re-engraved by Mattioli,
And the figures for the poem of Bcrtoldo con Bertoldin< ,
in twenty ihects, were drawn by Crefpi, and engraved uiidif
the direction of Mattioli.

William da I.,eone was born at Parma in the year 1664.
He etched, from his own dcfigcs, two fets of anim;ds, which
are executed in a fpirited ilyle, and with fome talle ; we are
able only to fpccify, in addition to thefe, the following en.

graviugs

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

graTings by Leone : two landfcapes, v-ith animals, in quarto,
and " Venus blinding Cupid," from Titian, in folio.

Luca Carlevariis, furnamed Zeiiobio, was born at Udino,
in Italy, A.D. i66j, and died at Vi-nice in 1729. He ex-
celled in painting landfcapes and marine fubjeCts. He like-
wife engraved a fct of views of Venice, confifting of one
hundred large plates lengthways, which were puhlifhed in
1 703;. His prints are ihglit, but bold and fpirited etchings ;
and give us clear ideas of the places they are intended to re-
prefent. We can only fpecify the titles of the following
two: a view of the church of St. Nicolas de Caftello, at
Venice ; and one of St. Marie Formofa, at the fame place,
both in folio.

Of the family of Cresi'i we have already fpoken, as fee
that article. Giofeffo Maria employed a long life of up-
wards of fourfcore years, in the practice of the various arts of
which imitation is tlie bafis, in the courfe of which he etched
leveral plates, which do credit to his general reputation, and
which we omitted to mention in vol. x. Among them we
venture to recommend the following as mod worthy of the
notice of the connoifTeur.

A grand compoiition, in large folio, of " The MafTacre of
the Innocents ;" two folio plates in the manner of Rem-
brandt, of which " The Refiirredion" is the fubjecx ; " The
miraculous Crucilixion of Pilloia ;" " St. Anthony," alio
in the manner of Rembrandt, and of the oval form ; a folio
plate of " Two Shepherds," one of them afleep. and the
-other making the fign of filence. A fet of five, in the taile
of Salvator Rofa, of various mechanical occiipations ; and
a very rare portrait of Michael Angelo Tamburini.

Pietro da Pietri, or Pitri, was born A.D. 1^)65, accord-
ing to fome authors, at Rome ; others place !iis birth at
Prcmia, in the Milanefe territory. He learned the princi-
ples of art of Jof. Ghezzi and Carlo Maratti, who em-
ployed him in copying fome of the principal works of Ra-
phael, and other celebrated Ita ian mailers. He died at
Rome in tlie year 1716.

Notwithilanding that Pietri employed great part of his
time in copying, we have feveral- meritorious hiitorical pic-
tures by him from his own compofitions ; thofe efpecially,
which he painted for the church of St. Clement at Rome.
He etched fome few plates,and among themtlie tv/o following
will probably be found moll worthy of notice. " The Af-
fumption of tlie Virgin," a middling-fized upright ; and
" St. Lawreuce the .lullinian," a fmaJI upright, both from
his own compofitions.

Francefco -Antonio Lorenzini, known by the name of
brother Antonio, was born at Bologna A.D. 1665. He
was an ecclefiallic of tlie order of St. Francis ; but turning
liismind to the arts, he fir(l iludied painting under I^orenzo
Pafinelli: being, however, better pleated with etching, he was
induced to throw afide his pencils for the love of aquafortis
and copper-
In 1699 he travelled to Florence, where he engraved great
part of the plates for the galler)- of the grand duke of Tuf-
cany, in conjunction with Theodore Ver-Cruvs, Cofmo Mo-
galli, and I'icluanti ; and during his abi'ence from Bologna,
he was agreeably furpnfed by finding himfelf eleftcd a mem-
ber of the Clementine academy. Lorenzini was a very in-
dullrious man, and left a great number of prints from differ-
ent mailers: "which, however, it mull be acknowledged do
him no great credit as an artill ; among them tlie following
are the bell : " Mofes linking the Rock," a large plate
lengthways, from Baffan ; " St. Anthony of Padua per-
forming a Miracle," from Pafinelli ; " The Martyrdom of
St. Urfnla and her Companions ;" " St. .John preaching in
the Defcrt," all of lar^e folio fize, froRi Palinelll ; "Jcfus

Chrift in a Glory," with other figures, from L. Caracci ;
" The Virgin and Child," half figures, from Aug. Caracci,
both in folio ; " The Beatification of St. Dominic, accom-
panied by Jefus Chrift, the Virgin, and Angels," from Guido,
a large circular plate; " St.Phlhp Neri kneeling before a pic-
ture of the Virgin, furrounded by Angels," from Carlo
Maratti ; " St. John in the Clouds, furrounded by Angels,"
from Corregglo, both in large folio ; "The Annunciation,"
from Paul Veronefe, in large folio ; " The Baplifm of
our Saviour," of the fame fize ; " Tlie Refufcitation of
Lazarus," on three large plates, all from Paul Veronefe ;
" Jefus Chrill on the Sea with St. Peter," from L. Cordi ;
"The Conllruftlon of Noah's Ark," from Jac. Baflano ;
*< Venus with Two Cupids," from Carlo Cignani ; " St.
Auguftino in the Air, furrounded by Rays of Glory," from
Tintoret, all of large folio fize ; " .Tofeph fold by his Bre-
thren," after Andrea del Sarto, in two large folio leaves;
" Jofepii in Egypt ;" " Saul and David with the Head of
Goliah," from Gnerciihio ; " The Pilgrims at Emaus ;"
" St. Peter delivered from Prlfon," both from the fame
painter, all In folio ; " The Holy Women at the Sepulchre,"
from P. de Cortona, a circular print ; and " St. Margaret
of Cortona, to whom the Virgin appears in the Clouds,"
from Gab. Caliari, in large folio.

The monogram of .-intonio Baleilra will be found in
our Plate 111. of thofe ufed by the /Wwn ^H-ratrrj. Of
the leading events of his life we have already treated. (See
B.\i.E.si itA.) His llyle of etching was bold and mallerly,
tliough (light ; and his moil efteemed prints are, a warrior's
head, and two foldiers, both fmall plates; " The Holy
Virgin feated in the Clouds, with the Infant Jefus and Sr.
John, the Heads of three Cherubs appearing above ;"
" The three Angels vifitliig .Abraham ;" a vignette in-
fcribed " Verona fideli^," all fmall uprights, and rare. His
portrait of the architect Michel San Michell, furrounded
with allegorical a'lufions, and marked with the engraver's
monogram, is in fmall folio.

Benedetto Lutti was an eminent painter of Florence,
who fometimes amufcd himfelf with etching, and whofe
works are generally and jullly efteemed. He was born in
the year 1666, Rudied under Antonio Domenico Gabbiani,
and died at Rome in 1 724.

Strutt fays of this artlft, that his merits procured him,
from the elector of Mentz, the honour of knighthood, ac-
companied by a prefent of a crofs enriched with diamonds,'
but fpecifies only two of his etchings, both of which are
become extremely rare. The fubjecis of thefe etchings
are, a landfcape after Guercino, in fmall folio ; and " Tlie
Crucifixion, with St. John and Mary Magdalen at the Foot
of the Crofs," a fmall upright, from a compofition by Lutti
himfelf.

Cofmo Mogalli was a native of Italy, and the difciple
of Giovanni Battifta Foggiui, a Florentine fculptor. He
was born at Florence in the year 1667, and died in the fame
city in 17.50. He worked in co:!Jiincf ion with Antonio
Lorenzini, (of wliom'we have recently treated,) and other
engravers, on the plates from the Florentine gallery, for the
duke of Tufcany. AVe llkewife have by him many plates
for a book of Etrufcan antiquities, publilhed by Thomas
Dempller, at Florence, in 1724.

The following prints, from the Florentine gallery, are
from the graver of the elder Mogalli, i>tz. " A. Holy
Family, or the Repofe in Egypt," from Albano, a circular
print in folio ; another " Holy Family," from Corregglo,
of the fame fize ;" " The Supplication of Marfias," from
Guercino, in large folio ; " Eve prcfenting the Apple to
Adam," from Gabr. Caliuri, in folio; " The penitent

Magdalen

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Magdalen tranflated to Heaven by an Angel," from Ca-
. racci, in large folio ; " Adam and Eve difmifled from
Paradife," from Caliari, in folio ; " St. Benedift inilituting
his monadic Oidtr," from P. Vcronefe ; " Jcfiis Clirill at
the Table with the Pilgrims of Emaus," from Palma the
elder ; " The Marriage of St. Catherine," from Era. Bar-
tolomeo, all in large folio ; " Virtutes Amor et Numen,"
an allegorical figure from Riminaldi, in folio ; '• David and
Bathflic-ba," from Fr. Salviati ; this and all the following
are in large folio ; " The Annunciation," from And. del
Sarto ; " Tlie Adoration of the Shepherds," from Titian ;
a bacchanalian dance by four figures ; and Philip II. king
of Spain, alfo from the fame painter.

• Nicolas Mogalli was the fon of Cofmo, and alfo an
engraver. He'vas born at Florence in the year 1 723, from
whence, either for improvement or patronage, he travelled
to Rome, where he engraved, with moderate fuccefs, from
the cabinet of Portici, and the plates, after the defigns of
Cafanova, for " I.es Monumenti antichi iiiediti fpiegati et
illuftrati da Giovanni Winkelmann," a folio work, which was
publidied at Rome in tl\e year 1767.

Jacques Maria Giovanni, or Jiivanus, was born at Bologna
in the year 1667, and died at Parma in 1717- He was the
difciple of Antonio Roli, and became a painter of fome
eminence. He alfo praftiffd engraving and etching, and
executed many large works from L. Caracci and Cor-
reggio. The'moft confiderable work he engaged in was
a cabinet of medals for the duke of Parma, in feveral folio
volumes. His prints are of very unequal merits. As far as
they can be fpokcn of generally, they are executed with tole-
rable care and (kill, but are deficient in chiarofcuro, and more
or lefs fo in drawing. The bell of them are engraved from
the piftures of the cloiilers of St. Michael in Boico, painted
by L Caracci, and other celebrated mailers of his fchcol, on
I'q plates in folio ; the cupola of the church of St. John of
the Benedidincs at Parma, reprefenting " The Afcenfion of
our Saviour," &c. &c. on 12 plates, from thofejiillly famed
piftures by Correggio, which can now only be known by
the engravings, the paintings themfelves being no longer in
e.Kiilence ; the Holv Virgin in a landfcape, with the Infant
Chrift in her arms, 'with St. Jerome and Mary Magdalen,
the latter of whom is kifling the feet of the child (a fub-
jefl; commonly known under the name of " Tlie Day of
Correggio") ; the Virgin feated on a pedeilal wirh the
lufant'^Chrill, known by the nam,- of" St. George," who
is the principal figure, and by fome eReemed the chef-
d'ccuvr.e of Correggio ; " St. Sebatlian fallened to a Tree
with liis Hands behind his Back," in folio, from Caracci ;
" Jefus Chriil giving the Communion to his Apollles,"
from Fraucefchini, a verv- excellent print of large dimen-
fions, and of the upright form.

Andrea Procaccini was born at Rome in the year 1667,
and was the pupil of Carlo Maratti. He became a painter
of fome celebrity, and was chofen by pope Clement XI.
to paint the twelve prophets of the Old Tellament, for the
church of St. John de Lateran. In 1720, he was invited
to Spain, with the title of painter to tiie Royal Cabmct.
Here he painted feveral pictures for the royal palace, and
died at St. Ildefonfe, A.D. I7.U- '^^'c have feveral en-
gravings by this mailer, both from his own compofitions,
and thofe of other painters, among which the following few
are fclected as imoft worthy of the notice of the coUeftor : —
«'The Difciples at Emaus," from Raphael; '« The Af-
cenfion of our Saviour;" a large group of figures, with a
youth carrying his father on his fhoulders, both from Ra-
phael ; " The Birth of Bacchus ;" " Diogenes' throwing
a-*ay bis Cup ;" and " Cleliui a:id liis Companions pafling

the Tiber," all from Carlo Maratti, and of folio dinicn*-
fioiis.

Giovanni Dominico Picchianti was born at Vciiice
A.D. 1670, and was the fcholarof J. B. Foggiiii, a fculptor
of fome eminence. The produiflions of Picchianti have no
great fhare of excellence to rec(mimend them, for he
\vorked in a coarfe Hight ftylc, and his drawing is rather
mannered than correCl. He engraved many of the plates
from the pidlures in the grand Florentine gallery, in con-
junclion with Lorenzini, Vcr-Cruys, and Mogalli ; and like-
wife fome portraits, among which are, thofe of an unknown
female, from Raphael, in folio, a whole length of Seballiaii
del Piombo, from Titian, and cardinal Bentivoglio, from
Vandyke ; thofe of cardinals Louis de Rofll and Julius
de Mcdicis, on the fame plate, are from Raphael, and all arc
of large folio fi/.c.

The beil hiilorical works of Picchianti are, " The Virgin
fitting on a Chair," or the celebrated Madonna dclla Sedia
of Raphael ; a half figure of" The Virgin, with the Infant
.Tefiis, and St. Jolin," from Caracci, in folio ; " Paying
Tribute to Cxfar," commonly called " II Chrifto della
Monetta," from Titian ; " The Virgin and Child," from
the fame painter ; and " Agar returning to the Houfe of
Abraham," from P. de Cortona, all cf large folio dimen-
fions.

Fiancifco Antonio Meloni was a native of Bologna, and
born in the year 1670. At an early age he appeared fond
of painting, and was accordingly ji'aced under Francefchini ;
but time difcovered that his difpofiiion was not formed for
the attainment of excellence in that art, and lie then took
up the graver with mucli better fuccefs. He engraved
chiellv from the piftures of his mailer, and other Bolognefe
painters ; but the latter years of his life were fpent at
Vienna, where he died in the year 17 13. The following
are reckoned among his bell engravings : — " The Adora'.ioii
of the Shepherds," a middling-fized upright plate, from
Carlo Cignani ; and " Aurora," from a ceiling at Forli
by the fame mailer, both in folio.

Of the merits of Fu.xNcisco and Pietro Am.ii,.\ we
have already treated. (See thofe biographical articles re-
fpedlively.)' But of artills fo dillinguiftied it has been
judged proper to fubjoin, in this place, lills of the principal
works on which their reputation has been founded. Tlie
bell of thofe by the elder Aquila are " Saint Rofalie," from
his own compo'fition, in folio ; " Mars binding his .\rms to
a Tree," in large folio ; " Cardinal Cafini as a Capuchin," in
folio ; " Cardinal Jofeph Maria of Thomafis," from P.
Nelli, of the fiime fize ; " Tiic Lall Supper," from AU
bam>, infcribed " Unus ex vobis. Sec'' in large folio ; the
firil vaulted roof of mofaic in the church of the Vatican,
from Ciro Ecrri ; two cupolas, one in the chapel of the
Holy Sacrament, the other in the church of St. Seballian
of the Vatican, from P. de Cortona ; another cupola, fro!n
the fame mailer, painted in the church of St. Philip of
Neri, all large circular prints ; a group of heroes, to whom
Minerva prefents a crown of laurel, and Mars a fword, a
folio print.- from And. Bonfigli ; " The Battle of Conltan-
tine and Maxeiitius," from And. Camalfei ; and "The
Triumph of Coiiilantine," both very large ; " The dead
Body of Chriil acrofs the Knees of his Mother, accom-
panied by Mary Magdalen and St. Francis," from Caracci,
in lar"-e folio ; '" The Arrival of the Body of St. Helena
annoimcod by a Bidiop to the Virgin," in folio; " The
Repofe," wliere the holy Virgin is reprefentcd feated under
a tree with the infant, and in the back-ground St. Jiifeph
onhisafs; " St. Peter's Bark," from l.anfranc, in large
folio ; a very large folio print of •< Oiir Saviour in a Glory,

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGTIAVING.

vnlK'St. Ambrofe, tlie Virgin, and St. Charles Borromeus,
'Jyipcllng," from a grand altar-piece by Carlo Maratti ; the
-vaulted ceiling of St. Francis Xavier .tt Naples, painted by
I'aul dc Matthcis, and engraved on three large plates, re-
prcfehting that faint overturning Idolatry, Hcrefy, and
Mahon^etanifm ; " Venus in the Air, faewing ^neas his
.<^nns falloned to a Tree," fro'.n Pouffin.

The following arc by Pietro Aquila, from his own de-
■figns : " The Adoration of the Kings," in folio ; " The
Fliglit into Egypt," dedicated to B. C. de Vingtimilliis, in
large foHo ; " A Holy Family, where St. John kiffes the
Feet of the Infant Chrill," half figures, in folio; "A
Combat of two Lions," infcribed " Spe fufcitat Iras," in
folio ; a portrait of Livio Odefcalchi, with ornaments, in
"large folio.

From other Italian mailers, Pietro has engraven " St.
Jjuke," with the infcription " Fernx cum feriunt," &c.
after La/.aro Jjaldi, in folio; " The Sacrifice of Polixenes,"
from P. de Corlona, in large folio ; " A Sacrifice of the
Nympiis of Diana oti tUeir return from the Chacc ;" " Tiie
llape of the Sabir.es ;" and "The Triumph of Bacchus,"
four very much eltcemed prints, all from the fame matter, in
large folio ; a large fubjett on two plates of " The Battle
between Alexander and Darius," frcm the fame mailer;
•" Mofes defending the Daughters of Jethro, at the Foun-
tain," from Giro Ferri ; " Mofcs linking the Rock," both
-in large folio ; " The Holy Virgin appearing to St. Alefio,
■who is repofir.g on a Bed, crowned with Stars," a large cir-
.cular print ; " The Veftals cherifliing the facred Fire, by

years longer. He acquired what is often termed a com-
petent knowledge of drawing, at a very early age ; and !>■•-
fore lie was fifteen, engraved fome figures and fome heads,
w!.i;h he dedicated to Dr. Mead, the celebrated Erglilh
ph\ fician.

The works of Zanetti confiil of etchings and engravings
in caiarofcuro ; and, in the eftimation of our countryman
Sn-itt, they " prove him to have been a man of great genius
ar.J fontid judgmnt."

" Airiiled by his relation A. M. Zanetti the YoongcV;
and other artifts, he engraved and publiihed a large nnni-
ber of prints, taken from the drawings of Parmegiano, Ra-
phael, and otiier great painters, which he purchafed at the
iiile of the Arundelian ColleCliou. They are divided into two
fets ; and both together confiil of eighty-nine prints on
copper and wood, with the portrait of Zanetti, engraved by
Faldoni, from a painting by Rofalba."

We come now to what mull be a reproach either on his
" genius," or his " jndginent," or on both. Strutt adds,
that " in order to render this coUefiion the more valuable,
he burnt the wooden blocks from which the chiarofcnros
were printed, and deftroyed the copper-plates, after he had
taken ofi" iach a number of impreffions as he thought proper,
which, we are informed, was by no means very large."

Now no principled engraver dcfires that his works fiiould
ever become rare from any other caufe than the extcniive de-i
niand for them among the public ; and the fubllitution of
nominal for intrinfic value, is an expedient worthy only of
traffickers in art, and which " great genius" and " found

the Orders of Auguilus," a large upright print, all from judgment" would equally difcl;

Ciro Ferri ; " The Holy Virgin in Heaven with five Saints, Zanetti refidcd for fome time in London, and engraved

-canonized by Pope Clement X." from Carlo Maratti, in here a fet of twelve ilndies of heads, figures, Src. from his

-large folio ; " The Triumph of Chriilianity, reprefented by own drawings, which he tinted in a fpirited fiyle, and

Religion fitting on the Clouds, receiving the Homage of which, according to Strutt, do him great honour,

the four Quarters of the World," in lai-ge folio; "The He alfo engraved in aquafortis another fet of twelve plates,

Virgin filtmg to St. Luke for her Portrait," in folio, all of which the fubjecls are animals and figures, after Callig-

from Carlo Maratti ; " I>eath and the Holy Virgin, with lione ; a fet of the llatues wh;ch adorn the library and palace

the .Apoftles," from J. Morandi, in large folio; the Bible of St. Mark at Venice ; and a fet confiiling of eighty plates

of Raphael, infcribed " Imagines Veteris ac Novi Tefta- of the engraved gems of antiquity. Flis cypher will be

menu, a Raphaeie ,S mft. Urbin. in Vaticano picloe Jo. Jac.
■de Rubeis fumitibu?," in fifty-five leaves. Cefare Fantetti
-drew and engraved the firft thirty-fix fubjeds, and the
fortieth ; all the others are by P. Aqnila. The Farnefe
Gallery, with the ftatues and ornaments, and a defcription
in verfe by J. P. Bellori, in twenty-five leaves, of large folio
ii'/.e ; a room in the Farnefe palace, with the ornaments and
■infcriptions, in thirteen plates, of folio iizc ; " The Af-
Jembly of the Gods," pain'ed in the garden of the jirince
Borghefe near Rome, called " The Villa Pinciana," en-
li'-ied " Dcorum Concilium ab F.quite Joanno Lanfranco
J'armenfi, turn Spirantibns ad vivum Imagimbus, tum mo-
jiocromatibus atque Oruamentis Ai tis," &c. on nine large
folio plates.

Marco Ricci, the celebrated painter of landfcape and
j-nhied edifices, (for whofe biography and general merits, fee
the article Ricci,) performed fome etc-hings about this
period, of v.hich the bell are a fet of twenty-three, en-
titled " Varia Marci Ricci Piftoris pnellantifiiini Experi-
inenta ab ipfiimct auclore invents delineata a! que incifa et a
rna Carolo Orfolini Veneto incil'ore," &c. anno 1730,
printed on folio paper, but of different fixes and fliapes.
They are feeble in chiarofcuj-o, and though not entirely
tafteiefs, difplaj no great knowledge of the art of eii-
.graving. .- . ,

Antonio Maria Zanetti was of a noble Venetian family,
torn in the year i(;oo, and died in his native city in 17^7,
AWXjrding to iiuber ; but acfordiiig to Strutt, lie lived tea

found in Plate HI. of the monograms of the Ildl'i,-.
grnvers.

Zanetti the Younger was nephew to him of whom ve
have jull clofed the account, and was born at Venice A.D.
1720; but the year of his demife has not been mentiov^ed.
He engraved in the tafte and llyle of liis uncle, whom he
affitted in his work after the ftatues at the palace of St.
Mark, as well as in that after the drawings by Raphael,
&c. which once formed part of the Arundelian Collection.
And in the year 1760 he publiflied an excellent work,
adorned with eighty plates, engraved by himfelf, and in.
titled " Varie Pittore a frefco de principal! Macilri Vene-
ziani," &c.

Francefco FontibafTo was born at Venice A.D. i^Si.
He learned drawing in the Roman academy, and ihidied for
a time under Seb. Ricci, whofe llyle of painting he imitated
with no inconfiderable degree of fuccefs, in tlie pictures
which he painted for the Duodo palace, and the church of
St. Salvador. In the year 1769 he travelled to Petcrlbnrg,
with the view of bettering his fortune, wliere prefumptively
he died, for we do not hear of his return-
He etched feveral plates ivilh mediocre, but painter-like
ability, among which are a fet of fevcn whimfical fubjeits
from his own compofitions, in fmall folio ; and " The Holy
Virgin appearing to St Gregory at prayer,^' an upright of
the middle fize, from Seb. Ricci.

Carlo Carloni, or Carlone, was born at the village of
Scaria, iu the Milaiicfe terxitory, AD. lObG, and died at

his

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Iiis native place m the year 1775. ^^'^ "'*' °f ^
family, of whom the greater part were ^rtiUs His father
was a fcnlptor, and intended Carlo for that profeffion ; but
finding he had more inclination to become a painter, placed
him under Julio Qualio, under whofe inftruftion he foon be-
came remarkable for talent and induftry, and occafionally
both painted and engraved. In his pictures lie produced a
rich and agreeable effect, and made fomc advances toward
combining the merits of the Roman and Venetian fthools.
Of his en,{ravings, of which we caimot fay quite fo much,
the following are lield in moll eftecm : " A Holy Family,
wherein St. John is kiffing the Feet of the Infant Saviour;"
and " The Miraculous Conception," both of 410. fize ;
" St. Charles Borroiieus adminiftering to the Sick, during
the Plagne at Milan," in folio ; three plates of ceilings, in
4to., in one of wliich is a group of children with flowers ;
and the death of a faint, of folio dimenfions.

Andrea Zucclii was born at Venice in the year 16S0,
where he engraveil a fet of twelve plates of Venetian habits,
and many other fubjcCls for the libraries. In 1726, he was
invited to Drefden to paint theatrical fcencs and decorations ;
and on his return to his native city he engraved mofl of the
plates for the col'.crtion publifaed by Lovifa, conlifting in
the whole of fifty-fevcn plates, from the mod celebrated
piclures at Venice ; but his talents as an engraver never
rofe above mediocrity. Among his belt produfticns are,
" The Angel Raphael conducting the young Tobias," in
large folio, from' Titian ; " St. John the Evnngelill," of
the fame iize, from tlie fame painter ; " St. Barnabas Vef-
cova, St. Peter, St. John, and other Saints," from the
picture which D.Varotari painted for the church of St.
Barnabas : " St. John the Baptill," from P. Veronefe ;
•' The Martyrdom of Paul Eriz/.o," from P. Longho ;
" The Nativity of the Virgin," from a piatirc by Nic.
Bambiui; '« M.mna gathered in the Defert," from Jofeph
Porta, a circular print ; " Cybcle on her Car drawn by
Lions," from a frefco by Tintoret ; a:id " Eneas faving
his Father and Son from the Conflagration of Troy," after
S>b Ricci ; ail of largo folio dimenlions.

Francefco Ziicchi was the younger brother of Andrea,
under whofe inflruCtion he Ihidied the elements of art. In
the year 17 Jo, he was invited to Drefden to paint for the
electoral gallery, but was interrupted by the war, which
obliged tiim to return to his native country, where he
worked chiefly for the bookfcUcrs. He engraved feveral of
the pla-es fram the pictures in the Drefden gallery ; among
which' the following will probably be foimd on the whole to
deferve a preference ; the portrait of Efpagnol, from Ru-
bens ; ditto of a woman who refembles the firil wife of
Rubens, both in folio ; ditto of Jacques Antonio Murani,
from Jean da Anto;ia, in an oval of folio Cr^.c ; '■ St. Helena
worfhipping the Crols," from Bettin: CignaroUi, in folio ;
" The Martyrdom of Rcligio"," an allegorical fubjei t, in
folio ; " Religion and the Sciences contemplatinsr tlie Por-
trait of a Cardinal," in folio ; and " Apollo with his Lyre,"
furrounded with ornaments, of large quarto fr/.e.

Lorenzo Zucchi was the fon of Andrea, and was born at
Venice in 1704. When his father was invited to Drefden,
in the year 1726, I.,oren/.o accompanied him, and liavii'g
been inltruck-d in the elements of engraving, he continued to
praftife it in that metropolis with fuccefs, and was honoured
with the title of engraver to the court of Drefden. Moll
of his produftions are from the Drefden gallery, and among
them the following have been thought the moll woithy ot
notice.

Porlrmls. — Herman Charles Kevferling, count of the
ho'v Roman empire, from .'^.nna Maria Werner, in brge

Vol. XIX.

folio ; John Frederick, prince of Sapicha ; lionavotttiira
Roin, painter to Auguftus III. ; Louis de Silvellre, firil
painter to Auguftus III. ; L'Abbatc Pietro MctatlafiO,
Poeia, &c. all of large folio fize.

Furious Suhja'is front ths Drefden CaUery. — " The fevrn
Sacraments." from Jofeph M. Crefpi ; " The Martyrdom
of St. Peter and St. Paul," from Nic. del Abbate ; (P.
Tangi likewife engraved this pidurc, which engraving, ai
well <as that of Zucchi, will be foimd in the colleclion from
this gallery;) "St. Catherine receiving the Crown of Immor-
tality," after a copy by Erafmus Quelinus, from Rubens ;
"A grand Sacrifice to Venus," from G Laireffe; "The Sup-
plication of Marfyas, ' from J. B. Langctti, all of large fo-
lio (i/.e ; and "The Archangel Michael precisitating the
Dragon," from Stcft". Torelli ; " St. Jofeph, with the Infant
Ch;i!l in his Arms," from Jof. Angelli, in the gallery of the
count de Brulil ; two landfcapes, entitled " Soggiorno pallo-
rale, and " Campagnc aperta," from Jof. Roos ; 'J The lad of
the Csfars," two half figures, one of which reprcfents Titian,
marked Tizianus f. L. Zucchi delin. et fculp. engraved in
the (lyle of Pittcri; and " David with the Head of Goliah,"
from L. Jordane, all of folio dimenfions.

Jerome Ferroni was born at Milan in the year 16S7.
He painted the death of St. Jofeph, fcr the church of St.
EfiUorgio, and afterwards travelled to Rome, where he
worked' fome time in the fchool of Carlo Maratti, after
whofe pictures he etched the following fubjects, in the flight
fpiriied ilyle of a painter, but with great ta'te ; " The iiun
(landing Itill at the Command of Jolhua ;" " Deborah fing-
ing tlie celebrated Canticle, after the Victory over Sifcra,"
and "The Death of Sifera," all in Urge f> lio ; "The
ChMlity of Jofeph," in quarto; and "Judith beheading
Holofernes," in folio.

Giovanni Antonio Faldoni, was born at Afcolo in the
year 1690. He learned painting under Antonio Luciani,
and likewife praftifed engraving. Faldoni worked chic-fly,
if not entirely, with lheg"i-aver, frequently imitating the llyie
of Mellan with no incontiderable degree of fuccefs ; on the
whole, he merits the encomium of having been an artiit of
ability. His bell prints are the portraits of the d-.-gos of
Venice, the procurators of St. Mark ; various antique ftatues,
making part of two volumes in folio, of Venetian antiques;
part of the deligns of Parmegiano, for the collection in two'
folio volumes publilhed by Zanetti ; a portrait of Antonio
Maria Zanetti, fnmi Rofalba, in folio ; Marco Ricci, from
Rofalba, in folio ; " Soballianus Ricci Bel uncnfis Pidor,
fua; actafis facile primus, annum agens LX." in folio ;
"A Holy Family in a Landfcape, with Angels mini(lci>
intr," from S. Ricci, in large folio ; " The Conception of
the Virgin," fr.«m the lame mailer ; " Tlie Nativity of or.r
Saviourt" from P. de Cortona ; " David playing the Harp
before Saul,"" from Jof. Canterata the elder ; " David flying
from the An"-er of Saul,"' from the fame mailer, ail of lolio

Antonio Baldi was a native of Cava, in the kingdom tf
N.iples, and was born in the year 1692. He lludicd tht rudi-
ments of painting under Sol'imer.e; and learned engraving
of Maghar. He cllablilhed himfelf as an engraver at Naples,
and en<riaved for the moll part after Solimene, but ccca-
lionally from his own compofitions. The following arc
foiv.j of his bill engravings ; the portraits of the emperor
Charles VI. in an oval of folio fize ; Don Carlos, king of
the Two Sicilies, of the fame fize and form ; Nicholas Cyril-
lus, a phyfician ; Maria Aiirelia Carraccioli, a nun ; St.
Ignatius of Loyola, ill an oval, «it!i accefl"orics ; and Ra-
phael Manca, accompanied by an angel, alfo in an oval ;
" The Communion of St. Mary the Eif>ptian," imcnbtd
4 A "W'^.t-

ITALIxVN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

*• Diva Marise ;" " St. Philip of Neri, in Heaven before
tlie Trinity," infcribed " Cui nomen dedit alma Trias ;"
«' St. Etnigde, interceding for the Neapolitans," infcribed
•' Divo Eniigdo in terra: inotum, et Neopolis Patrono ;
and " St. Gregory the Martyr, with the Subjcds of his
Miracles," all of folio dimenfions.

Andrea Magliar was born at Naples in the year 1692.
He engraved from the pictures of Solimene and other
mailers, but is very little known, and we are not able to
fpccify any of hi's works. His fon, Giofefl'o Magliar, was
the difciple of his father and of Sohmene; and great expecta-
tions were formed, from the early fpccimens which he gave
of his abilities, but he died young. There is a print by
him, of " Chriil appearing to St. William," of folio fize,
from Solimene, which certainly is a work of confiderable
promife.

Giovanni Dominico Campiglia, was born at Luques
ill the year 1C92. At Florence he became the pupil of
Thon;afo Redi, and Lorenzo del Moro : and at Bologna he
iludied in the fchool of Giofeffo del Sole. He drew moll
of the ftatues, bnfts. and portraits of the Florentine gallery,
and corrpofed the typographical ornaments for that work.
Campiglia was invited to Rome, where he did the drawings
of the fculptnres of the Capitol, tlie firll volume of which
appeared in 1741. He has etched a great number of plates,
with fome talle, and among them the following portraits ;
Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini, Julio Romano, Salvator Rofa,
Leonardo da Vinci, and Giovanni Antonio Razzi ; all of
folio dimenfions.

Giovanni Batifta Tiepolo, was born at Venice in the year
1697, and died at Madrid A.D. 1770. In his youth he
frequented the fchool of Gregory Lazarini, and after having
worked at Milan, and in other parts of Italy, he travelled to
Germany, and painted, in the cpifcopid palace of Wurzburg,
the hall, the llaircafe, and two altar pieces. He afterwards
went to Spain, and painted in conjunction witli Mengs, who
became jealous of him ; but for the detail of his merits in
this art, fee the article Tiepolo.

Tiepolo engraved fifty-fix fubjefts in a very fuperior ftyle,
exceedingly neat, and with talle, corretlnefs, and fpirit,
from which the following are fckiited. " Th.^ Adoration of
the Kings," in folio, from his own compofition, which is
generally regarded as his chef-d'oeuvre. A fet of fancy fub-
jefts, confining of twenty-four plates, in quarto. And
another fet of fancy fubjecls, in ten plates, fmaller than the
foregoing. All from his own coinpofitions.

Govanni Domenico Tiepolo was the fon of the preceding
■artiil, and was born at Venice A.D. 1726. He learned the
principles of drawing and paintin;' of his father, and in
1745, painted the figures of the cupola of the church cf
St. Fauilin, and ^t. "jovita at BrelTe.

He alfo occafionally took up the etching point as his fa-
ther had done, working foinetimes in a ilyle which bears re-
feniblance to the etchings of Cafliglione, and on other occa-
fions in that of his father. His bell prints are, a fet of
twenty-feven fmall plates, lengthways, reprefenting, in
feries, " The Flight of the Holy Family into Egypt ;" a
fet of twenty-fix heads, of the fame fize, executed in the
ftyle of Calliglione ; " The Way to the Crofs, or the Hif-
tory of the Crucifixion of our Saviour," in fourteen plates
of quarto fize ; " The Miracle of St. Francis ;" " The
Miracle of St. Jerome," both ia quarto ; "The Republic
of Venice receiving the Riches of Neptune," an al egory, in
folio ; " The Virgin in the Clouds appearing to St.
Thcrcfia, and two other female Saints ;" and " St. Am-
brofe preaching to the People," both in large foliOi The
whole after the defigns of tlic elder Tiepolo,'

I^orenzo Tiepolo, brotiier to the above-mentioned arti{^,
was alfo a painter, and etched in a ftyle, and with a de-
gree of talle which appears hereditary, from the defigns
of his father.

Giulio Giampicoli, or Jampiccoli, was born at Venice
A.D. 1 700. We are ignorant under what mailer he learned
engraving, but Ids ftyle greatly refembles that of tiie fchool
of Wagner. He mingled etching with the work of the
graver, and engraved both billory and landfcape with fuc-
cefs ; the following few may be reckoned among his bell
produtlions. A fet of thirteen landfcapes, from Marco
Ricci, in large folio. A fet of pailoral fubjeds in four
plates, each being infcribed with fix Italian verfes ; and four
landfcapes after Ivlarco Ricci, and F. Zuccarelli, in large
folio.

Francifco Polanzani^ or Polanfani, was born at Andale,
ncir Venice, A.D. 1700, and refided at Rome. The moll
confiderable work we have by him, is a fet of twenty-twu
plates, of which the fubjefts are from the life of the Virgin,
cither after Poufiin, or, more probably, from Jacques
Stella (to whom Baflan attributed them). The following
may alfo be reckoned among his beft produftions. The
bull of a female, from C. Cignani. A biift of a blind mu-
fician, from Marco Benefiali. " Mater amabi'is," from
Jof. Nogari. Two other fubjecls from the fame mafter,
an old Man with a Bag of Money ; and an Old Woman
with a Hand Granade, all of quarto fize. And " An Old
Woman warming herfelf over a Chafing-dilh ;" from the
fame painter, in folio.

Giovanni-Batifta Pittoni, was born at Vicenza in 169.0,
and died at Venice A D. 1767. He was the nephew and
difclpb of Francifco Pittoni, the Venetian painter, and his
hillorical pictures are held in confiderable efteem. There
are fome few etchings by tliis painter which are much valued
by connoifTeurs, and are marked fomctimes with his initials,
or at others Batifta P. V. F. and fometimes with his name
at full length, but we are unable to fpecify any of them.

Antonio Luciani was a native of Venice, and born A.D.
1700. He ftudied painting under Jacques Piccini, though
he is better known as an engraver than as a painter. Luciani
engraved from the works of Tiepolo, Caffana, Bombelij,
and others, but his works are held in no very high degree of
eftimation, and it may therefore be fufficient to fpecify the
two following prints by him. The portrait of cardinal
Sforza Peliavicini, from Pietro Avogrado ; and that of the
Jefuit Tambarini, from the fame painter, in folio.

Dominico Rofletri was born at Venice in the year 1700.
The prelate Giovanni Francifco Barbarigo, being very iond
of this artift in his youth, took him to Verona, where he
purfued his ftudies for fome time. He praclifed architefture,
as well as engraving both on copper and wood, and when fome
years had elapfed, and his reputation was eftablillied, Rofletti
was invited to DufTeldorp, by theeleftor palatine, to engrave
" The Triumph*of Alexander," from G. Lairefie, on twelve
large plates, which is become exceedingly rare, bccaufe,
before many impreilions had been printed, the elector had
the p'ates gilt. This artiil alfo engraved feveral of the
plates for the coUefuon of prints taken from the raoll
capital pictures at Venice, which was publilhed by Do-
menico Lovifa, and among which the following will pro.
bably be found moft worthy of the notice of the con-
noifteur.

" Pope Alexander III. recognized by the Doge of Ve-
nice," after Paolo Veronefe ; " The Ambafiadors fent by
the Venetian Senate to the Emperor Frederic Barbaroulfa,;'
after the pi£lures of Carlo and Gabriel Cagliari, which are
preferred in the hall of the grand council chamber at Venice.

Another

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

^Another .print, of which tha fubjea is taken from the fame
embalTy, after Tintoret, whofe piaure is alfo preferved in
the fame public hall ; " The great Viftory gained by the
Venetians over the Imperialiils," from the fame miillcr ;
«' The Pope beftoivin^ his Benediftion on the Doge Zanii,
previous to his Battle with BarbaroulTa/' after Francefco
Baffano ; " The Emjieror BarbaroulTa proftrate before Pope
Grep-ory VIII.," after Frederico Zacchero, and another
with' the Italian title " Othone vien hcenziato dal Pontefice
edal Doge perchc vada al trattar la pace con I'lmperadofe
fuo Padre," alfo after Zucchero.

The portrait of Thomafo Sennachio, (a celebrated phy-
fician,) after S. Bombelii, is alfo engraved by RolTetti;
aud all the above arc of largo folio dimenfions.

The names of fome few of the engravers of Italy, who
run their obfcure and uniiUerefting careers about this
period, hsve been purpofelv omitted, as benig altogether
unworthy of our records. Indeed, wher, we reflca on the
advantatres poffelfed bv the artiiU oi Italy, compared with
thofe whofe inferior fortune it is to exill m the other
countries of Europe, we cannot but feel fome furpnze tliat
in the courfe of the century through w hicli we have ja'.t
laboured with due obedience to chronologic order, lo few
eneravers who are juftly entitled to rank high in their pro-
feifion, fliould have appeared in that highly favoured
country-. While France, Germany, and the Lo.v »j.oun-
tries, with inferior opportunities, prefent a refpeCtable dif-
plav of talent in this art, and are even brightened witli fome
rays of oritrinal genius, the hiftory of Italian engraving is
little better^than a dull record of creeping mediocrity.
■ If the reader participates in our furpr.fe, he will perhaps
be led to reflea whether this effea may, with more juflice,
be afcrihed to dearth of that particular kind of genius com-
bined with patient affiduity which is required to excel m this
art > or to paucity of Italian patronage >. or that no p u-
lofophical view was then and there taken of the principles
and praaical energies of engraving, thougn painting and
the art of the ftatuary were abundantly honoured with the
li^erary attentions of their Italian profelTors and critics ? or
laMy, how far it was owing to the circumllance ol engraving
being lefs ftudicd and praaifed,in Italy, as a diihna pro-
feflion from that of painting, than in the north of Europe ?
The name and the works of Piranefi, which we now ap-
- - • ' ' ' hich wearied

ea,

may iiiea lome i<iiui..ii_v ..5..- „.....- - -- j'y^

queftions, or will at leaft prove that the genius of Itahan
ensravino- had not fled for ever to lefs genial climates.

"Giovanni Batifta Piranefi, was born in the Roman territory
early in the eighteenth century ; Huber fays in the year
,707, and di«d in the city of Rome in 1778. He was at
once architea, antiquary, draughtfmaa, and engraver, and
in all, but more particularly in the latter art, evinced the
moil vigorous and original powers. He appears to have
had no tutor, at leail none has been mentioned by his biogra-
phers, and excepting a found mathematical foundation, with
which books or a mafter muft prefumptively hav^ fupplied
Wm, he built his tlyleof engraving on his own llrong and
keen obfervation of nature. In his praa.cal knowledge of
pcrfpeaive, as in his treatment of ruined editices, he had
fmpredecefTor.-and though he will always have numerous
imilators, he has yet met with no rival in Italy, nor even in

proach with all the refrefhing pleafure with which wean
attention is infpired by the appearance of a worthy obje
may flied fome falutarv light on the difcuffion of th

Europe, fave and except our

ivn Edward Rooker, and an-

other, whom, with aill more propriety* we Cyclopcdians may
call our own. , ,. . _ _. ^

• The authors of the French Encyclopedic fay of Piranefi,
that he was the bell draughtfman of rums, and the molt pic-

turefquc engraver that the country produced. This is no
cold praife, though not warm cnougli for tlic ardour of the
fubjed. His profefllonal induftry was unremitting, yet his
mind and his hand have fo far outllripped time, tiiat though
we know this, we remain in aftonilhment at the vail quantity
of his works, which, when their number and magnitude are
taken together, exceed the produaions of any other en-
graver whatever. A pile of more than twenty large folio
volumes, replete with taile and intelligence, fcems too much
to have been produced by the labour of a finglc individual*
even after we have made ourfelves acquainted with the rapi-
dity of his powers ; yet all thefe are etched from drawings
made by himfelf, and fome of thefe drawings, of whicli thf?
fubjeas are the Greek temples at Ps:tlum, and wliich atteft
the" vivid feeling and mailerly powers of execution which Pi-
ranefi poifeifed in that branch of the art, are now in thi;
country, having been purchafed within thefe few years in
Itah-, bv Charles Lambert, efq. of the Inner Temple.

Towards the middle period of his life, or rather before,
our engraver became a member of the Roman academy or
arts, but on account of fome feuds, with the merits of which,
if any merit attached to them, we are not acquainted,
he v.as expelled by the voice of the majority of academi-
cians. After fome few years, however, had elapfed, and
animofity was cool, motives were explained, or miftakes
were difcovered, and Piranefi was honourably invited by his
brother artifls to return. He was, about the iame time, per-
haps to give the greater eclat to his return, created a Roman
knight, but was always belter known by his name than his
title.

Of many irrefragable proofs that might be adduced to ren-
der idle the fopbifms of thofe who aiTert that engraving is not
an original 3.vi, Piranefi is one, having never, to the bell of the
prefent writer's knowledge, engraved after any other pic-
tures or drawings than were the produaion of his own hand,
which fometimes prefent us with the magnificent remains of
ancie-.it Italy, and are fometimes the ready oifspring of a
mind ilored with architeaural wonders. , ,. ,

Wherefore, unlefs thofe arts which are capable of independ-
ent exillence, might juftlylofe their claim to originality, by
condefcending to copy, where the general and infeparable 111-
teretts of art and fociety require fuch condefccnlion, no man,
and no privileged body of men, ihould fay of engraving that
" it is not an original art," for no man of fenie denies ori-
ginality to a pidure, becaufe a Ikctch or carioon of the
fame fubjea has previouily exilled, nor to the ar of the
fculptor," becaufe he models in clay before he chifl-Is in mar.

Though the human iigures which he introduced into his
landfcapes, are extravagant in their attitudes, and ill drawn,
they ad the parts which they were intended to ad ; they
ferve to flievv that the fcenes he has reprefented were inhabited
(if not by whom), and they arc a fcale whereby he induces
tlie fpedator unwittingly to meafure the relative magnitude
of thofe edifices which were tiie real and the oilenfible ojw
jeas of his art. In his charaaerillic treatment of thole edi-
fices, and of the vafes and other ornamental reir.ains of an-
tiquity, his fine, varying as occafion admitted or required,
was peculiarly exprelTive of Hone, bronze, llucco, brick,
and all the various materials of which Greek and Roman
fculptureand architeaure confift, dilcrm-inatmg wi:h ex-
quilfte obfervation and inimitable Ikill. whether thofe mate-
rials retained their original (liarpnefs of workmaniaip, or
were mouldered by the hand of Time ; or ilained by the
weather ; or fplit and cracked by the fro I, by Vand .1 b .-
barity, or other fudden cafualty ; and whatever h s fubje.r.
he always ferns to have worked with ealy vigour, wt:. un-

limited,

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Vimited freedom of hand, and as if " out of the abundance
of hre heart."

Trees do not often occur in the prints of Piranefi, but
v.-hen they do, tJiey in mod inftances too much refemble fea-
weed : yet the wild rasrgednefs and ur,cxpected forms which
charafterize both thefe and the clouds which float over liis
landfcapes — and even his ill-drawn figures— have a certain a!»
of cntcrpri/^, which accords with the forceful and chivalrous
charafter of his chiarofcuro, and rather augments than di-
minifhes, the general fentiment of romantic magnificence,
which many of his compohtions, and more efpccially the
large frontifpieces which fold into liis large folios, in-
fpire.

In fome of the latter, all the grand architeftural forms of
Egypt, Greece, and Italy, appear to be affembled, as if
by magic, and the mind of the fpeftator iiled to wander, in
jioctic reverie, through irregular avenues of obeliiks, larco-
phagi, pyramids, columns, and triumphal arches. In
others, which are of fubterraneous character, the au'.hor
appears to have penetrated the cemeteries of departed grcat-
nefs, and here, monlirous and forbiddtn thir.gs, are crawling
atid twining their fiimy convohitions among moulderi;ig
bones, broken fculpture, and mutilated infcriptions, and an
air of danknefs and dilapidation, and fepiilchral gloom, is dif-
fjfed through the cavern, as if Time and Envy were beckon-
ing to Oblivion, to break down whit remained of the tro-
piues of the brave, and obliterate the wifdom of the wife.

In his technical procefs, Piranefi was the firft engraver
who made free apd abundant ufe of the ruler, as may be
feen in his interiors of S". Peter's cathedral, his antique
▼afes, and fuch other fubjefts as required it, or as admitted
It only in certain parts ; for he fometimes artfully contrafted,
M the fame plate, tlie wildell fallies of the etching-point, in
the broken or wea her-ftained parts of his lights, with ruled
paffages in his fhadows, where the utm«ill regularity and
{jcrfpicuity were prefervcd. Thought always accompanies
his deeds, even where he feems moll carelefs. The i " flex
lights of a bright climate might feemj to the inconfiderate in
a humid one, to partake ot flimly tranfparency. In the
works of Piranefi, ihey (hev/ the juiliicfs of his obfervation.
If he was llimulated by an adventurous fpirit, he was re-
♦Iraincd by judicious caution, which fjt fo eaty on him, that
he exerted it without the lead feeming cffurt. In (liort, with
the (kill and conduft of a brave general, it was his to vary
and adapt his mode cf execution, and qualify his prowefs, by
the nature of theoccafion which called it forth : he ufed the
graver with boldncf? when he did ufe it, but ufed it only as
an auxiliary to his etching. He knew that t'liis was the main
body of his native force, on which he could moft depend.
He douhtlefs felt that he was here the Alexander of his
art, and that none could here, with any hope of fucccfs, dif-
p'.ite with him for the palm of victory.

To fpeak of the works of this artilt in detail, would ii 1 a
volume : it mull therefore here fufiice to fay, that among the
beft of them \vill be found the frontifpieces or title pages to
his large volumes of Italian antiquities, confilHng, for the
jnoll part, of very rich compofitions, formed of the frag-
ments and monuments of antiquity. Soviral views of the
Colifeum and arches of C<;::ilanUne and Septimius Sevcrus,
at Rome ; the pyramid of Cellius, with other Roman anti-
quities ; the tomb of Cecilin Metclla, on the Appian way ;
t-lie fountain of Bernini, with the furro in.hng edifices ; the
fa5ade of the BafiUcum of St. Mary, with other buildings ;
ditto of St. Lorenzo on the 'i'lburtinian wav ; (an admira-
ble mixture of regular with irregular mode of execution, in
tie treatment of the architcfture ;) interior and exterior
views of die I'antl^eon of Agrippa ;. 4 ycry large and mag-

nificent view of the Sybil's temple at Tivoli ; another vieiv
of the fame temple, fomewhat fma'ler ; another, with the
cafcade at Tivoli ; the bridge and callle of St. Angelo ;
the Ponte Mola ; the fquare of the Capitol ; the fquare of
Monte Cavallo ; the grand fountain of Trevi, and the tem-
ple of Jupiter Tonans ; all of large folio dimenfions, and
fome of them fo large as to fold into his imperial folios.

Francifco Piranefi was the fon of Giovanni Battilla, and
was born at Rome in the year 1748. He became an en-
graver of landfcape and ruined buildings, in v.hicli he imi-
tated the ftyle of his father, but, Lke other followers, was
always behind, though his engravings of this kind polfefs fo
much merit, that were his father's works annihilated, he
would be entitled to hold rather an high rank in his profef-
fion. Francifco did not, however, oonfine the exercife of
his talents to landfcape and architefture, but engraved fe-
vcral plates of the celebrated tlatucs of antiquity. He drew
the human figure better tlian his father, but in his treatment
of the antique was ft ill an imitator, following, with much
devotion, the llyle of engraving of Pitteri, of whom we fiiall
prefently ipeak.

Among the beft of his prints are views of the Colifeum,
the Pantheon the baths of Sal'uft, the baths of Dioclefian,
and the teniple of Ifis at Pompeia, ail in large folio ; and in
very large folio, tlie illumination of the chapel of Pauhna,
in St. Peter's cathedral ; and among his ftatues the follow-
ing are entitled to refpeitful notice, vi-. the fitting Ju-
piter of the Mufeum Clemcntinum, the Venus de Medicis,
the group of Cupid and Pfyche, frem the gallery of the
Capitol, and Oreftes recognized by Eleftra, millakenly called
by fome the young Papirius and his mother, from the ori-
ginal fculpture in the Villa Ludovifa, all of large folio dimen-
fions.

Laura Piranefi, was the filler of the preceding artift, witli
whom (he equally dillinguifned herfeif by engraving : the
following views a:e by her hand, viz. the Capitol of Rome,
the bridge of Salario, the temple of Peac«, and the arch ot
Septimius Severus, all of 410. fize.

Giovanni-Marco Pitteri, was born at Venice A. D. 170J,
and died in the fame city in 17(17. ^^'^ lludied engraving
for a (hort time under Jol'. Baroni, whom, he foon quitted for
J. A. Faldoni. The works of this admirable artill are exe-
cuted in a very remarkable (lyle, with fingle courfes of hnes,
though very differently difpofed from tlr fe of Mellan and
his followers. They run perpend cularly from the top to the
bottom of the plate, and the (liadows are exprelitd by
tlrcnglhening them as occafion required. The effeCl lie has
produced in this new mode of engraving is fa- more pleafing
and harmonious than could have been expcfted, elpecialiy
where, by partially notching his hnes, he has imparted llony
charafter and richnefs, to fuch parts of his pr.nts as required
it. This artill, being always occupied with engraving, never
travelled out of his native place.

Among his works, the following are moft worthy of
notice.

IV hole-length Portraits and Heads, all in large Folio.— A
buft of h mfelf, from Piazzetta ; a bull of J. B. Piaz-
zetta, a Venetian painter ; Charles Goldini, a Venetian
comic poet ; John Mocenigo, a Venetian nobleman ; Jo-
feph Nogari, a Venetian painter, with his hand on the
hilt of his fword ; and a young lady relling her head o»i
her hand, all from the fame painter ; count dc Schulen-
bourg, fie'd-marfnal of the republic of Venice, from C. 1' .
Rufca ; cardinal Quirini, marquis Sc; :o Maffei, Clara Ifa-
btlla Fornari ; and a fet of her>ds on lixtern i>lates, which are
prefumptuoudyentitled Gcdtli- eternal Father! our Saviour,
iLe Virgin Mary, the twelve ap«illesj and St. Paul, all froi-.i
■ Piazzetta,

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

I*jaz7etta, according to Huber, but, according to Strutt,
the latter are from his own dei'igns.

I'iirlotts Hyiorka! Suljfds. — " Chrift expiring on the
Crois," with the effect of r.ight ; " Rehgaoii and Hcrcfy,"
an allegory, both from Piazzetta ; "A Holy Family," from
Pietro Long*!, in large folio ; fe\"CTi folio upright plates
of the facrameiits ; fix large folio plates reprefenting chaccs
in the neighbourhood of Venice, from the fame mailer ;
♦' St. Peter deiivjred from Prifon by an Angel," after Ef-
pagiioLttc) ; " The Martyrdom of St. Birthulonicw," from
the fame itiafter, both iu folio, for the Drefden gallery ;
" St. Catlierinc of Sienna," after J. B. Tiopolo ; " The
Penitent Magdalen," from the fame, for the Drcfden gal-
lery ; " The drunken King," after D. Te;.-icrs ; and two
rudic fubjeC'ts, after the fame painter, (the Shoe-maker, in-
fcribed " Ne futor ultra crepidarn," and the Miher, in-
fcribed " Sud:it rotator fua forte tontentus,") all in large
folio.

Comte Pietro dc Rotari was born of a noble family at
Verona in the year 170;, and having a natural turn for the
Cue art.s, together with liie means of indulging it, became
fiicceffively the pupil of Robert van Audenarde and An-
tonio Balelira. He fludied with commendable affiduiiy,
and travelled iu queil of improve.Tient, or of diftindion as an
arti:1, to Ve:i:ce and to Iv<nne, and afterwards to Vienna,
Dreiden, and Peten'burg, in the latter of which cities, after
a relldence of eight years, he ended his career in 1764.

His engravings confill of (light, fpirited, painter-like etch-
ings, which are mi;ch fought after by the curious, and are exe-
cuted frojn his own comp»)fit)ons, or from thofe of his mailer,
BaleRra. From among thefe, the following will probably
he found moll wortliy of feleftion. The portrait of Filippo
Baldinucci writing ; " St, Francis adoring the Crucifix,"
a middle-fized upright oval, from his own compoiition ;
*' Tlie Educatioii of the Holy V'irgin," of the fame fize ;
tlic head of an old man wi:h a beard. Another head of an
old ir.an looking upwards, both in 8vo. ; " Tlie Three
Angels entertained by Abi;;ham ;" " David with the Head
of Goliali ;" " .St. Jerome ;" and " The Interview between
Venus and Eneas," all of 4to. fi/.e ; aiid, of fomewhat larger
dimenfions, three monks of the order of St. Francis, after
Baleilra. The count alfo arrived at fome eminence as a
painter of portraits and hillory.

David Antonio Foflato v.-as born at Morco, a bailiwick
of Luggaris, in S .". itzerland, in the year 170S ; but refided
at Venice with an uncle, who was a merchant, and wiflicd
Foflato to become one a'fo, but finding he had more talle
for the ar;s, he gave up this defign, and placed him under
Vincent Mariotti, a good defigner of architeclure, and a maf-
ter in perfpeilive, with whom he .Tiade great progrefs. He
afterwards travelled to Vienna with Daniel Gran, imder
whom he executed fome very fine pictures, particu-
larly a very fuperb ceihng for the Imperial library. He
worked with great fuccefs, both in oil and frefco, in mod
of the towns of Rome and Germany ; an<l likewife amufed
himfeli with the point. Among hi.s bell production^ in that
way, the foilowing may be reckoned. A fet of twenty-
four folio Ijndfcapes of Venice and its environs, from M.
Kicci, with a dedication to count Algarotti; " Diana and Ca-
Ifllo," from Soiimere ; " The Family of Darius before
Alexander," from P. Veronefe; ".'upiter thundering agaiiill
the Vices," from tlie ceiling of the council chamber ; «' The
Servant of Abraham with Rebecca," half fi'^ures, from
Ant. Bvllucci ; and " The Vocation of St. Peter to the
Apollolae," from the fame painter, all of folio dimenfions.

George Folfdto was born A. 1). 1710, and was probably
ci the fame fami y with the preceding ariill.. We are igno-

rant of whom he was the pupil ; but lie worked fome tiin*
at Milan, and from thence went to Venice, where he fet-
tled.

He etched the edifices which the celebrated architect
Palladio erefted at Padua, \'icen/.a, and other towns and
cities of Italy, which was publiflied by Pafinelli at Veiiiee,
during the years 1740 and 1745, '" I'^fcnch and Italian, of
large folio fize. The etchings are well executed, and do
honour to the talle and intelligence of our artill.

Jacques Lconardis was born at Parma A. D. 17 1 2. He
learned the rudiments of art of M. Benville, (a portrait
painter,) and J. B. Tiepolo. He engraved from the moll
celebrated pictures in Venice, and, with commendable re-
gard to tlie public deficiencies, commonly made choice of
thofe which had not already been engraved ; though he ge-
nerally fucceeded fo well in copying the charaders and
cffeds of his originals, that he need not to have been either
afraid or afliamed of following other engravers, by working
after the faitje pidures. The bell of his produdions are,
" Cnpids playing," after Julio Carpioni ; " The Rejoicing,
of Silenus," from the fame painter ; " Neptune in a Car
drawn by Tritons," from Seb. Conca ; " The Rape of
Europa," from the fame mailer ; two rullic fiibjeds, one
reprefenting " A Villjige Fair ;" and the other " A Crowd,
of Beggars at the Gate of a Town," from J. M. Crefpi ;.
two comic fubjeds reprefenting " The Divcrfions of the-
Carnival at Venice," from Tiepolo ; " The Go'den Calf,""
from Tintoret ; and " The Lalt Judgment," from the fa.ue-
mafler, all of large f.Jio fi/e.

Michael Soiello was born in Spain, but in what year-
is uncertain. He fettled at Rome A.D. 1750, and lludied
engraving under Giacomo Fiey, (for an account of whom
fee Gehm.-vX School of Engraving,) and v;orked very, much
in the ityie of that very dillinguifiied mailer.. The moll
confiderable work we have by Sorel'o is a fet of eight prints, .
engraved from the tapeilry of the Vatican, after Raphael ;,
he likewife engraved, after other Italian malters, feveral
meritorious plates for the Mufeum Florentinura. From the
mafs of his works, the collector may, with advantage, feled
good impreffions of the following, for his Italian port-
folio:—"The Nativity,'" where a fliepherd, accompanied'
by his dog, is among the principal figures, fro.-n Cortf;
" The Purification of the Virgin ;" and "St. Peter pro-
claimed Chief of the Church," from Ciirlo M.ratti, all in
large folio; and "The Defcent of Chrill into Hell,"
in fmall folio ; " The Refurredion," dedicated to Antonio
Colona ; " The Difciples at Emaus," ' in large folio ;
" Ciirill rcprefented as a Gardener," or, the "Noli me
Tangcre;" " The Converfion of St. Paul," from C. Ma-
ratti ; the frontifpiece for the Monologium Grarcorum, afrer
Seb. Conca; and an "Annunciation of the blelTed Virgin,"
from Felife de Callro, (a Spanilh painter,) both in large
foho.

Paul Pilaja, or Pilaia, was a native of Italy, and ap-
pears to have been born about tlie year 1718. The cir-
cumllances of his life have not been recorded, but he feems
to have worked at Rome. He engraved the prints for a
book entitled " Storia di Volfcna," by the Abbf Adami,
vvitli the portrait of the author, aiier the Cavalier Odam ;
which book, according to Gandellini, was printed at Rome
in the year 17.?7. He alfo engraved, in fuUo, the Uatuc of
the prophet Elias, from Aug.. Coriiachini, ereded at St.
Peter's cathedral; the portrait of pope Benedict XIII.
from J. B. Bnighi, a Roman painter ; " The Martyrdom
of the Capuchin St. Fedele da Simaringa," from Seb.
Conca, both of folio fize ; " The Miracle performed by
St. Thoribio, archbithop of Lima,, while preaching to the

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Tndlass," in large folio ; " Liberality'' with two children,
in folio ; and " Clodiiis, difguifed as a Woman, difcovered
at the Houfe of Csfar,'' both from the fame matter, in large
folio.

Niccolo and Antonio Billi were lirothers, and born at
Rome feme time about the year 17 19, or 1720. Oftlie
family of this name, which were long known at Rome, as
printfellers, and fome of whom were engravers alfo, we fliall
mention only tliefe brothers, who engraved many portraits
and devotional fiibjefts at Rome, and various plates for the
v.iliimes of the antiquities of Herculaneum, at Naples, exe-
cuted in a ftiff ftyle, without much talle. Niccolo engraved
many of the plates for the Mufeum Florentinum, and among
liis produftions are alfo the portraits of Fredericus Zuc-
charns, drawn by Campiglia ; John Holbein, " fe ipfc
pinxit.'' Pietro Leonardo Ghezzi ; John Maria Morandi ;
tiie cardinal Pompeo Aldrovandini, all in folio ; the cardinal
Jofeph Spinelli Dom. Duprae pinx. ; " The Infant Jei'us,"
in an oval, of 4to. fize, from J. Conca ; " St. Philip of
Neri, kneeling before the Virgin," from S. Conca ; " A
Holy Family,'' half figures, from Caracci, in 4trt; and
« The Flight into Egypt," from Guido, in large folio.

Carlo Gregorio, or Gregori, was born at Florence in
1719, and died in the fame city A.D. i/JO- He learned
engraving at Rome under the direftion of Giacomo Frey,
and worked for the grcateft part of his life in his birth-
place, after the celebrated painters of Florence. Part of
the plates from the cabinet of the marquis Gerini, and fome
of tiiofe in the Mufeo Fiorentino, are by him, of which
colleftions they conftitute the bed and greateft part. Among
his produftions the following may alfo be mentioned with
approbation, viz. the portraits of Francifco Maria, grand
duke of Tufcany, from Campiglia ; liis duchefs, Eleonora
Vincentina of Gonzague, from the fame painter ; and
Sebaftian Bombelli, painted by himfelf, all in folio ; the
ftatue of the Virgin, brought to Bologna by angels, from
a defign by dal Fratta ; St. Catherine Jannen, from F.
Bartolozzi, all of folio fize ; " L'llloria di Cefare, a cui
nell Egitto molte Nazoni prefentarono vari donativi — Sol-
dano d'Egitto," from Alexander Allovi, detto il Crup-
pino ; " Opus Bernardini Barbatello, detto Poccetti, quod
in facello S. S. Nerci & Achillei in Atrio Templi S. Mag-
dalense de Pazzis Florentia adfervatur ;" fourteen fubjeds
from the Lives of the Saints, at the church of St. Mag-
dalen at Florence ; thefe were engraved in conjunftion with
his fon Ferdinand, in large folio ; " The Virgin and other
holy Women at the Sepulchre," from a pifture by Raphael,
in the cabinet of lord Scarfdale, in folio ; St. Padio, a
bjlTiop of Florence, from Sig. Betti, in 410 ; St. Bonizella
Cacciaconti, a half figure, from Ant. Bonfigli, in 4to. ;
;iiid the maufoleum of the princefs Elizabeth Charlotte of
Lorraine, from Jof. Chamant, in folio.

Ferdinand Gregori was the fon of Carlo, and born in
tlie fame city A.D. 1740. He learned the principles of
drawing and engraving in his father's houfe, after whofe
death he travelled with Vincent Vangelilli to Paris, to
fi'nifii his (ludies under Wille. He afterwards returned to
his native country, and publidied feveral meritorious works,
among which vv'ere a print of " The Death of St. Louis
Gonzaga," after a defign by J. B. Cipriani; and a portrait
of Carlo Gregori, drawn and engraved by Ferdinand ;
"The Virgin fuckling the Infant Jefus," from Carlo Ma-
ratti, in folio ; " A fleeping Venus," from Guido, in
large folio; "St. Sebaftian faftcned to a Tree," a half
figure, from the fami; painter ; " VenuS difcovering Cupid
moun'edon a Dolphin," from J. Cafanova, both in folio ;
two marble groups from Cellini, a Florentine fculptor, after

the defigns of Allegranti, in large folio ; " A IToIy Fa-
mily,'' from a painting in frefco, by Andrea del S.u-to, in
fmall folio, with a very good efted ; and " St. Slcrilien
ftoned,'' from Louis Cardi, (whofe pidure has a grand clia-
rafter, which is TCry well preferved in the engraving,) uf
folio fize.

Antonio Jofeph Barbazza, wai born at Rome A.D.
1720. The life and works of this artifl are very obfcure,
and we can only fpecify, that he was a member of the Bo-
lognefe Academy, and travelled to Spain in 1771. His
piftures are lefs num.erous than either his drawings or en-
gravings, which are much efteemed by connoiiTeurs. Among
his prnits, four large heads from nature, in the ilyle of pen
and ink drawings, are juftly intitled to high praifi for their
truth and originality ; a group of muficians, among wh(3m
is a caricature of M. Perez, of mufical celebrity, in 4to. ;
the plates for tlie book of father Bianchini, intitled " Ifto-
rica Ecclefiailica," in 410. ; and fome plates for the work
of Monaldir.i, who pnbliflied new editions of Virgil, and
other of the claffic authors of antiquity.

Jean Elias Morghen was a native of Germany. He was
born in the year 1 71 2, travelled to Italy in his youth, and
remained tliere during the greater part of his l.fe, refiding
for the moft part at Florence. He made all the drawings,
and engraved moft of the plates, for the work which was
executed under the patronage of the marquis Gerini, after
the piftures of Francefchini and other celebrated mafters,
which decorate the ducal palace of Tufcany. He alfo en-
graved and publifhed, in 1767, " The Antiquities of Pxf-
tum," on fix plates, after drawings by Antonio Jol'eg.

Philip Morghen was the fon and pupil of Jean Eiias, and
was born in Italy, probably at Florence, in the year 1740.
He went, either for profeffional improvement or employ, to
Naples, where he executed a great number of the plates for
the antiquities of Herculaneum, including the portrait of the
king of Naples, which ferves as a frontifpicce to the work.

Philip alfo engraved a fet of twelve folio plates of llatues
at Florence, called the Apoftles of Bandinelli, and thirty-
one views of ruined edifices in and about the city of Naples.

His fon, or his nephew Raphael Morghen, who has fig-
nahzed himfelf by the produdtion of Da Vinci's Lall Sup-
per, and other meritorious works, and who ilill lives and en-
graves at Florence, will become the worthy theme of future
hiftorians of the Italian fchool of engraving.

Francefco Londonio (whofe name and merits appear to
have been unaccountably overlooked by our countryman
Strutt) was born at Milan A. D. 172J. He began his
career in art with the ftudy of hillorical painting, but foon
abandoned the hei-oifm and duplicity of man, for the honetly
of the brute creation, and particularly attached himfelf to
the painting and etching of domellicated animals, in both of
which arts lie was eminently fuccefsful.

In the year 1769 he travelled to Rome, Genoa, Naples,
and other parts of Italy, and diu-ing his ftay in the latter
city, he made occafional journies to tlie furroundmg villages,
and ftudied nature with great attention, particularly thofe
ruftic and unfophifticated aCnons and fcenes, which were
congenial with the fimplicity of his own habits and feelings.
Here he palfed the greater part of his time in etching and
engraving, and here, as is believed, he died of an apoplexy
in the year 17S3.

Londonio engraved a great number of rural and paftoral
fnbjefts, confining for the moft part of peafantry and cattle,
\vith the accompaniments of pidurefque banks, trees, and
water, in a ftyle which, though original, and evidently the
offspring of his own obfervation and feeling, bears ftrong re-
femblancc to the beft etchings of Ecrghem and Viffcher ;

ufing

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING

uCnff the grayer and dry-point, with great propriety, only as
occalional auxiliaries to his etching-needle.

The works oF this artift compofe feven fets, confifting in
the whole of feventy-two plates, of which the fubjedls are
the rural occup-tions of Italian pcafantry, &c. One of thefe
fets is dedicated to cardinal Pozobonelli ; another to the
earl of Exeter, and the reft to different noblemen and gen-
tlemen who had befriended their author, who were moil of
them Englilhmen. Londonio fometimcs printed his plates
on blue paper, and heightened his lights with white chalk,
by which means he produced an agreeable effeft.

A pifture by this artilt, of a Milancfe peafant at the en-
trance of a hut, with goats, is now in the colleftion of the
molt noble the marquis of Stafford, at Cleveland houfe.
His piftures are rare, and this is probably the only one in
England : it lias no very powerful chiarofcuro, but is
painted with exquifite feehng, and great dexterity of
pencil.

Giofeffo Camerata vras born at Venice A. D. 1724. He
iludied engraving under John Cattini, and travelled to Vi-
enna in 17+2, where he learned miniature painting, v.hich he
ever after occafionally praclifed. In the year 17JI, he was
invited to Drefden, to engrave for the great work from the
Eleftoral gallery in that metropolis, but the war breaking out
he returned to Italy. When peace was proclaimed, he once
more travelled to Saxony with the eleftoral prince ; foon
after which he was elefted one of the profelTors to the Dref-
den academy.

This laborious artift engraved a greit number of plates,
many of which were from his own defigns ; among them are
the portraits of Marco Fofcarini, procurator of St. Mark,
and doge of Venice ; Simon Cantarini, another procurator
of St.'NIark, both of folio fize ; Sebaftien Bombelli, in
quarto ; a whole length of Therefa Zamelli, a celebrated
dmcer, drcffed in the Turkifh ftyle ; and a large head of
Mademoifelle Abnrzi, in folio.

For the Drefl'ii Galkry, Camerata engraved two parables
from the New Teftamcnt, after Feti ; " David with the Head
and Sword of Goliah," in folio ; " A Holy Family," after
Julius Csfar Procaccini ; " St. Roche relieving the People
affhfled with the Plague," after Camillio Procaccini ; " The
Charity of St. Roche," after Caracci ; " Tke AlFump-
tionof'theVir;;in," from the fame painter, all of large folio
fi.'.e ; " The Woman taken in Adultery," after Bilcaino, in
folio; "The Chaftity of Jofeph," from S. Cantarini, in
folio; and the Old 'and New Tedaments, after And.
VaccaiH, in large folio. Of his works of fubfeqnent date,
the following are to be preferred i— " A Holy Family,"
after Procaccini, in folio ; " The Penitent Magdaien,"
from a piftnre by P. Battoni, in the Drefden gallery, in
large folio ; " A fleeping Shepherd," from J. M. Crefpi ;
" St. George refufmg to facrifice to the Idol," from Count
Rotari, both in large folio. Two half length figures with
long beards, after Dietrich ; and a Magdalen, in miniature ;
from Vander Werff, of the fame fize as the original. TKis
was Canr.erata's laft engraving.

Jofeph Canaie was born at Rome in the year 172S, and
became a profclfor of the academy at Drefden, and honorary
member of that of Bologna. He Iludied engraving under the
-direaion of that jultly celebrated mafter Giacomo Frey, and
alfo frequented the fchool of Cavalier Benefiali. At Dref-
den much of his time was taken up in making the drawings
from the pictures which were to be engraven both by him-
felf and others, for the publication of " The Diefden Gal-

Canak had many pupils who did him honour j and his

engravings are very numerous. Among themthe following
are fdme of thofe which are held in moil efteem.

Portraits. — Maria-Mattia Perini, a half figure from Marco
Benefiali, in quarto ; Maria-Antowia Walburgis, eiefto- .
refs dowager of Saxony, from a painting by herfelf in
crayons; the archbifliop Bonaventura Barbetini; Maria
Jofephini, queen of Poland, after Rotari ; the profile of tlie
prince Xavier.. after Cafanova, all in folio ; and the fepul-
chral monument of caidiniil Spinola at Rome, in large folio.

H'tjlorical Suljecls. — " Imagina miraculofa dclla S. Virgine
Maria tranfportata nella Bafilica Lateranenfe," in fmall
folio ; « The good Englifitman," after Signora Rofalba,
from the Crayon cabinet at Drefden, the fame fize ; " The
Philofopher," ■' after Efpagnolct; "Glory," after Dominiclu-
no; " A Sybil," after Angelica KaufFman ; " Paris on mount
Ida," after Vanloo ; " Adam and Eve dit'mifi'ed from Para-
dife," after Albanus ; " Chrift and St. John," after Vander
Wci-ff; " Chrill appearing to St. Thomas," after Mat..
Preti, for the collection from the Drefden gallery. (This
plate was only etched by Camerata and finiftied by Jean
Bcauvarlet.) " A Turkifh Woman," hah length, from Die-
trich ; and " Spring," a half figure, from the fame mafter,
of which the laft three plates are of folio dimenficn=.

Bartolomeo CrivcUari was born at Venice A. D. 1725'.
He became the difciplc of Wagner, and worked under his
direction, from the piclures of Gherardini, Tiarini, Tiepolo,
and others, and he likewife engraved fome plates for the Ir:-
ftitution at Bologna, but attained no very high degree of
eminence in his art. Among other engravings by this artift
are the following : Portraits of Chriftian, prince royal, and.
elector of Saxony; and Mary- Ann, archduchefs of Auftria,
both of folio fize. Three fubje£ts from the life of St Peter
of Petronius. Four from Nicolo del Abatte, in folio : i-l-z.,
I. A Company of Card Players. 2 A Group of Drinkers*
diverting themfelves, both half figures. 3. A Company of
Muficiaiis. 4. Another Group of Mufieians, with a young
Female playing the Harpficord. " The Canonization of St.
Alexander Saul," after Matteo Bartoloni; " A young Man
and Female feated on a Couch," from Julio Romano, in fmall
folio, from the gallery of the king^of Prnffia.

Gaetano Gandolfi was a native'of Bologna, and the con-
temporary and fellow ftudent of Crevellari. He engraved,
after Nicolo del Abatte, " The Nativity," with "The Ado-
ration of the Shepherds," infcribed " Opus hoc incifumque
expofuit," &c. from a picture in frel'co, at the palace
Leoni at Bologna, in large foho, which latter engraving
pofleffes fo much merit as to make us regret that he en-
graved fo little, and that we do not know more of this artiih

Giovanni-Baptilla Broftoloni or Brulloloni, was born at
Venice in the year 1 726. He always rcfided in the place of
his birth, and was probably a pupil of Jofeph V.^agner.
V\'e are only able to fpecify the following engravings by him.
The portrait of pope Benoit XIV. in an oval, a vignette witli
the fame portrait; " St. Therefa in Rapture," in folio. A
fet of twenty views of Venice, etched after Ant. Canale,
in folio. Another curious fet of twelve large plates, from,
the fame mafter, reprefent the ceremonies made ufeof at th*
ekaion of the doge of Venice, and at his allegorical mar-
riage with the foa.

Benigne Bofii was horn, according to Bafan, at Porto
d'Arcifato, in the Milanele territory, A. D. 1727. At the
age ot ten, his father took him to Nuremberg, where he
klirned the elements of defign ; and from thence, on the
death of his father, he travelled to Rome, and ftudied undcf
Pompeus Battoni, Hutiii, Dietrich, and Mengs. The
latter advifed him to pradtifc etching, which he did till his
death. The leven years' war, of which Saxony was almoll
e the

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

•tlie cantiDual feat, obliged BofTi to return to Italy, and in
1 760 he was received at the court of the duke of Parma,
where he lived honorably, occupied with letters and the arts.
The following are among the heft of his works. A portrait
of the engraver Boetius of Drefden ; " The Frefentation
in the Temple," (pubhflied at Drefden) ; a fct of heads and
other fubjetts on forty fmall plates, etched with talle and
in a very fpirited ilyle ; a fct of vafes, and a mafqueradc,
after Petitot ; four fubictls of trophies.; the Attributes
of the Four Seafons, inclofed in circular wreaths ; two
fubjefts of children, in fmall folio ; a fct of twenty-nine
etched, and wafhed in with water colours to imitate the ori-
jrjnal drawings by Parmcgiano .; the cities of Piedmont ;
allegorical figures for an Epitlialamium ; and the celebrated
St. Catherine, who was related to the houfe of Sanritali,
engrav^'d the fize of the picture, and a very capital print,

Antonio llaratti was born at rlorence in the year 1727.
He worked for the collection of prmts after the bell piftures
in the cab!u?t of the marquis Gcrini, of which Mariette has
given a defcription, and of which the iirft volume was pub-
lilhed in large folio, A. D. 1759, at Florence. He like-
wife engraved after various Italian mafttrs, and among others
the portrait of Jean Bettini Cignarolli, after Delia Rofa ;
of 4t<i. fize.

Pietro Campana was born at Soria A. D. 1727. He
learned engraving of Tlocho Pozzi, and worked moll part
■of his life at Home and Naples. We fmd feveral of his
engravings in the cabinets of Florence and Herculancum ;
among which the following are mdll worthy of dllinftion :
" St. Francis of P.iul," a half figure ; "Charity," in a
fmall oval ; " St. Peter delivered from Prifon by an Angel,"
after Matt. Preti, from the Drefden gallery, in folio ; the
portrait of Pietro Berretini da Cornona, from the Florentine
-cabinet; and Bernardino Burbatelli, detto B. Poccetti
pittore FciTctti, both in folio.

Carlo Orfolini was born A D. 1724, in the city of Ve-
nice, where he generally refided, and where he carried on a
confiderable commerce in prints. He engraved for the
Florentine Gallery, and among the befi: of his prints are
" St. Jerome meditating," infcribed " poll multas lacliry-
nias," &c. from Ant. Balellra, a much admired plate, in large
folio. Four others from legendary ilorics of the faints
Aloyfius, Staniflaua, Francis, and Bernard, and the High-
prieil, all of folio dimenfions.

Bernardino Belotti, furnamed II Canaletto, was alfo born
at Venice in the year 1724, and died at Varfovic in 17S0.
He was called Canaletto from his very dillinguifhed uncle
Antonio Canaletti, by whom lie was inllrudcd, and whofe
flyle he fuccefsfully imitated. After vifiting Rome and
oilier cities of Italy, he travelled to Germany, where he
obtained the title of count Belotti, and made Ibme ilay at
the courts of Vienna and Drefden.

The fubjccts of his prints, which confided for the moH
part of etching, are landfcapes, generally views, (or
portraits of celebrated places,) which he treated in a pic-
tnrefque talle, and which have been held in deferved elleein.

The moll remarkable of thefc are, a fet of fix views of
Vienna, &c. in folio ; two other fets, each confilling of
fix architeftural ruins in quarto ; and a very large plate, enti-
tled " The generous Turk," the whole of which were ex-
ecuted during his ilay at Vienna.

Thofe which he engraved at Drefden are larger and
more numerous. Among thefe we Ihall dilHnguilh views of
the port Wilfdrnffer Thor, with the ramparts, theatre, and
public library ; the gallery of Zwinger, with the bridge at tlie
entry of Ollra ; interior of the Zwinger, with the pavi-
lions and galleries ; the Catholic church with part of the

eleftoral palace ; the bridge over the Elbe, with a profile
of the Cathohc church ; the gallery and garden.^ of count
Bruhl ; the church of the holy Virgin, &c. ; the pidure
gallery at the above church, &c. ; the fquare before the
grand guard-houfe ; the old market at tiie fide of the
church of St. Crofs ; the church and itrcct of St. Crofs ;
the ruins of the belfry of the church of St. Crofs, which
fell on the 22d of June 1763, at the bombardment of Dref-
den ; the ruins of a part of the fuburbs of that city, before
the port of Pima ; and two views of the new town and palace
of Holland, with the equeftrian llatue of Augullus II.

Fie-zvs in the Neighbourhood of Drefden I'iie town of

Piina, on the fide of the gate called Obertlior ; the fuburbs
of the town of Pirna, before the waterman's gate ; pirna be-
fore the gate of Dohn?. ; the fagade of the calUe of Son-
nenllein on the banks of the F.lbe, in the back-ground the
city of Pirna ; the ramparts of Sonnenilein, with the prifons,
&e. ; the fortrcfs of Sonnenilein, from the road to Kocnir--
ftein ; the rock and fortrefs of Koenigllein on the fouth
fide ; the rock and fortrefs of the fame city on the wellern
fide, with the calUe of Lilienllein in view.

Fieivs in IViufaw. — The abode of the Bernardin monks,
as it prcfents itfelf from the gate of Cracow ; VVarfaw, fro-n
the palace of Sapieha, to the end of Szolle, and from
thence to the cattle of Villanova, with part of the town of
Prague ; the city cf Warfaw, from the palace of the Ordi-
nate to tlie royal caftle.

Dominico Cuiiego was born at Vorona in the year 1727.
He learned the principles of drawing and painting in the
fchool of Francefco Ferrari, but feeling a itrong dcfire to
become an engraver, he copied, without any previous in-
ftrudion, various prints by the moil celebrated engravers.
His earlieft engravings, (after thefe preparatory Itudies,)
were the medals for the book of the marquis Giacomo Mu-
feli Veionefe.

He afterwards went to Rome with Mr. Adams, the
Englilh architect, where he engraved certain Roman anti-
quities, and, we believe, fome of the ruins of Dioclefian's
palace at Spalatro, after Clerilfeau ; bcfides many other
plates from celebrated Italian paintings ; and moll of the
prints for the Schola Italica of Gavin Hamilton. StruU
iuppofes that he vifited England, but this is perhaps a mif-
take into which he may have been led by the circumllance of
Cunego's having engraved for Boydell's colledlion, and f-jr
the Meflrs. Adams. When he was about lixty years of age,
he was invited to Berlin, to work perhaps as preceptor, in
an academy of engraving, elhibliflicd by an individual named
Pafcal ; where lie engraved a great number of portraits both
in the line manner, and in aquatinta, after Cuningham ; but
this ellablifhment not fucceediiig, he returned to Rome in
1789; in which metropolis, as is believed, he died witliia
thefe few years. In the following lilt will be four d men-
tioned all his works that are of any importance.

P on ruits engraven afUr Cuningham. — Frederick II. king
of Pruffia, a whole-length figure, with the two favcuriie
leverets of the king, in aquatinta ; another portrait of king
Frederick ; two portraits of Frederick William, prince
royal of Pruffia ; Frcderica Charlotte, princefs of Pruflla,
reprefented walking in a garden ; and Frederick-Eouis-
Charlef, Frederick- William, and the princefs Fredcrica,
whole-length figures, all of large folio fize.

Subjeds for the Schola Itnlici oj Hamdton.— " The Crea-
tion of the Waters," in fmad folio ; " The Creation of the
Sun and Moon," in large foiio ; and " The Creation of
Adam," in folio, all from Michael Angelo, in the Sillinc
Chapel; " Fornariiia, the Mifiiefs of Raphael," after a
picture by that mailer, at the palace Barberini, fmall :'\\o

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF LNG RAVING

filCi «•• Galatea on tlie V\''ater,'' from Raphael, in the
Farnefe Palace, in large folio ; " The Dau;jlitcr of Robert
Srrozzi, a Florentine Noblen-.an," from Titian, in folio ;
«' The Rape of Ganymede," after Titian, in fmall folio ;
a head, with a long board, after BafTan ; a bud of St.
Jerome ; St. Hieronymus, fron Guido ; buil of an old man
after the fame painter; a fine head of a Mary Magdalen,
after the fame, in fmall folio ; a h;,lf-length portrait of an
old man, pfter Guercino ; " The Infant Prodigy," after a
piclnre bv the far.ie mailer, in the palace Lancellotti, at
Rome, all of folio fize ; « The Birth of St. John the
Baptiit j" and " Providence," furrcundcd by children, both
of large fulio fize, after I... Caracci ; " Galatea on the Sea,"
after a picture by Aagiilliuo Caracci, in the Farnefe Gal-
lery ; " Apollo and Silenus," from Annib. Caracci ; " A
Penitent Magdalen lying on Thorns," after tlie fame ; " A
yourg Man and Woman in Coi;vcrfution," after Giorgione ;
•" Apollo fupporting the wounded Hyacintlm.-," aftc.- Do-
minichino, at Rome; "The Death of St. Cecilia," from
the fame mailer ; and " Two Nereids, accompanied by
three Cupids," from Albano, all of large folio dimen-
fions.

Subjc&s after -various RLi/lers. — Beneditlus JofcphusLabre,
Bolonieniis, And. Bleg. pinx. in large foho ; Clement XIV.
(Gai.ganeUi) Gi». Dom. Campigha pinx. in folio; Fre-
derick Chriltian, piince royal of Poland, and elector of
Saxony, drawn and engriivcd by Cunego, at Verona, alfo
in folio ; Eques Antonius Raphael Mcngs, fe ipfum pinx. ;
«« The Virgin with the Holy Infant in her Arms," A. R.
Mengs pinx. both in quarto ; five large plates, frum tlie
piftures of Raphael Mengs in the library of the Vatican ;
<' St. Bafil celebrating the Greek Mafs," after P. Sub-
leyras ; one of the altar-pieces of St. Peter's at Rome,
executed in Mofaic, large folio fize ; " Juno with the
Ceflus of Venus ;" and " Hebe prefenting thj Cup to
Jupiter," (companions) of filio fize, both after Gavin
Hamilton ; the I'Allegro and II Penferofo of Mi'ton, foho
fize ; " Innocence, with a Lamb," a very interelling print,
with much of truth, fincerity, and fimplicity of character
and exprefiion, and which docs honour feoth to the painter
and engraver ; " Brifeis taken from the Tent of Achilles,
ivho is regretting her L,ofs ;" " Achilles mourning over
the dead Body of Patroclus ;" " Achilles dragging the
dead Body of Hcflor at his Chariot Wheels ;" '• Achilles
delivering the Body of Heftor to Priam ;" " Andromache
mourning the Death of Heftor," all of large folio fize,
from Gavin Hamilton ; " Brutus fwearing to revenge the
Death of Lucrctia," in folio, from the fame painter ; a
half length of " The Virgin and Child," from J. B.
Cignaroles ; the fame fubjcCt from Correggio ; " A Mag-
dalen," from the fame painter ; " The Apoille St.
Andrew," after Guido Cagnaci ; " St. Thomas of Vil-
lanova," from Ant. Cavazoni ; " A Phllofophcr with a long-
Beard," from Cellani; « The Sick healed," afcer L. Ca-
racci, all of folio dimenfions ; " Chrid bearing the Crofs,"
a very grand compofition, after Raphael, in large folio ;
and " Clirill laid in the Tomb," a very large npright plate,
after Efpagnoletto ; " The Godhead in the Heavens, at-
tended by Angfls," from Dominichino, in folio ; " The
Annunciation," from the fame painter, in large folio, from
the chapel of Nolfi ; " The Vifilation ;" «' The Nativity ;"
.«' The Circumcifion," all in large folio fize ; " The Ado-
ration of the Kings ;" " The Prefentation in the Temple ;"
'< The Flight into Egypt," of folio fize, in a circle; " A
dead Chrill, with the two Maries and Angels," in large folio ;
and a very large upright plate of " The Virgin in a Radiance
of Glory, furrounded by Angels, aiul crowned by the Holy
Voi. XIX.

Trinity," all from Dominichiin ; " Riiialdo aflcep on the
Car of Armida, which is drawn by winged Dragons?"
" Gucrchino da Cento pinx. Rom.t in jEdibus Coll.-.guti,
Dom. Cunego fculpfit," of v^-ry large folio fize; " Time
difcovcring Truth," a fine compofition, executed at Rome
in the palace of the marquis Codag iti, la (n large plates
independent of the general plan of tlie citing ; " The Lall
Judgment," from tlic Silliiie Chapd of the Vatican, after
Michael Angclo, a very large plate ; the corners of the
fame chapel from the fame painter ; a;i anticiue tomb, on
which is reprefented a bacchanalian bas-relief, found in
tl'.e Villa of Cafali, in 1767, in foho ; and thirteen views 01
antique edifices and celebrated ruins in Italy, after Cicrif-
feau, on large plates, engraved with boldnefs, but very in-
ferior, in talic and ftyle, to the belt reprcfentations of Uich
fubjcfts, by Piranefi and Rooker.

Giovanni Battiila Cipriani fhould not be left unmenticned
among the Italian engravers of this period. Of his bio-
graphy we have already treated. (See Cli'ta.AM ) He
etched fcveral plates with confiderable fpiiit, and a fim-
plicity of ftyle in his handhng, which borders on drynefs,
of which fomc are from his own compofition, and fome from
thofe of other readers.

Among thcfe are feveral portraits of diftinguifhed cha-
rafters, who lived in the time of Ci-om.well, of which four
head.s of Milton, which being taken at different periods of
his life, from infancy to age, form an interelling phyfiogno-
mical ferics, are particularly worthy of notice. They arc
rare, and intrinfically valuable prints, of 410. or rather fmall
foho fize, in ovals, and are done from originals which werc
in the pofienion of T. B. Hollis, efq. and which, therefore,
have every claim to authenticity.

He alfo etched, " The Defcent from the Crofs," after
Vandyke ; " The Death of Cicopatra," after Ber.venuto
Cellini ; and " The Defcent of the Holy Ghoil," after
Gabbiaiii ; and, from his own defign, " The Motlier and
Child," in folio, and fome others.

Gio.^'eflo Zucchi was born at Venice A.D. 1730, where
he worked for fome time in conjnnftion with Amiconi n:;d
Wagner, engraving for the fame lets of rur:d and hiilorical
prints, in which appear the names of Wagner and Bar'o-
lozzi. He afterwards went to Florence, where he painted
the ornaments of the principal pleafure houfes and villas
in that city and its neighbourhood, from which prints were
engraved. Of thefe he himfelf engraved two, and in many
of die other plates he etched the figures. He alfo engraved
after different mailers and from his own compofitions,' many
other fubjcfts, among which arc the following : — A hall"
figure of a man, with a furred hat on, in 410. ; rural coiiver-
fation; " The Pafiage through the Red Sea," in large folio,
fiippofed to be after Bourguignoii ; " The Virgin and
Child crowned by Angels," after Guido, in 4to. ; ".Tofepli
fold by liis Brethren ;" " The Rape of Europa," after
Pefarefe : « The Malk of Vice taken from Hillory" after
Bait. Francefchini ; " Virtue feizing I.ove by the Wings,"
from the fame mailer, all of quarto fize; " Offerings lo
Ceres;" after P. Cortona, in folio; " The Choice of
Hercules,'' after the fame painter, in folio; " The three
Graces, " one of whom plays the lyre; while the other two
are finging, after P. Cortona, of quarto fize ; and " Eneas
defcending to Hades," after Solimene, in Imall folio.

Giofeffo Zucchi, the younger, was born in the fame citv
A.D. 1732, and was probably related to the fore-mentioned
ariift. He came to London in queft of profcfiional employ-
ment as an engraver; and here he became acquainted wiili
Angehca Kaufiman, with whom he travelled to Rome, and
afterwards maiTied. The engravings that wc know cS, *'y
4 B thia

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

rtiis artift, were all executed at I^ondon, from which it ap-
pears, that after lie had once ingratiated himfelf into the
good graces of Angelica, he engraved no more.

The fiibjefts of Zucchi's prints are as follow : — " The
Mafe Erato," after Angelica KaufFman, in folio ; " The
Mufe Urania ;" " The Symbol of Simphcity ;" " Calypfo
invoking Heaven and Earth to witnefs her AffeAion for
UlyfTes," in large folio, from Ang. Kauffman ; " Tlie
Judgment of Hercules,' from P. Cortona ; " An Offering
to Ceres," both in large folio ; " Eneai and Dido taking
refuge in the Grotto," after Guido ; " The Virgin with
the Holy Infant in the Clouds, furrounded by Angels,"
from the fame mafter, in folio ; " The Virgin and Child
with St. .John, between two Saints," Bartolomeo pinx. ;
" The Denial of St. Peter," from Guercino ; '• Jupiter
and Europa accompanied by Nymphs ;" and " Jupiter and
Europa on the Waves of the Ocean, accompanied by
Cupids," all of folio dimenlions.

Giovanni (or John) Volpato, was born at Baflano, in
the Venetian territory, in the year 1738, and in his early
youth pnidtifed embroidery, which he learned of liis mo-
ther, but afterwards applied himfelf to the ftudy of en-
graving, which he followed for fome time without any
mailer, urged by the force of his own inclination, or at-
tracted by fuch beauties of the art, as he faw in the print
fhops of Baffano.

He made a journey to Venice for the fake of obtaining
information on what had now become the fettled fubject of
iiis lludies. Here, for fome reafon that has not ti-au-
fpired, perhaps from youthful affeftation, perhaps from
diffidence, he publiflied his lirfl plates under the affumed
name of John RcnarJ, and here he was iirft made known
to the celebrated and benevolent Bartolozzi, who inte-
refted himfelf in the welfare of the young artill, and im-
parted to him the information of which he came in queft.

Volpato now felt more confidence ; no longer withheld his
name from the public, and foon produced engravings after
Amicoiii and Piazetta, which obtained him approbation and
encouragement, and were followed by others after Maiotto,
Zuccarelli, and Marco Ricci.

From Venice our engraver travelled to Rome, where his
abilities foon eRabliflied him as a reputable engraver, and
where his largeft and bell works were performed. A fociety
of amateurs, very fortunately for him, had about this time
conceived the projeft of patronizing the firll engravers of
the country, in the produftion of a fet of large plates after
Raphael's pictures in the Vatican ; and among thofe who
were engaged, none diilinguiflied himfelf more by his in-
duftry, nor perhaps by his talents, than Volpato, who
continued for many years to enrich the public with large
plates, which have obtained him much praife from the critics
and connoilFeurs of the continent, and which are engraved
after the very fined piftures that have been produced fince
the revival of art.

Tiiis was a noble race for an engraver to run, and his
pv.pil and fon-in-law Raphael Morghen is now following
with fuperior brilliancy in the fame courfe.

The works of Volpato have been the febjeft of eulogium
with Roll, Huber, and fome other of the German, French,
and ItaHan writers upon art, but, in the ellimation of the
prefent writer, are deficient in richnefs and variety, and are
more the refult of mechanical care and patient indullry, than
of tafte and feehng. His liglits efpecially, when compared
with thofe of Gerard Audran, Giacomo Frey, fir Robert
Strange, or his countryman Schiavonetti, of wliom we are
Iibont to ipct-li, :;rc either j;apery, or cold and metallic.
TUore is no playfuluefs of pencil ; no evidence of a mind

that glows and moves through its work with painter-like
fehcity, but the fpeftator is perpetually reminded o; the
rigid and undeviating courfe of the graving-tool ; and
though the chade forms and pathos of Raphael will always
give a certain value to the works of Volpato, and even afford
fome argument in favour of the di-ynefs of his ftyle, pofterity
will not place him in the very firii rank of engravers.

Indeed, fo dead was our artift to the more exquifite fuf-
ceptibilities of his art, er fo eager for the obtinment of
profit, that (like thofe in our own country wlio have con-
verted Macbeth into a burletta) he joined with Du Cros, and
his little fchool of petty colourers, in a fcheme for painting
over with water colours, his fmaller fets of engravings from
the gallery of Caracci at the Farnefe palace, and the Loggio
and Stanzas of Raphael at the Vatican, bellces fome fets of
prints on a larger fcale, of views in Rome and its en-

Now, in works of this kind, the addition of colour, ef-
pecially if fome of tlie pigments employed be opaque, (as is
the cafe in the coloured prints of Volpato,) inevitably
dellroys the beauty of the engraving, which in its tuni mars
tliat of the colours. It is, therefore, a mode of mutual"
dellruction in art, which is juftly regretted by thofe who
know, or who believe, that the art of engraving is capable
of becoming, of itfelf and without extnnfic addition, an
appropriate vehicle for rendering every perfection that
painting has yet attained.

In England we are but emerging from the millakes into-
which coloured works of this kind, aided by the cupidity of
dealers, had plunged the national tade. and we tiierefore
may at lead dand excufed, if we dwell upon the misfortune
to art that mud enfue when a didinguifhed profeffor joins
his efforts with thofe of the midaken fons of commerce, to
break down the natural barriers between one art and another,
and obliterate the delicate hnes of demarcation which the
finger of fcience has traced upon the orb of the inteliettual
world.

" According to an ancient fable, which has an excellent
moral, the hindering mufic of Pan did for a while feem fuc-
cefsfuily to filence the chade harmony of Apollo ; and as
tlie fenfes of the vulgar, we knou-, are powerfully affailed
by red, blue, and yellow, however " idly fpread," it may
yet be fome time before the multitude are fufiiciently in-
formed, entirely to difcard coloured engravings ; but as
even the tea-gardens have at length lliut out coloured datiies,
we cannot defpair. Tiiough the gaudy bubble may float
awhile in the denfe atmofphere with which fadiion has fur-
rounded and chilled the fphere of Britifli engraving, it will
fooner or later burft ; and though fome few, perhaps more
than a few, (hallow and inaccurate obfervers mav for a time
be pleafed to their coft, all mechanical modes of picture-
making will eventually fink into contempt, and painting and
engraving will triumph as didinft and feparate arts.

"As we frequently hear the uninformed talk as if they con-
ceived the highed effort of painting was merely to copy na-
ture as nature appears to them, fo it is very common to hear
unreflefting people fpesk of engraving, as if it were no
other than an art of copyir.g that of painting ; which,
though a great midake, is yet a very pardonable midake on
the part of thofe who have been led into it, when we con-
iider the date in which the art of engraving has hitherto
exided, and the difliculties, and the degradation, under
which, in this country, it has hitherto laboured.

" Now engraving is no more an art of copying painting,
than the EngHfli language is an art of copying Greek oc
Latin. Engraving is a diftincl language of art ; and though
it may bear fuch refemblance to painting in the condruilion

of

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

•f its grammar, as grammars of languages bear to each
other, yet its alphabet and idiom, or mode of expreffion,
are totally different ; if Englifli be made the vehicle of tlie
fame thoujihti which have previoufly been imparted to us by
painting, i: affords the means of affefting our minds in the
fame manner ; this fimilar aftec\ion of the mind has L-d to
the miftakc, and little doubt may be entertamed but that
Englilli would have been inconfiderately called an art of
copying Greek, if wc had nevor read any other EngUflithan
tranllations from the Greek.

" The pretenfions of engraving, as of all the arts denomi-
nated fine, are fimplc, chade, unfophilHcated. Art ever
difdains artifice, attempts no impofition, but honelHy claims
attention, as being what it is. A ilatue is to be looked at
as being a ftatue, not a real figure ; a picture, not as a portion
of aftual nalure ; a print, not as a copy of painting.

" Engravings, therefore, fuch as thofe of Volpato, are no
more copies of Raphael's original piilures, than the fame
compofitions, if fculpturcd, or modelled in low relief, would
be copies. In both cafes, they would be, not copies, but
tranjlations from one language of art into another language
of art.

" But abfurdity bloiToms luxuriantly, when engrafted on an
original (lock of error ; and this vulgar and erroneous notion,
that an engraving is a copy of a painting, has been affidu-
oufly cultivated by the avarice or ignorance of the dealer? in
prints, who always follow and pamper the taile of the iiiob,
be it ever fo depraved, provided it be profitable. That grafs
was green, and that foldiers' coats were red, was known to
tlie moft ignorant of the gaping multitude, and has given
wings to credulity, and currency to empiricifm. Neither is
it of the fmallelx importance whether ignorance or the un-
principled love of gain have contributed moft to the produc-
tion of this effedt, fince the public tafte in either cafe has
equally fuffered. It is error fufficicntto call for animadver-
fion here, if the print-fellers, (poflefEng, or pofi'efled by, this
miftaken notion, and with the view of making the copy, in
their own vulgar eltimation, approach nearer to its original,)
have caufed colours to be literally and barbaroufly added to
engraving : for to colour a legitimate engraving is not lefs
palpably abfurd to an eye of talkful diicemment, than it
would be to colour a diamond, which, as every- one knows,
would but obfcure the native brilliancy and beauty of the
ftone. And if a good engraving muft thus fuffer by being
coloured, fo neither can bad ones be thus converted to good
pictures : at the utmoll, nothing better than a fort of mule
prodiidlion, (fuch as thofe by \clpato and Ducros, which
have fuggeiled the iniroduftion of thefe remarks) can thus
be generated, though with much more of the afs than the
norfe in its conftitution." Landfeers Lectures.

Again, thefe obfervations acquire force in a compound
ratio to the merits in point of colouring, of the pitlurcs
from which coloured plates may be engraven. For example,
Fyt, Teniers, and Vandyke are among the number of thofe
painters who are juftly cileemed inimitable for the beauty
and harmony of their colours, and dextrous management of
their pencils. If children could be brought, even in the
way of copying, to pencil and colour like Fyt, Teniers,
and Vandyke, thofe mailers would lofe their high reputa-
tion, and this part of the painter's art would be in confe-
quence fo depreciated, as to become of very little value.
To pretend, therefore, to emu'ate the merits of a finely co-
loured and beautifully pencilled picture, fo as to meet the
eye, and merit a place in the cabinet, of a man of tafte, — and
to do this on prints, by the fcore or by the hundred, — is little
Icfs ridiculous than to talk of a machine for playing on the
violin or organ, or of a mill for making verfes.

We (hall notice the works of this popular engraver, Nearly
in the order in which they were produced.

While at Venice, and under the tuition of Bartolo/.zi, he
engraved

Portraits, of the doge Fofcarini, and the procurator
Pafcal, of folio fize, after Bartolo//,i ; a fet of four from
the Old Teftament, in folio, from drawings by Baitolozzi,
after the original pifturcs by Amiconi, of which ihf fub-
jefts are, i. " The Finding of Mofes ;" 2. Liiban foarch-
ing for his Idols ;" ^. " The Servitude of Abraham," and
4. " Mofes erefting an Altar to the Lord.'' Eight convrr-
fational fubjeds, in fmall folio, after Muiotti ; " The Or-
gies, or Feaft of Bacchus," an hiilorical landfcape, done
for Wagner, after Zuccarelli ; "A Philofcpher proilrate
before an Altar, furrounded by Ruins," from the fame
mailer, both in large folio ; an Italian landfcape, with
filhers ; another landfcape, and peafants ; all from Zucca-
relh ; and two landfcapes after the elder Brand, ali of large
folio fize.

Plates engraved at Reme. — " The Four Sibyls of the
Church of St. JVIary of Peace," after Raphael, in luge
folio ; " The Marriage of Alexander and Roxana," fro.-i
tlie fame painter ; " Modefty and Vanity," after L. da
Vinci, in fquare folio ; •< Perl'cus delivering Andromeda."
from P. de Caravaggio ; " Our Saviour praying on tlse
Mount of Olives,' from Coregglo, in hrge folio ; «• Mary
Magdalen walhing the Feel of Our Saviour at tl e Table i^i
Simon the Pharifee," after P. Veronefe ; " The Marriage
of Cana," after Tinloret, both of large folio fize ; and
" The Gamefters," after M. A. de Caravaggio, in folio ;
all of which were for Hamilton's collection.

The Piaures of the Vatican, by RaJ>/.<aeI,et:^raveJ in ihs line
maimer, on a very large J'cak. — "The Sthoul of Athens;"'
" The Difpute on the Holy Sacrament," or "Theology ;"
" Heliodorus chaced from the Temple of Jerufaleni ;"
" The Progrefs of Attila arreftcd at the Appearance of
St. Peter and St. Paul ;'' " St. Peter delivered from
Prifon;" " Mount Parnafl'us ;" and "The Burning ot
the City of Rome." " The Miracle of the M;;fs of Bol-
fenna," belonging to this fet, is by Raphael Moigheu, the
fon-in-law and pupil of Volpato.

Suh]etls from -various Italian Painters, all i-eiy large. —
" The Defcent from the Ciofs," from a painting by Ra-
phael, in the Borghefe palace ; " The Holy Vir,,in," named
" La Saggiola of Florence," from the fame painter ; " The;
Holy Virgin of St. Mark," after Fra. Bartolomeo ; " The
Marriage of the Virgin," from Guercino ; " Piety, or
the Virgin of Pity ;" "n<l " Aurora," both from i^idurcs
by GueVcino, in the Villa Ludovifi ; "Day" and "Niglit,"
which form a fet with the Aurora,' by the fame painter ;
" The Crucifixion," from a picture by Guido, in the chuivh
of St. Lorenzo, in Lucina ; " The Venus" of Paolo Vero-
nefe, from the gallery of the Colonna palace ; two fubjefts,
■with children, from Mohi ; a pair from the firft naviga-
tor of Gefner, after F Gianni ; another pair aft-r the fame
painter, taken fro.m Gcfner's Idyllia ; two landfcapcs from
Claude Lorraine, of which the ori)>inals were in the Colonna
palace ; a fet of fix, or rather three pairs, after Gavin Ha-
milton, of which the fubjcds are i. " The Death of Lucrc-
tia ;" 2. " Innocence," a plate of confiderable m.crit and beau-
ty; 5. " Juno ;" 4. " Hebe ;" 5. " II Pcnforofo ;' 6. " L'AI-
legro," and the two prophets and two fibyls, from Michael
Angelo's pitlures in the Silline Chapel.

The following are of fmaller Dimenfions A fet of thirty-
fix, in fmall folio, from the antique ftatues, with the dimen-
fions, &c. an elementary work f<ir ftudents in the arts ; a fet
from the Farnefe gallery, confiding of tlirce larger and three
4 B i Imdler

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

fmaller plntes, coloured ; a fet of eight views at Tivoli, felfifh advantage of the yielding fimplicity of Schiavonetli'
coloured byDucrosand his afliftants ; another fct of twenty and the credulity of Bartobzzi, with tht view of convert-
views in Rome and its vicinity, coloured in the fume manner, ing to his own ufe and profit the abilities of the former, and
both folio books ; another of fourteen ditto ; another fet of the hofpitality of the latter ; and as the accufed party lins
forty, from the Mufeuni Clementinum ; another fct, printed publicly required time for the collcftion of fuch documents
on four iarge (heets, from Raphael and Julio Romano. as might exculpate him from the cliargc, uliich documents

It is much to the honour of modern Italy, that we have he has not yet produced: -in fuch a ftate of evidence, it
to ciofe our catalogue of its fchool of engravers with the may be fufficient to fay of our engraver, that, after enduring
mention of two ftars, than which no brighter have flione in fome further difficulties and difaripoin.tments, and after re-
the hemifphere of the art. fiding a while under the roof, and receiving the inftrntlion,

Luigi or Lewis Schiavonctti, v,-as born at BalTano, in of Mr. Bartolozzi, he, in concert with his brother Nicholas,
the Vcneiian territory, in the year 1 76 J. His father was commenced an independent eftablifliment.
aftationer, whofe moderate circun. (lances enabled him to give From Bartolozzi's houfe at Northend, lie removed to
to his cin-ht children, the eldefl; of wliom was Lewis, n ufe- Sloane fquare, and from thence to Brompton, where he
ful but limited education. From his infancy he had a .afte continued, to the j'onr of his death, to cultivate and im-
for drawing, and while his companions wei-e at play, he was prove the talent that Providence had bcftc-wed on bin-., nn-
often feen "kneeling on a llool in his fatlier's fliop, copying cheered by the funfhinc of patronage: — or cheered, orcl.illcd,
prints. By thefe, and fuch other means as he pofiefled, he by fuch patronage only as confifted with the purblind vit^vs
attained fuch prolkicncy. that Julius Golini, (an ab!e painter, of commercial fpeculators, and expofed to the thoufaud
to whom fome of thele early attempts were flicwn,) under- natneiefs wrongs,
took to in!lrua_hini in tlie art of drawitjg. <. That patient merit from th' unworthy takes."

At the age ot tmrtecn, Lewis was placed under his care, ^ '

and the high opinion which he had formed of the boy's ge- Some time about the year 1792, he entered into a part-
iiius, was confirmed by the rapid progrcfs he made, while nerfi-iip with certain printfellers, of which he had foon reafon
Lis amiable diipofition endeared him fo much, that Gohni to repent ; and, the partnerfliip being diffolved, and himfelf
loved him as his own fon. After three years, however, of in poifeffion of fome few engraved plates, he difmifi'cd a
iifeful initriiclion on the one part, and docile attention on youn:;er brother to the continent en a printfelling miffion^
the other, his tutor, unfortuna'ely for our young artiil, was whicii alfo ended in dif^ppointment : for, the wretched va-
atratked by a mortal difeaf?. Lewis attended him during cillation of Pruffian po'itics, and the inroads of French am-
his illnefs with filial afliduity, received with becoming reve- bitiun, foon fwept av,-ay the younger Schiavonctti from
rcnce his iying counfcl and admonitions, and had tlie heart- Berhn, which had been fixed upon as the head-quarters of
piercing grief to fee his mailer expire in his arms. their commerce.

Being nuv.-left to purfue his own courle, or sffifted only During the lliort interval of peace between this country
by fuch advice as could be obtained in a town where Gohni and France, he availed himfelf of the opportunity of vifiting
had been the only painter, he turned his views towards count Paris, with the twofold objeft in view,— of i-.r.provlrig his
Remaudini, who, though ennobled by this title, is proprietor natur.l talent, of which he never loft fight,.— and, obtaining-
(as it fiiould feem) of an extenfive typographical and chal- fuch tree accefs to the galiery of the Louvre, which was
cographical concern, and has infcribed on marble how much then thrown open to the public and fuppofed to contain the
he feels himfeif honoured by having pubhrtied fome of the fined piftures in Europe, as might cna! le him to gratify
works of Bartolozzi and Volpato. himfelf with the pleafure and advantage of feledting one cr

The works of thefe dillinguilhed artifts gave frefh impulfe mors fubjeCts to engrave, fnited to his own abilities. This
to young Schiavonetti's ardour for improvement, and becon> is a ijratification in which engravers of genius are but too
ing acquainted about this time with one Lorio, an indifferent rarely indulged. The difficulties and delicacies of folicitar
engraver, who was barely competent to -.each the mechanical tion, the demands of commerce, and the purblind ilate of
procefs of the art, he applied to him for inllruftion. Un- Enghlh patronage, (which, with all its benevolence, and alt
able to fupport himfelf and family by his graver atone, Lo- its power, has not yet emancipated itfelf from the milhikes
rio oificialed as faeriftan to a church, and could ofier our and the fetters of trade,) are bars which, in this country,
ai-tiil no better accommodation for a ftudy than the facrilly none have been able to overleap : yet nothing is more men-
afforded, but which, his circumilanccs not allowing him to t.tlly obvious, than that other rtien can only judge of the
apply elfewhere, he was obliged to accept. talents of an engraver by what he has done, while the fecl-

Schiavcmetti remained, with this matter about twelve ings of the engraver himfelf, if he has any, inform him., at
months, when finding he had exhaulled his fund of inllruc- the fight of a gallery of fine piclures, v.diat latent gern:S cf
tion, and feeling an averfion to ftudying occafionally among genius or talent he ir.ay poifefs, aJ.equate to the ta!k of
dead bodies, he refolved to alter his fitnation. A copy tranflating fuch of them as are panned with a fpirit con-
which he had executed in the line manner, of a Holy Fa- genial to his own ; what elements it^ra the intfllcctnal chaos
mily, from Bartolozzi's print after Carlo Maratti, gained of his untried powers m.ay be called into exillence ; how far,
lum employment from count Remaudini, and attraded the through his means, the boundauies of the art itfelf may be
notice of another printfeller of Baffano, of the name of extended.

Suntach ; and between thefe rival printfellers it is probable The fliortnefs, ho-wevcr, of that lucid interval, marred, in
that Schiavonctti might have long continued lo exill on fome degree, the excellence of our artiil's defign, and com-
fuch patronage as confilled with their views of profit, but pelled him to compromife with the ir.adnefs cf Enrope, and
for the kinder and more adva;itageous notice of fome Ve- his ov^-n '.mtoward fortune. One of the fnbjedts wiiich he
iielian noblemen, and the occurrence of tliofe circumilances fixed upon was the Madre Di.lorofa of Vandyke: but the-
wliich ended in his migration to England. return of war left liim no alternative but to endeavour to

As thefe circumilances have been detailed in print, in fatisfy himfelf as well as he could with a copy by another
fuch a manner as to (ligmatife a certain naturalized fnbjeft hand. The copy did not turn out very ciirreft ; yet fro.n
uf tbefe redms with the reproach of having taken mean and this indifl'crcnt copy, aided bv Bolfwert's print from t'ne

4 ' fan,e

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

fame on'ginal, and his own ftrong rccolledions of Vandyke's
picture, has Schiavonetti produced an engraving of very ex-
traordinary merit, though on a much fmaller fcale than lie
had originally projoftcd. What he intended to have en-
graven on an ample f';ale, for liimfelf and the public at large,
he was compelled by circumllances, which legiflators and
patrons would do well to attend to, to enijrave fmall, and
part with to the proprietors of the Freiich national mufeum.

A very few years before his death, he formed an inten-
tion, -which he communici.ted to his friends, of returning to
Italy, or at leall of removing to a more fo\;therly climate;
not that any ferious apprclienfions were then entertained on
the fcore of his delicate health, but becaufe he felt the
weight of taxes, and the want of encoiiragemont : and, per-
haps,— obferving how well the quackeries of mountebank
pretenfion fuccecded in this metropolis, and feeling how ill
merit in his profeflion was rewarded, — he thought there was
iefs of folid appreciation among us, than rea.Iy exifled.
What delayed his departure, or altogether withheld him
from going, the prefent writer can only conjecture ; for he
was (hortly after difappointed of engraving a large p'ate
from Mr. Devis's picture of " The Death of Lord Nel-
fon," — not bccaufe the fifteen hundred guineas, which he
required for tl:e performance of the taflc, was too much, —
but becaufe the fum which Mr, Bromley afked was too
little. Perhaps he lingered here, and only delayed his de-
parture on account of the continental war, and confeq-.ent
difficulties of emigration ; or, perhaps, he had reafim latterly
to entertain a better opinion of the taile and apprccia ion of
the Brjtifh public than he iiad before conceived, and began
to find himfeif and his talents more an object of attention than
his modefty had allowed him to fufped.

That l;e did nut go, is, on the whole, to be regretted,
as the foft air and genial climate of Italy would probably
have lengthened his life ; and with length of life, his re-
putation would have increafed, and the public at large have
been proportionably benefited : for it has been julUy faid of
his latter produttions, that they were m.arked by a wonder-
ful degree of improvement, and that, had his life been pro-
longed, the fruits of this improvement would probably have
been multiplied in abundance. The circumftance of his
premature death gives, therefore, frcfli caufe to lament tliat
the patrimony and the acquifition of genius are unalienable,
and can never be bequeathed ; and that talents, however
rich, and however verfatile, muil inevitably perilh with
their poffe'ror.

Ke'd.ed at his houfe at Brompton, of a pulmonary com-
plaint, which had for feme time been gradually undermining
his conftitution, en the 14th day of June i8jc, and was at-
tended to his grave, in Paddington church-yard, by a long
and numerous proccflion of artiils and amateurs, who loved
and honoured his merit as an artiiV and his probity as a man.

In his perfon, Schiavonetti was rather tall ;, the fine pro-
portion in the diviUons of his figure gave him a graceful
movement ; his manners were gentle ; in his addrefs tliere
was fweetnefs and affability ; and perfuafion hung on his
lips. He was dignified without aufterity, and meek with-
out infipidity. tils whole deportment was marly. H.'s
amiable modelly of character, equability of temper, and
promptnefs to oblige, won the goodwill of all who faw and
converfed with hlr.t. In company with his brother artiils,
he feemcd unconfi.i->;:s of bis own fuperiorily :. though fitted
to rank with the higheft, he exaAed no diiliaCtion of notice,
but kept himfcif on a level with the lowcll ; and by
the deference with which he fpoke his opinions, made
every one feel at cafe in his fociety. This urbanity of
manaero, is but too cc.nitnonly au eslriiific accomgliramtnt ;

but in him it was the unaffefted exprcfiion of innate goodnefi
of heart, and liberality of mind. It was not the varnifh of
a coarfe material, but the polifli of a fine one. Many ads
of his private life might be adduced in fupport of what is
here faid m his praife : — one may he feledled that exhibits a
trait iilullrative of his whole charader. As foon as he be-
gan to derive proiit from his profeflion, he devoted a portior*
of it to the fupport of his poorer relatives in Italy; ai.d of
late years he conilantly remitted to liis ajed parent a llipend
fufiicient to enfure him ecmfort and refpcftabiliiy.

The lame energy and- elegant fimplicity, which was ob-
fervable in the perfonal charadler of our artift, predominated
alfo in his engravings. He poflefled, in very high perfec-
tion, that lirlt reqv.ifite both in painting and engraving,
freedom blended with accuracy of delineation. This power,
united to the grace and dignity which charafteri/.ed his ft vie,
enabled him to treat every fubjedl on which he exercifed his.
talents, with a truth, diftindtnefs, and propriety of exprcf-
fion, rarely to be found in the works of other artiils. By
a varied choice of models, and a bold and independent habit
of thinking, in particular, by fixing his attention ilrongly on
the merits of tiie beft works of our countrymen Strange
and Sharp, he enfranchifcd his mind from the dogmas of
fchool diicipUnc, (which h faid without any particular re-
ference to his early tutors,) and ilood forth an original, and -
if not a ftlf-taught, a felf-reformed engraver. In the works
of common artiils, we fee only the labour of the hand ; but
in his, the li:i: a is maniR illy direfted and controlled by the
mind. \\ ';;::!atum, was only his inftrument :

he haml > ,1 command ; he thought aver if

with nic;- ; and as flagnation in the world of

art, as well asm t!ij phyfical «or!d, engenders corruption,!
a;'.d as mcnmr is the corruption of Jiyk, Schiavonetti has
entitled himfeif to all the praife that Mr. Cromek (from
whofe m.cmoir of this artift our account is partlj- exttacled)
has bellow-ed on him, for the dignified cafe with which he
kept far aloof from that mechanical famencfs on all occa-
fions, which we denote by this term,, and for always prc-
ferving that fuperintending mental delicacy, that florc of
knowledge, and that fine Rate of nerves, which enabled him
to vary and adapt tiie language of his art to the peculiar
beauties and merits ot the various originals, which iro:n
time to time he had to tranfiatc. Some of his Iefs informed
critics have praifed the iiauty of his manual execution. It
is beautiful ; but to fay io, is like praifing the perfonal
beauty of Lncretia. Dazzled by the fun-beams which
glitter on its furface, they fathom not the depth, and know
not the navigable benefits, of the current.- But perhaps
pollerity will but gradually learn to appreciate his merits as
they deterve^

That his powers were not Iefs verfatile than vigoroi;s,
may be fcen by comparing his etchings with his chalk en-
gravings, and both with his cxquifitely finiflied plates in
lines ; of which latter, owing to the bad tallc that has hither-

'r

liled fince lis arrival in this countirv, the 1

unfortunately fmall.

His principal eit^rav'wgs in the Chall mcnr.tr, are, two, of
"The Five Stnfes," which, with the frontifpiecc, form a fet

of fix plates, in fmall folio, all from his own deligns ; " The
•ling Thunder,' • af'er R. Weib.ll, R. A. for Bo y-

ot lix pi:
Meffiahl

dell's edition of Milton, large xto. ; " '1 he Body of Tippc
Sultan recognized by his Family, after theCaptmcof Seringa-
patam," from R. K. Pcrter, in large foho; a fet of iheCriesof
London, in large 4to.; three, of a fet of the fiirr:m ents, after
R. Wellall; " Puck, fcated on aMufiircom," atlcr fir Joduia.
Reynolds ; a fit of four folio plates, from the dcfgns of Be-
nnzcch, of " The Sulaniigs of Louis XA I. during his Cap-
tivity

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

uivity in the Temple;" " Queen Elizabeth receiving News of
the Death of Queen Mary of Scotland,'' after R. Weftal' ;
" The red Slippei.,'' from the fame painter ; two folio plates
for Boydell's Shakfoearo, of which, one in particular, '-The
two Gentlemen of Voror.a," afttr Angelica Kauffman, is a
very capital print. The name and taler.ts of Schiavonetti were
but little known when lie unilr^took this plate, and he en-
gajjed to engrave it for thi> low price of two hundred and
eighty guineas. It is to the credit of the late Mr. Boydell,
that he voluntarily increafed this ftir: to three hundred.
The portraits of Albert Rubens, after Rubens, in folio ;
the queen of Pruffia, after Tifjhbien ; and the d'.ike of
York, after J. Boyle, both in foIi;» ; Mrs. Damer, after Cof-
way, in ^to. ; and the right honourable W. Pitt, and
lady Cawdor, in fmall folio, after Edridge.

But far beyond thefe in merit and importance, is a large
folioprint of "The Landing of the BritiftiTroops under Gen.
Abercrombie, in I'gypt," afa-r de Loutherbourg, in which
■the fire, freedom, and vigorous chiarofcuro (>f that matter
are mod happily rendered, and for the produ&ion of which,
• the fociety in the Adelphi for the Encouragement of Arts,
S:c. did themfelves the honour of prefenting the engraver
with a medal. By a judicious admixture of ftippled hatch-
ings, in imitation of chalk drawing when performed by the
■hand of a mailer, Schiavonetti has here revived with fupe-
rior brilliancy and effed, the real chalk manner of engraving,
which we cull thus in contradiftiuelion to Ryland's art of
imitating llumpted drawings, or what the French aptly term
"en maniere de crayon noir, ' and has even enlarged the
former boundaries of this mode of art. On the whole,
this is probably the moll perfed chalk-engraving that has
yet been executed, and of itfelf, would be a monument of
■reputation in this branch of the art.

The chief of his eicLhigs arc, a fet of twelve, in fmall
■:.folip, from drawings by W. Blake, of which the fubjeds
are taken from Blair's poem of the Grave. Thefe are works
of great merit, and (as we venture to pronounce) of hilling
.reputation ; and though it be too true, that, in the v.ords of
.this poet

■♦' The bed concerted fcliemes men lay for fame
Die fait away ; only tliemfelves die faller:"

■they yet prove, in oppofition to his leading fentimcnt, that
it is not

" Abfurd to think to over-reach the grave.

And from the wreck of names to rcfcue our's."

Faithfully adhering to the charader of art that is im-
•plied by the term etrhing, Schiavonetti is here fliglit and
ilcetchy, and has produced hi-3 effeds chiefly by the opera-
tion of aquafortis, with his ufual fine feelmg, and a con-
genial unftudied limplieity of flyle. The eye of difcern-
•ment immediately fees that the fame high finifhing which he
bellowed on his plates after Vandyke, was never intended,
and that what was intended is precifely accomplilhed.

Of this feries of meritorious etchings, which were printed
with Blair's poem and an able preface by the profeflbr
Fufeli, and publithcd by Mr. Cromek, the fubjeds are
i. The Defcent of Chrift into the Grave ; 2. The Defcent
of Man into the Vale of Death ; 3. Death's Door ; 4. The
ftrong and wicked Man dying; 5. Tiie good old Man
dying ; 6. The Soul hovering over the Body ; 7. The Soul
lexploriug the RecelTes of the Grave ; 8. The Counfellor,
King, Warrior, Mother, and Child in the Tomb ; 9. The
Skeleton re-animatcd; 10. The Re-union of Soul and Body;
^1. A family Meeting in Heaven ; and 12. The Laft .f udg-
ineat. Thefe are preceded by a portrait of Mr. W. Blake,

the poetic defigner of the work, after T. Phillips, R. A.
in which our engraver has manifelled great judgment and
tafte. It is alfo an etching, treated in the vignette ftyle,
with fmall afTiftance from the gr.iver and dry-point, where a
certain degree of mellownefs or blending were wanted, and
the whole brought to a focus in the animated and thinking
countenance which is the proper fubjed of the print. Two
etchings after Caracci, in folio, were afterward finilhed in
aquatinta, for Mr. Chamberlayne's work from the Royal
coiledion ; two unpubliflied large folio plates of " The De-
parture, and the Return, of the Savoyard Muficians,"
flight, but performed with fingular felicity.

Fini/hed Engravings — " Tl\e Madr^* Dolorofa," or dead
Chrill on the Lap of his Mother, after Vandyke, which he
engraved in fmall folio, for the French publication, after
their national gallery at Paris, is of a dillinil clafs and cha-
rader, from the above ; more elaborate, more difficult of
accompliihment, and combining merits of a loftier and more
exquilite kind.

Here the mellow and harmonious mixture of etching,
with the work of the graver and dry needle ; the various
combinations, by means of thefe inftruments, of clear, broken,
comtrafted, and partially obfcured, lines and ttipphng, by
which he has expreSi'ed in their refpedive degrees of fubor-
dination to the purpofe of the painter, rock, fKy, hair, white
and coloured draperies, and, above all, the anatomical
markings, carnation tints, and flelhy texture, of the exqui-
fitely tinidied naked figure of Jefus Chrift, are truly ad-
mirable 1 and if not unparalleled, have certainly not been
fiirpaffed. Nor are the extremities of every figure in the
compofition rendered with lefs of tafte, knowledge, or (Icill.
Bolfwert had engraved a larger print of this fubjed from
Vandyke'.'! original pidure, a print of great merit ; and to
a nice oblerver, it is interefting to compare the details of the
two engravings, and fee how feduloufly, and with what de-
licacy of difceriiment, the Italian artill has avoided every
error, and improved every beauty, of the Fleming.

It is exceedingly to be regretted that among the works
of Schiavonetti, we find fo few of this inimitable clafs, for
no man more than he, has united the excellencies which
muft enter into the conftitution of a highly finifhed en-
graving. Another of thei'e highly finiftied engravings,
wliich is alfo after Vandyke, and of large 4to. fize, is a
portrait of the painter himfeif, habited as a peafant, and
the fame general obi'ervations will apply to both, for both
are admirable epitomes of the powers of Vandyke ; of the
latter it has been truly faid, that " its excellencies will be
found to confill in its being at the fame time a complete
epitome of the original pidure and of the powers whicli an
engraver of genius can difplay upon fo conllned a fubjed as
a half length figure, without landfcape, llcy, or any other ac-
companiment of back ground. It is throughout quite a.s well
drawn as Vandyke's original; the texture of flefli is as
perfedly exprefl'cd, with all its varieties and inflexions of
furface and chiarofcuro ; nor is the drapery lefs well fell
and underftood, nor fcarcely lefs fltilfully engraven, than tlic
naked parts of the figure ; all are fufiiciently finhhed, but
without petty trickery, or vain labour, and the eye fparkles
with all the fire of Vandyke's."

Thefe remarks are taken from "The Review of Art,"
(vol. i. p. 40 ) which proceeds to Hate what is equally ap-
pHcable to both thefe engravings after Vandyke, namely,
that " in addition to all their other perfedions, they power-
fully fuggeft the idea of colour, minghng its magic blan-
dilhments with thofe of light and (hade ; and prcfcnt the
moft perfed example we have yet fcen on paper of the ftyle
of Vandyke's penciUing, and Vandyke is in this rcfpcd the
7 very

ITALIAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

very perfeiMon of (lyle, or at lead approximates the ncareft
to it of any painter whatever, except perhaps Fyt, wlio
exercifed his powers on fubjeds of quite a different
kind."

Another 410. plate, which our artift engraved after a very
excellent picture by R. Smirki.', R. A. as an accompaniment
to Joel Barlow's Columbiad, and of which the fubjeft is
•' The Triumph of the Holy Inquifition ;" fome plates
which he engraved for Sharpe's Britifii ClafTics, and two
for an edition of Homer, after the academicians Fufeli and
Howard, poiTefa merits of a fimilar kind, though, on ac-
count of the fmalliiefs of tiie fcale, they could not be fo cf-
feftually difplayed.

Tiie remainder of his finiflied engravings in lines, are
the hovel fcene in King Lear, after Sinirke ; and two
or three other plates for the fmaller edition of Boy dell's
Shakfpeare, which are among the very bell in that motley
and undigefted work ; and fome fmall portraits, particularly
one of Mr. W. Cunningham (an Irifh gentleman, diftin-
guifhed for his tafte and patronage of the fine arts) ; another,
of a writing mailer, ivell known and diftinguiflied in his pro-

feflion, and a bud of Homer, from the celebrated
the Townleian Collection, all of 8vo. dimenlions.

His falio print, engraved in tlie fourth remove from
Michael Angelo's celebrated Cartoon of Pifa, is of a mid-
dle charadler, lefs elaborate than his prints from the pic-
tures of Vandyke, though fomewhat more fo, than his
etchings after the poetical iketches of Mr. Blake : in fhort,
a graphic tranllation of a Cartoon, or preparatory fludy for
a high-finiflied picture.

His academical knowledge and flcill were here, perhaps
more than in any other of his produftions, called into aftion,
and their ftrength put to the teft. Nothing flood higher in
thefe refpefts than the reputation of the great original,
which is even, by Benvenuto Cellini and other excellent
judges, efteemed the malferpicce of Michael Angelo : and
this high reputation Schiavonetti had not merely to fullain,
hut in fome degree to rellore ; for the Cartoon itfelf being
deftroyed (in a fit of envy, as it is faid, by Bandinelli, who
was entrufted with the key of the apartment where it was
placed,) and the details of its fuperlative merits being
known to us moderns, only through the media of San-
gallo's copies, and the feparate groups which have been en-
graven by Marc Antonio, Agoilino of Venice, and other
contemporary artiils, whofe works we have already enu-
merated under an early part of this article of the Italian
fchool, our engraver felt it to be his duty to collate thefe
verfions and fragments of the Cartoon of Pifa with con-
fcientious fcrupulofity, and, by balancing probabilities, to
reftore what may be called the true clallical reading. An
awful talk ! yet which ho has performed with the ability
and fuccefs of a confummate fcholar in art.

The reader Ihould be apprifed, that the Holkham copy,
which is believed to be the work of Bafliano de Sangallo
(an artill who was never held in any very high degree of
eftimation) was painted in his old age, from a fmall drawing
which he had himfelf copied from the original Cartoon in
the year IJ4.2, during his pupilage. It was made at the
reqiiell of Vafari, and, through means of Monfignor Jovio,
came into the poirefliou of Francis I. of France, who highly
efteemed it ; from his collection it however difappeared, and
no mention is made ot it by the French writers for near
two centuries. It was probably difcovered at Paris, pur-
chafed, and brought to England by the father of the late
marquis To wnlhend.

Schiavonetti had not even this copy to work fruitii but a
Vol. XIX.

copy of this copy, and has therefore, with commendable
regard for his own reputation, and that of Michael Angelo,
and with due refpeft for the public, who always ouglit to
be rightly informed upon fuch occafions, followed the re-
commendation which was publicly laid before him in the
Review of Art, vol. i. and fcratched with his dry needle
under the few proofs which were received as prefents by his
friends, " Engraved by L. Schiavonetti, after a copy
painted by H. Howard, R. A. from da Sangallo's copy of
his own (hidy, after Michael Angelo's cartoon.''

The fame refpeft for truth and the public, which dictated
this recommendation and thii conduct, requires us to men-
tion that Schiavonetti has corrected a general heavir.efs of
drawing which prevails in Mr. Howard's piftnre, which
heaviiiefs that accompliflicd artilt no doubt found in the
Holkham copy, but which is perfectly ir.confiftent both with
the active fentiment of the fubjeft, and the earlier graces
of Michael Angelo's compofition. A foot of one of the
principal figures, which is there turned invs-ard, he has turned
outward ; and, befide fome other minor details, has added
requifite llrength to the hams of the figure who is climbing
the rocky bank of the Arno. Whether our artift had feen
the fmall fragment of Michael Angelo's original, which is
faid to be ilill in exillence at Mantua, or of what part or
parts that fragment may confift, the prefent writer is not
able to fay ; but Schiavonetti was in poiTeffion of various
old prints of its principal groups, of which we have already
fpoken in our accounts of Marc Antonio and his difciples,
and which were executed for the moll part during the life-
time of Michael Angelo, and from comparing them, and'
reflecting on the whole, has ventured on the above emenda-
tions of the extant copies.

As this cartoon of Pifa is efteemed to have been one of
the moll extraordinary works that has been produced fince
the revival of art, the reader will not be difpleafed to find
here the following eloquent account of it, as delivered from
the profelTor's chair of the Royal Academy of London, by
M. Fufeh. It does not in all its details exaftly ti^Hy «'ith
the print, but its general fentiment of impatient anin!.:.tion
and patriotic ardour is precifely the fame. " It rcprefents
an imaginary moment relative to the war carried on by the
Florentines agamft Pifa ; and exhibits a numerous group of
warriors, roufed from their bathing in the Arno, by the
fudden fignal of a war-htirn, and rufliing to arms. In
imagining this tranfient moment from a (late of relaxation
to a ftate of Energy, the ideas of motion, to ufe the bold
figure of Dante, feem to have (liowered into the artift's
mind. From the chief, nearly placed in the centre, who
precedes, and wkofe war-voice accompanies the trumpet,
every age of iiuman agility, every attitude, every feature of
alarm, hafte, hurry, exertion, eageriiefs, burll into fo many
rays, like the fparks flying from a red-hot iron. Many
have reached, fome boldly ftep, fome have leaped, on the
rocky Ihore ; here two arms emerging from the water
grapple with the rock ; there two hands cry for help, aid
their companions bend over or rufli on to alfift them ; ohe;\
imitated, but inimitable, is the ardent feature of the grim
veteran, whofe every finew labours to force over the drip,
ping limbs his clothes, whilft gnadiing, he pufhcs his foot
through the rending garment. He is contrafted by the
(lender elegance of a half averted youth, who feduloufiy
eager buckles the armour to his thigh and methodizes haite ;
another fwings the high-raifcd hauberk on his flioulder,
whilft one who feems a leader, mindlefs of drefs, ready for
combat, and with brandifhcd fpear, overturns a tnird, who
is crouched to grafp a weapon ; one naked, liin-iclf buckle*
• 4B4 on

I T A

on the mail of his companion, and he, turned toward the
enemy, feems to Itamp impatiently the ground. Experience
and rage, old vigour, young velocity, expanded or con-
trafted, vie in exertions of energy ; yet in this fcene of
tumult one motive animates the whole, eagernefs to engage
with fubordination to command ; th.is prelerves the dignity
of action, and from a ftraggling rabble, changes the figures
to men whofe legitimate conteft intereils our wilhes."'

Three plates in lines, which he advanced no further than
the aquafortis ftate, will clofe our lift of the works of this
admired and regretted artift. The firft, in the order of pro-
duclion, is a mailerly etching of large folio fize, after Trum-
bull, of " The Death of General Montgomery," 'which vvas
finifhed by Mr. Clemens (a German artift). It was per-
formed feveral years ago, and difclofed powers which ought
to have made an earlier imprefiion than they did on the eye
and tafte of the public. The next is " The Proceflion of
Chaucer's Pilgrims to Canterbury, ' a large folio plate of tlie
frieze proportions, after a very capital work from the pencil
of the academician Stothard.

Chaftening every ambitious difplay of his own executive
powers ; repreffing every idea and every fcehng that was not
homogeneous with the nature, and proportioned to the de-
mands of the occafion, Scliiavonetti has here, like the hero
of the Odyfley, expreffed, " no more than juft the things he
QUght.'' The fpirit which animated him in the performance
of tiiis work, like that which has animated the painter, feenis

■ to have glided from the elyfium of the great artills of anti-
quity ; there is the fame truth of Nature, and the fame
unollentatious claflic purity of ftyie, pervading the whole ;

♦' Enhght'ning ev'ry line in fuch a guife.
That they feem rather fallen from the ikies
Than of a Mortal hand.''

Since the lamented death of Scliiavonetti, the proprietor
«f this plate has with fome inconlillency ftated to the public,
that, " in the prefent ftate of this etching, confidered with
reference to the peculiar circumftances of the cafe, perhaps
!lo better mode could be devifed of paving an imprefilve and
lading tribute to his memory, and one in which all his ad-
mirers could participate, than by giving it to the public as
he left it, a confecrated monument of his genius;'' he has
before held forth a powerful additional motive to this end,
a motive as powerful as tafte and frienddiip themfelves could
lyive connecled with fnch a pnrpofe, by informing his
readers, that " the inovement of the figtu-es and the ex-
preffion in their heads and charaflers are as finely maintained
in outline, as they could poffibly have been in the moft
fmifhed print," which is pretty ilrong language, yet he has
fince announced Mr. Bromley and himfelf as t'tie finiftiers of
. the plate.

Now, though the prefent writer does not think finiftiing,
in the engraver's art, is thus utterly thrown away, or con-
tributes nothing in addition to an exquifite outline, to the
motions, charaj:ters, and expreffions of a protradlcd group
of' figures, fuch as the Canterbury pilgrims; or though,
'regarding the above as an impaffioncd, or hyperbolic fen-
tehce frofn the pen of Mr, Cromek ; he can make due al-
lowance for the .occafion which gave it birth, he yet thinks

■ the impreiUve atid lalling tribute to the memory of Schia-
vbnetti ftionld have been paid; the monument which his genius
itfelf had raifed ftiould have been confecrated ; and he therefore
regrets thofe views of profit, or thofe hopes of reputation,
g'r thofe ulterior miftakes which have prevented this con-
fummalion. Achilles and Ulyffes could not both be the

-heroes of the fame poem ; and it would have been wife for

I T A

Mr. Bromley, and well for the public, Tor hini to have l5e-
gun his Canterbury pilgrims on a frefti plate of copper.

The next, and the laft: of our artift's performances, was
an etching, of folio dimennons, of the portrait of fir Jofeph
Banks, as prefident of the Royal Society, from a pifture
by T. Philhps, R.A. replete with that truth of charaAer
and mild force of execution, which ufvially diftinguifh the
works of this painter. To detail the merits of this work,
would be but to call forth afrefli our former praifes ; it is as
mafterly a difplay of his talent m the portrait branch of his
art, as the etching of the Canlcrlniry pilgrims is of his merit
in tiie hiilontal. This plate, as we are given to underftand,
is now finifhmg by Nicholas Scliiavonetti, who may natu-
rally be prefunicd to be at leaft as well acquainted with his
brother's ftyle and profefGonal intentions, as any engraver
whatever.

Of Francifco Bar':oloz7,i of Florence, the pupil of Wag-
ner, but more the pupil of Italy and nature, and the prin-
cipal iiiftruiftor of Schiavonetti and Volpato, we fnall fav
but little. He is ftill at upwards of fourfcore years cf
age, confidercd as fpeaking for himfelf by his produClions,
though doomed to linger out the evening of his glorious day,
in Portugal, far from the haunts of ftudious retirement, and
amidft the din of arms. Till nature has clofed her account
with him, what bold auditor fhall prefume to eftimate his
w-orlh ;

Of him and his difciple Schiavonetti^ we have already
fpoken as two of the brighteft ilars iri our graphic hemi-
fphere. The latter has fallen from his zenith ; that Barto-
lozzi may long remain above the horizon, is our fervent
wiih.

But it has been emphatically faid, that " ftars teach as
well as fhine." On the continent of Europe, they teach
and ftiine in vain, while war defolates tlie plains of the
weftern peninfula ; if Ate flings wide and wild her torch, in
vain exift the charms and the leiTuns of art : in vain are the
heavens ferene, if an earthquake rages below.

ITALIC, or Italxax Hours, are the twenty-four hours
of the natural day accounted from the fun fetting of one day
to the fame again the next day.

This way of reckoning was ufed by the Jews of old, and
is ufed by the Itahans to this day.
.Italic CharaSir, in Printing. See Letteij.

Italic Sttl, is the name of a party of ancient philofo-
phers founded by Pythagoras ; fo called, becaufe that phi-
lofupher taught in Italy, fpreading his doftrine among the
people of Tarentum, Metapontu.'i, Heraclea, Naples, &c.
See Pythagoiuc StS.

ITALY, in Geography and Hijlory. In ancient geo-
graphy, this country, the moft celebrated in Europe, was
denominated Italia. It is bounded on the N. and N.W.
by the Alps ; on the E. by the mare Supernm, that is, the
Adriatic gulf, or gulf of 'Venice ; on the W. by the mare
Inferum, or Tufcan fea ; and on the S. by the Ionian
fea adjacent to Greece. In form, it has been compared to
the fliape of a boot, lying in an oblique direction from
N.W. to S.E. From the Alps to the fretum Siculum, or
ftrait of MefTina, it extends from 47- to 37° 45' N. lat. or
about nine degrees. In breadth it is very unequal, in fome
places not exceeding 2°, and in others upwards of 8 long. ;
lu-iice its length from N. to S. is about 6co miles, and its
breadth varies from t to 300 miles or more. It has borne
at different periods very different names. One of its moft
ancient names was Italia, either from Italus, a king of that
country, not known in hiftory, or from a Greek- word
fignifying an ox, aa animal very common in that part of

the

ITALY.

the country. It was denominated " Hefpcria," on account
of its weiiern ficuation in refpect to Greece ; " Satiirnia,"
from Saturn ; " Latium," from the Latiiii ; << Aufonia,"
from the A'jfones ; " Oeiiotria," from a tribe feilled be-
tween Picllum and Tarentum. Thefe names were originally
appropriated to particular provinces, but in procefs of
time they were applied to the whole country, wliich has
been denominated the garden of Europe. The ancient in-
habitants called thcmfelves aborigines, offspring of' the foil ;
and the country was, at a very vaily period, peopled by
colonies from Greece. The Peiafgi and Arcadians made
fettle:iients there, and the whole country was divided into
35 many ditfercnt governments as there were tow!i<!, till
the rapid increafe of the Roman power changed the fai;c
of Italy, and united all the ftates in fupport of one com-
mon caufe. (See RovF. ) Under the dominion of the
Gauls and Greeks, Italy, in reference to its inhabitants,
was divided into " Gallia Cifalpin.i," " Italia Propria,"
and " Grecia Magna:" the lirft comprehended the pro-
vinces lying^ between the Alps, and the Rubicon ; the
fecond included the intermediate provinces ; and the third
thofe adjacent to Sicily and Greece, and inhabited chiefly
by Grecian colonies. It was divided into eleven fmail pro-
vinces or regions by AuguRu": ; but according to the com-
mon and moil approved divifion, ancient Italy conCiitcd of
two parts, viz. " Gallia Cifalpina," and " Italia Propria :"
the former, likewife called " Gallia Italica," and foine-
times " Galiia," was bounded on the N. by Rhastia, and
on the S. by the finns Ligufticus, or gulf of Genoa. This
province, while under the Roman dominion, contained le-
veral tribes, which will be noticed in their places. Italia
Propria was on all fides furrounded by the fca, except on
the N. where it was bounded by an imaginary line, extending
from the mouth of the Macra to that of the Rubicon.
It contained, among others, the following provinces, -viz.
Etruria, Sabinsm, Latium, Campania, Samnium, Apulia,
MeiTapia, Lucania, and Brutium. During the middle ages
Italy underwent many revolutions, and frequently changed
its mailers. In the reign of Honorius the Viligoths, under
the command of Alaric, penetrated into that fertile coun-
ry, which they plundered from the foot of the Alps to the
ftrait of Sicily. The reign of the Goths in Italy ended in
Tela, Totila's fon, who was defeated and .lain by Narfes
in the year ^^^. Italy now became a province of the
Greek empire. The I..ombards were a fierce nation, firft
difcovered between the Elbe and the Oder, from thence
they defcended to the fouth and the Danube. They after-
wal-ds palTed the Danube, wandered along the coall of the
Adriatic, and in the year 566, aided by the Avari, a
Scythian horde, they undertook the conquell of Italy.
Many provinces were added to their dominions, as a large
portion of the Venetian territory, Tyrol, Milanefe, Pied-
mont, the coall of Genoa, Mantua, ]?arma, and Modena,
the grand duchy of Tufcany, together with a confiderable
portion of the ecclefiallical llate.

Italy, in the modern acceptation of the word, includes
both main land and iilands. The former, by geographers,
is commonly divided into upper, middle, and lower.
Upper Italy, called Lombardy, contains foven duchies,
ten fmall principalities, and two republics. Middle Italy
confifls of the grand duchy of Tufcany, the ecclefiallical
ftate, and two republics. Lower Italy includes a part of
ancient Italia Propria, and the kingdom of Naples. The
chmate of this country differs with its different dirifions.
In mountainous dillricts the air is keen and piercing ; the
provinces, north and eaft of the Apennines, are mild and
u-mperate ; thofe on the S. of that chain are warm, fnltry,
■ Vol. XIX.

and liable to torrents o.^ rain. An account of the motm-
taiiis, rivers, and lakes, belonging to Italy, or dividing ic
from other countries, will be found in the alphabetical
Older of this woilc. (See Alp.3, Apennines, Po, &c.)
There is a very confiderable divcrfity in the foil as well as
the climate. The northern divifion exhibits the grand
fcenery of the Alps, contraftcd v\ith delightful vallies and
plains, watered by many ttreams which run towards the
fouth to augment the Po. In the central parts are marfiies,
flagnant waters, and fruitful diihi'^ns. A great proportion
of the kingdom of Naples (which fee) is hilly, but many
traits, though fubjeft to inconveniencios, are uncommonly
fertile. Italy has been denominated the parent of plenty,
and each province has its peculiar excellence and commo-
dity ; and, taken together, they all yield the comforts and
luxiiriosof life in great abundance. In thetimeof Pliny, Italy
was faid to contain 14,000,000 of inhabitants. This was
probably an exaggerated account. The prel'ent popula-
tion, though not eafy to be got at, cannot, with the ifiands.
of Sicily and Sardinia, be cilimated at more than 13,000,000.
Naples and Sicily are fuppofed to contain 6,ooo,coo ; the
central part about 3,000,000 ; and the northern about
4,000,000. The manner.s and cuiloms of the natives are
various and difcordant. The real Italians are in general
well proportioned, affable, polite, piofufe in their compli..
mei-.ts, and nice in all punCtdios of civility, obferving, i'.
is faid, a due medium between the levity of the French and
the gravity of the Spaniards. They are impetuous in th-ir
temper, keen in their refentments, revengeful in their man-
ners, and fuperilitious in their religion. " Attached," fays
Mr. Playftiir, " to ancient culloms, they apprehend no
occafion for improvement. Conceiting themfclves to be the
conquerors of the world, they look on the rell of mankind
with contempt. Out of a vain otlentatton, they lavilb their
money on paintings, gardens, and (latues, on coflly equi-
pages, and a numerous retinue of fervants ; but this pro-
fufion does not feem to interfere with the economy of their
tables, which are neither fpleiidid nor expeniive. Their
dinner, confiding prinsipally of roots and vegetables, is a
flight m.eal compared with their fupper ; but at all lin-.es
they eat and drink fparingly. Their houfes, furniture, and
entertainments, are a compofition of magnificence and mean-
nefs. While they deliglit in outv.ard iliow, they beilow httle
attention on the comforts of life. Mafquerading, gaming,
converfations, mufic, and religious exhibitions, are their
chief amufements." The drefs of the Itahans is not ma-
terially different from that of the inhabitants of the neigh-
bouring countries ; and it has been obferved, with much
juflice, that Italy, inftead of being vifited by travellers for
the fake of its inhabitants, is vifited only for the fake of
the places which they inhabit. There are fom.e remains
of forells am.ong the Apennines ; but the early civilization
of Italy has been difadvantageous to the growth of tmiber.
The botanical produfts of Italy are fuppofed to be equal
to thofe of any European country, on account of the great
variety of its foil, the irregularity of its furface, and the
genial benignity of its climate. In tlie fouthern parts, cotton,
nee, and the fugar-cane, indicate the ferliHly of the foil,
and the warmth of the climate; ajid the field.s and the
pafturcs bear a linking refemblancc, in their nativi.- pro-
duels, to thofe found in the fouthern piovinces of Spain.
The Italian liorfes are of little reputation, and the cv^»'»'
from which tlie noted Parmefan clieefe is made, are rff-
fcrihcd as of a deep red colour, long, lank, and ill made.
In Tufcany the art of faltening cattle is well underltood.
Vhe buflalo is, in Europe, almoll peculiar to Italy. Tliis
animal in fome rcfpeCts reiembles tlic h)g, .being fond uf
4 C vvalluvwng

ITALY.

wallowing in the mud ; Iiis fle{h is coarfe, and his hide,
though light, is fo ilnii as to have fupplied armour to the
military. The marmot and the ibex are reckoned among
the animals of the Apennines, and the creiiod porcupine is
elleemed peculiar to the fouth of Italy. The Alpine dif-
triift abounds in rich mines wliich ai-e nesrlefted : here are
miucs of filver, lead, iron, copper, and gold : in many parts
there is excellent coal, and in detached hills throughout the
country, marble, lirne-rtone, metallic ores and minerals are
found. There are but few mannfaftnres in Italy in pro-
portion to the fertility of the foil. Thofe of lilk and wool
are carried on to a coniiderable extent : but great quan-
tities of the raw materials are exported. Bcfides thefe, wine,
oil, and fruits are exported in abundance. The chief im-
ports are hard ware, metals, cotton, woollen and lilk (luffs,
leather, timber, pitch, &c. The IkiU of the natives in
itatuary, painting, and archil-e£lure, has been long the fub-
jeft of' admiration. The eltablifhcd religion is tlie Roman
Catholic, confiding chiefly in external obfervances,- rites,
and ceremonies. The pope is (lill looked up to as the
head of the church ; but his power and influence are now
almoft wholly dellroyed. Before the hte revolution, the
form of government in the itates of Italy was monarchical,
and in the republics it was ariitocratical. The fovereigns
governed their dominions with unlimited authority : in the
republics of Venice, Genoa, and Lucca, the nobility ihared
in the management of the ftate. In the prefent unfettled
fituation of the country it is not poilible to give any to-
lerable eftimate of .the revenues : they were reckoned be-
tween four and five millions iterllng towards the clofe of
the lail century. Anciently, Italy gave birth to men il-
ludrious in almoft all the departments of fcience then cul-
tivated: the generals, philofophers, hiflorians, orators, and
poets of Rome can never be forgotten. In the fixth cen-
tury, when numerous tribes of barbarians overran the Ro-
man empire, fcarcely a vellige of literature and the fine
arts remained From this period until the i6th century,
the human mind funk into profound ignorance, but fince
the revival of learning very many eminent perfons have ap--
peared in Italy that liavo adorned the fciences and the various
branches of literature. The elegant arts of fculpture,
painting, architedurc, and mufic have hkewife been culti-
vated with fucceis.

Wc have already alluded to the early hiftsry of Italy,
which, in a few lines, we brought down to the invafion, and,
indeed, conqueft of that country by the Lombards. The
great objed of ambition to this new race was the entire
conquedof all Italy, and this, as in ahnull all other fimilar
cafes, proved the ruin of their cmph-e by Charles the Great,
or, as he is generally denominated, the iliuftrious Charle-
magne, who was crowned fovereign of that country in the year
;5oo. As, however, the Lombards had never pofTefled the
^\hole of Italy, fo the whole of it never came into the pof-
feffion of Charlemagne, nor, indeed, fince the time of the
Goths, has the whole extent of this country been under the
dominion of any fmglc date. The undifputed territory of
Charlemagne in Italy was reftrifted to Piedmont, the
Milanefe, and the Mantuan territories, thofe of Genoa,
Parma, Modena, Tufcany, Bologna, the dukedoms of
Friuli, Spoleto, and Benevento, the lad of which contained
the greater part of the prefent kingdom of Naples. The
feudal government which the Lombards had introduced into
Italy produced feveral revolts, as the diflTerenl dukes inclined,
either to change mafters, or to fet up for thenifclves Se-
veral of thefc rebellions happened during vhc hfe of Char-
lemagne, which, by the vigour of his mind and the decifivc-
wefs of his mcatures, he founU nxs.Q,% to crulh ; but after his

death, the fovcreignty of Italy became an objeft of coti.
tention between the kin^-s oi France and the emperors ot
Gerni;'.ny. Tliat monarch had divided his extenfive domi-
nions among his children ; but they all died during his own
reign, excepting Lewis, wliom he alTociated witn himfelf
in the empire, and who fuccccded to all his dominions after
his death. Hence are dated thofe troubles with which Italy
was fo long overwhelmed, and of v, hich, as they proceeded
from tlie ambition of thofe called king.s of Italy aiid their
nobles, of the kings of France, and tlie emperors of Ger-
many, it would bo difficult to give our reader any fatisfac-
tory account, although we were to extend the boundaries
of the prefent article much beyond the limits that can be
allowed it. We {hall attempt only an outline. At the
time Wiien Lewis, the fon of Charlemagne, was dec'ared
emjieror of the Weft, Italy was held by Bernard, the fon
of Pepin, brother of Louis. Tliough Bernard bore the
title of king, he was only accounted a vaffal of '.he emperor.
He foon rebelled againd his uncle, but being abandoned by
his troops, and taken priloner, he was deprived of his fighr,
and died in a few days; and in 823 the elded fon of the
emperor was fent into Italy, of which country he was
crowned king at Rome, and afterwards emperor of the Weil
during his father's life-time. He alfo rebelled againft his
father, whom he took more than once prifoncr, tliough in
the end he was obliged to fubmit, and aflc pardon for his
o.ffences. In the mean time the Saracens, taking advantage
of the civil commotions, landed oa the coads of It:i!v, and
committed fuch ravages, that even the bilhops were obliged
to arm themfclvcs in defence of the country. Lothaire
took but little care to put an end to thefe ravages, or to reftore
tranquillity, he even embroiled himielf fo far tid he had loft:
almoll all his dominions : at length he died, leaving his fon
Lewis the title of emperor, as well as that of king of I-aly.
Lewis applied himfelf tothe reftoratioa of tranquillity in hisdo-
. minions, and the driving out of the Saraeens from thofe places
of whicli they had pofiTefTed themfelves in Italy. This ardu-
ous taflv he fully accomplifhed, and obliged the infidels to
retire into Africa, but in S75 lie died, without naming a
fuccciTor. After this event, the Italian nobles, headed by
the duke of Tufcany, reprefented to the pope, that as I^ewis
had left no fuccefTor, the regal dignity, which had been fo
long ufurpcd by foreigners, ought now to return to tiie
Italians. The pope, however, crowned Charles th.e Bald
of France emperor and king of Italy, on the condition of
his acknov.-ledging the independency of Rome, and that he
himfelf only held the empire by the good-will and gift of
the pope. This produced a ferious conlpiracy among the
difcontented nobles, of which the Saracens cook advantacrt,
renewed their incurfions, and even threatened the eccle-
fiadical territories witli the utmod danger. The pope car-
nedly folicited the enipjror's afTillance, but that prince died
before he could afford him any eftefliial aid, and being
diilrelTed by the Saracens on the one hand, and the Lombard
nobles on the other, the wretclied pontifi' was forced to fly
into France. Italy now fell into the utmod confufion and
anarchy ; during wiiich, many of ;he nobles and dates of
Lombardy an"umed an independence which they have ever
fince retained. The pope, in 877, was re-condu6ted to Italy
by Bofon, fon-in-law to Louis II. of Fraice, whom the
pontiff would willingly have raifed to the dignity of king
of the country, but he found his inteied infufficient for the
purpofe, and matters remained in their former fituation.
The nobles becaine reconciled to the pope, but they re-
nounced the authority of any fuperior, and every one claimed
to be an independent fovereign of his own territories : they
even applied to the pope, and fequeded him to join in alFert-

I T A L r.

; the independency of Italy, and obtained from liis holinefs
two following decrees, viz. That the popes, after their
v.ciion. niiglit be conlecratcd, without waiting for the ore-
fence of the king, or his ambalTadors ; and that if Charles
tlu- Grofs died without fons, the kingdom of Italy, with
tiie title of emperor, Ihould be conferred on feme Italian
nobles The emperor felt himfelf negleded and infulted,
and complained bitterly of being dc-prived of his right, and
the diflentions between the Italian nobles became more fatal
than ever. Two of thefe noblemen, Berengarius, duke of
Friuli, and Gisido, or Vido, dnke of Spoleto, entered into
an a^reernenr, that on the death of the emperor, the former
fliould feize the kingdom of Italy; and the latter on the
kingdom of France. Berengarius fiicceeded without op;;oli-
tion, but Guido was difappointed : upon this he returned
to Italy, and turned his arms againft Berengarius, whom he
d'oi-e into Germany, and obtained for himfelf the kingdom
of Italy. He now employed himlelf in reforming the abiiles
of the (late, and conili-niing the grants formerly allowed the
pope, out of gratitude for his having fanftified his ufurp-
ation, and declared him lawfnl king of Italy. After the
death of Guido, Berengarius became king of Italy, without
a rival, and held his kingdom during the fpace of twenty
years. In 924 he was treacheroufly aflaiTmated at Verona.
In 947, after the kingdom had undergone many changes,
and I'utfered much from the incurlions and cruelties of the
Hung.-irians, Jjerengaruis, grandfon of the iirll king of that
name, became pofieifed of the fupreme power. He did not
adume the title of king till after the death of Lotharius,
which happened in gjo ; and in the mean time Italy was
invaded by the united forces of Bavaria and Hungarv. So
formidable was their power, that Berengarius was obliged to
purchafe their departure with a large fum of money, wliich
he raifed by a very heavy perfonal tax laid upon every indi-
vidual, without diitinclion of age or fex. In thefe efforts,
Berengarius was more opprefGve to his people than even
the enemy had been : he, however, raifed an immenfe fum of
money, ten buPnels of which he gave to the Hungarians, but
kept the much larger portion for hinifelf. After this he
was attacked by Otho, king of Germany, who aUowed him
to retain his kingdom upon the hard condition of doing
homage for it to the king of Germany. Berengarius did
not readily fubmit to his fate: he rebelled againil Otho,
who, determined to fupport his authority by force of arms,
brought an army into Italy, and was himfelf crowned king
by the archbifhop of Milan, and in the following year he
received the crown from the hands of the pope. On this
occafion, the holy pontiff and Otho went together to the
altar of St. Peter, and bound themfelveis by a iolemn oa'.h ;
the pope to be always faithful to the emperor, and Otho to
confult the welfare of the church, and to reftore to it all its
patrimony granted by former emperors. Otho bellowed
rich prcfents on the church, but he likewife ordained tliat the
eleiilion of the popes fliould be according to the canons :
that the elected pope fhould not be confecrated till he had
publicly promifed, in the prefence of the emperor's com-
miffaries, to obferve every thing formerly fpecified with
regard to the rights of the emperors ; that thefe commif-
faries fhould conllantly rcfide at Ron.e, and make a report
every year as to the manner in which jnllice was adminiilered
by the judges ; and in cafe of any complaints, the coin-
miffarics fhould lay them before the pope ; but if he neg-
leded to attend to them, then the imperial commiffaries
might take what Heps they pleafed. Thus, however much
Otho mitjht allow the pope's fupremacy in fpiritnals, he
plainly afTumcd the fovereigjity in temporals to himfelf, and
• '>.'^ Italy was, for upwards of ^~c years, accounted a part of

the German empire. This lontr period we fliall of courfe al«
moll entirely pafs over in this fl<etch. We find, in 1 2 1 5, Fre,
deric 11. acknowledged emperor, and crowned at Aix-la-
Chapclle. Shortly after this he was urged by the pope to
undertake an expedition into the Holy Laiid again (I the
infidels, but be refiifed, under various pretences, obedience
to the mandate of his holinels, which caufed the mofl deci-
ded hoftilities between thefe great perlbnages. Frederic re-
nounced all correfpondcnce with the pope, and fet his power
at defiance. The pope, convinced of his error, or at leail
of his not being able to fupport his power againfl that
of the emperor, thought proper to foothe him by fub-
miflive apologies and gentle exiiortations. They were ac-
cordingly reconciled. The pope fliortly after this died ;
and Frederic, during the popedom of Gregory IX., under-
took an expedition to the Holy Land, leaving the
ail'airs of Italy to the management of Renaldo duke of
Spoleto. The pope, liearing of his determination, pro-
hibited his deparcuie before lie fliould be abfolved from
the cenfures of the church ; but Frederic went in contempt
of the church, and his luccefs was very complete. The
fiiltan ceded to him Jerufalem, and its territory as far as
•loppa. Frederic had before acquired, by marriage, the
title of " king of Jerufalem ;" and now, by his moderation
and great talents, he acquired the territoi-y, to which were
added Bethlehem, Nazareth, and all the country between
Jerufalem and Ptolemais, Tyre, Sid.in, and the neighbour-
ing territories : in return for which, the emperor granted
the Saracens a truce for ten years ; and in 1 230 he returned
to Italy. The reign of this prince, .ifter his return from
the .Fall, was one continued quan-e! with the popes. He
was excommunicated by Gregory IX. ; and in his turn he
proclaimed every where that Gregory was the " great
dragon," the predicted " man of iin," the " antichrift,"
&c. In 1250, Frederic, after various troubles, died. From
this time, the affairs of Germany fell into the utmoft con-
fufion ; and Italy continued long in the fame diftraCted flate
in which he left it. Conrad, the fon of Frederic, affumed
the imperial dignity ; but after his death, there were feverjl
candidates for the high honour. No emperor, however, was
properly acknowledged till 1273, ^^'I'-^n Rodoph, count of
Hapfburg, was unanimoufly railed to the vacant throne.
During the interregnum which preceded the election of Ro-
dolph, Denrr.ark, Holland, and Hungary, entirely freed
themfelves from the homage they were accuftomed to pay
to the empire ; and about the fame time, feveral German
cities erected a municipal form of government, which con-
tinued till within thefe few year?. Lubec, Cologne, Brunf-
wick, and Dantzick, united for their mutual defence, againfl
the encroachments «f the great lords, by a we l-known affo-
ciation, called the Hanfeatic league ; and thefe towns were
afterwards joined by eiglity others, belonging to different
flates, which formed a kind of commercial republic. Italy
nlfo, during this period, aflumed a new plan cf government.
From the time of Frederic II. we may date the ruin of the
German power in Italy. The Florentines, the Pifans, the
Genoefe, the Luccans, 5:c. became independent. .•\t the
commencement of the fourteenth century, Henry VII. un-
dertook to reflore the imperial power in I'.aly. For this
purpofe a diet was held at Francfort, where hipplies bcirg
granted for the emperor's journev, well known in hiltory by
the name of the " Roman expedition," he fet out for Italy,
which was at this period divided by the faitions of the
Guelphs and Gibtlhnes, who were dciiroying one another
without humanity or rcraorfe. Pope Clement V. had been
obliged to leave Rome, whicii was in a Hate of anarchy ; and
owing to the divjfions in that city, the holy p..iitiiy4 h'u^
4C 2 ' ' took

ITALY.

took up their rcfidence in France, fo that Rome feemed
eijually loll to the popes and the emperors. Sicily was in
pofTolTion of the honfe of Arragon, in confequence of the
maiTacre called the '• Sicilian vei'pers," which delivered that
ifland from the tyranny of the French. Carobert, king of
Hungary, difputcd the kingdom of Naples with his uncle
Robert. The old league of the Italian cities no longer
fubfilled. It had been formed with no other view than to
oppofe the emperors ; and iince they had neglefted Italy,
the cities were wholly employed in aggrandizing tliemfclves
at the expence of each other. In the midtl of thefe troubles,
Henry VII. appeared in Italy in i:;ii, and caufed himfelf
to be crowned king of Lombardy at Milan. But the
Guelphs had concealed the iron crown of the Lombard
kings, as if they regarded the right of reigning as attached
to a circlet of metal. Henr\', however, was not to be put
off under fuch a pretence : he ordered a new crown to be
made, with which the royal ceremony was performed.
Henry was unable to reflore the imperial power in Italy,
and his reign was terminated in a few months. From this
time, the authority of the emperor in that country confiited,
in a great meafiire, in the conveniency which the Gibellines
found in oppofing their enemies imder the fanftion of his
name. The power of the pope was of the fame nature, and
he was probably lefs regarded in Italy than in any other
country in Chrillendom. There was likewife a party who
called theinfelves Guelphs ; but they affetied this diftiniftion
only to keep themfelves independent of the imperiaUils.
The mod defperate wars were carried on bv the different
cities again 11 each other: but it would be contrary to our
plan to attempt to give a detail of them ; and this is the lefs
neceffary, as nothing material was effetted by their valour.
35y degrees this martial fpirit fubfidcd ; and in the year 1 492,
tlie Italians were fo little capable of refilling an enemy, that
Charles VIII. of France conquered tlie whole kingdom of
Naples in fix weeks ; and he might eafily have fubdued the
■vvliole country, if it had not been for his own imprudence.
Another attempt on Italy was made by Louis XII. ; a third
by Francis I. ; and during the reigns of Louis XIII. and
XIV., an obllinate war was carried on between the French
and the Spaniards, in which the Italian ilates bore a con-
lidcrable (hare. The war concluded in 1660, with very
little advantage to the French, who had never been very
fuccefsful in liicir Italian wars. A fimilar want of fuccefs
attended them in the war which commenced fourfcore years
afterwards : but the farther particulars relating to thefe
other contelts belong properly to the hiftory of the different
ilates into which that country was divided.

At prcfent, tlie whole of Italy is fubjeft to the control
of the French emperor, who led his viftorious troops over
the Alps, and made himfelf mailer of the Auftrian do-
minions in Italy. The battle of Lodi decided the fate of
Lom.bardy. Verona, Tortona, Bologna, and Urbino,
quickly yielded to his arms. He even menaced imperial
Rome. The pope, incapable of refuling his power, begged
for peace, which was granted him on the humiliating con-
ditions, that his holmefs fliould furrender to the conquerors
a great many pifturts, and ftatues, and a multitude of cu-
rious MSS. from the Vatican. With thefe the general was
for the prcfent content : h.e retired from Rome, perhaps,
however, defirous of fome new caufes to enable bin-, to en-
rich his country with farther fpoil. A pretence was foon
given him. lie had fcarcely reached the boundaries of
France, when he learned that the terms of the treaty had
been wantonly broken by the fubjc-fts of his holincf?. In
the following year, 1797, he entered Italy again, and in one
battle, well contclled, decided tlie fate of the eccleiialtical

ftate. The banners of France now waved triumphant over
the patrimony of the church. The pope was obliged to
fubmit to whatever terms the conqueror (hould diftate.
He agreed to the cefiion of Avignon, part of Venice, the
cities and territories of Bologna, Fcrrara, and Romagna :
and to prevent the future power of the Roman pontiffs, the
ncv.ly ceded territories, together with Reggio and Modcra,
were formed into one republic called the Cifalpine, and after-
wards the Itahan republic ; wliile the Milanefe, and other
dillnfts of Lombardy, were formed into another called the
Ligurian republic. Thus the power and importance once
annexed to the fee of Rome were annihilated, and the in-
fluence of France in Italy eftabliflied on the fureft founda-
tioa. In 1801 the Itahan republic was, at the dcfire of
Bonaparte, divided into twelve departments. We have fecn,
under the article Fn.\N"Ci-:, in what manner Bonaparte, as
well by a train of fortunate circumftances, as by his talents,
obtained the honours of a confuHhip, in imitation of the of-
fice held in ancient Rome ; and how he advanced from ilep to
llep, till he was proclaimed " emperor of the French," with
unlimited powers. This event occurred on the 2d cf De-
cember 180J, when he fwore in the prefence of the pope
(Pius VL), whom he had brought to Paris to be the wit-
nefs of his own humiliation, " to govern folely with a view
to the intereft, the happinefs, and glory of the French na-
tion." He boluly alierted, in the prefence of all the prin-
cipal perfonages then afTembled, that he afccnded the tlirone
by the unanimous wiflies of the fenate, the people, and the
army, whole happinefs or mifery had conllituted, and would
for ever conftitute the fources of his own pleafures and
pains. " My defcendants,'' faid he, " fliall long preferve
this throne. In the field, they will be the firft foldiers of
the army, facrificing their lives for the defence of their
country. As magillrates,' they will never forget that con-
tempt of the laivs, and the confufion of focial order, are
ofily the refult of the imbecility and uncertainty of princes."
The fplendour of this fiiow was introduftory to a fimilar dif-
play in Italy. He had before been regarded as the chief of
the Italian republic ; but the name of a republic probably
carried with it ideas abhorrent to his heart, and the very
word grated on his ears. In the month of April iScj, he
affumed at Milan the title of " king of Italy ;" in tliis city
he placed the iron crown on his own head, while fenators
from almoft all the ancient ilates were aiTembled as witnelTes
ot his elevation, and their own degradation. On tiiis occa-
fion he related all that he had done as a conqueror and a
great ftatefman ; faying, that the power of the French em-
pire had neverthelel's been furpaffed by the moderation
which prefided in its political tranfa£lions. " We had con-
quered," faid he, " Holland, three-fourths of Germany,
Switzerland, all Italy ; but of fo many provinces, we have
only kept what was necefiary to preferve us at the fame
point of confideration and power which France has always
poflefTed. The partition of Poland, the loiTes fultained by
Turkey, the conquefl of the Indies, and almoft all our co-
lonies, had dellroyed the balance of power to our difadvan-
tage." He next recounted ail his glorious deeds, and all
his generofity with regard to Germany, Holland, and Swit-
zerland ; and adds, " Th.e union of the Italian republic to
the French would have been an advantage to our agriculture ;
nevcrthclefs, after the fecond conqueft, we, at Lyons, con-
fii-med its independence. We novi- do more. We proclaim
the principle of the feparation of the crowns of France and
Italy, by fixing for that feparation the moment it can be
done, and without danger to our people of Italy. Vv^e have
accepted, and will place upon our head, the iron crown of
the ancient Lombards, in order to re-temper and confolidate

5 i';

I T A L y.

it ; Co that it may not be broken by tlic lliocks by which it
will be threatened, as long as the Mediterranean continues
out of its habitual Hate. But we do not hefitate to declare,
that we will transfer that crown to one of our children, na-
tural or adopted, the moment we arc freed from alarms for
that independence which we have guaranteed to the other
ftates f)f the Mediterranean." Upon the return of the em-
peror to his own dominions, it was announced to him that
the Ligurian fenate was waiting for an interview upon very
important bufinefs. Accordingly, on the 25th of May, an
extraordinary fitting of tlie Ligurian fenate was held, when
it was decreed that Genoa, its territories, and dependencies,
(hould be annexed to the French empire. In his fpeech ou
this occafion, the emperor, having duelt much at large on
the advantage which would accrue to tlie continent in gene-
ral, and to Genoa in particular, from this addition to his
own dominions, added, " I will reahze your expcftations ;
I will unite you to my great people. I fliall thereby acquire
additional means of rendering that pioteftion more power-
ful, which I have always been difpofcd to extend to you.
My people will with pleafure receive you. They know
that at all times you have been friendly to their armies ; and
that you have affiiled them with all your force, and with all
your means. They find, moreover, in your territory, ports,
and an increafe of maritime power, which is ncceiTary for
the fupporl of their lawful rights againfl; the tyrants of the
feas. — Doge, and gentlemen of the deputation of the fenate,
and people of Genoa, return to your native country : I fliall
be there ere long, and will confirm the union which you and
my people are about to form." At this meeting of the
Italian legiflature, the emperor prefented prince Eugene
Beauharnois to them as his reprefentative, and viceroy of
Italy; faying, that he himfelf would take an early oppor-
tunity of vifiting all the departments of his new kingdom, in
order that he might become better acquainted with their
various wants. Since that period, in ccnfequence of the
fuccefs attendant on the wars between France and A.ullria,
which were terminated by the treaties of peace of Prefburg
and Vienna, the whole Venetian territory, which pertained
to Auilria, the county of Gortz or Goritia, the city of
Triefte, Carniola, with its dependencies on the gulf of
Triefte, and all the territories lying on the right bank of the
Save, from the point wh.ere that river leaves Carniola, along
its courfe to where it touches the province of Bofnia, fix
diftritts of mihtary Croatia, Fiume, the Hungarian Lit-
torale, Auftrian Iliria, together with the iflands dependent
tipon the ceded territory, were added to the Italian do-
minions of the new emperor and king. On the 20th of
March j8i I, Bonaparte had a fon born by his prefent em-
prefs, the daughter of the emperor of Germany. To this
Ion he inilantly gave the title of " king of Rome," and re-
quired his minillers, and the chief perfons under his direc-
tion, to render due homage to the infant in his cradle : thus
(hewing that he meant the prince Eugene, above noticed,
only as his reprefentative till one of his own children (hould
be fitted to fway the fceptre of the Itahan kingdom. Cel-
larius's Anc. Gcog. Univer. Hill. Anc. and Mod. Geo-
graphies of Pinkerton, Play fair, and Smith. Holberg's
Univer. Hift. And Public Papers in the feveral volumes
of the New Ann. Regiftjr.

In the fifteenth century, when we firll hear of harmony in
four parts, and maffesfct to figurative mufic, it was for the
ufe ef the pope's chapel that the greatell efforts of genius in
compofitioii were excited among the candidates for favour
in that art, by the double certainty of having their labours
liberally rewarded, and their productions well performed.
A.^d if wc find that many of the compofers of the pontifical

chapel were Netherlandcrs, and the fingers Spaniards, it
docs not neceffarily follow that the Italians had cither coun-
terpoint, or the art cf finging, from the Low Countries, or
from Spain. The Roman college of fingers had been ella-
bliflied and celebrated during fo many ages, that we may as
weU imagine thefe foreigners went to Ron'.e to hum mufic,
as to h\u-i it.

We know, in later times, that many of tl:c greatell mu-
ficians of Europe have either had their education in Italy, or
thought it as necelTary to vifit that country as the ancient
Roman philofophers to travel into Greece, or the Grecians
into Egypt. Orlando di LafTo, Handel, HalTe, Gliick, and
.1. C. Bach, went tliither vt;y early, and m.ay be faid to have
formed their ftyles on the bell models of that country. The
firll motets of Orlando that were publilbcd at Antwerp, by
Tylman Sufato, 1555, were faid to be made "a la nouvelle
Cfmpofition d'aucuns d'ltalie ;" as the firft productions of
Handel, that were publifhed in England, were faid to be
compofed "by an eminent Itnlian mailer;"' Haffe went
very young into Italy, and was a fcholar of Alelfandro
Scarlatti ; however, his clear and graceful ilyle more re-
fembled that of Vinci and Pergolefi, his competitors in the
natural, fimple, and elegant manner of writing for the voice,
than that of either Scarlatti, his mailer, or Kaifer, his
countryman, and firll model. The late excellent compofer,
Mr. J. C. Bach, fon and brother of two of the grcateii
muficians that ever exifted, is allowed to have been a fine
player on keyed inilrumeiits, before he went into Italy ; but
his vocal mufic is certainly more in the ftyle of Italy, thaa
of his native country.

If the great muficians of antiquity, whofe names are fo
familiar to our ears, had not likewife been poets, time and
oblivion would long fince have fwept them away. But
thefe having been luckily writers themfelvcs, took a httle
care of their own fame ; which their brethren of after-ages
gladly fupported f.r the honour of the ccrp.

But fince writing and practical mufic have become fepa-
rate profeffions, the celebrity of the poor mufieian dies with
the vibration of his firings ; or if, in condcfcenfion, he be
remembered by a poet or hillorian, it is ufually but to blazon
his infirmities, and throw contempt upon his talents. The
voice of acclamation, and thunder of applaufe, pafs awav
like vapours ; and thofe hands which were moll adive in
tellifying temporary approbation, fuffer the fame of thole
who charmed away their care and forrows in the glowing
hour of innocent delight, to remain unrecorded.

If it be true that the progrefs of mufic in every country
depends on the degrees of civilization and culture of otlser
arts and fciences among its inhabitants, and on the language
which they fpeak, the accents of which furnilh the (IveJeton
and nerves ot all vocal melody ; great perfection cannot' be
expelled in the rr.ufic of Europe during the middle ages,
when t!ie Goths, Vandals, Huns, Germans, Franlvs, and
Gaul?, whofe ideas were favage, and language harfii and in-
folent, had feized on its moft ti rtile prcvi,nces. All the dia-
lecls that are now fuoken ifi Europe are a mixture- of Celtic
and Latin ; and as the inhabitants of Italy prefervcd tlia
Roman language longer than thofe of other countries remote
from the feat of empire, more veiligcs of the Latin tongue
dill remain in Italy than elfewhere. For though there are
many terms in it that they were forced to receive from the
barbarians who invaded ihcm, yet the chief p!.rt of the lan-
guage is llill Latin corrupted, and fometimes foftened and
improved. And as literature, arts, and refiuemenis, were
encouraged more early in Italy at the courts of the Romar.
pontilfs, than in any other country, modern mufic has
thence beet) furniflied with its fc.de, its ccunterpcint, its beik

melodies.

I T C

inclodies, its religious and fecular dramas, and with the
chief pari of its grace and elet;ance. Italy, in modern
times, has been to the reft of Europe what ancient Greece
was to Rome ; its inhabitants have helped to civilize and
polifli their conquer')rs, and to enlij:;hten the minds of thofe
whofe fupcrior fercc and prowcis had frequently cnflaved
theni.

ITANBERA, a town of Brazil, in the rrovernment of
Minas Geraes ; 36 miles \V. of Villa Rica. '

ITANNA, or EsTEW.A, a kingdom of Africa, on the
Slave coail, fubjeel to Benin.

ITAPE, a town of Sontli America, in the province of
Paragnay ; <jO miles S E. of AfTuir'ption.

ITAPUA, a town of South America, in the province
of Paraguay, on the Parana; 170 miles S.E. of Annmp-
tion.

IT AT A, a town of South America, in the country of
Chili, on a river of the fame name ; 32 miles N.N.E. of La
Conception.

ITATl, a town of South America, in the province of
Buenos Ayres, on the Paran i ; 35 miles N.E. of Cor-
rientes.

ITCH, in Meil'idrie, a contagious difeafe of the (Icin,
which is characferiz.'d by an eruption of numerous fmall
pullules, more efpccially about the lingers, wrifts, and the
bending of the joints, accompanied by the moll importunate
itching, without fever.

This difeafe feems to have been included, together with
the running, or moill tetter, under the appellation of u!cs-
ratiag pfora, {\. -j^-'. iK/.-Ar,:) of the Greeks, and conllitcled
one form of the fcnhies of the Latin writers. In the wri-
tings of the moderns, it is fometimes denominated ^^;v;, but
more frequently _/?<7i/Vj- ; the term ^/o;v/, indeed, when ufed
■by the Greeks without any ejnthet, fignilicd the fcaly tet-
ter, which is analogous to 'their /f/n?, "l fee Willanon Cu-
taneous Dift-afes, Oi-der ii. Genus 2. ) and not a pullular
difeafe.

Tlie eruption of fcabies begins moll commonly on the
limbs, and efjjecially about the wrifts and fingers, in the
form of minute pullules or watery pimples, which are ac-
companied by a fenfation of violent itching, which is greatly
increafed by external warmth, and therefore is particularly
troublefome foon after the patient gets into bed. It allumes,
however, a conlldei-able variety of forms, in different ni-
llances, and even in different ftages, of the complaint,
■which the vulgar have noticed, and dillinguiihed by parti-
cular appellations. AVhat they denominate the laiit hch, is
often feen early, in the progrel's of the diforder, or in mild
cafes ; and coniiftsof a numerous crop of pimply eruption,
which fpreads over the whole body, arms, breall, and lower
extremities ; but, on the trunk of the body efpccially, the
charadteril'ic ichorous pullule commonly appears here and
there int<-rmixed with llie papula;, and the linal tendency of
the eruption is to the pullular form. In other cafes, lar^e
watery veficlec are feen diffufed over the thighs, arms, hands,
and region of tlie ilomach ; in which cafe the difeafe is po-
pularly termed the loalcry ilcb. And not unfrequently the
eruption over the arms, wrii'is, and fingers, confiftsof large,
yellow pullules, which become confluent, and form crulls
or fcabs as the niattcrdries ; this has been termed the pocky
itch, not from its tomiedion with any fyphilitic contagion,
as fome have been led to imagine from the term; but from
the refemblance of tlie puftules to thofe of the diftinil fmall-
pox. Some wi-iters iiave mentioned •.xfcorhiilk itch, and have
included the puftular fyphilitic eruptions under the term itch ;
butthefe eruptions, as well as the afl'edions of the (kin ori-
ginating from -the true fcurvy, differ cflenliany from /cal/us

I T C

in their form, and in the abfence of that inccfTant and im- - I
portunate itching, which accompanies the latter. The term i
Jcorhulic itch has fometimes been applied to the prurigo, if
would fcem, when it was accompanied by a particularly irri-
table and inflamed ftate of the fliin.

The pruriginotis eruptions, indeed, which Dr. Willan has
defcribed as confilhng of pimples, which do not becom.e
puftular in general, or difcharge any fluid, even when the
tops are rubbed off, after continuing fome time, are apt to
become pullular and contagious ; that is, to degenerate inta,
fatbits, if they arc long neglecled, or where cleanlinefs is'
not fufliciently attended to. And there is an eruption,
which is not very uncommon, partaking, in its appearances,
of the charatlcr of prurigo and impetigo conjoined, which is
contagious in its double charadler, and exceedingly obfti-
nate. In work-houfes, moreover, a virulent fcabies is often
feen, which appears to be a mixture of the poifon of porrigo
with that of itch, and which afleCis the whole body, wi'th
fcabby and itching ulcerations, that are communicated by
tiie contagion, under. the fame form. In Ihort, it is ex-
tremely difficult to point a certain diagnofis of the Jcalits.
from the variety of forms under which a contagious and
puftular eruption appears, under different circumftanccs.
See PuuRlGO.

The itch is moft frequently com.municated from one pcrfon
to another by contagion, that is, by adtual contaft ; as hy
deeping, (haking hands. Sec. with a' perfon affedled, or by
uling the clothes, linen, 5:c. which liadbeen previoufly ufed
by fueli a pcrfon. But in fome cafes it feems to originate in
individuals, who negledt or do not pofiefs the proper means
of cleanlinefs, and in others is the refult of the converfion of
the papulous difeafes (the lichen and prurigo of Dr. Willan's
arrangement) into a puftular difeafe. When the complaint
is communicated by contadl with the perfon or clothes of one
already infefted, it is doubtlefs commonly conve-^ed by a
fort of inoculation of the ichorous or purulent matter,
difcharged from the puftules. Some, however, have attri-
buted the difeafe itfelf, as well as the ready propagation of
it, to the exillence of certain minute infects, wluch breed in
the furrows of the cuticle, and which are conveyed from
one perfon to another by fuch intercourfe as we have jull
mentioned. Bonomo, an Italian phyfician, was one of the
llrll to defcribe this infecl, and liis account was made known
in England by Dr. M'-ad. (See Philof. Tranf. vol. xxiii. )
It has been fuice called the acarus fcabici, and has been par-
ticularly defcribed and figured by Degeer (Hift. des In-
fectes), and others. Linnsus confidered it tlie fame with
the acarus or mile, which breeds in flour ; but Degeer has
(hewn tliis to be a miilake. Tliefe infefts, which we confefs
we have never been able to detect in any cafe of fcabies, are
faid to be found, not in the large puftules, but in the recent
watery puftule,', or itill more com.monly in the furrows of
the cuticle, near them, on the hands and fingers.

Cure. — A great variety of remedies have been employed
at different times fen- the cure of this filthy complaint ; and
in general, indeed, it is not very difficult of cure, although
the remedy is alfo filthy like the difeafe. Sulphur, both
taken internally, in combination with fome neutral or alka-
line fait, and applied externally over the parts afFedfed, iu
the form of an ointment, is found to be the n-.oft Cfrtaiii and
efficacious remedy. The white hellebore, applied either in
an ointment, or in a ftrong decodiion as a lotion, has confi-
dcrable influence over the difeafe ; and fome of the prepara-
tions of mercury, fiuh as the white precipitate, the oxy-
niuriate, or corrofivc Inblimatc, &c. as well as the muriate
of ammonia, potafti iu a ftate of a deliquefcence, &c. are
alfo occafionally reforted to, in v.-u-ious combinations, with

fuccefs.

I T E

fjiccefs. A number of other medicines, both external and
internal, are recommended by the older writers, efpociall)'
the juices and decoftions of feveral roots and plants; but it
feems altogether unneceflary to enumerate them, iince recent
experience has decided upon the fiiperior efficacy of the re-
siedies jull; mentioned. Sec Turner on Dif. of the Skin.
Callifen. Svtt. Chir. Hodeira, § S24. Sauvages, Nofol.
Meth. Clats X. Gen. 28.

Itch Anitral, a creature faid to be found in the puftules
of the itch ; it is a fpecies of acari-s.

ITCHAPOUR, in Geo-rapJ?y, a town of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Ellichpour ; 48 miles S.S.W. cf Eliich-

pour. N. lat. 20 2S'. E. long. 77- 38' Alfo, a town of

Hindoollan, in tlie circar of Cicacole ; 30 miles S.S.W. of
Ganjam.

ITCHAUR, n town of Hindooftan, in t!ie circar of
Hindia; ;o miles N. of Hindia.

ITCHE, a town of Thibet ; 95 miles S.W. of Cha-
tcheou.

ITCHING RiVEil, in Hampfliire, is navigable for
barges up to Wincheller city, of which an account has been
given in our article Canal: fince which, there have been
attempts, and one is now making, for obtaining an acl
for further improving tliis navigation. About 1802, a
bridge was built over this river at Northam. At Wood mills,
on this river, fnips' blocks are manufactured by machinery,
but in a manner far lefs complete and ingenious than the
block machines by Mr. Brunell, which are creeled in the
dock-yard at Portfraouth, of which we intend to give fome
account under our article B!ock Mai iiiXEKY.

ITCHORSKA, a town of Ruflia, in the government
of Irkutlli, on the Lena; 80 miles N.E. of Kircnfl<.

ITEA, in Botany, l-.ix of the ancient Greeks is a gene-
ral appellation for willows or fallows, as appears from Theo-
phraltus and Oiofcorides. The word is derived from vrx^-a
'.oni-xi, alluding to their quick growth, or early germina-
tion.— Linnaeus applied the name to this North American
genus from its wii!ow-likeafpe<ft. — Linn. Gen icq Schrcb.
1,-3. Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 1 146. Mart. Mill. Dieh v. 2.
Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. 37. JufiT. ijg. Lamarck Did. v. 3.
314. Illuftr. t. 147. (Cyrilla; Linn. Mant. 50. Syit.
Veg. ed. 14 241. Schreb. 150.) Clafs and order, Pcn/an^r/a
Monngyma. Nat. Ord. B'i:orn;s, Linn. Rhodudmdra, JuiT.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, trett, very fmall,
permanent, divided into five acute, coloured fegmcuts. Cor.
Petals five, lanceolate, long, ir.ferttd into the calyx. Stam.
Pnlaments live, awl-lbaped, erctt, the length of the corolla,
inferted into the calyx ; anthers roundidi, incumbent. Pijl.
Germen fuperior, ovate ; (lyle cylmdrical, permanent, as
long as the ftamens : ftigma obtufe. Pine. Capfule ovate,
much longer than the calyx, terminated by the ftyle, of
two cells, and two valves with in flexed edges, gaping at the
top. Seeds numerous, very fmall, oblong, fhining.

Efr. Ch. Petals long, inferted into the calyx. Capfule
of one ce!i, and two valves,

Obf L'Herctier has the honour of having firft declared
the Itea and Cyrilla of Linnxus to be o.ne and the fame genus,
from the conformity of the flower, and two-celled fruit of
each.

I. I. ■virginka. Linn. Sp. PI. 289. Trew. Ehret 55.
t. 98. — " Leaves ovate, acute, ferralcd.'' — A native of
North America, (low ring from June to Auguft — T\\is, Jlrub
rifes to the height of live or fix feet. Itsjirm is branched
all the way up. Leaves (lightly fcrratcd, rcflexed, light
green. Floiuers white or ycilowifh, compofed of numerous
fpikes three or four inches long. — Linnxus remarks that this
fpecies is very Amilar in appearance to Prunut Padui, the
Bird-chcrry.

I T II

2. I. Cyrilla. Willd. n. 2. L'Herit. Stirp. fafc. 6. 137.
t. 66. (Cyrilla racemiflora ; Linn. Mant. 50. Jacq. It.
Rar. I. t. 47.) — •' Leaves lanceolate, entire, mtmbrana-
ceous." — A native of Carolina. It flowers in July and
Auguft. — Root perennial. Stem fparn^gly branched, round,
a(h-coloured. Leaves altcruiite, blunlifli, rather undulated ;
their foot-ilalks reddiih. Chijleri numerous, lateral, from
four to fix inches long. Flowers fcatlered, wlute ; anthers
pale-violet coloured ; gernien whitifh.

Itea, in Gardening, contauis plants of the hardy, deci-
duous, (hrubby kinds., of which the ipecies moiUy cultivated
are, the Virginian itea (I. virginicaj ; and the entire-leaved
itea (I. oyrilia^.

Method of Culture. — The firft fort is cajjable of being in-
creafed by layers, which (hould be laid down in the autum;i,
when they will put out roots fo as to be fit to take o:T by
the following autumn, when they may be removed nito the
nurfery, or the ])laces where they arc to grow. It does not
fucceed well on dry gravelly foils.

It is aifo capable of being raifed from feed, by fowing it
in the fpring, as foon as procured from abroad.

The fecond fpecies may be increaied by layers or cuttings,
planted in pots of good mould in the Ipriiig ; in the latter
cafe, placing them m a mild hot-bed, till they liavc ftrickeii
root, afterwards removing them into feparate pots, placing
them in airy fituations in the green-houfe or other proper
place.

Plants of the firft kind are very ornamental in the borders
and clumps, and thofe of the latter among grecn-houie collec-
tions, or thofe in other protcftcd places.

ITENG, in Geography, a fmall ifiand in the Eaft Indian
fea. S. lat 6-42'. E. long. 132 15'.
ITERATION. See Reiteration.
ITERI, in Geography, a town of the ifiand of Sar-
dmia. ^ ^^

ITFU, a town of Egypt ; 8 miles S. of Tahta.
ITHACA, a town of New York, at the fouthcrn extrc.
mity of lake Cayuga; 30 miles S. of Cayuga. N. lat. 4^-'
27'. W. long. 76-33'.

Ithac .\, in y/ncient Geography, one of the Greek iflands,
fituated in the Ionian fea, between Dulichium and Capalenis^
famous for being the birth-place of UlyfTes, the fon of
Laertes. It had the advantage of a town and a good port :
it is now called " Theaki," and its port " Vahti." Its cir-
cuit is reckoned about 40 miles. Some ruins ftill remain,
which tradition reports to have been part of the palate of
Penelope.

ITHCYPHOS, in Surgery, curved or deformed in the
back.

ITHOME, in -Ancient Geography, a town of Meffenla,
north of Meflenc, fo called from the mountain on which
it was erefted and well fortified, being encompafied
with a (lone wall. In it was a ftatue of .lupitcr tlie
" Saviour," and alfo a fountain called Arfinoe, wh:eh
was fupplied with water from another fountain called
Clepfydra. Ntptime and Venus had each of them a temple
in this place; and the mother of the gods had a fuperb ita-
tue of Parian marble. This town contair.ed, alfo a temple
dedicated to Meil'ene, daughter cf Triopas, whofc (la'ue
\v as formed partly of gold and partly of tlie marble of Paros ,
It had likewife a temple, in which were depofited and pre-
ierved the victims appropriated to the facrificcs. Befidcs, it
was adorned with all the ttatues of the gods which were-
wor(hipped in Greece. It had a theatre which had been a,
temple dedicated to Serapis and Ifis. The citadel wascor.-
ft rutted on. the fnmmit of the mountain, and at the gate by
which they pafted to Megalopolis was allatueof Mercury,

Jupitt-

I T T

Ji'.piter was worfhipped in this place under tlie appellation of
«• Ithomatus" by the people of Mefienia : and as they pre-
tended that he had been educated in their country, the^ ap-
propriated to him a peculiar worihip ; and while the fellival,
called " Ithomaa'' laftcd, they were accullomcd to carry
water during the whole day from the fountain -Clepfydra into
his temple. Games accompanied this fcftival, and alfo
trials of (liill on various inllruments of mufic. Paulan. in
Meffen.

ITHYNTERION, .Sv.r^p.ov. mJnnquity, a ftaff of lau-
rel, which prophets ufually carried in their hands, otherwife
called fceplron.

ITHYSCOLIOS, in Surgery, an oblique curvature of
the fpine.

ITIN E RANT Judges, or Jufliccs, fuch as were formerly
fent with commiffions into divers counties, to hear chiefly
thofe caufes called pleas of the erown ; the fame with what
are otherwife called ^'u/?;V?j ;n eyre. See Justice.

ITINERARIUM.in Surgery,a name given by Hildanus,
and many other writers, to a llafF ufed in the operation of
cuttincr for the ftone.

ITINERARY, the defcription a traveller gives of the
courfe of his journey, and of the curiofitics, &c. heobferved
therein .

The Itinerary of Antonine fliews all the grand Roman
roads in the empire, and all the (lations of the Roman army.
It was drawn up by order of the emperor Antoninus Pius ;
but is now very defeftivc, having fuffered much under the
hands of the copyills and editors.

Itinerary Column. See Column.

ITING, in Ornithology. See Gkacula Cnha.

ITIOBARA Bay, iti Geography, a bay on the coaft of
Brazil. S. lat. 6- 20'. W. long. 37° 46'.

ITIUM Pkomontorilm, in Ancient Geography, a pro-
montory of Gaul, mentioned by Ptolemy, and fuppofed to
be at the mouth of the Somme, in France, and extending
towards the north. According to D'Anville it is Grifs-
nefs.

ITIUS PoRTUs. See Iccws Partus.

ITKARINSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in
tk- Ejovernment of Kolivan ; 156 miles E.N.E. of KoUvan.
N. lat. 5J' 36'. E. long 85"' 44'.

ITONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Epirus. —
Alfo, a town of Italy. — Alfo, a town of Alia Minor, in
Lydia. — Alfo, the name of two places, one in Boeotia, the
other in Lydia.

ITORUM Urbs, a town of Italy, on the route fro-n
Otricoli to Rimini, near the mountains ; mentioned by
Strabo.

I TRABO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Granada ; 10 miles W N W. of Motril.

ITRI, a town of Naples, in the province of Lavora ;
3 miles S.E. of Fondi.

ITSJA, a town of Japan, in the idandof Ximo ; 10 miles
N of Taifero.

ITTENDAL, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Kelfmgland ; 15 miles N. of Hudwickfwal.

ITTERGAIJ, a fertile diftria of" Upper HefFe, watered
by the Itter, which runs into the Eder, two miles S. W.
of Vohle.

ITTER THAL, lTTi:R-i.:K-.vAr„ or Bergjladt, a town
of Upper HetTe; 24 miles W. of CafTel.

irriGIUS, Thomas, in Biography, who flouriflied in
the feventcenth and eighteenth centuries, was born at Leip-
fic about the year 1654. Here he purfued his (ludies, and
was afterwards appointed afFeifor of the faculty of philofo-
phy at tlie fame place. Being admitted to theminillry, he
-difchargcd the duties of that office in different churches in

I r z

that city. In 1686, he was admitted to the degree of doc-
tor of divinity, and in tlie following year he was appointed
firil profeffbr extraordinary in that taculty, and then pro-
fedor in ordinary. He took a couliderable (hare in publiih-
ing the " Leipfic Acls,' and befides other employments,
filled the poil of fuperinteiidant of ;he ecck-fiaiiical diltriti
of that city. He died in 17 10: and was author of "A
Treatife on Buruing Mountains ;'* " Dificrtatio de Hsere-
fiarchis jEvi Apoltolici, eique proximi ;"' " Prolego.mena
ad Jofephi Opera," and many other works, which were high-
ly etteemed by his contemporaries. Lardi.er, in his feventh
vol. fpeaks of him as the very learned Ittigiu?. The fame
author refers to his opinion in other places.. Moreri.
Lardner.

ITU, in Geography, a town of South America, in the
province of Buenos Ayres, on the Parana ; 130 miles E, of
Corrientes.

ITUCI, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania, in
Boctica, a httle fouth of Caltulo, and north of Eliberis ;
called by Pliny " Virtus Julia.'

ITUERO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Leon ; 13 miles S.S.W. of Civdad Rodrigo.

I TUNA, in Ancient Geography, an ciluary of Britain,
which is unqucftionably the Solway Firth, which now di-
vides England from Scotland on the well fide.

ITUREA, a provice of Afia, fo called from Itur, the
fon of Ilhmael, fometimes erroneoufly called Jctur. It
was fituated on the other fide of Jordan, on the N. fide of
the half-tribe of ManaiTehj between that and the territories
of Damafcus ; fo that it made one part of Ccelefyria, and
lay on tha fide of Juda»a, as Idumaea lay on the other.
The Itureans were famous for drawing the bow, but they
were a fierce people. Iturea was invaded by Arillobulus,
who fucceeded his father Hyrcan ; but being taken ill in
the midft of his fucccfTes, he was under a neccffity of being
brought back to Jerufaleni, and to leave his brother to
complete the conqueft of that province j an achievement
which he foon accomphlhed, caufing all the Itureans, either
to be circumcifed and incorporated with the Jews, or elfe
to depart into fome other country.

ITURISSA, a town of Hifpania, in the country of the
Vafcones. Ptol. In the Itinerary of Antonine it is placed
18 mi'es from the Pyrenees.

ITWA, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Piifen ; 3 miles N. W. of Teufing.

ITYCA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in
Lybia, which was a colony of 'I'yrians.

ITYPHALLOPHORI, in Ancient Mythology, MeniL.
ants on the orgies of Bacchus, who accompanied the Phal-
lophori, habited hke fawns, counterfeiting perfons drunk,
and Tinging, in honour of Bacchus, fongs fuitable to their
fundions. See OuoiES.

ITYS, in Ancient Geography, one of the rivers of Britain,
which runs into the fea oppolite to the ifle of Skye.

ITZEHOE, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Hol-
flein. This town has a very ancient origin : it is named
from a fortrefs built in the beginning of the ninth century
by order of Charles the Great, iffued in 809, to repel the
incurlions of the Danes into Germany. This fortrefs was
called EfTcho, or Iflcho. In prbcefs of time it was fur-
rounded by a number of houfes, wl.ich, about the middle of
the 13th century, obtained the privileges of a town. It
has fince been fevera! times deftroyed ; but is now a fmali,
agreeable, and well built town, partly fituated on the river
Stocr, which runs into the Elbe, and has been erroneonfly-
mentioned by fome travellers as a canal cut from that ri-
ver. It is diftant from Hamburgh 47 miles, and 1 2 from
Gluckftadt. The church, which is in the market-place, ij

I V A

^r#ry fmall, but the fteeple is high, of a particularly light
architciSure : it ftands on four fmail iron pillars, which, at
a dillance, are hardly perceivable. N. lat. ^^^ 57'. E. long.

IV A, in Botany, a name apparently of barbarous origin,
firft applied to a fpecies of Teucrium or Ajuga. It does not
appear why Linnxus appropriated it to the prefent genus.
— Linn. Gen. 490. Schreb. 637. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 2.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 346. JufT. igo. Lamarck Dift.
V. 3. 315. Illuftr. t. 766. Gsrtn. t 164. (Tarchonan-
thus; Vaill. Act. 1719. f. 16, 17.) — Clafs and order. Mo-
mrc'ta Pentandria. Nat. Ord. Compqfili^ Nucamentacee, Linn.
Corymblfera, JiifT.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx roundirti, of about five fub-
ovate, obtufe, nearly equal, permanent leaves, containing
many florets. Cor. Compound convex, having numerous
male florets in the di(k, and five female ones in the cir-
cumference ; that of each of the males monopetalous, fun-
nel-(haped, five-toothed, the length of the caly.x ; of the
females wanting. Stam. Fila;r,ents five, fetaceous, the length
of the floret ; anthers erect, approximated. Pl/l. Germen
oblong, the length of the calyx ; ftyles two, capillary, long;
ftigmas acute. Peric. none, except the unchanged calyx.
Steds folitary, naked, a-^ long as the calyx, thicker about the
upper part, obtufe. Reapt. befet with linear fcales.

Ed. Ch. Male, Common calyx of three or five leaves.
Florets of the dilk monopetalous, five-cleft. Female, Cor-
roUa wanting. Styles two. Seeds naked, obtufe.

1. /. annua. Linn. Sp. PI. 1402. Schmid. Ic. 59. t. 16.
♦' Leaves lanceolate, ovate. Stem herbaceous."— A native
of South America. — This annual rifes to the height of five
or fix feet. Root fibrous, branching. Stem jointed, fur-
rowed, red, hairy ; pairs of oppofite branches formed at
each joint. Leaves oppofite, on foot-ilalks, ovate and
pointed, veined, reddifh above, and green underneath.
Clujlers axillary and terminal, blueifh, or of the fame rufty
colour with the ftem, interfperfed with long, pointed, fer-
rated bradteas.

2. I.frutefceni. Linn. Sp. PI. 1402. (Elichryfo af&nis
peruvania frutefcens ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 27. f. 1.) — " Leaves
lanceolate. Stem rtirubby." — Found in Virginia and Peru.
It flowers in Auguft. — Root perennial. Branches woody,
flender, eight or ten feet long. Leaves fcrrated ; the
branches terminated by chulers of pale purple flowers.

IvA, in Gartlening, comprifes plants of the hardy, de-
ciduous, flinibby, herbaceous, annual kinds, of which the
fpecies commonly grown are, the annual iva (I. annua), and
the ftinibby iva, or baftard Jefuit's bark-tree {I. fru-
tefcens. )

Method of Culture.— The plants of the firft fort are
raifed by fowing the feeds on a moderate hot -bed in the
fpring, and when they are fit to remove, phcing them in
another hot-bed, treating them as the lefs tender annual
forts.

But in the fecond fort, the young branches fliould be
laid down in the fpring, when they will put out roots in
about fix months ; or cuttings may be planted in a fliady
border in May, and when they have taken root, removed,
with earth about their roots, to the places where they are
to grow. The plants fucceed beft in a dry foil, and warm
(lieltercd fituation.

Plants of the firft ^brt- afford ornament among the lefs
tender annuals, and thofe of the latter in the warm borders
and clumps in flirubberies and picafure ground.

IVAFUNE, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the iHand
gf Niphon ; ^o miles S.S.E. of Nigata.

I VAIIAH is the name of one of the canoei or boats ufcd

I y A

by the iflanders of the South fea, for fhort excurfions to fea :
it is wall-fided and flat-bottomed. Sec Bo.\T.

Ivan- I., Va.s.silievitch, John B.vsii.ov. itz, in Bio-
graphy, czar of Ruifia, was born in 1 438, and fucceeded to
the throne in 1462. At this period Ruflia was divided
into a number of petty principalities : fome of th.-m were
fubjcft to the czar or'great duke, and all, together with
him, tributary to the Tartars, who atfumed a fiip-riority
over that prince. The following is given as an init nice of
the fervitude of the great duke. It is recorded by Cromer
the Polifli hiftorian, and quoted by Coxe in his travels :
" Whenever the Tartar ambaffadors were fcnt to Mofcow
to colled tribute, the great duke ufed to meet them, and
ofiTer, as a mark of his refpcd, a cup of mare's milk ; aid
if a drop chanced to fall upon the mane of the horfe on
which the Tartar ambafiador was fitting, he would Isimf^lf
lick it up. When they reached the hall of audience, the
ambafladors read the khan's letter feated upon a carpet of
the choiceft furs, while the grent duke with ids nobles knelt,
and hftened in refpeclful filence." Ivan, who may be juttly
efteemed the founder of Ruffian greatnefs, was a man of
gigantic ftature, and of correfponding refolution and vi-
gour, accompanied with the ferocity of a barbarian defpot.
In the courfe, however, of a profperous reign of above 40
years, he gave a new afpeift to the Rufli.m affairs : he an-
nexed to his dominions feveral nciglibriuring principal
duchies, fubdued Novogorod, and refcued his country from
the Tartar yoke. He had no fooner delivered Ruflia from
this dependence, than his alliance was courted by many
European fovereigns, and during his reign, for the firft
time, the emperor of Germany, ttie pope, the grand fignior,
the kings of Poland and Denmark, and the republic of
Venice, felt it their intereft to fend ambafladors to the
Ruflian court. The talents of Ivan were not confined to
military affairs. RufTia was ind -bted to him for the im-
provement of her commerce, and for opening a more ready
communication with European nations. Under his aufpices,
the knowledge of gunpowder, and the art of cafting cannon
were firft brought "into Ruffia by Ariftotle of Bologna : he
employed the fame artift, and fpm.e other foreigners, vo
re-coin Ruflian money, which had hitherto been disfigured
by Tartar infcriptions : he engaged, at a vaft expence,
Italian artifts to enclofe the citadels of Mofcow and Novo-
gorod, with walls of brick, and to ereft feveral churches
and other public ftruftures with the fame materials. For
his various fervices he obtained the title of Great. It fliould
be obfcrved, that the manners of Ivan were foftened and
poliflied in fome degree by the example of his fecond wife
Sophia, a Grtcian princefs, daughter of Thomas Palxolo-
gus, a lady of confummate beauty and winning addrefs,
who, to all the foftcr graces of her fex, added a vigorous
and manly fpirit, and who, while flie infufcd into her hufband
a tafte for the arts of peace, animated hijn to thole glorious
cnterprifes which occafioned the aggrandifement of his
country. He is reorefcntcd as being ftern and unfeeling,
given to ebriety, though he punifhed it feverely in otliers,
and an objecT; of dread to all who approached him. He
died in 1505, in the 67th year of his age, and the 43d c.[ his
reign. On each fide of his remains were dopofited thofe
of "his father, Vaffili Vaflilievitch, and of his fon, VafTili
Ivanovitch, who fucceeded him on his throne, and expired
in 1553. Coxe's Travels, vol. ii

Ivan II., VA.sMi.iEvrrcii, fucceeded his father Ivano-
vitch in the year 1530. Being oi.ly three years of age,
he was left under the care and fuperintendancc of guardians, "
who faithfullv performed the duty committed to them, and
defeated the plots of the voung prince's uncles, who were
4. 1") dehrous

1 V A

dofirous of depriving liim of his crown. At the age of 19
fie fcnt a fplendid embaffy to the emperor Charles V. the
chief piirpol'e of whicli was to obtain from Germany pro-
per perfons to affill him in the clvihzation of his fiibjedls,
and in introducing arts and manufadlures. More than 300
artifans, of all profefTions, aftually arrived at Lubcc in their
way to Mofcow, bnt were prevented from proceeding on
their jom-ncy by the intrigues of tlie inhabitants 01 that
town. Ivan II. raifed the fuperllruftuie of tlie Ruffian
grandeur, of which his grandfather had laid the foundation.
He inftituted a ilanding army, trained his foldiers to the
life of fire-arms, and accuftomed them to a more regular
difcipline. By means of this formidable body, he extended
his dominions on all fides, conquered the kingdoms of Kafan
and Allraean, and rendered the Ruffian name refpedable
to the diilant powers of Europe. He gave to his fubjefts
the firll cpde of written laws ; he introduced printing into
Ruffia ; he promoted commerce, and regulated all the duties
connefted with it. While involved in a war with the Poles,
a donielUc coui'piracy, in 1 566, occafioned by his tyranny,
threatened to deprive him of his crown. Such was the
danger, tliat he thought it bell to make a feigned abdica-
tion. This produced the propofed efFect of awakening tlie
dormant loyalty of the people ; but as foon as he had re-
fumed the reins of government, he put to death the leaders
of the confpiracy, and fccured himfelf again!!; any future
rebellion, by the inllitution of a body of guards drawn from
the remote provinces, and attached folely to himfelf. Thefe
he augmented, till at length they proved ready inliruments of
defpotifm. He entered into a friendly intercourfe with
queen Elizabeth of England, to whom he proj oi'ed an al-
liance offenfive and defenfive. Though the queen did not
ngree to his propofal in its full extent, yet a treaty was
jnade, which was the commencement of the intercourfe
which has fince fubfided between the two nations. In an
invafion of Ruffia by the Poles, the city of Novogorod in-
curred the fufpicion of having, by its principal inliabitants,
held a correfpondence with the king of Poland. This de-
fection was punilhed in the molt barbarous manner by the
c/.ar, who, in the courfe of a few weeks, adjudged feveral
Ihoufand perfons to death. In 1571, after Ruffia had been
defolated by the plague, the Crim Tartars, inftigated by the
Poles, made an irruption into the Ibuthern provinces, and
advancing towards Mofcow, entirely defeated the Ruffian
army, which made a Hand within 18 leagues of the capital.
Ivan, upon the news, {hut himfelf up in a fortified cloiller,
with his tv.'o fons, and niolf valuable effects, and by this
cowardly defertion, allowed the Tartars to enter Molcow,
which tliey plundered and burnt, with a vail dellruftion of
the inhabitants. The czar's niofl formidable enemy was
Stephen Battori, king of Poland, who, with the king of
Sweden, declared war againfl Ruffia in 1579, took Narva
and Riga, and became mailers of the whole of Livonia.
The Rulfians murmured at his condud, and fome of the
nobles vejiturcd to make remonllrances againil his fuffering
foreign enemies to ravage the country, and re.queflcd that
he would permit his eldeil foil to appear at the head of the
army. The czar, fufpefting that the prince had urged the
iioblts 10 this ilep, reprimanded him in very fevere terms ;
and he attempting to juftify himfelf, the father's anger was
roufed to fuch a pitch, that he gave him a violent blow
with a llaff tipped with iron, which laid him at his feet,
and which in four days proved fatal. l"he favage monarch,
who did not probably intend his fon's death; paffed from
the extreme of anger to that of forro-.v : he refufed to take
food or change his drefs for feveral days, and endeavoured
to expiatii the deed by a magniliccnt funeral. An unfac-

J U A

cefsful attempt to chaftife the Tartars, who had made a nev?
incurlion into the Ruffian territories, was the lafl aft of this
reign. He negociated with them and returned to Mofcow,
when the approach of his own death awakened in him a
defire of conferring benefits on his people, tie now en-
deavoured to correft abufes introduced by his long wars,
performed many afts of cleinency, enjoined his fucceffior
to liberate prifoners, repeal taxes, and redrefs the injuries
which his brutality had inflifted. He expired in 1584, in
the J4th year of his age. He has been reckoned among
the great monarchs of his country, on account of his fpirited
and fuccefsful attc-mpts to free it fr.im a fireign yoke, and
to introduce arts ai.d civilization. He left two fons, of
whom Feodor or Theodore fucceeded him.

.lUAN, Geoiige, in Biography. See the article De-
gree for an account of this naval commander, eminent for
his inathematical knowledge and flcill in praftical aftronomy.

Juan, St. in Grography, one of the Cape Verde iflands.
See Bkava. — Alfo, the' capital of California. N. lat. 26""
2c'. W. long. 1 1 4" 9'. — Alfo, a town of Mexico, in New
Bifcay ; 75 miles S.S.W. of Paral. — Alfo, a town of South
America, in the province of Panama, between Panama and
Porto-Bello. — Alfo, a fea-port town of Mexico, in the
pi-ovince of Nicaragua; 30 miles S E. of Leon.- N. lat.
I 2^ 10'. W. long. 87" 38 . — Alfo, a town in Ea(l Florida ;
12 miles N. of St. Mark.— Alfo, a fmall ifiand in the
North Pacific ocean, near the coall of New Albion, be-
tween the iflands of St. Clemente and St. Diego.— Alfo, a
town on the W. coall of the ifland of Lu9on. N. lat. 1 7-"
12'. E. long. I20- 48'. — Alfo, a town of South America,
in the province of Mcxes ; 70 miles E N.E. of Trinidad.
— Alfo, a town of Paraguay ; 270 miles S.S.E. of Af-
fumption. — Alfo, a river of New Mexico, which runsinto
the gulf of California, N. lat. 29' 10'. — Alfo, a river of
Spaniih North America; in the province of Nicaragua,
which forms an outlet for the lake of Nicaragua to tlie gulf
of Mexico. It has been propofed to make ufe of this
river in order to open a communication betueen the Atlantic
and Pacific ocean. It is faid to be navigated by t};e In-
dians through its whole courfe, and was reported in the
reign of Charles \'. to be as confiderable as the Guadal-
quivir at Seville. The length of the river St. Juan is by
the lateft Englilh maps about 100 miles: and it is navi-
gated by large flat-bottomed boats and canoes, laden with
lallow and other effeiits, which they carry to Pofto-Bello, at
the diftance of 80 leagues ; but they are obliged to unload
at three places, probably rapids, where canals would be re-
quired. Atone of thefe, the callle of our lady, called by
the Englidi the fort St. Juan, is placed on a rock, and
though fmall, ilrong enough to protect the entrance. It
has j6 cannons and a battery ; level w^ith the water is a plat-
form, and towards the land it is defended by a ditch and
rampart, reaching to the river. The ufual garrifon i? 100
men, befides 16 of artillery, 40 mufqueteers, and 20 mi-
litia ; which lalt manage the barks, two being placed every
night up and down the river. There are 18 flaves, male
and female, for the fervice of the garrifon, which is fup-
plied with provifions, flefli, fowls, garden Huff, maize, and
other articles, from the city of Granada, at the dillance
of 60 leagues ; and there are always provilions for fix
months. But the chmate is unhealthy, as it rains almoll
perpetually, and a recruit of 50 men from the capit?.!,
Giiatiniala, is neceffary to fupply the places of thofe who
die. This fortrefs js regarded as the key of Nev.- Spain
and Peru; and by feizing it, and the port of Rcalejo, an
enemy would become mailer of b-.th oceans. Such is the
account of Alcedo, cited by P.nkcrton in the 3d volume
0 of

J '^^ A

of his Geography, to whicli we refer for fome fiirtlicr par-
ticulars relating to the projefted paflage by tiie lake of Ni-
caragua bstwcen the two fore-mentioned oceans.. — Alfo, a
to"ivn of South America, in the Audience of Quito; i ;;
miles N.W. of St. Joachim de Omaguas. — Alfo, a river of
l>r.payan, which runs into the Pacific ocean, N. lat. 332'.

.liJAN- Batiijla, St., a town of South America, in the
■ . vince of Chiquitos ; 250 miles E.S.E. or Santa Cruz

hi Sierra la Nueva. — Alfo, an illand in the Pacific ocean,

>overed by Quiros in 1606. S. lat. 26'. W. long. 149"^.

!uAN i!i Bu^tiavl/ia, a town of the ifland of Cuba, on the
: , , coaft. N lat. 22" 2'. W. long. 77^ 57'.

Juan Capijlrano, St., a Spanidi fettlemcnt and miffion in
New Albion, termed in 1776; fituated in a fmali cove on
the Pacific ocean.

Juan Ji C-nii'.ua, St. See Cixaloa.

ivA.'S dc Dies, St., a town of New Nivarrc ; 240 miles
W. of Cala Gi-aiKle.

Juan Femnnd.s. See Fbrnandes.

Juan th la Froutcra, or de la Cordiila-a, a town of Chili ;
120 miles N.N.E. of St. Yago. In its neighbourhood are
goldmines. S, lat. _:;3^ 2j'. W. long. 68 ' 55'. — Alfo, a
dillriil of South America, lying to the call of the Andes,
with a town of the fame name ; called alfo Cliacapoyas —
Alfo-, a town of Peru, and capital of a jurifdidion in the
diocefe of Truxilio. S. lat. 6' 1 2. W. long. 77^ 28'.

Juan de Fucci, Straits of, a large bay or gulf of the North
Pacific ocean, on the W. coail of North America. In 1792
ciptain Vancouver gave it the name of the gulf of
Georgiifi which fee. Its entrance lies in N. lat. 48^ 2j'.
W. long. 122" 55'.

Juan de Goava, St., a town of the iiland of Kifpaniola ;
So miles N.W. of St. Domingo.

JuAS de N'ovj, two fmall iflands in the Indian fca. S.
lat. lo- 20'. E. long. 52- 45'.

Juan de los Llanos, St., or San, a province of South
America, in New Granada, which forms a confiderable
dillricl, if it be extended as far as the Orinoco ; but as the
capital town is on the wellern llvirts, the extenfion given by
La Cruz feems very arbitrary, there being no Spanifh fet-
tlement in that direftion. This territory eonfills of prodi-
gious plains, extending for 2 or 300 leagues. The town
was founded in 1555, and was formerly celebrated for gold
mines, which have now declined ; and the inhr.bitants fcarccly
exceed 50 ; 50 miles E.S.E. of Santa Fe de Bogota. N.
lat. 3-. W. long. 73' 26'.

Juan del Oro, St., or Carav.iya, a town of Peru, and ca-
pital of a jurifdiftion, in the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres,
and diocefe of Cufco ; 150 miles S.E. of Cufco. N. lat.
14' 40.' AV. Ions;. 69' 36'.

Juan de Pajh, St. See Pa.sto.

JuaN de Porto R'lco, St., a town and capital of the ifland
of Porto Rico, fituated on a peninfula in the N. coall of
the illand, having a good harbour, defended by a citadel and
tallle ; populous and well built, the fee of a bifliop and
xefidence of the governor. The town was founded in the
year 1514 ; but in 1594, when it was in a flourifhing flate,
I't was attacked by fir Francis Drake, who deftroyed all
the fliips in the harbour, but could proceed no farther.
In 1597 it was taken and plundered by the earl of Cum.
bfrland. N. lat. iS' 30'. W. long. 66 20'.

Juan del Rey, St., a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guaxaca ; 25 miles N. of Guaxaca.

Juan Rio, a town of the ifland of Cuba ; 26 miles E.S.E.
of Spiritu Santo.

Juan d'Ulua, St., a fmall ifland in the gulf of Mexico,
>-C2r the coaft of Tlafcala, at the mouth of the river Vera

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Cruz. On this little ifland is a fortrcfs to defend the cn-
tr.mcc into the harbour of Vera Cruz.

IVANGOROD, a town of Rulfia, in the government.
of Petcrfburg, on the Pliufa, near the Baltic, oppofite
Narva, built by Ivan Bafilowitz ; furrounded by a treble
wall, and defended by a number of fmall towers- '52 miles
S.W. of Peterfljurg. N lat. 59; 16'. E. long. 2S ' 14'.

IVANITS, a town of Croatia, on the river Lorsia ; 42
miles N.E. of Carliladt. N. lat. 46 '. E. Ions. 16 ix'

JUANNA. See Hinzuan.

IVAPECANGA, in Boiim; a hame given by foni-
authors to the climbing plant, of' which the farfaparilia, nfed'
in medicine, is the root.

JUAR, in Geography, a- town of Hindooftan, in the
fubah of Delhi ; ) 7 miles S. of Sccundara.

JUBA I., in Biography, king of Numidia, the fon of
Hiempfal, a defcendant of Mairir.ifFa, favoured the can'ie
of Pompey againft Juhus Csfar. He defeated Curio, one of
Caiar's lieutenants, in Africa, whoperiiTied in the action ;
and after the battle of Pliarfalia he united his forces to
thofe of Scipio. They were joined by Cato, who rc-
prefled the pride of Juba, by preventing him taking place
above Scipio. He was conquered in a battle at ThapfuF,
and was totally abandoned by his fubjects. Seeing that all
was loft, he killed himfelf, as did Petreius, who had fnared
his good fortune and his adverfity. His kingdom became
a Roman province, of which Salhift was the firll governor.

Juba II. king of Mauritania, fon of the preceding,
being very young at the time of his father's death, was led
as a captive in Ca;far's triumph. The conqueror requited
him for this aft of humiliation by affording him the advan-
tages of an excellent education, in confequence of which he
became one of the moft learned men of his time, and attained
a conipicuous place as an author, by which he attained to
more glory than he could have derived from the inherit,
ance of a kingdom. He gained the hearts of the Ro-
mans by the co'jrtcoufnefs of his manners, and Augullus
rewarded his fidelity by giving him in marriage Cleopatra,
the daughter of Antony, by conferring upon him the title of
king, and making him mailer of all the territories which
his father once poffefled. Juba governed his dominions
with a fpirit of juftice and lenity v.hich gained him the
elleem of his fubjects. He diflingui.licd himfelf as a writer
by various learned works, which related to the hiftory and
antiquities of the Arabians, Affyrians, and Romans. He
wrote alfo the hillory of theatres, of painting and painters,
of the nature and properties of different animals, and a par-
ticuhu- treatife on the virtues of the herb Euphorbia. He
died about the year 24 of the Chrillian era, leaving a fon,
Ptolemy, afterwards put to death by Caligula. Juba i^
quoted with great applaufe by Pliny, Str.ibo, Plutarch,
Tacitus, and lome other authors. His popularitv, as a fo-
vereign, was fo great, that the Mauritanians rewarded his
benevolence by making him one of th.cir gods. The Athe-
nians railed him a llatue, and the TEthiopiaiis did him homage
as a deity. Univer. Hill. Suet.

Juba, in Geography, a town of Syria, on the right
banks of the Euphrates, on a narrow flip of land, formed by
the \vinding of the river ; 90 miles W.N.W, of Bagdad.
N. lat. 5:; • 42'. E. long. 41* 58'. °

JUBAL, an ifliind in the Red fca, N. lat. 27-30'. E.
lo'ig- 33' 4°'-

JUBBIL, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the Tisri.^;
50 miles S.E. of Al Modain.

JUBBRA, a town of Bengal ; 45 miles W.N.W. of
Ramgur. N. lat 23 jS'. E long. 84'-' 58'.

JUCE, t\\Q Aido, RoodFoft, m ^d\\ir\ over the. choir
> D- 2' • '• U-xv^n

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fcreen in our ancient churches, from which the leffons in
the matins and other church offices ufed to be read. It was
fo called from the readers or cantors afking the benedidlion
of the abbot, dean, or otlicr fuperior, before he began, in
the following form : " Ji'.be Domine benediccre."

JUBILEE, among the Jews, denotes every fiftieth year :
being that following the revolution of feven weeks of years ;
at which time ali the Haves were made free, and all lands re-
verted to their ancient owners. The jubilees were not re-
garded after the Babylonifli captivity.

The word, according to fome authors, comes from the
Hebrewyofc/, which fignifies Jifty : but this muft be a mif-
take, for the Plebrew ^JtV, joM, does not fignify fifty ;
neither do its letters, taken as cyphers, or according to their
numei ical power, make that number ; being lo, 6, 2, and 30,
that is, 48 Others fay, that joM fignifies 3 ratii, and that
the jubilee was thus called becaufe proclaimed with a rair/s
horn, in memory of the ram that appeared to Abraham in
the thicket. Mafius chcofes to derive the word from Jubal,
the firil inventor of mufical inllruments, which, for that rea-
fon, were called by his name ; whence the word joiel and
jiilii/ic came to fignify the year of deliverance and remiffion,
bfcaufe proclaimed with 'he found of oneof thofe inftruments,
which at firll was no more than the horn of a ram. Hottinger,
v.iih whom Dr. Patrick agrees, is of opiniim, that Joitl is a
word invented to imitate the found of the inft rument ; and
that it does not fignify the inflrument irfelf, but the found
which it made. Others denve jol/el from ^^', jubal, in
hi hil S'3P, hoiil, which fignifies to i-ecal or return; be-
caufe this year rtltored all Haves to their liberty, &c. The
inftituM: n of this feftival is in Lev. xxv. 8. 17.

The learned are divided about the year of jubilee ; fome
maintaining that it was every forty-ninth, and others that it
was every fiftieth year. The ground of the former opinion is
chiefly this, that the forty-ninth year, being of courfe a
fabbatieal year, if the jubilee had been kept on the fiftieth,
the land mult have had two fabbaths, or have lain fallow two
vears, which, without a miracle, would have produced a
dearth. On the otlicr hand it is alleged, that the fcripture
cjcpi-efsly declares for the fiftieth year. Lev xxv. 10, n.
And befides, if the jubilee and fabbatical year had been th.e
fame, there would have been no need of a prohibition to
low, reap. Sec. becaufe this kind of labour was prohibited
by the law of the fabbaticil year. (Lev. xxv. 4, C-) The
authors of the Univerfal Hilory, book i. chap. 7. note R,
endeavour to reconcile thefe opinions, by obferving, that
as the jubilee began in the firll month of the civil year, which
was the feventh of the eccleliailical, it might be faid to be
cither the forty-ninth or fiftieth, according as one or other
of thefe computations was followed. The political defign
of the law of the jubilee, was to prevent the too great op-
prefllon of the poor, as well as their being hable to perpetual
flavery. By this means the rich were prevented from accu-
mulating lands for perpetuity, and a kind of equality was
preferved through all the families of Ifrael, and the dif-
tinclion of tribes was alfo preferved, in refpeft both to their
families and po{feffions, that they might be able, wh?n there
was occafion, on the jubilee year, to prove their rigbt to the
inheritance of their anceilors. Thus alfo it would be known
with certainty of what tribe or family the Mefiiah fprung.
It ferved alfo, like the Olympiads of the Greeks, and the
Ludraof the Romans, for the readier computation of time.
The jubilee has alfo been fuppofed to be typical ^f the gof-
pel fiate and difpenfation, dcferibed by Ifaiah, Ixi. ver. 1, 2.
in reference to this period, as the " acceptable year of the
Lord."

Some learned men have attempted to prove by a calcula-

J U B

tion, thought by others to be tolerably exaft, that if the
Jews had itill obferved the jubilees, the fifteenth year of Ti-
berius, when John the Baptiil firll began to preach, would have
been a jubilee, and confequently the laft ; fince fifty yeai'S
after, the Jewidi commonwealth was no longer in being.
This particular is of fome confequence, if it be well founded,
in our controverfy with the Jews, who pretend, that the fon
of David will come during the laft jubilee. And this alfo
exaftly agrees with the defign of the gofpel, already dated,
which R'as to proclaim the grand jubilee, the fpiritual free-
dom of the children of God foretold by the prophets Ifaiah
and Zechariali, and prefigured by the jubilees of the Jews.
Ullier places the firll jubilee, after the promulgation of the
law by Mofes, A. M. 2609, B. C. 1395 ; the fecond A. M.
2658, B.C. 1346; the third A.M. 2707, B.C. 1297, &c.
thus reckoning 49 years from jubilee to jubilee.

Jubilee, in a more modern fenje, denotes a grand church
folemnity, or ceremony, celebrated at Rome, wherein
the pope grants a plenary indulgence to all finners ; at leaft
to as many as vifit the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul at
Rome.

The jubilee was firft eftabhfhcd by Boniface VIII. in
1300, in favour of thofc who Ihould go ad linnna apqfiolorum ;
and it was only to return every hundred years. But the firil
celebration brought in fuch ftore of wealth to Rome, that
the Germans called this the golden year ; which occafioned
Clement VI. 1350, to reduce the period of the jubilee to
fifty years. Urban VI. in 13S9, appointed it to be held
every thirty-five years, that being the age of our Saviour ;
and Paul II. and Sixtus IV. in 1475, brought it down to
every twenty-five, that every perfon might have the benefit
of it once in his life.

Boniface IX. granted the i)rivilege of holding jubilees to
feveral princes and nionalleries : for inftance to the monks
of Canterbury, who had a jubilee every fifty years ; when
people flocked from all parts to vifit the tomb of Thomas
a Becket. Jubilees ai"terwards became more frequent, and
the pope granted them as often as the church, or himfelf, had
occafion for them. There was ufually one at the inaugura-
tion of a new pope.

To be entitled to the privileges of the jubilee, the bull in-
joins fadings, alma, and prayers. It gives the prieils a full
power to abfolve, in all cafes, even thofe otherwife referved
to the pope ; to make commutations of vows, &c. in which
it differs from a p/en.Try indulgence. During the time of
jubilee, all other indulgences are fufpcnded.

See an enumeration of the various writers, who liave
treated of the inllitution of the Roman jubilee, in the
" Bibliogr. Antiq." of Jo. Albert Fabricius ; and the fub-
jcft fully dated by the reverend Charles Chais, formerly
minifterof the French church at the Hague, in his " Lettres
Hifloriques et Dogmatiques fur les Jubilcs et des Indul-
gences," publiflied at the Hague in three vols. 8vo. 175 1.
Thefe letters contain the mod full and accurate account ttiat
has ever been given of the inditution of the jubilee, and of the
rife, progrefs, abufes, and enormities of the infamous traffic
of indulgences. This account is judicioufly coUedled from
the bed authors of antiquity, and from feveral curious re-
cords that have efcaped the refearches of other writers : it
is alfo interfperfed with curious andfomctimes ludicrous anec-
dotes, that render the work amufing as well as indrudlive.
In the fiid volume of thefe letters the learned author lays
open the nature and origin of the inditution of the jubilee ;
he proves it to have been a human invention, which owed its
rife to the avarice and ambition of the popes ; and its credit
to the ignorance and fuperdition of the people ; the celebra-
tion of which, was abfolutely unknown before the thirteenth
7 century.

J II c

century, which isthe true date of its origin. He takes notice
of the various changes which it underwent with refpeft to
the time of its celebration, the various colours with which
the ambitions pontiffs covered it, in order to render it re-
fpedtable and alluring in the eyes of the multitude ; and ex-
pofcs thefe illuliosis by many convincing arguments, the
gravity of which is feafoncd with an agreeable and temperate
mixture of decent raillery. He proves, with indifputableevi-
dence, that the papal jubilee is an imitation of the '• fecular
games" that were celebrated with fuch pomp in pa^^an Rome.
He points out the grofs contradictions that reitjn in the bulls
of the different popes, with refpecl to the naiure of this in-
tlitution and the time of its celebration. Nor does he pafs
over in I'Jence the infamous traffic of indulgences, tiie wordly
pomp and fplendour; the crimes, debaucheries, and dilbrders
of every kind, that were obfervable at the return of each
jubilee year. He lays alfo before the reader an Ijittorical
view of aU the jubilees that were celebrated from the pon-
tificate of Boniface VIII. in the year 1300 to that of Bene-
dict XIV. in 1750, with an entertaining account of the moft
remarkable adventures that happened among the pilgrims
who repaired to Rome on thefe occalions.

One of our kings, -viiz,. Edv.-ard III. caufed his birth-day
to be obferved in manner of a jubilee, when he became fifty
years of age, in 136;, but never before or after. This he
did, by releafing prifoners, pardoning all offences, except
treafon, making good laws, and granting many privileges
,to the people.

We have ktely, z'iz. in 1809, had a jubilee, on occafion
of our fovereign George III. having attained to the fiftieth
year of his reign.

There are particular jubilees in certain cities, wlien feveral
of their fealts fall on the fame day ; at Puey en Velay, for
inftance, when the feaft of the Annunciation happens on
Good-Friday ; and at Lvons, when the fea'.l of St. John
Baptill concurs with the feafl of Corpus Chrilli.

In 1640, tlie Jefuits celebrated a folemn jubilee at Rome ;
that being tiie cei.tenary, or hundredth year from their in-
flitntion, and the fame ceremony was obferved in all their
houfes throughout the world.

.IUBILjEUS, or JuBlLEUS, is ufed among the Roma-
nifts, to fignify a religious who has been fifty years in a
monallery, or an ecclelia!tic who has been in orders fifty
years.

Such veteran religious are difpcnfed with in fome places
from attending matins, or a flricl obfcrvance of any other
of their rules.

JuBlL.sus is alfo extended to any man a hundred years
old ; and to a poifefTion oi- prefcription for fifty years,
" Si agcr non invtuietur in fcriptione, inquiratur de feniori-
bus, quantum temporis fuit turn altero ; & fi fuh certo
jubilio manfit fine vltuperatione, maneat in aeternum."

JUBO, in Geography, ?. kingdom of Africa, cii the coall
of Ajan, near the Ealt Indian fea, with a capital of the
fame name, fubjeft to the Portuguefe. N. lat. o jo'.
E. long. 43" 20'.— Alfo, a river of /\fr!ca, which runs
into the Indian fea, a httle to the N. of the equinoftial line,

E. long. 42' 46 Alfo, a town of Africa, in the kingdom

of Benin.

JUBONES, a rivet of Peru, which runs into the Pacific
ocean, S. lat 3 ' 20'.

JUCARICHI, a town of Mexico, in the province of
New Bifcay ; no miles N.W. of Patral.

.lUCASETZ, a town of Sclavonia ; 25 miles S of
Efzek.

JUC.'\TAN. SecYtiCATAN-.

J U D

JUCCA, in Botany, the name of a diftinft genus of
plants, otherwife called Tucca.

JUCENDRO, in Gcojrapty, a town of the ifland of
Madagaicar. S. lat. 23^ lo'. E. long. 47 14'.

JUCKAS.IERVI, atown of Swcdilli Lapland; 145 miles
N.\V. of Tonica. N. lat. 67' 50'. E. long. 20 46'.

JUCKATAGHERI, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Caniatic ; five miles E. of Muglee.

JUCKING, the notes of a cock partridge, inviting the
hen to come to him. Thcfc ferve the fportfinen in good
flead for finding the places where they are.

JUCLEZ, in Geography, a town of Turkeftan ; 45
miles S.W. of Turkcltan.

JUCURUTA, in Ornithology, a very beautiful fpecies
of owl, found in the Brazils, and vai-iegated with black and,
yellow.

JUD, in Mining, is applied, in the collieries in Derby-
fhire, to a certain depth of coal in the face of their work,
which will fall at once, after the holers have undermined the
fame, and the hammer-n en have applied their wedges near
to. the roof; it is alfo called the web, and the rib of coal in
fome places, and is limited, like the face of the coal, by pa-
rallel vertical flines or lengihway joints ; the backs of New-
caifie colliers.

JUDyE Auricula. See Auricula.

JUDiEA. SeeJuDEA.

JUD AH, in Scripture Biogrnphy, the fourth fon of Jacob
and Leah, was born in Mefopotamia, A.M. 2249, B.C.
17JJ; and was always regarded as the chief of Jacob's
children. The privileges of the firft-born feem to have been
transferred from Reuben to him, after the incell of Reuben
with Bilhah his father's wife. For the bleffing pronounced
by Jacob on his death-bed to Judah, fee Gen. xlix. 8 — 13.
I'hat part of it which occurs in the loth verfe, feems to
imply, that the regal power Ihould not go out of his family,
and that the MciFuh fliould dtrive his birth from it.

JuD.AH, Leo, in Biography, a learned Proteftant divine,
fon of John Judah, a German priell, was born in the year
1482. When he was abor.t twenty years of age, lie was
fent to Bafil to purfue his academical ihidies. Here he
had for a fellow lludent, the afterwards much celebrated
Z.iingle, and from him, who had at a very early age been
iliocked at the fupcrftitiows practices of the church of Rome,
he received fuch impreflioiis, and was directed to fuch en-
quiries, as predifpoled him to embrace the reformed reli-
gion. Having obtained his degree of M.A. he was ap-
pointed minifter of a Swifs church, to the duties of which
he applied hiiufelf with indef..ti.ab'e zciil. His ftudies led
him to renounce the dillinguiihing tenets of popery, and an
adoption of 'iofe of the reformation. He openly preached
in defence ot the Proteifant religion, was appointed by the
magillrates and ecclofiallical aflenibly of Z'lrich pallor. of
the church of St. Peter in that city, and became very <.ele-
brated as an advocate, as well from the prefs as the pulpit,
of the fyftem to which he was a convert. At the defire of
his brethren, he undertook a tranllation, from the Hebrew
into Latin, of the whole Old Teilament. The magnitude
of the work, and the clofenefs with which he applied to it,
were more than he was able to bear, and before he had ■
completed it, he fell a facrificc to his labours in 1542,
when he was about fixty years of age. 'i'iic iranflation was
finifhed by other hands, and was printed at Zurich in i J43,
and two years afterw.irds it v/as reprinted at Paris by
Robert Stevens, accompanying the vulgate verfion, in ad- •
joining columns, but without the name of the author of the
new verfion. Judah was likewifc the author of " Annota- .

tious'*

J U D

tions" on divers books of the Old and New Tellament,
and of tivo catectiifms. Gen. Biog.

Jl'DAli, Tribe of, in Scripture Geogrnphy, a canton of
Paleiline, wl,ich extended S. of Benjamin, about 27 miles,
quite to tlie mountains of Soir, or Edom, which were the
frontiers between it and Iduir.xa. It was bounded on the
E. by tlie Dead fea, and on the W. by the tribes of Dan
and Simeouj both which lay between it and the Mediterra-
nean. Judah was reckoned the largeft and moll populous
tribe of all the twelve, and the inhabitants were the iloiiteft
and moll valiant. It was, moreover, the chief and royal
tribe, from which the ki'igdom was denominated. The
land -ivas beautifully variegated with fertile plains, hills,
dales, lates, and fountains, and it produced great plenty of
corn, wine, oil, fi-uits, and pafture, except where it lay
•contiguous to Idinnxa. It was properly in this territory of
Judah, that the Canaanites dwelt, and here Abraham and
his defcendants fojounied, till they went down into Egypt.
The moll remarkable places of this tribe were Azekah,
Bethlehem, Bethzor, Emmaus, Engedi, Hebron, Libna,
Makkedah, Maon, Maffada, Tekoah, and Ziph ; which
fee refpectively.

One of the principal prerogatives of this tribe was, that
it preferved the true religion, and the public exercife of the
priefthood, with the legal ceremonies in the temple of .Teru-
falem ; wliile the ten tribes gave tliemfelves up to idolatry,
and the worfhip of the golden calves. This tribe, at the
Exodus, was compofed of 74,600 men, capable of bearing
arms.

Judah, Kingdom of, a denomination given to the maimed
kingdom of Rehoboam, in contradiftinftion to that of Il'rael,
■upon the revolt of the ten tribes. The crown pafied from
Benjamin (from Said and IlhboHieth'l into Judah, which
was David's tribe, and that of the kings his fuccefTors,
ifntil the Babylonilh captivity. And after the return from
that captivity, although this tribe did not reign, it gave the
fceptre to thofe who did reign, and in a certain leiife re-
united in i-^fclf the whole Hebi'ew nation, which from that
time was known only as " Judaei," Jews, defcendants of
Judah. See Jews and Isr.\el.

JUDAICUS Lapis, a fmall, grey, foft, brittle ftone,
in form of an olive, having lines drawn regularly on its
furface, as if they were formed by art.

This is a kind of extraneous foflil, being a fpine of an
-echinus marinus petrified. This ilone has by many been
luppoled to be a foflil body in its native figure, but is really
the remains of a fpine of an echinus, filled with a plated fpar.
It is very common in Syria, and is foraetimes found with us.
See Spak.

Tiiefe extraneous foffils are the petrified fpines of echini,
aculei echinorum, or tecolithi of Pliny, which the chalk
flrata, and thofe of the Bath freellone in England, produce
in great perfeftion and variety of Hiapes ; fome of them
occafioned by difeafe in the animal, as is probable, from the
obfervations of Mr. Sowerby. It is not very common, that
the fpines are found attached to the foflil echini : a fpecimen
of this kind, imbedded in a black flint, fold for 20 guineas,
we are told, at the fale by audlion of the late fir Alton
Lever's mufeuni. The foffil fpines of mod of the echini
differ fo much from the recent fpines, that Linnx-us doubted
■whether they really were fuch, a matter now placed beyond
any doubt, by the difcovery of fpecimens like that above
mentioned.

JUDAISM, the religious dodlrincs and rites of the
Jews, which, as well as their commonwealth, (fee Theo-
.«-KACV,) are attributed by Mofcs wholly to God. Judaifm
V, as b\i,t a temporary difpcnfation, and v.as to give way, at

j U D

lead the ceremonial part of it, at the coming of the Mef;.
For a complete fyftem of Judaifm, fee the books of Mt i^ .
Judaifm was anciently divided into feveral fefts ; the prin-
cipal whereof were the Pharifees, Saddueea, and EJlues ;
which fee refpeftively.

At prefent there are two fefls among the Jews, i-is. the
Carnius, (which fee,) who admit of no rule of religion but
the law written by Mofes ; and the Rabbiniils, who add to
the law the traditions of the Talmud. See Rabbinists and
Talmud.

It has been obfcrved that Judaifm, of all religions, is
that which is the mod rarely abjured, in the 18th of
Edward I. the parliament granted the king a fifteenth for
the expulfion of Judailm.

In England formerly, the Jews and all their goods be-
longed to the chief lord where they lived, and he had fuch
abfolute property in them, that he might fell them ; for
they had not liberty to remove to another lord without
leave. Mat. Paris tells us, that Henry III. fold the Jew-s
to earl Richard, his brother, for a term of year.^, that quas
rex cstoriaverat, comes e-jifcerarct.

They were diftinguifhed from the Chriftians both living
and dying ; for they had proper judges and courts wherein
their caufes were tried, and they wore a badge on their
bread over their clothes in (hape of a table ; and they were
fined, if they ftirred abroad without fuch badges. They
were never buried in the country, b\!t always brought up to
London, and interred without the walls.

JUDAN, in Geography, a town of Hindooilan, in Bag-
lana ; 20 miles W. of Junere.

JUDAS Maccab/T.us. See Macc.ib-ees.

JuDAS-Z/Yif, in Botany. See Cercis.

JUDD.\, in Geography, a town of HindooRan, in ihfe
circar of Gurrah ; 10 miles E. of Mahin-.

JLTDE, QX the Ep'ifik of Jiidc, a canonical book of the
New Tellament, written againit the heretics,' who, by their
impious coclrines ar.d diforderly lives, corrupted the fuith
and good morala of the Chriftians.

The author of this epiftle, called Judas, and alfo Thad-
deus and Lebbeus, was one of the 12 apoftles ; he was the
fon of Alpheus, brother of James the Lefs, and one of thofe .
who were called our Lord's brethren. We are not informed,
when or how h.e was called to be an apoftle ; but it has been
conjeftured, that before his vocation to the apoftleiliip he
was an hulbandman, that he was married, and that he had
children. The only account we have of him in particular,
is that which occurs in John, xiv. 21, 22, 25. It is not
uureafonable to fuppofe, that, after ha\-ir.g i-eceived, inxom-
mon whh the other apollles, extraordinary gifts at the pen-
tecoft, he preached the gofpel for fome time in feveral partfe
of the land of Ifrael, and wrought miracles in the rUme of
ChrilL And, as his life feems to have been prolonfted, it
is probable that he afterwards left Judea, and went abroad
preaching the gofpel to Jews and Gentiles in other countries.
Some have faid that he preached in Arabia, Syria, Mefo-
potamja, and Perfia ; and that he fuffered martyrdom in the
lall-mentioncd country. But we have no account of his
travels upon which we can rely ; and it may be queflioncd
whether he was a martyr.

In the early ages of Chriftianity, feveral reje'fted the
EpilUe of St. Jude, bccaufe the apocryphal books of Enoch,
and the afcenfion of Mofes, are quoted in it. Ne'vcrthelefs
it is to be found in all the ancient catalogues cf the ficred
writings ; and Clement of Alcxand.ria, Tertullian, and
Origen, quote it as written by Jnde, and reckon it among
the books of facred fcriprure : in the time-of Eufi-biiis it
was generally received. As to die objefiions that hyve

b-ca

J U D

l)een uiijed againft its authority, D.-. Lardner fugged*,
t!iat there is no neceflity for fuppofing that St. Jude quoted
a book called Enoch, or Enoch's prophecies ; and even
allowing that he did quote it, he gives it no authority ; it
was no canonical book of the Jeur,, and if fucli a book
exillcd among the Jews, it was apocryphal, and yet there
might be in it fome right things. Inllead of referring to a
book, called the " Aifumption or Afcenfion of Chrift,"'
which probably was a forgery much later than his time, it
is much more credible, that St. Jude refers to the vifion in
Zech. iii. i — j. It has been the opinion of fevcral writers,
and among others of Hammond and Beiifon, that St. Jude
addrcffi.-d his epiftle to Jewifli Ghriftians ; but Dr. Lardner
ijifers, from the word.i of the iiifcription of the epiftle v. i,
and V. 3, that it was dcligned for the ufe of all in general,
who had embraced the Cr.rillian religion. The laft men-
tioned author fiippofes, that this epiilte was written in the
year of Chrift 64, 65, or 66. Lardner's Works, vol. vi.
See Epistle.

JUDEA, in Ancient Geography, a province of Afia,
more anciently called the la:id of Canaan, the land of Prom'ife,
the Holy Land, and P. •Mine ; which fee. It was called Judra,
from Judaii, whofe tribe was the moll conliderable of the
li, and poffefled the moft fcrhle part of the whole. It did
not afiume tlie name of Judea, till after the return of the
Jews from the Babylonifli captivity, though it had been
denominated, long before, the kingdom of Judah, in oppofi-
tion to that of Ifrael. After their return, this tribe, which
was the only one that made a ligure, fettled firft at Jen:-
falem, and in tiie adjacent territories, and then fpread
through the whole country, fo that the name of Jehudah
and Jehudim extended itfelf to al! the reft. (See Jldah. )
Judea was aUb called Syria, False ftina-Syria, Ccele-Syria,
and Phoenicia. It was alfo called Idumxa, merely becaufe
tlie Idumseans feized on fome parts of it during the Daby-
Icniih captivity. The modern name, efpccially among
Giiriftians and Mahometans, is Pakftine ; which fee.

Before the arrival of the Hebrews, Jndea was governed
by CanaanitilTi kings, each in his refpeftive city. (See
C.'kNWAN.) When Joihua conquered it, he governed it as
the vicegerent of J..-hovah, according to the form of the
Jewifti tlieocracy. The elders fucceeded Jodiua, about 15
years ; after which the Ifraelites fell into a kind of anarchy
for feven or eight years. Tlisy were governed by Judges for
abotit 3 1 7 years ; then by kings from Saul to the Baby-
lonifli captivity about 507 years. After the captivity,
Judah continued fubject to the kings of Periia, then to
Alexander the Great, and his fucceflbrs ; fometimes to the
kings of Syria, fometimes to the kings of Eg3-pt ; paying,
neverthelefs, great deference, in matters of private govern-
ment, to the high prieft, and to princes of the family of
David. From the time of the Maccabees, they continued
ill pofleflion of the fovereign authority, till the reign of
Herod the Great, abotit 135 years. See Jew.>.-.

JUDENBACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the principality of Coburg ; i 2 miles N.E. of Coburg.

JUDENBURG, a town and capital of Upper Stiria,
on the river Miiehr, on a plain ftirrounded with lofty moun-
tains, always covered with fnow. It has a caftle, college,
asid two convents. The French took it in 1797 ; 32 miles
■V(?.N.W. of Gratz. N. lat. 47° to'. E. long. 14^ 25'.

JUDGE, an officer appointed by the fovereign powers
of any country, to diftribute that jufticc to their fubjedls
wiiich they cannot adminifter in perlcn.

The charafler of judge is part of the regal authority,
vfcercof the kin<j diveft^ him felt.

J U D

_ The chief funclion of judges is for the trial of caufcs botfi
civil and criminal.

The Englilli judges are chofen out of the ferjeants at law,
and are conftituted by letters patent. Their comminTions
are bounded with thi.'? limitation, " faduri quod ad jiiftitiam
pertinent feeundura legem & confuctudinem Anglii :" and
at their creation they take an oath, that they will indif-
ferently miniiler jultice to all them thnt (hall have any fuit
or plea before them ; and this they will not forbear to do,
though the kin-; by his letters, or by exprefs word of mouth,
fhould command the contrary ; antl they are anfwerable in
body, land, and ooods. 18 Ed III. c.'l.

By the law of England all judges muft derive their autho-
rity from the crown, by fome commidioii warranted by law.
The judges of the king's bench, common pleas, and the
barons of the exchequer, are all ^excepting thi> chief jufticc
of the king's bench, who is created by writ) appointed by
patent. Formerly they held their places only during the
king's pleafiire ; but now, for the greater fecurity of the
hbcrty of the fubjed, by ftatute rj Will. III. c' 2. their
commiflions are to be quamdiu fe bene gejfcr'mt, and their
falarles are afcertained and ellablifiied ; and bv i Geo. III.
cap. 23. they are to continue, notwiihftandirg the demife
of the crown ; and their full falaries are abfolutely I'ecured
to them during the continuance of their commifTions,
Though upon an addrefs of both faoules of parliament they
may be lawfuliy removed.

Judges muft exercife their authority in a legal manner,
and hold their courts in their proper perfons ; for they can-
not aft by deputy, nor any way transfer their power to an-
other, as the judges of eccieilaftical courts ir.ar. Yet when
there are feveral j'.jdges in a court of record, the aft of any
one of them is efFeftual, provided their commifEons do not
require more : fo likewife what is executed by a majority
prefent, is the aft of the court ; but where they are equally
divided in opinion, the caufe is to be removed into the ex-
chequer chamber, and for that purpofe a nde is to be made,
and the record certified, &c. Some things done by judges
at their chambers are accounted as done by the court ; and
that they may be prepared to hear what is to come before
them, they are to have a paper of the caufes to be heard,
fent to them by the attornies the day before they are fpokeii
to ; that if, upon reading the record of any caufe, any
fpecial matter that arifes ftiould appear doubtful, they may
fatisfy themfelves by confulting books.

The judges are bound by oath to determine according to
the known laws and ancient cuftoms of the realm. Their
rule herein muft be the judicial decifions and refolutions upon
the various caufes that have occurred, and not their owa
arbitrary will and pleafure, or that of their prince.

Judges are free from all profecutions for any thing done
by them in court, which appears to ha\-e been an error of
their judgment. But for wilful corruption, they have been
complained of to the ftar-chamber formerly, and may now
be called to an accoimt in parliament.

It has been faid, that fcandalous refleftjons on the iudges
in Weftminftcr-hall are within the ftatute oi fcandalum ma"-
natum.

Thofe who ufe threatening or reproachful words to a
judge fitting in the courts, are guilty of a high mifprifion,
and have been punifhed with large fines, imprifonment, and
corporal puoiftimeiit. (Cro. Car. 503.) Aflaulting ajudge,
litting in the ccurt, by drawing a weapon, without any
blow ilruck, is punilhable with the lofs of the right hand,
imprifonm.ont for life, ar.d forfeiture of goods and chatttls,
and of the profits of the perfoU's lands during life (3 Inft.

J U D

J U D

140, 141.) ! ^"'1 layi'ig the chancellor, treafurer, or the 6. They did not life the enfigns of fovereignty, the fceptre

king's jiiftices of cither bench, juftices in eyre, or juftices of or diadem. 7. They had no authority to make any laws,

aflizc, and all other jullices afligned to hear and determine, but were only to take care of the obfervance of the laws of

being in their places doing their offices, is a fpecies of trea- Mofes.

ion by 25 Edw. III. c. 2. However, the barons of the Godwin, in his " Mofes and Aaron," compares them to

exchequer, as fuch, are not within the proteftion of this the Roman diftators, who were appointed only on extra-

acl. (l Hal. P. C. 231.) Judges, who become folicitors ordinary emergencies, as in cafe of war abroad, or confpi-

in a caufe which they are to judge, and privately and extra- racies at home ; and whofe power, while they continued in

judicially tamper with witnefies, or labour jurors, may be office, was great, and even abfolute. Thus the Hebrew

dealt with according to the fame capacity to which they judges feem to have been appointed only in cafes of national

bafely degrade themielves. Bribery in judges is punidiable trouble and danger. This was the cafe particularly with

by lofs of ofSce, fine, and imprifonment ; and by the com- refpeft to Othniel, Ehud, and Gideon. The power of

the judges, while in office, was very great ; nor does it ft
to have been limited to a certain time, hke that of the Ro-
man dictators, which continued for half a year : neverthelefs

for this offence he (hall be fined and imprifoned, and it is reafonable to fuppofe, that when they had performed

office. If a judge, who liath no jurifdiclion of the

mon law, bribery of judges in relation to a caufe dependmg
before them, has been puniflied as treafon. If a judge ig-
noranlly condemns a man to death for felony, when it is not
felcn' - ■ -

caufe, give judgment of death and award execution, which

is executed, fuch judge is guilty of felony ; and alfo the

officer who executes the fentence. And if juilices of the

peace, on indictments of trefpafs, arraign a man of felony,
and judge him to death, and he is executed, it is felony in
them. A judge ought
in pleas where he is party

the bufinefs for which they were appointed, they retired to
a private life. This Godwin infers from Gideon's refufing

ke upon him the perpetual government of Ifrael,
being inconfiftent with the theocracy.

Befides thefe fuperior judges, every city in the Hebrew

commonwealth had its elders, who formed a court of judi-

to judge in his own caufe, nor caturc, with a power of determining lefier matters in their

reipeclive diftricts. The rabbies fay, there were three fuch

it was formerly e'nadled, flat. 3 5 Hen. VIII. c. 24. that elders or judges in each lefler city, and twenty-three in

rone fliould be jullices of afllzes" within the county where greater. But Jofephus, whofe authority has greater

they were born, or do inhabit : but this is repealed by a late weight, fpeaks of feven judges in each, without any fuch

ftatute, 12 Geo. II. c. 27. diftimftion of greater and lefs. Sigonius {De Republ. Heb.

It was formerly held, that by a judice's acceptance of 1. vi. c. 6.) fuppofes that thefe elders and jud;^es of cities

any new name of dignity, his commiffion was determined ; were the original conftitutioH fettled in the wildernefs by

but this was remedied by ftatute i Edw. VI. c. 7. But it Mofes, upon the advice given him by Jethro (Exod xxviii.

has been doubted, whether the dignity of baronet, created 21, 22.); and continued by divine appointment after the

fince that ilatute, is within the equity of it. fettlcment in the land of Canaan : whereas, others imagine

Jldges of Bell. See Heli. and T.^ktarus. that the Jethronian prefectures were a peculiar conftitution.

Judge, It'meranl. See Itinerant. fnited to their condition while encamped in the wilderncfs.

Judge Martial, or Advocate General, the fuprcme judge but laid afide after they came into Canaan. It is certain,

in martial law as to the jurifdiction and powers of military however, that there was a court of judges and officers, ap-

courts. It is incumbent upon this perfon, as well as upon pointed in every city, by the law of Mofes. (Deut xvi.

his deputies, to be well acquainted with the laws of the land
that they may admonifti the court or prefident when th '
proceedings are tending to infringe the civil law. He
regifter of courts-martial, and fhould take dov/n the e
dence in the very words of the witnefs. He is neither
judge nor a juror as to the charge.

18.) How far, and in what refpeAs, thefe judges differed
from the elders of the city, it is not eafy to afcertain ; and
whether they were the fame or different pcrfons. Perhaps
the title elders may denote their feniority and dignity ; and
that of judges, the office they fuflained. The lower courts
of juftice, in their feveral cities, were held in their gates.

Judge, iii Scripture, is applied to certain eminent perfons (Deut. xvi. 16.) See Gate. Each tribe had its refpec-

chofen by God himfelf to govern the Jews, from, the time tive prince, whofe office related chiefly, if not altogether, to

of Jofhua till the eitablilliment of the kings. For the nature military affairs. We read alfo of the princes of the congre- .

and duration of their office, and the powers with which they gation, who prefided in judiciary matters. Thefe are called

were invefled, fee Jews. elders, and were feventy in number. (Numb. xi. 16, 17.

The judges were not ordinary magiflrates, but were ap- 24, 25.) But it does not appear whether or not this con-
pointed "by God on extraordinary occafions, as to head the fiilory of feventy elders was a perpetual, or only a tempo-
armies, to deliver the people from their enemies, &c.— rary inftitution. Some have fuppofed that it was the fame
Sali^.n has obferved that they not only prefided in courts of that afterwards became famous under the appellation of
juftice, but were alfo at the head of the councils, the armies. Sanhedrim ; but others conceive the inftitution of the feventy
and of every thing that concerned the government of the elders to have been only temporary, for the affiftance of
ftate ; though they never aflumed the title either of princes, Mofes in the government, before the fettlement in the laiid
governors, or the like. of Canaau ; and that the Sanhedrim was firit fet up in the

Salian remarks feven points wherein they differed from time of the Maccabees. See Sakiiedui.m.
kings. I. They were not hereditary. 2. They had no Judge, in Mining, is applied, in the coal-pits of Not-

abfolute power of life and death, but only according to the tinghamflilre and Derbyfliire, to a piece of board cut to a

laws, and dependently upon them. 3. They never under- wedge-like fhape, which fhould fit exactly into any part of

took war at their own pleafure, but only when they were the excavation made under tht face or bank of the coals, by

commanded by God, or called to it by the people. 4. They the holers, in order to loofon them. The length of the

exafted no tribute, j. They did not fucceed each other judge is regulated by the depth or width of the jud, or web

immediately, but after the death of one there was frequently of coal which will fall at once : and the overlooker is re-

in interval of feveral years before a fucceflor was appointed, quired daily to try the judge in th? holing, to fee th^t the

holerj

J U D

holers undermine fufticicntly far back ; and yet, in order to
fave themfelves trouble, do not make the hole higher than
the judge, and thereby cut away and wafte the jud of coal.
Thefe procefTes of coal-digging are particularly defcribed in
Mr. Farey's Reoort, vol. i. p. 344.

Judges, or Boot of Judgm, is a canonical book of the Old
Tellament, con'aining the hiilory of the Ifraclite judges,
of whom we have been fpeaking in a preceding article.

The author is not known : it is probable the work did
not come from any tingle hand, being rather a coUcClion
of f veral httle hiiiories, which at firll were fepnrate, but
were afterwards colledled by Ezra, or Samuel, into a
fingle volume ; and, in all likelihood, were taken from the
ancient journals, annals, or memoirs, compofed by the fe-
Teral judges.

The antiquity of this book is itnqueflionable, as it mud
have been written before the time of David ; fince the de-
fcription (chap. i. v. 21.) was no longer true of Jerufalem,
after he had taken pofleffion of it, and liad introduced a
third clafs of inhabitants of the tribe of Judah. Eichorn
acknowledges, that it doth not bear any marks of fubfe-
quent interpolation. Dr. Patrick is of opinion that the five
lad chapters are a dilUncl hiilory, in which the author
gives an account of feveral memorable tranfaClions, which
occurred in or about the time of the judges ; whofe hiftory
he would not interrupt by intermixing thefe matters with it,
and therefore referved them to be related by themfelves, in
the fecond part, or appendix. In thefe he firll gives an
account how idolatry crept into the tribe of Ephr?im, then
how it was propagated among the Danites ; after which he
relates a moll heinous act of adultery, committed in the
tribe of Benjamin; which introduces the hiftory, firft, of
the almoft. total deftruftion of that tribe for their coun-
tenancing that deteftable faft, and then of its reftoration.
Eichorn alfo fuppofes that thefe chapters are diftincl frag-
ments of a lefs certain date, but pofterior to David (chap,
xviii. v. 31.), under whom the houfe of God ceafed to be
in Shilih.

JUDGMENT, or the fecond operation of the mind in
the acquifition of knowledge (the firft being perception),
is a faculty of the foul, by which it perceives the relation
between two, or more, ideas : or the concurrence or coin-
cidence of two ideas, or the want of concuiTence or coin-
cidence. Two ideas, being compared together, concur, as
in the inftance of milk and whitenefs ; and they coincide,
as in thofe of Gcd and Creator ; or they do not concur,
as vice and ufefulnefs, or they do not coincide, as man and
brute.

Thus, when we judge, that the fun is greater than the
moon, the underftanding firft compares the two ideas of
the fun and the moon ; and, finding the idea of the fun
greater than that of the moon, the will perfectly acqui-
efces in that perception, nor put» the mind upon any farther
enquiry.

It is not the underftanding, then, that judges, as is ordina-
rily tho\i,ht ; judgments and realonings on the part of the
underftanding, are b'.it mere perceptions ; it is the will alone
that judges, by acquiefcirg in what is reprefented to it by
the underftanding.

The only difference, then, between pirapUon, judgment, and
T;cif'jning, \o far as the underftanding is concerned in them,
is this ; tiiat it perceives a thing fimply, without any rela-
tion to any otlver thing, in a fimple perception ; that it per-
ceives the relations between two or more things in judg-
ments ; and, laftly, that it perceives the relations that are
between the relations of things in reafonings ; fo that all the

Vol.. XIX

J U D

operations of the underftanding arc in cfTedl no more than
pure perceptions.

Thus, when we perceive, for inllancc, twice 2, or 4, this
is no more than a fimple perception ; when we judge, that
twice 2 are 4, or that twice 2 are not j, the underftanding
does no more than barely perceive the relation of equality
that is between twice 2 and 4, or of inequality between
twice 2 and J. Farther, reafoning confifts in perceiving
the relation, not between two or more things, for that
would be a judgment, but of two or more relations of two
or more things : thus, when I conclude, that 4 being lefs
than 6, twice 2 being 4, are by confequence lefs than fix ;
I perceive not only the relation of inequality between 2 and
4, and 6 (for this were only a judgment), but alfo the rela-
tion of inequality betv.'een the relation of twice 2 and 4, and
the relation between 4 and 6 ; which conftitutes a reafoning.
The underftanding, therefore, only perceives, and it is the
will that judges and reafons, in aftenting voluntarily to what
the underftanding reprcfcnts.

Indeed, when the things which we confidcr appear clear
and perfcclly evident, it feems as if it were not voluntarily,
that the mind confents to them ; whence we are led to
think, thtit it is not properly the will, but the underftanding
that judges of them. But to clear this point it muft be
obferved, that the things which we confider, never appear
entirely evident, till the underftanding has examined them on
all fides, and has perceived all the relations ncceftary ta
judge of them ; whence it happens, that the will, not being
able to will any thing without knowledge, cannot aft on the
underftanding ; that is. cannot defire it to reprefent any
thing new in its objeft, as having already viewed it on all
fides that have any relation to the queftion in hand. It is
obliged then to reft in what has been already reprefented,
and to ceafe to agitate and difturb it any farther ; in which
ceftation it is that judgment confifts.

This reft or judgment, then, not being free when things
are in their laft evidence, we are apt to imagine, that it is not
the effeft of the will. So long as there is any thing ob-
fcure in the fubjeft that we confider, or that we are not
fully fatisfied that we have difcovered every thing neceftary
to refolve the queftion, as it happens in moll of thofe things
that are difiicult, and that contain various relations ; we re-
main at liberty not to acquiefce : the will may command the
underftanding to purfue its enquiries farther, and to make
new difcoveries, whence it is, that we are more ready to
allow the judgments formed on thefe fubjecls to be vo-
luntary.

Moft philofophers, however, maintain, that even the judg-
ments which we form on obfcure things are not voluntary ;
and will have our confenting to the truth to be an .iftion of
the underftanding, which they call njfcnl, to diftinguiih it
from our confenting to goodnefs, which they attribute to
the will, and call it confent.

But their error is owing to this, that in our prefent ilatc
we frequently fee things to be evidently true, without tise
leaft rcafon to doubt of them ; in which cafe the will is not
at liberty either to give or rcf.ife her aflent : but it is not fo
in matters of goodnefs ; there being nothing, which we do
not know fume reafon for forbearing to love. So that we
here perceive a manifell indifterence, and are fully convinced,
that v.lien we love any thing, evcii God, for inftance, we ufe
our liberty, and do it voluntarily. But the ufe we make of
our liberty is not fo apparent, wlien we confent to the truth,
efpccially when it appears perfeclly evident ; and this leads
us to think, that our confent to truth, that is, our ii V.gnient,
is not voluntary ; as if an aftion, to be volunt:<ry, muil be
indifTcrent ; as if the bleffed above did not love God volun-
4 E taiily.

JUDGMENT.

f arily, becaufe they cannot be diverted from it by any other
thing ; nor we conlVnt freely to this evident propofition, that
twice 2 are 4, becaufe we have no appearance of reafon to
difTiiade us fiom it.

Mr. Locke (b. iv. c. 14 ) ditlinguiflies between know-
ledge and judgment ; the former being that faculty of the
mind, by which it certainly perceives, and is undoubtedly
fatisfied of the agreement or difagreement of any ideas ; the
latter, or judgment, is the putting of ideas togetlier, or the
feparating of diem from one another in the mind, when their
certain agreement or difagreement is not perceived, but pre-
fnmed to be fo ; which is, as the word imports, taken to be
fo before it certainly appears; and if it fo unites or feparates
them, as in reality things are, it is right judgment. A judg-
ment, called by Mr. Locke a mental proportion, is that
union or feparation of the ideas which is the refult of the
aft of judging; and this inay exill witliout any connection
with words ; tho'igh, as men are very much ufed to connect
ideas with words, it is very difficult to treat of judgments as
dilHnguiHied from verbal propofitious. (See Piioi'OSITIos. )
I'lie iburces of jiidgm.eut are confcio'.ifneis, fenfe, intuition,
and teltimony. See each of thefe articles relpeftively. The
definition commonly given of judgment, by the more an-
cient writers in logic, was, th.it it is an act of the mind, by
which one thing is affirmed or denied of another. Dr. Reid
thinks this to be as good a definition as can be given, and
prefers it to fome others ; but it is evidently liable to ob-
jections, which he has (lated. Judgment is a fohtary a£i of
the mind, and tiie expreffion of it by alKrmation or denial
is not at all efTcntial to it ; and therefore the definition muft
be rellri<fted to mental affirmation or denial, which, as he
fays, is only another name for judgment. Befides, affirma-
tion or denial is very often the expreffion of teftimony,
which is a different aft of the mind, and ought to be diltin-
guifhcd from judgment. Judgment, as Dr. Reid proceeds
to obferve, is an aft of the mind fpccifically different from
fimple apprehenfioii, or the bare conception of a thing ; for
although there can be no judgment without a conception of
the things about which we judge, yet conception may be
without any judgment. Judgment can be cxprefTed by a
propofition onlv, and a propofition is a complete fentence ;
but fimple apprehenfion may be exprefied by a word or words,
which make no complete fentence. It is felf-evident, that
every judgment muft be either true or falfe ; but fimple ap-
prehenfion or conception can neither be true nor falfe.
Again, one judgment may be contradiftory to another ; and
it is impoflible for a man to have two judgments at the fame
time, which he perceives to be contradiftory. But contra-
diftory propofitious may be conceived at the fame time with-
out anydifiiculty. Dr. Reid obferves, that there are fome
notions or ideas that ought to be referred to the facuhy of
judgment as their fource ; becaufe if we had not that fa-
culty, they would not enter into our minds ; e.g. we could
not have the idea of any relation without fome exercife of
judgment, and yet the relations of things coniHtute one
great clafs of our notions or ideas. It is further reinarked,
that in perfons come to years of underllanding, judgment
neceffarily accompanies all fenfations, perception by the
fenfes, confcioufnefs and memory, Ijut not conception.
The man who feels pain, judges and believes that lie is really
pained ; a perfon who perceives an objeft beUeves tiiat it
exifts, and is what he diilinftly perceives it to be ; nor is it
in his power to avoid fuch judgment; and the fame may be
faid of memory and confcioufnefs. All operations of this
kind arc accompanied with a determinaticm that fumcthing is
true or falfe, and a confoquent behef. If this determination
be not judgment, it is an ojieration without a aame j for it is

not fimple apprehenfion, neither is it reafoniiig ; it is a
mental affirmation or negation ; it may be expreil'ed by a
propofition affirmative or negative, aiid it is accompanied
with the firmeil belief. " Thefc," fays Dr. Reid, " are
the charafteiillics of judgment, and I mull call it judgment,
till I can find another name for it." The judgments we form
are either of things neceflary, or of things contingent. Our
affcnt to neceflary propofitions is not grounded upon any
operation of fenfe, of memory, or confcioufnefs, nor does
it require their concurrence ; it is unaccompanied by any
other operation but that of conception, which mull accom-
pany all judgment ; and therefore this judg.ment of things ne-
ceflary may be called pure judgment. Our judgment of
things contingent muft always reft upon fome other operation
of the mind, fuch as fenfe or memory, or confcioufnefs, or
credit in teftimonv.

In common language, there are many forms of fpeech
which fhew that the fenfes, memory, and confcioufnefs,
are confidered as judging faculties. Evidence is the
ground of judgment, and when evidence is perceived, it is
impoiTible not to judge. Dr. Reid, adverting to the notion
of judgment, which, he thinks, is peculiar to iVIr. Locke, and
which we have already ftated, expreffes his opinion, that
there can be no knowledge without judgment, though there
may be judgment without that certainty which we commonly
call knowledge. In order to avoid difputes about the mean-
ing of words, this author wilhes to be u;.derllood as giving
the name of judgment to every determination of the mind
concerning what is true or what is falfe. This, he thinks, is
what logicians, from the days of Arillotle, have called
judgment. " Whether it be called one faculty," he fays,
" as I think it always has been, or whether a philofopher
chufcs to fplit it into two, feems not very material. And if
it be granted, that by our fenfes, our memory and con-
fcioufnefs, we not only have ideas or fimple apprehenfions,
but form determinations concerning what is true and what is
falfe ; whether thefe determinations ought to be called hwj)-
lal^e ox jmh^mcnt, is of fmall moment." — " Philofophers,"
fays the fame writer, " have never been able to give any
definition of judgment which does not apply to the determi-
nation of our fenfes, our memory, and confcioufnefs, nor
any definition of fimple apprehenfion which can comprehend
thofe determinations." Judgments of this kind may, in the
ftrifteft fenfe, be called " judgments of nature," nor do
they admit of improvement by culture.

Dr. Reid further obferves, that fome exercife of judgment
is neceflary in the formation of all abllraft and general con-
ceptions, whether they be more fimple or more complex ; in
dividing, in defining, and, in general, in forming all clear and
dillinft conceptions of things, which are the only fit materials
of reafoning. He adds, that all our notions of relations may
more properly be afcribed to judgment as their fource and
origin, than to any other power of the mind. The notions
of unity and number are fo abftraft, that it is impoffible
they fliould enter into the mind until it has fome degree of
judgment. Judgment is alfo an ingredient in all matters of
talk- ; in all moral determinations ; and in many of our paf-
fions and afi'cftions. So that this operation, after we come
to have any exercife of judgment, mixes with moll of the
operations of our minds, and, in analyfing them, cannot be
overlooked without confulion and error. Reid's EfTays,
eff. vi. chap. 1.

Jlik;.ment, in ?i Legal Scnfi, is a fentence or decifioii
pronounced by authority of a king, or other power, either
by their own mouth, or by that of their judges, and offiocrs,
whom they appoint to adminifter juftice in their Head.

Judgments are the fentence of the law, pronounced by

JUDGMENT.

the court upon the matter contained In the record ; aiidtliey Judgment may be given not only upon tlie trial of the
are of" four fiirts. ill. Where the fads are confcilcd by the iffue, but on a default, cor.feffion, demurrer, or an oiithnvry,
parties, and the lau- determined by the court ; as in cafe of wliich is a judgment in itfelf. After ifhie joined in a caufe,
judgment upon </«;;«/■;■£•(•. (SeeDE.MUKRKK.) 2dly. Where the plaintiff may, if he thinks proper, accept of a judgment
the law is admitted by the parties, and tlie fads difputcd ; from the defendant ; but on fuch a judgment, a writ of error
as in cafe of judgment upon a verdict. (See Vekdict.) may be had without putting in bail, which cannot be done
^dly. Where both the fact and the law anfmg thereon are ona judgment after verdift. All judgments given in courts
admitted by the defendant ; which is the cafe of judgments of record mull be entered ; in order to which the plaintifPs
hy ccnfe/fiott or dcfa II h. (See thofe articles. ) 4thly. Where attorney, four days after the record is brought into court,
the plauuiff is convinced that either fad, or law, or both, are may, if the judgment is out, enter judgment by the ufua!
infufficient to fupport his adion, and therefore abandons or courfe of the court ; but he cannot do this fooner, becaufc
withdraws his profecution ; which is the cafe in judgments tb.e defendant mull have time to bring in a writ of error, or
upon a iwtifuit or irtraxil ; which fee. to find out matter foranarreil of judgment. The defendant

The judgment, though pronounced or awarded by the may oblige the plaintiff to enter his judgment, in order that
judge.', is not tlicir determination or fentence, but the deter- he may plead it to any other adion ; and judgment upon a dc-
niination and fen;ence of the la<wi and, in fliort, it is the re- murrer to a declaration, &c. which docs not pafs upon the
niedy prefcribed by law for the redrefs of iiijuries ; and the merits of the caufe, is no bar to it, though other judgments
f'.iit or action is ihe vehicle or means of adminillering it. may be pleaded in bar to any adion brought again for the
What that remedy may be, is, indeed, the lefult of dL-hbe- fame thing. .ludgments are to continue till they are re-
ration and lludy to point out ; and therefore the ilile of the \crfed ; but an adion of debt will lie on a good judgment, as
judgment is, not that it is decreed or rcfolved by the court, well after a writ of error is brought, as before it. If a
for then ihe judgment mi<;ht appear to be their own ; but plaintifl docs not take out an execution within a year and a
" it is conhdered,' coujieleialum ejl per ciir'uim, that the
plaintiff ds recover his damages, his debt, his poireflion, and
thehke; which implies, that the judgment is none of their
o»'H ; but the ad of law, pronounced and declared by the
court, after due deliberation and enquiry. AUthefe fpecies
of judgments are either intcrheMloiy orjinal. For the former,
fee iNXiiULOCi Toi:v. //na/ judgments are fueh as at once
put an end to theaclion. by declaring that tiie piaintifl" has ei-
ther entitled himfelf, or has no'., to recover the remedy for court, if he

whichhefues. In which cafe, if the judgment be for the plain- be awarded again (t him. And in cafe the defendant be found
titf, it is alfo confidered, that the deicndant be either amerced, guilty of a mifdemeanor, (the trial of which may, and
for his wilful delay of ju (lice in not immediately obeying the does ufually, happen in his abfence, after he has once ap-
king's writ by rendering the plaintiff his due (8 Rep. pearcd,) a capias is awarded and iflued, to bring him in to
40. 61.) ; or be taken up, capialiir, till he pays a fine to the receive his judgment ; and, if he abfconds, he may be profe-
king for the public mifdemeanor, which is coupled with the cutcd even to outlawry. (See AlfUKsT uj Judgment.) When
private injury, in all cafes of force (S Rep. jg. 11 Rep. 43. all refources fiiil, the court muft pronounce that judgment,
3: Mod. 285'.), of falfliood in denying his own deed, which the law hath annexed to the crime. Judgment, in cafe
( F. N. B. 121. Co, Litt. 131. 8 Rep. 60. I Roll, of treafon or felony, mull be by an exprefs fentence, an out-
Abr. 219. Lill. Entr. 379. C. B. Hd. 4 Ann. lawry, or abjuraiion ; and no judgment can be inflided con-
Rot. 4^0.) or unjuilly claiming property in replevin, or of trary to law, or that is not appointed by ad of parliament,
contempt by difobeying the command of the king's writ or Thefe judgments are of very difltrent kinds, fomeare capital,
the exprefs prohibition of any llatute. (8 Rei>. 60 ) But extending to the life of the offender, and coniiiling generally
now, in cafe of trcfpafa, cjedmcnt, affault, and f;dfe impri- in being hanged by the neck till dead ; though in very
fonment, ii is provided by the llatute 5 & 6 W. & M. atrocious crimes other circumllances of terror, pain, or dif-
c. I 2., tliat no writ ofoipias (hall iffue for this line, nor any grace, arc fuperaddcd ; as in trcafons of all kinds, the offen-
fiiic be paid ; but (he plaintiff fhall pay (>s. Sd. to the proper der is fentenced to be drawn or dragged to the phce of exe-
officor, and be allowed it againfl. the defendant among his cution ; in high treafon affeding the king's perfon or govern-
other coils. And therefore upon fuch judgments, in the meiit, emboweliing alive, beheading, and quartering ; and
cpmmou pleas, they ufed to enter that the fine was remitted, in murder, a pnbhc difil'dion. In cafe of any treafon com-
and now in both courts they take no notice of any line or mitted by a female, the judgment is to be burned alive. But
eapitit at all. (Salk. 54. Carth. 390.) But if judgment the humanity of the Eiigliih nation has authorized, by a
be for the defendant, then in cafe of fraud and deceit tithe tacit confent, an almoll general mitigation of fuch part of
court, ormalicioi'.ior vexatious fuits, the plainti.ff may alfo thefe judgments as faviur of torture or cruelty; a (ledge or
be lined (S Rep. 51), 60.) ; but in mod cafes it is only con- hurdle being ufually allowed to fuch traitors as are condenuied
lidcred, that he and his pledges of profecuting be (nomi- to be drawn ; and there being few inftances (and thofe acci-
hally) amerced for his faife claim, pro falfo clamorefiio, and dental or by negligence) of any pcrfon's being embowelled
that the defendant may go thereof without a day, eat inde/ine or burned, till previoully deprived of fenfation by ilranghng.
<//., that is, without any fiirlher continuance or adjourn.nnent ; (See E.xecl rios of C riminals ) Some punifliments conlill
the king's writ, commanding his attendance, being now in exile or banifliment, by abjuration of the realm, or tranf-

day after judgment is obtained, the judgment mull be
vivcd by vi. fare facias .

JtDG.MENT yi;- Crimes, fuccceds trial and convidion, in
fuch crimes and mifdemcanors as are either too high, or too
low, to be included within the benefit of clergy. For when,
upon a eai;ital charge, the jury have brought in their vcr.did
guilly, in the prefence of the prifoner ; he is either imme-
or at a convenient time foon after, aiked by the
•■^g to offer, whyjudgii

diatel

why judgment fliould not

fully fatislied, and his innocence publicly cleared. To
judgments colls are a neceffary appendage. See Co.>rs.
Blackft. Com. book iii.

In every judgment there ought to be three perfons, aclor,
reus, and jude.K ; plaintiff or profeculor, defendant, and employ

portation ; others in lofs of liberty, by perpetual or tempo-
rary imprifonment. Some extend to confifcation, by for-
feiture of lands, or moveables, or both, or of the profits of
land for life ; other.s induce a difability of holding offices or
beins heirs, executor.', and the like. Some,

judge

though rarely, occufion

mutilation, or difinembering, by
4 E 2 - cutting

J U D

cutting off the hand, or ears ; others fix a lading ftigma on
the offender, by flitting the noftrils ; or branding in the hand
or cheek. Some are merely pecuniary, by ftated, or difcre-
tionary fines ; and laftly there are others, that confift prin-
cipally in their ignominy, though moft of them are mixed
with fome degree of corporal pain ; and thefe are inflifted
chiefly for fuch crimes, as either arife from indigence, or ren-
der even opulence difgraceful. Such are whipping, hard
labour in the houfe of correftion or otherwife, the pillory,
the (locks, and the ducking ftool. Blackft. Com. book iv.
Judgments for Debts are acknowledged by a perfon's
giving a general warrant of attorney to any attorney of the
court in which it is to be acknowledged, to appear for him
at the fuit of the party to whom the fame is to be done,
and to file common bail, receive a declaration, and then to
plead, non fum informatus, I am not informed ; or to let it
pafs by nihil dkit, he fays nothing ; upon which judgment
is entered for want of a plea. Judges that fign judgment
of lands, are to fet down the day of the month and year
in which they do it ; and they fhall be good againft pur-
chafers only from fuch figning. Where a perfon has
acknowledged a judgment for the fecurity of money,
and afterwards, on borrowing more money of another per-
fon, mortgages his lands, &c. without giving any notice of
the judgment to the mortgagee ; in fuch cafe, if the mort-
gager do not within fix months pay off and difcharge the
judgment, he fiiall forfeit his equity of redemption, 4 and J
Will, and Mary. Acknowledging a judgment in the name
of another perfon, without his privity or confent, is made
felony by 21 Jac. I. c. 26.

Judgment, Jalm of Debt on, lies for a perfon who hath
once obtained a judgment againft another for a certain fum,
and who has neglcfted to take out execution upon it ; fuch
perfon, in his freth aftion, fliall not be put upon the proof
of the original caufe of aftion ; but, after (licwing the judg-
ment once obtained, flill in full force, and yet unfatislied,
the law immediately implies, that by the original contraft
of fociety the defendant hath contrafted a debt, and is
bound to pay it. This method feems to have b*en invented
when real aftions were more in ufe than at prefent, and da-
mages were permitted to be recovered thereon ; in order to
have the benefit of a writ of capias to take the defendant's
body in execution for thefe damages, which procefs was
allowable in an aftion of debt (in confequence of the ftatute
25 Edw. III. c. 17.), but not in aftions real. Wherefore,
fince the difufe of thefe real aftions, aftions of debt upon
judgment in perfonal fuits have been partly much difcoun-
tenanced by the courts, as being generally vexatious and op-
prefTive, by haraffing the defendant with the coils of two
aftions inllead of one. Blackft. Com. b. iii.

Judgment, Jrrefl of. See Arrest.

Judgment, AJftgning filfe. See Assign.

JuDG.MENT of God. See Judicium Dei.

Judgment, Execution of. See Execution, &c.

JuDG.MENT, Mafs of. See Mass.

Judgment, Property by. A judfjment, in confequence
of fome fuit or action in a court of juftice, is frequently the
means of vefting the right and property of chattel intercfts
in the prevailing party. In this cafe we muft diftinguifh
between property, the right of which is before veiled in the
party, and of which ody pojfejfion is recovered by fuit or
aftion ; and propertj", to which a man before had no deter-
minate title or certain claim, but he gains as well the right
as the poftefTion by the procefs and judgment of the law.
Of the former fort are all debts and chofes in aftioi; ; as if
a man gives bond for 20/., or agrees to buy a horfe at a
(lated fum, or takes up goods of a tradefman upon an im-

J U D

plied contraft to pay as much as they are reafonably worth ;
in all thefe cafes the right accrues to the creditor, and is
completely vefted in him at the time of the bond being
fealed, or the contraft or agreement made ; and the
law only gives him a remedy to recover the poflefTion of that
right, which already in juftice belongs to him. But there
is alio a fpecies of property, in which a man has not any
claim or title whatfoever, till after fuit commenced and judg.
ment obtained in a court of law ; where the right and the
remedy do not follow each other, as in common cafes, but
accrue at one and the fame time ; and where, before judg-
ment had, no man can fay that he has any abfolute property,
either in poffeflion or in aftion. Of this nature are fucli
penalties as are given by particular (latutes, to be recovered
on an aftion popular ; or, in other words, to be recovered
by him or them who vi'ill fue for the fame ; in which cafe a
fuit and judgment at law are not only the means of recover-
ing, but alfo of acquiring property. Another fpecies of
property, that is acquired and loft by fuit and judgment at
law, is that of damages given to a man by a jury, as a com-
penfation and fatisfaflion for fome injury fuftained ; as for
a battery, for imprifonment, for ilander, or for trefpafs.
Here the plaintiff has no certain demand till after verdidl ;
but when the jury has afteffed his damages, and judgment
is given thereupon, whether they amoimt to 20/. or 20s., he
inllantly acquires, and the defendant lofes at the fame time
a right to that fpccific fum. To this kind of property may
alfo be referred all title to cofts and expences of fuit.

Judgment, Villainous. See Villainou.s.

JUDICATURE, the quality or profeiFion of thofe who
adminifter juftice.

In which fenfe judicature is a kind of priefthood. In
France, officers of judicature are venal.

Judicature is alfo ufcd to fignify the extent of the
jurifdidion of the judge, and the court wherein he fits ta
render juftice.

JUDICE— Coivjm non Judice. See Coram.

JUDICIAL. See Extrajudicial.

Judicial Aflrology. See Astrology.

Judicial Oratory. See Oratory.

Judicial ll^rits. See Writ.

JUDICIALIS Lex. See Lex.

JUDICIARY Astrology. See Astrology.

Judiciary Depofit. See Deposit.

JUDICIO Falso. See Falso.

JUDICIUM Assis.^;. See Assize.

Judicium Cn/cis. See Judgment of the Cross.

Judicium Dei, Judgment of God, was a term anciently ap-
plied to all extraordinary trials of fecret crimes ; as thofe
by arms and fingle combat, and the ordeals ; or thofe by
fire, or red-hot plough-fliares ; by plunging the arm in boil-
ing water, or the whole body in cold water ; in hopes God
would work a miracle rather than fufFer truth and inno-
cence to perifli.

" Si fuper defendere non poflit, judicio Dei, fcil. aqua vcl
ferro, fieretde cojuftitia "

Thefe cuftoms were a long time kept up, even among
Chriftians ; and they are ttill in ufe in fome nations. See
Ordeal, Water, Combat, Duel, and Champion.

Trials of this fort were ufiially held in churches, in pre-
fence of the bilhops, priefts, and fecular judges ; after three
days falling, confefTion, communion, and many adjurations
and ceremonies, dcfcribed at large by Du Cange.

Judicium Parium denotes a trial by a man's equals, i. e.
of peers by peers, and of commoners by commoners. In
magna charta it is more than once infifted on as the principal
bulwark of our liberties, but efpecially by chap. 29, that

JUDITH.

no freeman fhall be hurt in cither his perfon or property,
" nifi per legale judicium parium fuorum vel per legem
tcrrx." And this was ever eftccmed, in all countries, a
privilege of the higheft and mod beneficial nature.

JUDITH, an apocryphal book, excluded by the Jews
from the canon of the Old Teilament, and fo called, becaufe
Judith is the principal perfon to whnfc hillory the book
refers. We (hall lirll give a fummary of the contents of this
book, and then inquire mto the 'ime in which it was written,
and ftate different opinions concerning the writer of it.
Nebuchodonofor, king of the Affyrians, who reigned in
Nineveh, having defeated Arphaxad, king of the Medes, and
taken him prifoner, formed a defign of extending his con-
quefts, and for this purpofe fent Holofernes with a powerful
army, who became mailer of Mefopotamia, Syria, Lybia,
and Cilicia. After thefe conquells, he took pofleffion of
Idumaa. Upon this the Ifraelites were alarmed, and taking
poffeffion of the hilly country, fortified their cities. The
high pried, Joachim, or Eliakim, encouraged their exertions,
and ordered them to confide in God, and to implore his iuc-
cour. Holofernes exprefFed furpnfe at their vigorous prepa-
rations for refnlanceagainft his powerful army, and enquired
of their neighbours, the Mo-ibites and Ammonites, what
force they could command, and what was the reafon of their
declining to fubmit to him. Achior, the chief of the Am-
monites, informs him, that thefe people were fometimes pro-
tefted, and fometimes forfaken by their God ; adding, that
if they had offended their God, he would dehver them into
his hands ; but if not, then God would defend them, and
his whole army could not conquer them. Holofernes re-
ceived this account with indignation, and ordered Achior
to be carried to B;thulia, which he immediately beficged, in-
tending to revenge himfelf of Achior, as foon as he had
taken that place. Onias, the governor of Bethuha, made
preparations for its defence ; but the inhabitants, dreading
the event of a prolonged fiege, wilhed to furrender the place,
and could fcarcely be induced to continue their refiitance
for five days. It was in thefe critical circumftances, that
Judith, faid to be of the tribe of Reuben, daughter of
Merari, and widow of Manaffeh, both opulent and beau-
tiful, refolved upon going into the camp of Holofernes,
in order to deftroy him. Accordingly (he left the city,
and was introduced to Holofernes. The conqueror was
captivated by the charms of her perfon, entertained
her with a fumptuous feail, and expefling to obtain
a coinplete triumph over this beautiful and rich widow, in-
dulged in drinking to excefs. In the evening, Bagoas, the
eunuch of Holofernes, who had introduced Judith, with her
maid-fervant, to the feaft, fhut up the chamber-doors and
departed. Holofernes, overcome by the wine which he had
drank, fell into a found fleep. Judith availed herfelf of the
opportunity, cHt off the head of Holofernes witii his own
fabre, depofited it in her maid's bag, and taking advantage
of the hberty that was allowed her to vifit and leave the
camp at pleafurc, haftened back to Bethulia. When the
liead of Holofernes wasdifplayed to view on the walls of the
city, the befieiring army of the Affyrians was feizcd with
difmay, and fled in great difordcr. The Ifraelites purfued
them, killed many of them, and took poffeffion of a very
large fpoil. Judith took occafion to ling a hymn to the
Lord, to whom flie confecrated the arms of Holofernes,
and accompanied the people to Jenifalem to prefcnt their
public thankfgiving for this fignal deliverance. She returned
afterwards to Bethulia, hved there to the advanced age of
105 years, and was buried with her hufband in this city.
The people lamented her death for feven days ; and the day

on which tliis viftory was obtained was reckoned by the
Hebrews among their feftivals.

The greateft difficulty in this narration is to fix the time,
when the event, which it records, happened. Some place
it before, others after the captivity ; and fomc finding in-
fuperable difficulties in reconciling it with the hillory of tiie
Jews, Affyrians and Medes, have maintained, that it is only
a parable and allegory, and not a true hillory. The Greek
and Syriac verfioi-.s feem to prove, that it occurred after
the captivity of Babylon. The Vulgate may be explained
as referring to the time preceding the captivity. Neither
facred nor profane hillory, in the time of Manaffeh, or in
that of Zedekiah, either before or after the captivity, fay
any thing of a king of Nineveh, named Nebuchodonofor,
who in the 12th and 17th years of his reign conquered a
king of the Medes, called Arphaxad. It would alfo be
hard to find at this particular time an high-prieft of the
Jews, whofe name was Joachim or Eliakim. We ffiould
likewife meet with invincible difficulties, in reconciling the
Greek text and the Syriac with the Latin of St. Jerom ;
nor would there be perhaps lefs, if we were to adhere only
to the Vulgate, and rejed the Greek, Syriac, and old Italic
verfions. If the names were granted, it is not eafy to de-
termine whether we fhould adopt the Greek or the Latin
text. As to the Syriac, it was taken from the Greek,
and from the Greek only one might infer, that the ftory of
Judith was tranflated and written after the captivity ; but if
we follow the Latin, it may be placed before the captivitv.
The Greek text is very ancient : fume fuppofe it to be
Theodotion's, who lived under Commodus, after A. D. i8o;
but it mull be more ancient, becaufe it is cited by Clemens
Romanus in his epillle to the Corinthians, written above
120 years before. The Syriac hkcwife is very ancient, and
trandated from feme Greek text more correct than any we
have at prefent; but the fame as to fubftance. The Latin
Italic verfion, or the old Vulgate, is made likewife from the
Greek, but it is very defedlive. St. Jcrom's Vulgate was
tranflated from a Chaldee text, which St. Jcrom took to be
the genuine original of Judith ; but he leaves the fubjeft
in a very perplexed and unfatisfaftory ftate. With the old
Latin verfion before him, he omitted what was fuperfluous ;
and referved all that was found agreeing with the Chaldee,
and probably added what was wanting, fo that his ver-
fion is rather a reform of the old, than a trauflation alto-
gether new ; and fome words are obferved in it which are
taken from the old Italic. They who maintain, that the
hiftory of Judith contained what paffcd before the captivity,
and in ManaffL-h"s time, believe it fuflicient to demon Urate,
that there is nothing in the hillory repugnant to this af-
fertion. The opinion, which places the hldoiy of J;idith
after the captivity of Babylon, is founded principally on
the authority of the Greek verlion, which is certainly, as we
have already faid, very ancient , and it may pafs for an ori-
ginal, there being nothing more ancient and authentic ; for
it is dubious, whether St. Jcrom's Chaldee were the ori-
ginal text of this work. A ter all, what fcems demon-
llrative for the opinion, which places this after the return
from the Babylonifh captivity, is :he import of tne Greek,
chap. iv. 2. In this opinion almoft all the ancients, and
many of the moderns, have c-ncurrcd. Eufebius places it
in the reign of Cambyfes, SynccUus in that of Xerxes,
Sulpitius Severus in that of Ochus ; others under An-
tiochus Epiphanes, and in the time of the Maccabees.

Dr. Prideaux fuppofes, that tiie Nebucliudonofor of the
book of Judith is Saofduchinus, king ot Babylon, who com-
menced his reign in the 31ft year of Manaffeh, and that Ar-
phaxad

J U D

pliaxad is Deioces, king oF Media ; and that the deftniftion
of Holofcrnes and his army at Bethulia took place in the
44th year of ManafTeh, B.C. fijt;. He further fuppofes, on
the authority of St. Jerom, that this book was originally
written in the Chaldee language, and tranflated by Jerom
into the Latin tongue, which is the trandation that is now
extant in the vulgar Latin edition of the Bible. The Eng-
lifh trandation, which we at prefent have among tlie
apocryphal writings in our Bible, as well as the Syriac, was
made from the Greek.

Wliether the book of Judith be authentic and canonical
is a point tliat has been very much difputed. The Jews
read it in St. Jerom's time ; St. C'-emcnt hath cited it in
epift. I. ad Corinth., as well as the apoilolical conilitutioirs,
Clemens Alexandriims, Origen, Tertullian, St. Ambroi'e,
and St. Jerom. Jerom fays, in his preface to the book of
Judith, that the council of Nice received it among the ca-
nonical books, though no canon was made to approve it.
St. Athanaiius, or the author of the Synopfis, gives a fum-
mary account of it. St. Autlin, and the whole African
church, received it. Pope Innocent L, and pope Gelafius,
acknowledged it. The council of Trent hath alfo cor.-
iirmed this book. The Romanills of courfe, having re-
ceived this book into the canon ef divine writ, hold the
hiftory recorded in it to be true. On the other hand, it is
the opinion of Grotius, that it is wholly a parabolical fic-
tion, written in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, when he
came into Judea to raife a perfecntion againll the Jewifii
church ; and that the defign of it was, to conlirm the Jews
under th?it perfecntion, in their hopes that God would fend
tliem a deliverance : accordingly " by Judith is meant Ju-
dea ; by Bethulia the temple or houfe of God ; and by
the fword which went out from thence, the prayers of the
faints ; that Nebuchodonofor doth there denote the devil,
and the. kingdom of Affyria, the devil's kingdom, pride ;
that bv Holofernes is there meant the inllrumcnt or agent
<if the devil in that perfecntion, Antiochus Epiphanes,
who made himfclf mallei- of Judea, that fair widow, fo
called, becaufe deilitute of relitf ; that Eliakim figuifies
God, who would arife in her defence, and at length cut off
that inftrument of the ilevil who would have corrupted
her.'' Many learned writers among the Protcllants, though
ihey do not adopt the peculiar fancy of this great man,
agree with liim in the general, that this book is rather a
parabolical than a real hiftory, defigned for the inftruftion
and comfort of the Jews under that figure, and not to give
them a narrativ.' of any thing that was really done ; and
their reafon is, that they think it utterly ijico'nfiftent with
all times, where it hath been endeavoured to be placed,
either before or after the captivity of the .lews. Dr. Pri-
deaux thinks that by putting it in the time of ManafTeh he
removes all the objeftinns which are alleged to prove its
inconfiftency with the times after the captivity, which he
thinks are unanfwcrable.

After examining a variety of objeiftions relating to this
book and its hiftory, Dr. Pridcaux concludes, " that if any
one will ftill contend, that it is only a religious romance,
and not a true liiftory ; that, according to the intention of
the author, tlie fcene of it was put under the reign of
Xerxes, when Joakim, the fon of Joftiua, was high-prieft,
and the civil government of Judea, as well as the ecclefialli-
cal, was in the hands of that officer : and that the incon-
fiftency of fo many particulars in that book, with the ftate
and tranfaftions of thofe times, was only from the igno-
rance of the author in the hiftory of the (aid times, and his
u»(kilfulneis in placing the fcenc of his hiftory in them ; I

I V E

fay, if any will infift on all this, notwithftanding what is
above faid, I fliall not enter into any controvcrfy with him
about it : only thus Kiuch I muft infift on, that if it be a
tru; hiftory (which I am inchnedmoft to think, though I
will not be pofitive in it), it can fall no where elfe but in the
time where I have laid it."

The author of the book of Judith is unknown. St.
Jerom feems to think that it was written by Judith herfeif ;
others imagine, that the high-prieft Joachim or Eliakim,
mentioned in this book, was the author : but all this is mere
conjecture. Thofe who believe that the hiftory of Jtiditii
happened in tha time of Cambyfes, and after the captivity
of Babylon, fuppofe that Jofliua, the fon of Jofedck, then
high-priei!, wrote it. The author, whoever he was, does
not appear to have been contemporary with the tranlac-
tions. He favs, that Achior's family was ftill in his lime
fubfifting in Ifracl, Judith, xiv. 6. and that the fellival iu-
ftituted in memory of Judith's victory was ftill celebrated,
Judith, xvi. 31. Dupin on the Canon. Prideaux's Conn.
V. I. Calmet.

JUDOIGNE, in Geography. See Jodoionk.

JUDOMA, a river of Ruffia, in the government of
Irkutflc, which joins the Maia, N. lat. j8 50'. E. long.

154" 14'-

JUDOOK, a town of Bengal ; 18 miles N. of Dacca.

JUDOS A Bay, a bay of Louifiana, which lies in the
N.W. corner of the gulf of Mexico ; conneck-d by a chain
of iflands towards the S.W. with St. Bernard's bay.

JUEFRAS, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
B;u-ra.

IVEL RivEK, in Bedfordftiire, is navigable from Tem<;-
ford to the town of Bigglefwade : it docs not appear,
that any fteps have yet been taken for extending this
navigation up to Sheffoid, agreeably to the aft for that
purpofe, which pafled in the 30th year of Geo. II. : the
private interefts of the merchants of Bigglefwade feem a
more effectual bar to the completion of this objeft, than
the want of monev, which has been fo often infifted on.

IVELCHESTER and Langport Canal, is the par-
liamentary name of an inland navigation in Somerietihire,
about feven iniles long, from the Parret river, near Lang-
port, to the town of Ilchefter, made in purfuance of the
aft obtained in the year 1795. See Canal.

IVENACK, a town of the duchy of Mecklenburg ; 30
miles S E. of Roftock.

IVERAGH. See Kehry.

IVERSKOT, a town of Rufiia, in the government of
Novgorod ; 80 miles S.E. of Novgorod.

IVES, SuroN, in Bhgraphy, was a lay vicar of St.
Paul's cathedral, till driven thence by the republicans ;
when he became a finging-roafter, and a teacher of niufic
in private families.

During the reign of Charles I., Ives ftood high as a com-
pofer, as we are told in the MS. account of the maique in-
titled " The Triumphs of Peace," written by Shirley, a
dramatift of the fecond clals, which was acted at WhiiehaU
in 1633, and the whole expence of the proceflion defrayed
by tile gentlemen of the four inns of court, as a.teftimony
of duty and loyalty on his inajcfty's return from Scotland,
after terminating the difconteuts of that kingdom.

A very circumftantial -account of this niaique by the lord
commiflioner Wliitelocke, in his own hand-writir.g, has been
preferved. It was the property of the late Dr. Morton of
the Britifti Mufenm. In this narrative, the comuiifGoner,
who wa.s the principal manager of the exhibition, fays : " I
made choyce of Mr. Simon Ives, an honeft and able nni-
g fitian,

I V E

J U G

/itian, of excellent fkill in liis art, and of Mr. Lawcs, to liiindi-ed familk-s Tlie lower part of tlic town, from its vt-
compofe tlie aiers, lellbns, and longs for the mafque, and to cinity to the river Oufe, lias I)ecn frequently overflowed,
be maders of all the mulicke under me." Over the river is a (lone bridge, with four pointed, and two

The compofitions of Simon Ives arc not devoid of merit ; femicircular arches. The charier for the market was granted

fome of his ro'jnds and catclies, publiflied in Hilton's col- ' ' ■ '^ • , r , ,

leclion, (fill live; '• Copie lioueil friends and jovial boys,'' &c.

In Playford's Mulical Companion, and among the ".'\.yres
and Dialogues' ' publiflied in his time, there are feveral fongs
fct by Ives, who died in 1662, in the paridi of Chrill-
church, London.

IvKs, St., in Geography, is a populous b<)rough, market
and fea-port town, in the hundred of Penv.ith and county
of Cornwall, England. It is fituated near the north-ealt

by king Edward I. about the year 1290: it is held
Mondays, and is one of the largell in the kingdom for cat-
tle, fliecp, pigs, and pouitiy ; being conlidered as fecond
only to that of Smithlield in London. Here are alfo two well
frequented fairs, held annually, at Michaelmas and Whitfun-
tide : the former fprung from an annual meeting appointed
in 1020, to be held on the feafl of St, Michael ; the latter
rranted by a charter of Henry I., dated in mo, and
])rivileged to continue from " Wliit-Monday till the

ngle of a fine bay, which is bounded by bold rocks of black Monday following, and all that day.'' Several b

I killas. The church is a low, but fpacious building, 1
I a nave and two aides : from its lituation near the P.iore, it
is frequently covered, at high tides and tempeils, with th

and malt-kilns are ellablifhed in the town : the inns and pub-
houfes are numerous. Many charitable donations are
■ded on two tablets in the clrirch, but the gifts are not

fpray of the fea. The chief articles exporced from this covi'n large. St. Ives is 60 miles dillant from London : the popul;

are flate and pilchards. The latter arc m mod feafons taken tion, as returned under the ait of iSoi, amoiuiled to 2099,

in the bay in great abundance; and at the time of large inhabiting 478 houfes. In the pits in the neighbourhood of

draughts, it is ufua! for all the inhabitants to coi

their affiftance : the fliops are tl

be Sunday, even the church is

port, as well as molt others on the north eoaft, is greatly

incommoded by the Ihoals of fand driven in by the north-well

.winds: and the town, as appears from Leland, has alfo fuf-

fered from the fame caufe. In the reign of queen Mary, St.

this town, the cornua ammonis, belemnites, and other fofiils
deferted ; and if it fliould are occafional'y found. Beauties of England and Wales,
kewife abandoned. This vol. vii

IVETEAUX, Nicholas Vauquelix, \n Biogriiphy,ce-
Icbrated as a French poet, was born at Frefnaye, near Fa-
laife, about the year 15J9. His father, Vauquelin de la
Frefnaye, was eminent for his poetry, and had the office of

Ives was governed by a portreve and burgefTes ; but v.as not lieutenant-general of the bailiwick of Caen, which he readilv

incorporated till the lixteenlh year of Ciiarles I., who con- made over to his fon, but he wa* ill adapted to the duties of

firmed fome former privileges, vefted the future government the lituation, and after another cliange or two he was ap-

of the town in a mayor, recorder, twelve capital and twenty- pointed preceptor to the duke of Vendome, natural fon of

four inferior burgefles, and granted the inhabitants four an- Henry IV. He was next engaged in the fame bulinefs with

nual fairs, two weekly markets, Wednefday and Saturday, regard to the dauphin, afterwards Louis XIII , but not

and aifo endowed a grammar fchool. Two members are giving fatisfaCtion, he was difcharged with a penlion and

returned to parliament from this borough : the right of two abbacies. Thefe, on account of fome irregularities, he

election is pofl'cjTed by the corporation, and all the inhabit- was obliged to refign, and then retired to a good lioufe in

ants paying feot and lot ; the number of voters being about the Fauxbourg St. Germair., where he adopted an epicu-

A&O. St. Ives is diilant from London 27J miles: the rean life : after this he retired to a country feat in the

number of houfes was eltimated, under the population adl of diocefe of Meaux, where he died, in 1649, at the age of

l8oD, as J40, inhabited by 2714 perfons. Beauties of ninety. The works by which he is known are " Inllitution

England and Wales, vol. ii. Polwhtle's Hiftory, &c. of dun Prince,'' a poem written with force and fohdity, and

.Cornwall. containing excellent leffons of moralily : and " Stanzas,

IvE.s, St., a market town and parilh in the hundred of Sornets, and other Poems." Morcri.

Huritingftone, Huntingdonihire, England, is iituated on the JUFFERS, among Ciirpeiiters, a term ufed for pieces of

banks of the river Oufe. It w<is called, in the Saxon times, wood about four or live inches fquare, and of feveral

Klepe, and is mentioned by that appellation in the Domefday lengths.

book: but it afterwards obtained the name of St. Ives from JUFOSTA, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the

ivo, a Perlian archbilliop, v/ho is reported to have travelled province of Oman ; 160 miles E.S E. of El-Catif.

through England, preaching the gofpel, about tlie year JUG, an earthen pot or pitcher to hold drink ; alfo a

600. On the fpot where the remains of this faint were' re- term ufed in many parts for a common, pallure, or mea-

ported to have been found, abbot Ednoth built a church : dow.

and foon afterwards, anno 1017, a priory was erected by
earl Adelmar, who brouglit hither fo.me Benedictine monks
from the abbey of Ramfey. After the dilTolution of mo-
naileries, the fcite of this priory was granted, 36 Henry
VllL, to fir Thomas Audley. The priory, barn, and 1'

boufe are yet Handing, but do not exhibit any thing worthy N.E. of Allahabad,

.lUGANG, in G<osra^
E.N.E. of Zncnga.

JUGDALLIK, a town of Candahar,
3; miles E.S.E.of Cabul.

JUGDEES. a town of Hindoollan, in Oude ; 31 miles

town of Thibet ; 30 miles
the Karaeh ;

if notice. Tlie pari (h church is a neat edifice ; itsfpireh
been twice blown down. The other places for religious wor

JUGDISPOUR, a town of Ilindooftan, in Baliar ; 15
miles S.W. of Arrah. N. lat. 2J 27'. E. long. 83^

this town are, two meetings for Baptitts, one for 36'. — Alfo, atownof Hindoollan, in Bahar; S miles S. of
Quakers, and one for Prelbyterians: the latter had its rife at li5t}i.ali- N. lat. 26^ 39'. E. long. 84 5 1\-— Alfo, a towa

the period of the civil wars of the feventeenth century, when

the ejected mini Her of St. Ives was fnpported by t!ie inh

bitants in oppoCtion to the reigning powers. Great part of of Kairabad

the town was dellroyed by a lire on the 30th of April 1689: JUGERUM

it began in a malthoufe at the end of Wliite-hart-Iane ; and quadra

Hindoollan, in Oude ; 44 miles N. of Manickpour.— «
Alfo, a town of Hindoollan, in Oude ; 46 miles W.S.W.

Roman meafurc, the double of the adtua
It was a fquare of 120 Roman feet The

laid iu alhes the dwellings and property of upwards of an jugerum was divided into 12 uncix, and tie uncix into 24

fcrupulae

JUG

I'ciupulx. tt3 proportion to the Englifti acre is as 10,000
to 16,097.

JUGHIGOPA, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 27
miles E. of Rangaimitty.

JUGK, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Natangen ;
ro miles N.W. of Lick.

JUGLANS, in Botany, fo called by the Roman writers,
on account of the excellence of the nut. It is cOntrafted
from Jovis gljns, the acorn or mail of Jove. — Walnut-tree,
Linn. Gen. 496. Schreb. 64J. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 45;.
Mart. Mill. DicT:. v. 2. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 360. Jull.
375. Lamarck. Dia. V. 4. 500. Illuftr. t. 781. Gxrtn.
t. 89. (Nux; Tournef. t. 346.) Clafs and order, Monacia
Polyandria. Nat. Ord. Amentaceit, Linn. Terebinlacea,
JufT.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth elliptical, flat, divided into
fix, depreffed, concave, obtufe fegments. Cor. none.
Slam. Filaments from eighteen to twenty-four, very ihort ;
anthers oval. — Female, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, bell-
(haped, four-cleft, ereft, very (hort, fingle-flowered. Cor.
of one petal, four-cleft, eredl, acute, a little longer than
the calvx. Pi/I. Germen inferior, oval, large ; ftyle very
fliort ; iiigmas two, reflexed, jagged at the extremity. Peric.
Drupa dry, oval, large, of one cell. Seed. Nut large,
roundilh, reticulated with furrows ; kernel four-lobed, va-
rioufly fun-owed.

EiT. Ch. Male, Calyx depreffed, fix-lobed. Corolla none.
Stamens about twenty. Female, Calyx four-cleft, fuperi«r.
Corolla four-cleft. Styles two. Drupa with a furrowed
lobed kernel.

I. J. regia. Common Walnut-tree. — Linn. Sp. PI. 1415.
Mill. lUullr. t. 81. — Leaflets about nine, oval, fniooth,
nightly ferrated, equal. Fruit globofe. — A native of Pcr-
fia, and alfo of the northern parts of China. It flowers in
the fpring, and bears fruit in autumn. A large and hand-
fome tree, with ilrong fpreading boughs. Leaves pinnate,
extremely fragrant ; the end leaflet ftanding on a foot-ftalk.
Male-Jloivers in a clofe, pendulous fpike. Females fcattered,
frequently two or three together. — Fruit an ovate, fmooth
nut, containing a white, delicious, oily kernel, whofe fur-
face is rugged, and covered with a tough, yellowi(h (l{in. —
The walnut-tree is univerfally known and admired for the
fplendour of its foliage, the delicacy of its fruit, and the
utility of its wood. — There are many varieties of the fpe-
cies in queftion, well known to cultivators. It was formerly
more propagated in Britain than at prefent, for its wood,
which was in very great eftecm, till the introduction of ma-
hogany fomewhat f.iperfeded its ufe, but is ilill in great rc-
queft for furniture in various parts of the continent ; with us
it is valued chiefly for gun-ftocks, the demand for which, of
late years, has caufed great devaftalion among our walnut-
trees, a circumft;ance worthy the attention of perfons who
make planting an objeft either of plcalure or profit. The
unripe fruit is frequently converted into a pickle or pre-
ferve.

2. /. alba. The Hickery, or White Walnut-tree. — Linn.
Sp. PI. 1415. — Leaflets feven, oblong-lanceolate, pointed,
ferrated, pubefcent underneath ; the odd one fcffile. Fruit
nearly quadrangular, fmooth. — Native of North America.
— Leaves compofed of two or three pairs of oblong leaflets,
terminated by an odd one, which is feffile. Fruit fliapcd
fomewhat like a common walnut, but the fhell is not furrow-
ed, does not fplit afunder, and is of a lighter colour. —
Catefljy defcribe^ this as a very large tree, with a trunk two
or three feet in diameter, the leaves differing from the lalt not
•nly in being ferrated, but narrower, and more pointed.
The IhcU is fo very hard that it cannot eafily be broken.

JUG

The kernel is fweet and well-tafted, affording a wliolel
and pleafant oil.

^. J. nigra. Black Walnut-tree. — Linn. Sp. PI. 141,-. i|
Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. lyi. — Leaflets about fifteen, oblong-lan-
ceolate, ferrated. Fruit globular, roughifn, dotted Found

from Pennfylvania to Florida. It flowers in April and
May. This is alfo a large tree. Leaves compofed of fix or
feven pairs of leaflets, which nre acute and ferrated, emitting
a ftrong aromatic flavour. Outer cover of the nuts rough ;
thefe are rounder than the common walnut. Shell hard and
thick ; kernel very fweet. The wood is the mofl valuable
of all walnut-trees, being very finely veined, and capable
of receiving a high degree of polifli. There were large
trees of the Black Walnut in Chelfea garden in 1759, which
had produced abundance of fruit for upwards of forty
years.

There are feveral other fpecies of Juglans, chiefly, if not
entirely, natives of America, al! remarkable for the excel-
lence of their wood. Willdenow enumerates eleven — pro-
feffor Martyn eight.

Of thefe /. cinerea, the Afh-coloured Walnut, Jacq. Ic.
Rar. t. 192. and /. haccata, the pulpy-coated walnut, figured
in Sloane's Jamaica, t. 157. f. I, are the only remaining
Linnsean ones. Of the genus of the latter we prefume there
mull be confiderable doubt.

Juglans, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the de-
ciduous, hardy tree kind, of which the fpecies moftly culti-
vated are, the common walnut-tree (J. regia) ; the white
walnut-tree (J. alba) ; and the black walnut-tree (J.
nigra).

It is remarked of the firft fort by Martyn, that, as " they
all vary again when raifed from the feed, and that as nuts
from the fan.e tree will produce different fruit ; perfons who
plant the walnut for its fruit, iTiould make choice of the
trees in the nurferies, when they have their fruit upon
them."

The principal varieties are, the oval walnut, the round
walnut, the large walnut, the fmall-fruited walnut, the
double walnut, the early walnut, the late walnut, the tcnder-
thin-(helled wnlnut, and the hard thick-flielled walnut.

Method of Culture.— It may be obferved that all the forts
are capable of being increafed by planting tiie feed or nuts,
which in the firft fpecies fhould be of the beft varieties when
intended as fruit-trees, which, after they are become perfectly
ripe, and have been preferved in dry fand till about the end
of February, Ihou'd be fet either in flight drills, five or fix
inches apart in the rows, and a foot diftant, or by the dib-
ble, at the fame diilance, putting them into the depth of
two or three inches, the gro'.md having been previoufly well
dug over. When the plants h;\ve had two years' growth in
the feed-bed, they ftiould be removed into nurfcry rows,
fhortening the tap roots, but preferving the tops entire,
putting them at the diliance of two feet and a half from
row to row, and a foot and a half in the rows ; they fhould
remain in this fi> nation till they have attained five or fix feet
in height, trainir.g them with fingle ftems ; after which
they may be removed into the fituations where they are to
grow.

When the trees are intended for timber, it is a good prac-
tice to plant them out at once where they are to grow, as
they thrive fafl^er, and form better trees.

But in raifing the walnut for fruit, Mr. Boutcher recom-
mends flat-doncs, tile-fliords, or dates, to be buried eight
inches deep, under the nuts when they are fet : the diftance
to be fix inches, and the depth t\.-o inches. After two fca-
fons, they fliould be removed early in autumn, and planted
fourteen or fixteen inches afunder, en the fame kind of bot-
tom.

JUG

torn, or any hard rubbifh, to prevent tfi;m from linking
downwards, and to induce them to fpread their roots on the
Furface. At the end of two or tliree years this (hould be
repeated again, snaking the bedding at the depth of fifteen
or Sixteen mches, and planting them two feet afunder : here
kt them remain three or four years, Avhen they will be lit to
remove for the laft time. The foil for fruit-trees fhould be
dry and found, with a Tandy, gravelly, or chnlky bottom.
The trees managed in this way will have higlier flavoured
fruit, ripen earlier, and bear a plentifal crop twenty years
fooncr than in the ufual method. The beil manure for liiem
is afhes, fpread tKe beginning of winter, thi land having
been fird ploughed or dug over.

And as plants raifed from the nuts of the fame tree bear
fruit of very different qualities, he advifes the inarching one
of t!ie beil forts on the common wahiul-tree ; by which me-
thod the piaiifr is fecire of his fort, and vvili have fruit in
one-third of the time tliat l;e would obtain it fnmi the nut.
'I'his method can, however, be prafticable only in few fil'.ia-
tions. The length of time in wiiich the walnut bears well
from the nut, is about twenty years.

The nuts of the two other forts are procured from Ame-
rica by the nurferymen

Plants of the firft fort are cultivated for ornament, as well
as the nut or fruit which they afford. The fruit is ufed in
two different flages of its 'growth; as, when green, to
pickle ; and when ripe, to eat the kernel. For the fu-ll
purpofe, the young green walnut, when about half or near
three parts grown, befare the outer coat and interiiol fliell
become hard, is moft excellent ; for which they are generally
ready in July or the following month, and fhould be gathered
by hand, choofing fucli as are as free from fpecks as pof-
fi'ble.

The fruit is difcovered to be fully ripe by the outer hufic
eafily feparating from the nut, or by the hullcs fometinies
opening, and the nuts dropping out ; it is ufually about the
latter er.d of September, which, in trees of confiderable
growth, is commonly beaten down with long poles ; for, as
the walnuts groiv moftly at the extremity of the branches,
it would, in very large fpreading trees, be troublelome and
tedious work to gather them by hand. As loon as gathered,
they (hould be laid in heaps a few days to heat and fvveat, to
caufe their outer huiks, which clofely adhere, to feparate
from the (hell of the nuts ; then be cleared from the rubbilb,
and depolited in a dry room for ufe, covering them over
clofc with dry ftraw, a foot thick, where they will keep
three or four months. They are always ready fale at mar-
ket, in large towns, where, at their firlt coming in, they are
brought with their hudcs on, and fold by the fack, orbiifhcl,
but afterwards cleaned, and fold both by the meafure and
the thor.fpnd.

Plantations of thefe trees are therefore profitable, in their
annual crops of fruit, while growing, and in their timber,
when felled or cut down.

Thefe, as well as the other forts, may many of them be
admitted into clumps or plantations, in large pleafnre-
jrrounds, for variety. After one or two years, the other
forts are nearly as hardy as the tirft ; but tilUhat time (hould
be proterted a^ainft frofts in the winter feafon.

JCGLASS Re[;ia, Common -walnut-tree, in the Malerin Me-
dkit. ' The unripe fruit has an allringent bitterifh taile, an'a"
has been long ufed as a pickle. This is the part directed for
medicinal ufe by the London college, on account of its an-
tl;elmintic virtues. Its tffed in dellroying worms feems to
be confirmed by the tellimony of feveral authors ; and in
proof of .Its polTeffing this vermifuge power, we are told
vtiat water, in wliich the green (hells of walnuts have been Dia-

VoL. XIX,

JUG

aerated, on being poured in a garden, was found to drive all
the earth-worms together as far as the water extended ; and
thiit the worms, by being immcrfed in a ftrong infufion of
thefe (hells, were immediately fcized with fpafms, and died in
two minutes aftervvaids. An extraft of tlie green fruit is
the moil convenient pre])aration, as it may be kept for a fuffi,-
cicnt length of time, and made agreeable to the ftomach of
the patient by mixing it with cinnamon-water. Tliis fruit,
in its immature (late, is alfo faid to be laxative, aud of .ufe
in aphthous affeftions and fore throats. The Wirtcinbeig
Pharmac. directs a rob for the above purpofesto be prepared
of its juice. The kernel of the walnut is timilar in quaiiti' a
to tliat of the almond and haxel nut, and affords an oil,
vihicii amounts to half the weight of the kernel. This oil
is faid not to freeze by cold, and to anfwer the medical pur-
pofes of the oil of almonds. Vinegar, in which walnuts Lave
been pickled, has been found to be a very ufcfiJ garcl-.
Woodv. Med. Bot.

JUGLERS. &eeVv.ovz^<;.\\. Poets.

JUGON, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the North Coads, and chief phicc of a cantoi:,
in the dillrict of Dinan ; lo miles W. .if Dinaii. The
place contains 4.08, and the canton 991 : inhabitants, on a
territorv of 147^ kilionietrcs, in S commune,-.

JUGRAT, a town of Hindooilan, m the circar of
Chandor.^e : 1 5 miles N. of Chandcrec.

JUGL'LAR, among Analom'ijlst is applied to cert;i:.>
veins of the neck, which terminate in the fubclaviaiis. Se«;
Vein-.

Jlcular Vi'm, how tepimSurc in bkeeTmg. Sec ytNESEC
TION'.

Jl'guL-VR is alfo applied to certain glands in the neck, irj
the fpaccs between the mufcles. See GL.txns.

JUGULARES, in t\\i^ Linnj-cm Sypm, is the name of
an order or divilion of tifii, the general charader of which
is, that they have ventral fins before the pectoral fins, and
oiTiculnttd bronchia;. This order comprehends fix genera,
viz. callionymus, uranofcopus, trach'mus, gadus, bknnius, and
iar/iis ; which fee refpedively.

JUGURTHA, in Bkgriiphy, king of Numidia, was
the natural fon of Manaftabal, one of the three fons of Ma!-
finiifa, who, after tlie death of that prince, poffefled t!u-
kingdom jointly. Mifcipfa, the furvivor, and who inherited
his father's kingdom, educated his nephew Jngurtha with
his two fons Adherbal and Hiempfal ; but as he was of an
afpiring difpofition, he fcnt him with a bod) of troops t<'
the aliillance of Scipio, who was bclieging Numanlia,
hoping to lofe a voulh whofe au.bition feemcd to threaten the
tranquillity of liis children. Hi.s hopes were frufiratcd, and
Jngurtha returned with great glory, having alfo acquired the
friendfhip of his general Scipio Africaniis. Mifcipfa ap-
pointed him fuccefTor to his kingdom with his two fons, but
the kindnefs of the father proved fatal to the children. Ji:-
gurtha caufcd Hiempfal to be allaiTniatcd, and dripped Ad-
herbal of his pofTeflions, and cbliged him to fly to Rome for
fafety. The Roman people lillened to the well-grounded
Complai:'ts of Adiicrbal, .but Jiigurtha's influence prevailed
among the fenators ; and the fuppliaiit monarch, forfaken
in his diltrefs, perilbed by the fnarcs of the enemy, and
with, every circumllance of cruelty. Thefe .atrocities ex-
cued fuch a flaine at Rome, that the fenate, in effect, declar-
ed war againil Jngurtha. Cjeciliits Metellus was fent againlt
him, and by his firmnefs and fucccfs, the Numidian was forced
to fcik fupport from hie favagc neighbours. A variety of
actions eniued. in which the Roman arms werc^moiUy fuc-
cefsful, thoupli Jngurtha, Ikilfuily purfuing die Nutnidiaa'
niOiJe of warfare, did not cc,-ifc to liarafs his enemies, and
4 V oppofS

1 V I

©ppofe obftacles to their attempts. Marius and Sylla fuc-
ceedcd Metellns, and fought with equal l':ccefs ; at length
they perfaaded Borchus, a Mauiitaniaii king, who was in
alHance with Jugurtha, and his near relatioi, to enter into
negociations of peace. By tempting offers he agreed to be-
tray Jugurtha, and put liim into the hands of hii enemies:
he was accordingly delivered up to Sylla, after a war of five
years. Sylla carried him in chains to Cirtha, whence he was
fent to Rome in the year io6 B C. and the joy teitified on be-
holding him there in the condition of a captive, was a proof
of the dread which he had infpired as an enemy. He was
expofcd to the view of tlie Roman people, and dragnfed in
<:hains with his fons to adorn the triumph of Marius, after
which he was infulted by the populace, and remanded to his
dungeon, where he was either lirangled or fuffered to perifli
■with hunger. He left two fons, who fpent their d.ivs in
captivity ; and his dominions were divided between Bocchus,
the remaining heirs of MaffiniiTa, and the Roman republic.
Salhift. BeU.Jugur. Univerfal Hiftory.

JUHOO, in Geography, one of the mouths of the Indus ;
lo miles W. of the Ritchel.

IVICA, IBI5A, Ebtifus, the largeft of the Pllyufe iflands.
See PiTYUSE.

Tiiisifland is about ijf leagues from the ifland of Ma-
jorca, which lies to the N.E. It is commonly faid to be feven
leagues long, and about 4^ broad in certain place";, and 22
leagues in circumference. It is high, and covered with
mountains, whofe verdant dechvities prcfeiit an agreeable
and piclurtfque profpeft from the fea. The foil is adapted
to every kind of culture. This ifle is divided into five ptn-ts,
or quartones, i<ix. the plain of tlie city, St. Eulalia, Balan-
zar, Pormany, and the Salines. The Plum of the town
occupies a fpace of about i| league, and contains 200
houfes, feparated into httle hamlets, tlie population of
which is ellimatcd at about goo inhabitants. The canton
prcfents on all fides well cidtivated gardens and vineyards.
The city furni(hes a fort of militia, confilling of about
1 1 20 men, for the fafety of the diftrift. Tlie di'llrift of St.
Eulalia has a territory of about four leagues in extent, bor-
dering on thofeof Balanzar and Iviija, and lies to the N E.
of the latter. The number of houfes is about 700, dil'perf-
cd, without forming towns, vil'ages, or hamlets. They are
inhabited by 4000 perfons, dillributed in two pariihes.' A
river, bearing the name of the Saint, flows at the foot of the
mountain, where the fpirc of the church of St. Eulalia rifes.
The other pariih is called St. John's. This dillrict furnilhes
a contingent of 7C0 men for the fecurity of the ifland. The
territory of the dillricl of Baknzir extends over about
three leagues, and joins thofe of Ivi-i, St. Eulalia, and
Pormany. The houfes are reckoned at about 400, and the
inhabitants may amount to 2200. The p;;ri(h church is de-
dicated to St. Ivlichael. The contingent for the fafeguard
of the itland conlills of 300 men. On the coail is fiiuated
the creek of Balan/.ar, near a mile in length. At the end
is the little port of San Michela, which can only admh fmall
veifels. This port is at the mouth of two rivulets, the
fourccs of which are upwards of a league in the interior.
The diftrid of Pormany has a territory four leagues in length,
bounded by Bakn/ar, Salines, and Ivi^a. The foil prefents
a fertile plain, on which are ab.mt 450 houfes, con'aining at
leall 2000 inhabitants, and furni{hing a continijent of 350
men. The principal churdi is confecrated to St. Antonv,
and its fteeple, or turret, commaiuis the port, and is guarded
by iivo pieces of cannon, and fome artillery men. The
other church is dedicated to St. Jofeph. 'i"he diftria of
SaHn s, or las Salinas, takes its name from the fait found
there, and is bounded by the diftriii^s of Pormany and

J u I

Iv!(;a, It is two leagues in extent ; the hsufes arc reckoned
at I Jo, and the population at goo perfons. The contingent
cor.fiils of a company of 200 men. On a beautiful plain in
this canton is fituated the church of St. George. Port
St. Antony, or Porto-magno, or Pormany, lies on the
opr-oiite coalt. Ivi5a, though its mouth is dithcult of en-
trance, is fufficicntly fpacious to accommodate a fquadron ;
but in the winter feafon it is only fit for fmall velfels. The
illanders of Ivica have criminal as well 2~ civil laws pecuHar
to themfelves. This ifland belongs to the Spaniards.

Ivi^A, the capital town of the above defcribed ifland ;
which liss a good port, fituated to the S.E. below a fmall
hill, under the cannon of a fortrefs conllrucledin the time of
Charles V. Some ancient authors afcribe the foundation of
this city to the Phoenicians, 663 years B.C. It was called
Pityufa, becaufe it is covered with pines and firs. Others
attribute it to the Carthaginians, 70 years after Carthage
was founded, alleging that the name Ebufus in the Punic
language fignifies arid. The Romans had it in their poflef-
fio:i ; it was afterwards occupied by the Moors ; but the
Africans were expelled by John, prince of Aragon, arch-
bifliop of Tarragona ; and it has fince remained under the
fpiritual jurifdidion of this city. The town, which is
fituated on a mountain, is honoured with the title of a
bidiopric, audit is alfo the feat of government. It has a
cathedral, as many inonalterics as pariihes, one hofpital,
feveral churches, and fome barracks. The town is well
fortified, and has two entrances, -viz. the New Gate, and
the Principal. The fuburbs, commanded by the cannon of
the town, contain erne church, called St. Elmo, well filled with
failors. 1 he port, though fpoiled by the mud, is large
enough to contain a fquadron ; it is the largeft, moll conve-
nient, and beft ftieltered in the ifland. The N.E. wind is the
only one from which it is not protefted. The Englilh
took poffeflion of this port in 1 706; but the Spaniards
have again obtained it. The governor has an afleflbr,
and fome other perfons, who afiill him in taking cogni-
zance of all civil, criminal, and military matters, from
whom the appeal lies to the captain-general of Majorca.
Including the inhabitants of the fuburb, the population is
ellimated at 800 families, comprehending 3600 p'.riona.
N. lat. 38=58'. E. long. I 22'.

JUICE, a liquid fubftance, which makes part of the
compofition of plants ; being diffufed among ail the folid
parts, and ferving for their nutrirtient and growth.

The juice, or fap, is that to plants, which blood is to
animals.

There are juices of divers kinds, aqueous, vinous, o/ca^i-
mus, gmnmous, ref.nous, and bituminous ; and of all talles and
colours.

Juice, Sjiimi/h. See Liquork it.

Juice is alfo applied to feveral, and even to all, the fluids,
or humours, in an animal body.

Juice is alfo applied to the vapours and humidities in-
clofed in the earth.

■ Juices, Concrete, in Mineralogy, a name given by many
authors, to fuch fubllances found in the bowels of iheearth,^
as have once been in a (late of fluidity, and are capable of
being rendered fluid a,;ain by art, by means of heat, moif-
ture, or common agents.

Others apply the word concrete to all thofe fubftanccs
which may be feparated from fluids by chemical operations,,
whether they are afterwards fuluble in them agnin or not ;
fuch are the particles of fpar, feparated from water by a-
flow diilillation. and remaining at the bottom of the veflel.

The concrete juice* of the earth are fuppofed to be the

principal

J u I c; t.

-principal things which gi« the virtue to nuncral waters ; for
thofe which receive no concretion, and are only mingled
with the waters in their pailage througii that part of the
earth where ihey are evaporated, on the water's being ex-
pofed to the air, though they may give a brilkncfs to it,
while entire in it, yet are not to be fuppofed to give llic
principal virtues. Thefe fluid and volatile juices all fly ofT
in the analyfes of the waters, but the concrete juices are
more pern^.anent, and leave certain fedinients which render
them vifibk- and palpable, after the dillillation of the waters
with which they "are mixed. Wlicn llicfe happen to be
fiffiple, and of the fame fpccics with thofe known in a folid
ftatc, it is eafy to deduce the virtues of the waters from
them, and to know what mull be the effeCl of fuch flnids as
carry fpar, fulphur, vitriol, or other well-known fnbilances,
into the Mood ; but it feldom happe:;s that thefe things are
thus contained fimple and entire in tiie waters, they are often
blended varioufly with one aiio^her, and often not the whole
of the known body is contained, but the principles that con-
ftitute fome part of it, fuch as the acid of vitriol without its
iretalline part, the bafis of fea-falt without its acid, and fo
of the reft.

Salts and csrths are evidently the moft fenfible and the
molt common matters which are mixed with water, and it is
from them in general that the medicinal fprings take up
their virf.^es. There is fcarcely any earth that does not con-
tain fome fort of mineral fait, capable of being walked out
by water, though it be generally in imperceptible quanti-
ties ; but where the earths are richer in thefe falts. the
waters not only take them up, but carry alfo with them the
feveral fiuer parti>.les of the ear'h itfelf, in which they are
bedded, and rifing np at fome fmall dillance from the place,
thev make medicinal fprings, of virtues anfwerable to the
peculiar fpecies of the (alt that was lodged there. We are
always able to ieparate, by analyfis, the falts and the earths
of the mineral waters ; but when we have done this, we are
not arrived at the end of the talk, for they are often fuch
mixed fubllances, that we can neither know them perfeclly
as they are, nor feparate them.

The four moll known and frequent of thofe concrete
juices which are called falts, are alum, nitre, vitriol, and
culinary fait ; but the examination of the waters of different
medicinal fprings (hews us, that tliere are in the earth others
very different from thefe, and that perhaps in great numbers.
There is in Alia a native alkali fait, or natrum, and in all
the mineral waters we celebrate, there is a peculiar fall fepa-
r ible by evaporation, which is more nearly a lied to this
than to any of the other four, to one or other of wiiich it
has been the cuilom to reduce all fahs ; and yet diftVr.'Ut
even from this in fome refpeds. liefides thi.s, thofe juices
of the faline kind, whofe difpofition to concretion is not yet
finiihed, and whofe (late is, as it were, but in cmbrvo, or
the firil ilage of being, are not to be known, when feparated
from the waters to whidi yet they may have perhaps given
virtues greater than the concrete, in what we call its more
yerfeft (late, n>i^bt have given : nay, even thofe that are
more formed, and are already concreted, or in a Hate cipa-
ble of concretion, have not fimple and homogeneous fub-
llances in each of the fpecies. Tlie fait that is called culi-
nary fait, is obferved to have two different portions mixed
together ; the one i? cc'idenfed and cryllalli/.ed by cold nr-.d
in moillure, after the evaporation cf a part of tlie water
wherein this fait hath been dili'olved ; and the other will not
he cryllabi/.ed nor condenfed, but by a total cvajioration of
the water. The portion of this fait that is cryltallized by
cold and in moillure, is the moll fulpluireous, and by its
fulphureity it will mi» ilfelf with the fulphureous fait of

calcined tartar rcfolv.-d in a nioift air, or in tommoti water,
without turbidnefs, and without coagulation : but tiiat por-
tion of this coitmion fait which is not condenfed but by the
total evapor.tion of the water which had diffolvtd it, hath
an acidity whicli inllanlly coagulates the fait of tartar dif-
folved, and all other falts in the fame ttate which are ful-
phureous and nitrous. It is evident, that while this fait h
in its embryo Hate, the one or the other alone of thefe tv.o
very different fubllances of which it is contained, may be
mixed with the waters of a fpring, and communicate virtues
differe. t from thofe which the whole body of the fait
would have done. This fait alio being procured by eva-
poration of the water, or by any other analyfis of it, could
not be known or referred to tlie common lalts, and much
lefs if in the earth, as may very e;ilily happen, it Ihould be
united with fo.Tic one of the coiiRituent parts of fome other
fa't, in the fame difunited or unfalhioiicd flate.

The vitriol which in a moill air yields an e/florefcence
upon fulphureous marcalites, has likewile a juicy portion,
condenfible only by a total evaporation of its aqueous humi-
dity ; this is of a very acrimonious talle, of an unctuous
fubftance, and eafily runs to water in a moill air. This
juicy portion of vitriol is very different from that which
Ihoots and condenfcs in the fluid liquor, by means of the
cold. Thefe cryltuls are pure vitriol acid, aullerc, and on
being mixed with the fulpluireous and nitrons falts, a great
quantity of earthy matter precipitates, out of them ; but the
other portion will mix itielf with thefe lalts in folution,
without turbidnefs or emotion, not iiaving, like the former,
that acidity upon which tlie fulpluireous or nitrous falts can
act ; which is exactly contr:u y to what happens to commor»
fait, of which the firll portion is the moil fiilpluueous, and
the latter portion the moft acid. Nitre is alio, like the rell,
conipofed of two different falme portions, the one more
fulphureous, which cryitalli/.es with the cold, and in moif-
ture, and the other, which remains diffolved after all the
cryllals are obtained, and which cannot be obtained in a dry
form, but by the evaporation of all the humidity. This is
lefs fulphureous than the other part obtained in cryilals, and
has fome acidity which the other lias not.

The lull embryos of mineral falts are nothing elfe but
vapours or juices not concreted, but totally volatile or va-
porable ; of thefe fome may be condenfed, and in p:irt fixed
by the action of lire, or difengaged from their matrices, and
made capable of concretion by means of the air, as is ob-
ferved in certain nitrous, aluminous, and vitriolic falts. The
fulphureous part, which is formed in the lime, made of cer-
tain hard Hones burnt in the fire, which is generally allowed
to be a fpecies of nitre, has certainly its ieminal being iu
ihele crude Hones, and in that Hate of its being, is very
different from that which we find after it has paffed the lire,
wiiicii, from cold and coagulative, changes into canilic and
ivfolutive. This cold and coagulative quality of this Hony
fait, in its firH Hate, mainfoHs itielf fufficiently in the waters
of certain r.^ck fpiings, which are very limpid and cold, and
breed cold and fchirroin tumours un<!ir the throats of thofe
people who ordinarily drink thtrn, as in the Alps, £;c. See
Bko.nchoci:i.k.

The fcininal matter of this fait then is wholly altered in
its nature by lire, and is rendered fulphureous and cauHic
as nitre. Fire is able to exalt and alter the Hate of being
of this fait, but it is no more able to produce it in thefe
Hones than in the HicUs of oyllers, &c. of which alfo a lime
is made, whith yields a fait not more fulphureous than this.
Du .Clos, Qbferv. fur les Eanx Miner.

'I'he femiiial being of alum and vitriol mud, in the fame

mAimcr* exit! in. thui'e- fubliances uut of wliich thofe falta

4 F « ■ are

1 V I

are estrafted by water, after tlicy have been cakisied by
fire^ or expofid to a ilower calcinaliou in the oper: atr.
Tli'oy are not found in tlieie ftoHcs before thefe proceiTes,
yet it is fufRcieiitly evident that the fire and air could not
produce them, but cou!d ouly exalt them there.

All thefc varieties to wliich the feveral mineral falts are
liable in the different llages, and in «-liich they may be ab-
forbed together, and united by water under the earth, do
not only render the jiidcring of tlie mineral waters, which
partake of them by analyfes very uncertain, but even, in
many cafes, perplex and confound us, by tile very means by
wliich we hope to imderftand them.

Juft h;:, Mirtcrdl. Many countries afford thefe, and give
marks by them of treafures tliat might be turned to great
account, were tl>e proper manner of affaying them known,
which is by firft properly reducing them to a dry fubllance,
fo as to come at the folid matter they contain. With a view
to thedifcovery of metallic veins, the erection of falt-works,
vitriol-works, alum-works, borax-works, and the like, the
curious on this fubjeft may find many excellent hints for
farther difcoveries ni the clofe of Agricola's work, " De Re
Mietallica ;" and the view is farther caiTicd on by Boyle,
Eecher, Stahl, and Homberg. The Royal Academy' of
Pari* have alfo given fome hints that may be of ufe, in their
Memoirs ; and fome practical things are recorded in the
Pliilnfophical Tranfactions. We liave accounts in the Piii-
lofophical Tranfadions of white and tiiick fluids like cream,
found in mines at very great depths, and containing mineral
particles. Tlie bottoms of our coal-pits fometimes afford
this Lquor in very large quantities. And fome of the iron
mines in Shropftiire, particularly that called the White mine
near Hales in tliat county, affords a great quantity of this
fort of juice. It is thick as cream, white, and of a fweetiih
tafte, but with a vitriolic twang behind it. This is con-
tained in the nodules of iron-llone, which are here a fort of
enhydri, very large, compofed of thick crufts, and fome of
them holding near a hoglliead of this fort of liquor. Phil.
Tranf N'loo. See Enhydiios.

JUILLAC, iu Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Corre/.e, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of Brives ; 19 miles W. of Tulles. The place con-
tains 2010, and tlie canton 9402 inhabitants, on a territory
of 125 kiliometres, in 10 communes.

IVINGHOE, is a market town and parilh in the hun-
dred of Cotflow, and county of Buckingham, England. It
fs fituated on tlie declivity of a chalk hill, near the ancient
Ikeneld-ftreet, 35' miles diftant from London, and confills of
two ftreets, containing, at the time of the late population
report of iSoo, 78 houfes, and 452 inhabitants. In the
church, which is a haiidlome ftrudure, is an altar-tomb, faid
to be that of a brother of king Stephen. A market was
granted to this town in the year 13 iS : it is now held on
Saturday ; but it is fo finall, that it may almoft be faid to
bo difcontiuucd. Here are two annnal fairs. The parilh
of Ivinghoeis very extenfive, being fourteen miles in length,
and containing feveral hamlets. In one of thefe, St. Mar-
garet's, wliicli is about live miles diftant from the town, are
the remains of the monailery of Murefley. founded by Henry
de Blois, bifliop of Winchefter, in the reign of Henry I.
for nuns of the Benedidline order. At the diffolution
the fcite was granted to iir .lohn Dance : it has been lately
fold by Mr. Catherall, in whofe family it has been during
feveral generations, to Mr. Mercer. The building was, in
1S02, almoll entire : the parlour and hall, which are of To-
ternhoe ilone, appear to be of the age of Henry VII.
Lyfons's Magna Britannia, vol. i.

IVIRA, iu Botany, a Caribbean name for a fpecies of

J U L

Stercalia, called by Aublet Jiura prur'unSy PI. Guian. v, 2
694. t. 279. See SrEKCtLiA.

JU.1UBE. See ZiziniL's and Riia.\inv.=.
JU.TUI, in Geography, a river of South America, which
rifes W.N.W. of Omaguaca, which gives it name ; but
afterwards, being joined by feveral fmall rivers at St. Sal-
vador, it is called Jiijui. On the borders of the province
of Chaco, it unites with the Vermejo in S. lat. 34- 50'. Its
whole courfe is S.E. nearly 300 miles.

JUJUMORA, a town of Hindooilan, in tlie circar of
Sumbulpour ; 20 m'les S.S.E. of Sumbulpour.

JUKAN, a town of Hindooflan, in Guzerat ; 20 K.ilci
N. of Noanagur.

.lUKlUM, a town of the duchy of Couiland ; 3:: miles
E.S.E. of Goldingcn.

lULE, in the Miifc of the Aticiev.ls, Athensens, lib. xiv.
a fong for woollen maniifafturers ; but afterwards the fame
author fays it is the name of one of the fongs or hymns in
honour of Ceres, and it was, in faCl, a hymn fung by the
Greeks, and after them by the Romans, in the time of har-
veft, in honour of Ceres and Bacchus, in order to render
thofe deities propitious.

The word is derived from o\ci, or itX:<, ajljejf. This hymn
was foinetimes called daiiitruk, or danUiiuk, that is, the
lule of Ceres.

.TULEP, or JuLAP, Juhplum, in Pharmacy, and derived,
according to Menage, from the Arabic giculp, or rather
from the Greek iff.-Xaj7io» : Olearius derives it fi'om gulap, a
Perllan word, fignifying rofe-iuater ; is an eafy, agreeable,
extemporaneous potion prefcribcd to fick perions ; ufually
compofed- of common water, or fimple dillilled water, with
one-third or one-fourth its quantity of diililled ipirituous
water, and fweetened with fugar, or proper fyrups. This is
iharpened with vegetable or mineral acids, or impregnated
with other medicines. Juleps are fometimos ufcd as the
ordinary drink in certain difeafes, but more ufiuiUy as a
vehicle for other forms of medicines ; ferving chiefly to
dihite, to correct the peccant humours, reftore the dechning
force of the lieart, and promote ileep.

In difpeniV.tcries, we have feveral different juleps ; the
principal of which are, the camphor julep, yui;/>.v;M c ccunphora.
See Campiioh.

The cordial iulep, which is made by mixing four ounces of
fimple cinnamon-water, two ounces of Jamaica pepper-
water, volatile aromatic fpirit, and compound fpirit of laven-
der, of each two drams, and an ounce of fyrup of orange-
peel ; and is given in the doie of tv/o fpoonfuls, three or
four times a day, in diforders accompanied with great v.eak.
ncfs and deprcliion of fpirits.

The expccionUmg julep is formed by mixing four ounces
of the emulllon of gum ammoniac with two ounces of the
fvrup of fqnills. Two table-fpoonfuls of this julep may be
taken every three or four houi-s in coughs, allhinas, and ob-
ftrudtions of the breall.

Mnji julep is made, by rubbing half a dram of mufl{, and
half an ounce of fugar together, and adding gradually two
ounces of fimp'e cinnamon-water, and as nuieh of pepper,
mint-water, ondalfo two drams of the volatik- aromatic fpirit.
Two table-fpooiifuls of this julep may be taken every two
or three hours, in a low ftate of nervous fevers, hiccupping^
convuUions, and other fpafmodic affections.

The fitl'me julep is prepared by diffolwng two drams of
fait of tartar in three ounces of frefh lomon-juico, drained ;
when the effervefeence is over, add of mint-water, and com-
mon water, each two ounces, and of fimple fyrup one ounce.
This julep removes Hcknels at tUe llomach, relieves vomiting,
S promotes

J U L

promotes perfpiration, and may be of fcrvicc in fevers, efpe-
, cially of the inflammatory kind.
■ The vomil'mg julep is made, by difTolving four grains of
emetic tartar in eight ounces of water, and adding to it half
an ounce of the fyrup of clove July-flowers. This julep n;ay
be given, in the Ijcginning of fevers, in tliedofe of one tabie-
fpootvful every quarter of an hour till it operates.
Ji;tEP, Mephilk. See Pyhmont IFnkr.
JULETA, in Grogmphy, a town of Sweden, in Sudcr-
Baania ; 35 miles N.W. of Nykioping.

JULFAR, or Ds.n lfar, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
' vince of Oman, fituated on a bay of the Perfian gulf; 100
»»nes N.W. of Oman. N. lat. :6^ 3'. E. long. 57 .

JULCr.ANOO. a town of Bindoollan, in the Candcidi ;
46 rniles E. of Burhampour.

JULGONG, a K'CTii of Hindooflan, in the circar of Au-
rungabad ; 15 miles S.W. of Aurungabad.

lULI, or CatKIN-s, PetriffH, in Natural Hipiy. Small
fofhl bodies are found in the chalk-pits, near the bottom of
t"he chalk ferics in Chcrry-Hinton, in Cambridgeiliire, which
Mr. Parkinfon has defcribed in the I ft volume of his Orc;anic
Remains, p. 456, and confiders them as the iuli of the larch,
or fome other tree ; Dr. Parfons having coiifidercd them as
parts of the roots of fome plant, both of which opinions
we confider as very far from probable. Dr. Woodward,
from obferving the great accumulation of iuli, chives, or
chaff of the buds of trees and plants, in the peat marlhes of
our low fen lands, in his edition to tlie zd part of his Na-
tural Hiftory of the Earth, p. 125, confiders the fame as an
evidence that the Mofaic deluge happened in the fpring
feafon, as related : not confidering that the floods of every
fpring and fummer ilill bring down fuch floating bodies in the
rivers, and depofit them on their banks and fliores in the
level parts of their coiirfc.

JULIA DoMNA, in Bhgrcphy, fecond wife of the
emperor Severus, was a woman of great accomplifhmcnts,
anatkeof Emefa, in Syria, and daughter to BafTianus, priefl
c5f the fun. In early life ihe applied herfelf to the lludy of
geomctrv and philofophv, and became as celebrated for her
riiental as her perfonal charms. She came to Rome, where
her learnmg recommended her to all tlie literati of the city.
At twenty years of age fhe married Severus, who, twenty
years after this matrimonial connection, was invefted with the
imperial purple. Her accomplifliments made very little im-
preiTior. upon the heart and character of her huiband, who,
after a time, became fo jealous of her, that file thouglit it
right, probably from a confcioufnefs of guilt, and from a
defire of fafety, to withdraw from all public affairs, and oc-
cupy her time wholly in the fUidy of letters. She v.-as fully
fenfibleof literary merit, and invited to her court men dif-
tinguifhed for literary reputation, and it was at her defire
that Philollratus wrote the life of Apollonius Tyansus.
Her influence, after the deceafe of the emperor, was for a
time productive of tranquillity and union between her Ions
Caracallaand Geta. She oppofed the plan of dividing the
empire, but her attempts were ur.fuccefsful, and fo far from
being able to effect a fraternal union, fhe was obliged to
be the witnefs of the murder of her favourite fon Geta,
ftabbed in her own arms by the order of Caracalla. It is
faid fhe herfelf was wounded in endeavouring to ward
off the fatal blow. She foon recovertd from her grief, by
the flattering attention paid to her by Caracalla, and by his
placiaj; her name along with his own in letters to the fenate
and people. Her influence conid not prevent him fr<)m
prac\ifing thofe follies auJ enormities which led to his ruin,
and his death plunged her into the deepcft afflitVion. Re-
covering from her grief, fhe hoped to fliare the gowrninent

JUL

with Macrinus, the fiicceffor of Iier fon, and being difap-
pointed in this fhe retired from court, .and died in 217. It
is generally admitted that fhe ilarved' herfelf to death, but
whethtr from the dread of Macrinus, or to free herfelf from
the pains of a cancer, has not been afcertained. She had
experienced all the viciffitudcs of fortune : from an humble
fVafion llie had been raifed to greatnefs, only to talte the
fuperior bitternefs of an exalted rank. Gibbon. Univer,
Hifl.

Julia, in Ichihyology, a name given by Salvian and Gaza,
to the loiihs of the Greek, ca!led_/i//('j by the Latin writers in
general, and by the Itahans, donzellina. It is a fpecics of tlie
Lahrtit, according to Artedi, and is dillinguilhed by that
author from the other iifh of that kind, by the nam.e of the
variegated labrus of a palm long, and having two larger
teeth in the upper jaw. See LAnuu.s lalls.

JULIAN, Fl.wius Claidius Julianus, i:i Biography,
Roman emperor, the fon of Julius Conllantius, brother of
Conllantine the Great, was born at Conflantinople in the year
:53i,and was fiK years of age at the time of the maffacre of the
collateral branches of th.e Flavian family, after the death of
Conftantine, from which only himfelf and his elder brother
Gallus were faved. The young princes were extremely
well educated ; and being brought up in the Chriflian re-
ligion, were baptized, and admitted to fome inferior eccle-
fiaiHcal offices. Julian publicly read the Scriptures in the
church of Nicomedia. Gallus was invflled with the im-
perial purple as CxI'ar, in the twenty-fifth year of his age ;
and though he behaved with fraternal affeftion to Julian, hi*
general conduft was tyrannical and difgufling, and foon
brought him to his end. (See Gai.lvs.) From the time
that his brother was made Coefar, Julian was freed from
every reftraint, and put in pofTcfTion of ample patrimony.
He iiad imbibed ilrong prcpofTtfTions in favour of the doc-
trines of Paganifm, which were follcred by the leflbns of
fome philofophers of the Platonic fchool. From Maximus
he received a fecret initiation into the myileries of the fciencs
of theurgy. From his abandoning the principles in which
he had been educated, he has obtained the tale of " The
Apoftate." At the fatal cataflrophe of his brollier Gallus,
Julian partook of this difgracc, and was kept fome time at
the court of Milan, an object of fufpicion. At length hs
was allowed to retire to Athens, where he was confirmed \n
all his notions ; fo that there probably did not exi(l in the
Roman empire a more ardent votary for Paganifm than he.
About the year 35,, he was recalled from his flnd'oiis re-
treat to court ; was declared Cxfar, and married Helena,
the emperor's lifter. He was now employed in military en-
terprize, and in a fhort time made feveral expedition.'^, in
which he humbled the pride of many kings, and recovered
20,coo captives. The rifmg reputation of Julian was re-
g;irded with envy and jealoufy by the emperor, who, to
prevent him from becoming dangerous, deprived him of the
principal part of his army. By'this, Julian was reduced to
great dilfrefs : he was, however, determined to fubmit.
He accordingly made his foldiers a fpeech from the tribunal,
exhorting them to loyalty and obedience ; and gave tlif of-
ficers a farewel entertainment. Their relutflanee to quit a
commander, to whom they were fo much attached, wa"!
augmented by this interview; and in the night, the foldiera
cncompaffed llie palace, and fainted Juhan as the emperor.
The prince ilrenuoufly rejected the proffered honour; and
by fecuring the doors, endeavoured to exclude his perfoit
from their tunu.ltuary attachment. Till the third hour of
the day he remained inflexible to their prayers, their re-
proaches, and menaces ; when being informed, that if h^
wifhed to lire, be mull content to tcigiv he complied will.-

i.hea-

JULIAN.

tVieir wiflics. He immediately addrctl'cd, in his own name,
^nd that of the army, a lettei- to Conltantius, acqua'.nting
him with the event, and foliciting the coiifirmalion of the
■dignity of Auguftus, but ftill acknowledging his fuprema;y
as head of the empire, and offering to remain contented with
the adminiltration of the weilern provinces of Gaul, Spain,
and Britain. Conllantins received his communication like an
offe:ided fovcreign, refufed to admit liis alUimed title, and
commanded him to return to his duty, v.ith the rank which
he Tormerly pofleffed. Ju'ian now held him at defiance, and
difperfcd manifettoes juliifying liis condudl ; of which one of
the moll charac\eriftic Hill extant was an epilUe to the fenate
and people of Athens, whom, as a philofophcr, a fchoLir,
and a worlhipper of the gods of Greece, he feems to have
regarded with peculiar refpect. In his pragrefs he was
Hopped by the reiillance of Aiiuileia, held by the troops of
Conllantius ; and the approach of that emperor, with his
veteran legions, prepared a bloody csnfiiift, w!iicli was hap-
pily prevented by the fudden deatli of Conllantius on the
confines of Cilicia. Julian, now in the thirty-fecond year
of his age, entered Conllantinople amidll univerfal acclama-
tions, and was acknowledged tiie fole fovercign of the Ro-
man empire. His elevatioH to fupreme power made no al-
teration in his charader: he was a philofophcr on the
throne, as fdr as that title is merited by itrict temperance,
difregard of idle pomp, and trifling amufements ; the dili-
gent employment of his time in aftive occupations, or the
purfuit of mental improvement, and conliant iliidy to fulfil
the duties of his ilation. The ruling paffion of Julian was
to rellore the heathen religion in all its ancient fplendour ;
and to tliis, in various inilances, he facrificed both policy
and jullice. He wrote an chiborate work againil the truth
of Chriltianity, of which fome fragments only have come to
modern times. An edict of general toleration was liis tiril
meafure, which produced the re opening of all the heathen
temples, and tlie return of ChrilUan fedaries, who had
been biniflied by the late emperor. He endeavoured to
render P.igaiufni more rcfpectabie in the eyes of the public,
by certain regulations for feciiriiig the morals of the prielt-
hood. He iiivited to his court all the eminent phiiol'ophers,
and men of learning of that perluafion ; and he encouraged
profelytes, by tokens of imperial favour. The relloration
of the ancient temple of Jeru.alem attradled the ambitious
mind of the emperor, who flattered himfelf that the comple-
tion of the undertaking would be at leall a fpecious argu-
ment againil the faith of prophecy, and the truth of revela-
tion. Tb accomplifh it, he employed one of liis ablell
generals, and ordered the governor of Palelline to lend his
raoll ilrenuous fupport in relloring the work of Solomon to
its pritlinc beauty. But neither tlie power of an emperor,
the refources of an empire, nor the enthufialm of a whole
people, could effeCl the purpofe. A commencement was
made of this work ; but the builders were interrupted by
extraordinary irruptions of fire, which obliged them to
abandon their undertaking. Though reilraiiied either by
prudence or temper from the violence uf pcrfecution, Julian
fyftemutically purfued meafures calculated to degrade and
deprcfs the Cliri'.lians. He treated them with the language
of farcallic contempt, deprived them of the manigemeiit of
charitable contributions, and levelled all the honours of fa-
cerdotal rank. He forbade all Chrillians from acting as
teachers of grammar and rhetoric, or the hberal arts ; thus
compelling tiieir youth to remain uneducated, or to receive,
with the rudiments of learning, imprcflions fubverfivc of their
faith. He excluded them from polls of trull and honour j
and condemned them to niakc ampW amends for the dellruc-
uoa of PigaiJ teTOpleb m the jircceding reijjns, and rellitution

of lands and revenues, which had bren cenverted to the ' '?
of their own religion. Tiie love of military glory wa.- ..
otlier palfion by which Julian was atluated ; and the tv- .'.
which he thought mod worthy of its indulgence was the
Perfian empire, long the rival and formidable foe of th?
Roman. When he croffed the Tigris, he burned his Ihips,
that his foldiers might proceed with firmnefs and refolution.
He defeated the Perfians drawn up to oppofe him, and
pufhed on to the gates of the capital. Milled by treacherous
guides, he was pre'ently reduced to a fcu-city of provifions ;,.
and he found that the only means of fafety for his army con-
filled in retreat. In the mean time, the whole force of the
Perfian empire was affembled, and clouds of light troopt
liarafTed the Romans on every fide, while the main body of
the Perfian hoil advanced in formidable array. Julian per-
formed every duty cf a foldier and a general, partook in
every fatigue and harddiip, and was prefent wherever danger,
was moll urgent. The attacks of the enemy were fcverai
times repelled: at length Julian was mortally wour.ded, fell
fenfelefs from his iior'.e, and was conveyed from the field in-
a Hate which announced approaching death. Senfible of his
fituation, lie pronounced a farewel i''peech to the furroundinj;
officersj and directed the difjiofal of his private property ;.
after whicii, he entered into a metaphyfical difci;fii'>u with
regard to the nature of the foul. Exhaulled by thefe ef-
forts, he called for a draught of ccld water ; and a*^ foon s$
he had fwallowed it, calmly expired, on June 26th, _?6j;..
The character of no eminent perfon has been more differently,
reprelented by friends and enemies. Of his writings, which
are compofed in the purity of the Greek language, one 01
the moll curious is entitled " The Catfars," which, in the
form of a fable, freely difcufles the chaniftcrs of the feveral
emperors, his prcdeceflbrs. He gives the decided preference
to Marcus Antoninus, whom he made his model in his re-
ligious and phi'ofophicnl qualty, although in temper he wai
a very different man. The learned Spanheim gave an ela-,
borate edition of his works in Greek and Latin, in folio,
1696. Juhan's partiality for every thing Grecian had in-,
fultd into his mind a love of liberty, and a fenle of the na-.
tiiral equality of mankind ; and he rejefted with abhorrence
the iiaughty title of " Lord," which the Romans had in-
troduced in addreiTing the mailer of the empire. He alfa
imitated the bell cf the emperors, in paying refpeft to the
confular dignity, and obedience to the laws of the ftate.
He frequently fat upon the bench as judge, and adminillercd
jullice with great impartiality between the rich and the poor.
He poffeffed found ideas of L-gi(lalion ; and it is to the credit
of his character, that, of the lav/s cnaClcd during his fliort
rcign, filtv-four have been received into the codes of Tlieo-
doiius and'julliman. Univer. Hill. Gibbon's Rom. Hill,
vol iii. and iv.

The moll ancient proof of an inflrument, refembling a;
modern organ, blown by bellows, and played with keys,
very different from the hydraulicon, which is of much .
higher antiquity, is a Greek epigram in the Anthologia,
attributed to the emperor Julian, who flourilhed about 364. ,
We fliall hire give a htcral tranflatioit of this epigram,
which, though it contain no very beautiful or poetical,
images, will anfwer the hillorical purpofe of afcertaining the
cxuleixe of an iiillrument in the fourth century, which, in
many particulars, refepibled a modern organ.

We fliall iiifert the original here, for the fatisfaftion of the
learned reader, from the Antho!. lib. i. cap. 86. 8.

A>f»i, «ci" a.»<'fiotriv C^' Tijxii'foi,- cMtwra,-,

JUL

- " I fee reeds of a new fpecies, the growth of anotlicr and
a brazen foil ; fuch as are not agitated by our winds, but
by a bkll that ruflies from a leathern cavern beneath their
roots ; while a rcliii/l mortal, {ciysfxx'y , a tall flurdy fellow,
alliiding to the force nccefiary to beat down that kind of
clumfy earillon keys of this rude inllrument of new inven-
tion,) running with fwift fingers over the concordant keys,
(the rulers of tlie pipes, «v?,iv ; lilera'ly L'ys,\ makes them,
as they fmoothly dance, emit melodious founds."
• Nothing material is omitted in the verfion of this epigram,
or rather enigma, upon tlie organ, though not a very inge-
nious one ; for the word av>.i., iXxa pipes, difcovcrs the whole
my Iter V.

JtLiAN CalaiJar, Epocha, and Prriod. Sec the fubltan-
tives.

JuLiAK I.aiv. See Papiak Popa;AX laii'.

Julian Tear. The Julian is the old account of the year,
ufed among us in England till 1752. It is fo called from
its founder Julius Cxlar ; and by that name is diftinguilhed
from the new, or Gregorian account, ufed in moll parts of
Europe. See Year.

Jui.iAx.s, in Botany. See Dame's Violet.

JULIEN, Saint, dcs Mer.ejlriers, in Biography. M. Mil-
lot, in his Hiilory of the Troubadours, tells us, that Wil-
Lam IX count of poitou. in one of his poems, after relating
a particular adventure with a common woman in very free
terms, and reflecting upon \\\i bonnes fortunes, or favour with
the ladies, thanks Ciod and St. Jnlien for his fuccefs. " It
was then," fays M. Millot, '■' cullomary, fuch was the fu-
perftition of the times, for libertines to invoke heaven for
fiiccefs in their niolt profligate undertaking"; and St. Ju-
lien was the particular faint and protedor to whom they ad-
dreffed themfelves upon fuch occaflons :" as, in higher an-
tiquity. Mercury was the patron divinity of thieves.

This faint, in order to expiate an involuntary crime, is faiJ
to have made a vow tliat he would receive into his houfe all
paiiengcrs v^ho (hould be in want of a habitation, by which
he obtained the title of the '• Hofpitable Saint," and was
afterwards addrefi'ed as the patron of travellers, to whom
prayers were made for a good lodging. " L'Oraifon He St.
Julien, et I'Hotelde St. Julien," were afterwards ufed by
tile French in pleafantry, much in the fame fenfe as with us,
dining iL-lth duke Humphrey. But in the tales written in old
French fo early as the twelfth century, theallufion was more
licentious. Boccace (Giorn. II nov. 2 ) fpeaks x)f the
'.' Paternoflro di San Giulirno," and makes Rinaldo, after
afuccefsful adventure with a female, return thnnks to God
and St. Julien : " Per la qual cofa Rinaldo Iddio, et San
Ginliano ringraziando, monto a Cavallo." La Fontaine, who
has tranllated this tale, calls it " L'Oraifon de St. Ju-
lien."

JuLlEy, St., in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Jura, and chief place of a canton, in the
diilricl of Lons-Ie-Saulneir ; 18 miles S. of Lons-le-Saulneir.
The place contains 8q<), and the canton 7098 inhabitants, on
a territory of 120 kiliometres, in 29 communes. — Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Cute d'Or ; nine
miles N.N.E. of Dijon. — Alfo, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lenian, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillriil of Geneva ; five miles S.W. of Geneva. The place
contains 750, and the canton 11,071 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of ifi/i kiliomctrcs, in 14 communes.— ALfoj a town

JUL

ef France, in the department of the Rhdiie and Loire; lo
miles K S.E. of St. Etiennc.

Jilikn'.s, St., Bay, alargc bay, containing a port, on the
coall of Patagonia. S. lat. 49 8'. W. long. 67 4^' 30'.

JlLiKN en Champftur, St , a town of France, in the de-
partment of tlie Higher Alps; fix miles N. of Gap.

JULIES- de ChdpleuU, St, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diilria of Le Puy ; feven miles E. of Le Puy. The
place contains 215 1, and the canton 7448 inhabitants, on a
territory of 152: kiliomctrcs, in 7 communes.

Jllikn / yfrs, St., a town of France, in tlie department of
the Vienne, and cliief place of a canton, in the diflrid of
Poifiicrs ; fix mites E. of Poicliers. Tlie place contain*
281, and the canton 4997 inhabitants, on a territory of 207^
kiliometres, in i 3 communes.

Jllies- de Montagnier, St , a town of Fiance, in the de-
partment of the Var ; nine miles N W. of Barjols.

Julien- de Vouvatites, St., a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Loire, and chief place of a canton,
in the dillridt of Chateaubriant ; feven miles S S.E. of Cha-
teaubriant. Tlie place contains 1401, and the canton 5676
inhabitants, on a territory of 2125 kiliometres, in 5 com-
munes.

Jllien du Sault, St., a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Yonne ; fix miles N.W. of Joigny.

JULIERS, Duchy of, lately a country of Gernir.ny, but
now annexed to France, and forming a part of the d>'part-
ment of the Rocr. This duchy was formel^y bounded 011.
the N. by the duchy of Gneldres, on the E. by the electorate
of Cologne and the Rhine, on the S. by the territories or
Blankenheim and Schleiden, and on the W. by the bilhopric
of Liege, the duchy of Gneldres, and the Meufe. The-
foil is fertile, producing corn in -abundance, and yielding
good meadow and pathue lard ; it furnilhes a good breed of
cattle and of liorfes. Wood is pleirtiful, and hnen is manu-
factured. Near Efchweiler iloiie-coal is foand. In this,
duchy are 26 towns, and about 1 1 free boroughs. See

ROER.

JuLiKR.s a town of France, in the department of the
Rocr, and chief place of a canton, in thediilrift of Cologne,
fituated on the Ruhr. It is faid to have received its name
from the Roraaiis. The town is fmall but ilrong, and hasi
a regular citadel. It has a church and aconvcnt, and with-
out the walls are a Calvinili and a Lutheran church. The
place contains 2126, and the canton 12,639 inhabitants, in
28 conunuues. This town fiiriendereJ at difcrctioii to the
French troops in Odlober 1794, altera fcvere battle between
the Aullriaiis and FreiKh. N. lat. 50 54'. E. long.
6- iS'.

JULIFUND.X, a town of Africa, in the country of
Dentila ; 10 miles W. of Baniferile.

JULIO, a mountain of the Grifons, N. of the Upper
Enijadwic ; eight miles S.W. of Zulz.

lULlS, ill Ichthyology, the name of a fmall Gfli, a fpecies
of the labrus, caught, principally about Genoa, and lold in
the markets, being a vei-y delicately tailed fifh. Its ufuat
fize is about the lengthy and a little more tlian the breadth of
a finger. The males of this fpecies are very beautifully
painted, '/iicir backs are green, and their heads have varie-
gations of yellow and red. Its fides have very broad ferrated:
hues of a fine gold yellow, and its back fin has feveral large
fpots of blue and red. They are fond of human blood, and:
will feize upon the legs of people who walk naksd in-.o the
water. See Labul's Iidis.

JULIUS 1. in Biography, pope, was a Roman by birth,,

JULIUS.

and fucceeded to the papal fee on the death of Mark, in the
year 337. At this period the celebrated Athanafius lived in
a ftate of exile at Treve?, but in the following year he was
permitted to return to Alexandria by the emperors Conftan-
tine, Contlantius, and Conftans. This circumdance excited
the alarm of the Arian party, who, at a council affembledat
Antioch, got Athanalius depofed, and Gregory, bi(hop of
Alexandria, appointed in his ftead. But in the Roman
council, Athanaih'.s was pronounced innocent of the crimes
alleged agaiiift him, and was admitted by Julius to liis com-
munion, as an orthodox pillar of the church. The orthodox
party confirmed the acl^i of the council of Rome, and, in the
height of their zeal, they introduced for the fird time, and
authorized the practice of appealing to the pope, in contellcd
ccclefialtical concerns, of which the fnccefibrs of Julius
availed themfelves in etlahiiDiing the enormous fpiriltial ty-
ranny, which, by degrees, they erefted in the church. Julius
died in ^52, having fat upon the ponli'ical throne fomewhat
more than fifteen years. Two of the letters of this pope are
extant, one addreticd to the Oriental bifhops, and the other
to the peoplu of Alexandria in favour of Athanafius.

Jui-ius II. pope, formerly known by the name of "Ju-
lian della Rovere," nephew of pope Sixtus IV , wa^ born
in the year 1443. He is faid to have been of very mean ex-
traction, and to have followed for fome time the occupation
of a waterman ; he was preferred by his uncle Sixtus to the
fee of Carpentras, and raifcd to the purple in the year 1471.
By the fame pope he was raifed fuccefiively to other valuable
bifhoprics, and upon tlie breaking out of an infurredtion in
Ombria, his uncle gave him the command of the pajjal
troops, which was an employment pcrfeftly adapted to liis
genius. He put an end to the rebellion which gave him vail
influence and power at Rome. In 1480 he took an aftive
part in the elevation of Innocent VIII. to the papacy, and
while that pontiff lived he was in high favour at the papal
court ; but during the popedom of his fucceffor Alex-
ander VI., thinking his life in danger, he retired into France,
and attended king Charles in his expedition againil Naples.
In 1503 he washimfelf ek-aed pope, in the Itead of Pius III.
who had held the facred office only twenty-fix days. He
took the name of Julius II , and, being poffeffed of a bold
and martial fpirit, determined to extend the temporal em-
pire of the church by the force of arms. The emperor Maxi-
milian, with the kings of France and Arragon, endeavoured to
depofe him, but he fruftrated their defigns, and in the year
1 joS the famous league of Cambray againil the republic of
Venice was concluded between the pope, the emperor, the
king of France, and the king of Spain, which threatened the
entire ruin of tliat (late. Before Julius figned this league,
his unwillingnefs to increafe the power of either the emperor,
or the French king in Italy, induced him privately to com-
municate the term.s of it to the Venetian ambaflador, at the
fame time offering not to confirm it, provided that the re-
puiilic reftored to him the cities of Rimini and Faenza.
This propo'al was moft unwifely rejefted by the Venetian
fenate, and Julius confirmed tlie league. The Venetians
were wholly unable to withiland fuch powerful enemies, and
being reduced to the grcatefl extremities, they were obliged
to fnbmit. Tlie pope abfolved them from the efecis of the
fentence of excommunication iffued againil them, and with-
out hefitation granted leave to all the fubjefts of tlie church
to ferve under their banners. He now formed the defign of
driving the French out of Italy, and with this view he laid
fiege to Mirandola, which he entered in triumph in 151 1,
but fortime turning againfl him, he was driven to Rome. In
tlie courfe of his journey he received the unwelcome intelli-

gence, that an order for the afTcmbling of a general council
at Pifa was polled up at Modcna, Bologna, and other cities
ia Italy, and that hiinfelf was fummoncd to ap[>ear at it i:i
perfon. To counteract their proceedings, of which he had
reafon to entertain apprehenfions, tlie pope fummoncd a ge-
nera! council to meet the fol'owing year at Rome, pretending,
by that meafure, to have fnperfeded the council convoked
at Pifa. An end, however, was not put to the feffions of
this council before a decree had been palled declaring pope
Julius II. a dillurber of the public peace, a fower of difcord
among the peop'e of God, a rebel to tlie church, a public
incendiary, a blood thirlly tyrant, and as fuch fulpended
from all fpiritual and temporal adininillration of the churc'o,
and forbidding the faithful thenceforth to acknowledge or
obcy him. In revenge, Julius excommunicated the king of
France, laid his kingdom under an interdicl, and abfolved
his fubjefts from their oath of allegiance. In May 151 2
the council met at Rome, in oppofition to that of Pifa, but
during the fifth feffion, the pope was fcizcd with an illnefs
which proved fatal to him in Feb. 1513, at the age of
feventy, and after a pontificate of bet«-ecn nine and ten
years. Julius was a perfon of great abilities, courage, and
refolution, but arrogant and of infatiable ambition ; pof-
felfingthe moll extravagant pafhon for war and bloodlhed;
fo that it was faid of him, if he w.inted tlie qualities of a
good bilhop, he had at lead thoL- of a conquering prince.
He has been accufed of every crime, but his faults have been
probably much exaggerated. He was much lefs chargeable
with nepotifm than many preceding popes ; for of the twenty-
feven cardinals created by him, four only were in any degree
related to him, and thefe were men of unblemiflicd charafters.
He was an encourager of the arts of painting, fculpture,
and architecture, and begun the eredlion of the magnificent
church of St. Peter.

Jt'Lli.s HI. pope, formerly known by the name of John-
Maria del Monte, was a perfon of mean extraftion, and
born in Rome about the year 14S8. His uncle Anthony
del Monte was made a cardinal by pope Julius II , and thus
had the means of raifing his family from obfcurity. Under
his patronage John-Maria was educated for the church, and
diftinguifhed himfelf by his proficiency in literature and ju-
rifprudence. By his uncle's influence he obtained an arch-
bifiiopric, and afterwards filled various polls under the holy
fee. In I5'36 he was created a cardinal by pope Paul III.
who afterwards employed him on different legations. He
acquitted himfelf fo well in thefe employments, that he ob-
tained the character of a perfon of vail application and un-
common abilities, and he recommended himfelf fo power-
fully to his holinefs, that in the year 1 54J he appointed him
his principal legate in the council of Trent, and confided to
him his mod fecret intentions. In February I5J0 he was
eleded to the popedom, and took the name of pope Ju«
lius III. out of refpecl to the memory of the pontiff, who,
by raifing his uncle to the cardinalfliip, had laid tlie found-
ation of his good fortune. One of his fird afts gave great
offence to evci-y decent perfon ; he conferred a cardinal's hat,
with ample ecciefiadical revenues, upon a youth of fixtcen,
born of obfcure parents, and known by the name of Ape,
from his having been enlrulled with the care of an animal of
that fpccies, in the cardinal del Monte's family. Such an
indecent promotion was regarded by the cardinals as a grofs
afiront oftered to their body, but v. hen they reproached him
for introducing fuch an unworthy member into the facred
college, who had neither learning nor virtue, nor m.crit of
any kind : he afked them " what virtue or merit they had
found in him, that could induce them to place him in the

papal

I U L

•papal chair?" The fiibfequent conduft of Julius cor-
refpoiided with this (liamelefi behaviour at the commence-
ment of his poutiiicate. He gave himfclf up to the un-
reftrained indulgence of his dellres, and fpcnt liis whole time,
and the revenues of the church in amufcments, difiipation,
andlicentioufnefsof every kind. He died in 155 J, having
held the papal fee about five years. Moreri. Bower.
Bayle.

JULKADDER, in Geo^mphy, a \.own of Hitidoollan,
in Bengal ; 27 miles S. of lilamabad.

JULKANPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Gu/.erat ;
50 miles N.W. of Amcdabad.

JULLOMA, a to.'u of Peru, in the diocefe of La Paz ;
50 mites S.W. of La Paz.

JULSIO, a town of Sweden, in We!lmanla:id ; 52 miles
N.W. of Sfroemfhohn.

JULtOWKOW, a town of Poland, in the palatmate
of Braclaw ; j+ miles W.N.W. of Braclaw.

lULUS, in ^Intlqiiily. See luLE.

luLfS, in Botany, an old name for the amentum, or cat-
kin, of Linnsus ; but the word being now appropriated
to a genus of infeds, is laid afide by botauiils.

Illu.s, in Entomoh^', a genus of aptera, with the lip
crenated and emarginated ; feelers two, and filiform ; body
long, femi-cylindrical, and coiifiiling of numerous tranfverfe
fegments; legs numerous, being two on each fide of every
fegment of the body. This is the definition of the genus,
according to the Gmelinian fyftem. Fabricius, to whom
we are indebted for our knowledge of feveral new fpecies,
diilinguiihes it merely by the lip and antenna ; the firll of
which, he obferves, is crenated and emarginate, and the
latter moniliform : in addition to thefe peculiarities, the
ftrutlure of the body, legs, &c. contlitute a fecondary
character. The fpecies are chiefly afccrtained by the num-
ber of the legs.

Species.

Ov.\Tf.s. Legs each fide twenty. Linn. Omfcus,
Cronov.

Iiihal)it3 the feas of Europe.

Co.\iPi[,.\XATUs. Legs each fide thirty; body flattidi ;
tail pointed. Fabr. lulus complanatus, I^iiin., Degoer,
&c. Scolopendra lulacea. Scop. lulus fcolopundruus, Pod.
Muf.

Native of Europe. Linnaeus defcribes the antenna of this
infeft as being clavated, which is the cafe, though llightly.

DHPRE.S.SUS. Legs each fide thirty ; body flattilh ; tail
rounded and entire. Fabr.

An Indian fpecies of very large fize, the head of which
is brown, and the fegments rough, grey, and prominent,
each fide. Lund.

Stigm.\. Legs thirty each fide ; body black, with a
-white dot each fide on every alternate fegment. Fabr.

Found at Tranquebar by Dr. Koenig. Its fize is twice
that of lulus complanatus ; the anlcnns and legs are black ;
tail pointed and white.

TRrDKNT.VTUs Legs each fide thirty-fix ; tail armed
with three teeth. Fabr.

An Americnn fpecies, in the cabinet of Drury. The
eighteen fegments of the body grey, and each marked with
a ferruginous dorfal dot ; legs witli two denticles at the
bafe.

Varius. Legs feventy-eight each fide ; fegments of the
body black at the bafe, and white at the tip. Fabr.
. A fpecies of moderate fize, which inhabits Italy. The
head is black, with a white band in the middle ; fegments
whitift, and having a fine or thin ferruginous margin ; legs
bl?.^k.

.uL. XIX.

J U M

Crassus. Legs each fide eighty. Linn.

Native of Afia. Pale, with a line of minute black dijts
each fide ; tail acute.

Teurestkis. I..egs each fide one hundred. Linn. lulus
fafc'mtus, Degcer.

Inhabits Europe. Don. Br. Inf.

Cakxifex. Legs each fide ninety-four; head and Ici-s
red ; tail with a red line. Fabr.

Native of Tranquebar.

Ixnus. Legs each fide one hundred and fifteen. Linn.

Inhabits India.

S.\iiULOsu.s. Legs each fide one hundred and twenty.
Linn. lulo glabra, &:c. Ray.

Found on the nut in Europe.

Flscis. Legs each fide one hundred and twentv-four.

An inhabitant of India.

Ma.mmus. Legs each fide one hundred and thirty-four.
Linn.

A large fpecies found in South America.

luLfs, m Ichthyology, a {^ecKi oi Cypriniis ; which fee.

.JULY, in Chronology, the feventh month of the year,
during which the fun enters the fign Leo. The word is de-
rived trom the Latin Julius, the lurname of C. Cifar the
diftator, who was born in it. Mark Antony firll gave this
month the name July, which was before called Quinlilis, as
being the fifth month of the year, in the old Roman calendar
eftabh.fhed by Romulus, which began in the month of
Marcii. For the fame reafnn, Aiiguil was called S'exillis .;
and S,"ptember, Oclober, November, and December, Ml
retain the name of their firll rank.

" Qua: fequitur, numero turba notata fuo."

On the third day of this month the dog days are commonly
fuppiled to begin, and to end on the eleventh day of Au-
guti. Sec CANICULAR Days

JtiLV Flowers, or Cillyfowers, in Botany. See Pink.

Jllv Flower, Clove. See Di.\NTm;s and Pjnk.

JfLY, Queen's, Flo'iuer. See Dame's Violet.

JiLY, Hnck, Floiuer. See Stock, &c.

JUMANAH, in Geography, a river of Bengal, which
runs into tlie bay, N. !at. 2 1"' 34'. E. long. 8S ^i>'.

JUMAND.VR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Nutolia ;
24 miles E.S.E.of Degni/lu.

JUMBO, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Kaflon 1
^ miles K.W. of Kooniakary. .

JUMBO'OAH, a town of liindooflan, in Guzerat; 5
miles vS. of Broderah.

JUMCUInDY, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour ;
1 1 miles W. of Gal>^ala.

JUMDAY, a town of Bengal ; 30 miles S. of BogU-
pour.

JUMEAUX, a town of France, in the department of
Pny-de-Dome, and chief place of a canton, in the dillridl
of iifoire. The place contains 1106, and the canton 7525
inhabitants, on a territory of 122* kiliometres, in 10 com-
nnines.

JUMETTAS, or Yumettas Keys, a range of rocks or
iflets among the Bahamas, extending from the S.W. coaft
of the iiland of Yuma. N. lat. 22 ' 40'. VV. long. 76'.

JUMGERBAD, a town of Hindoofian ; 30 miles W.
of Benares.

JUMILAMURKA, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car
natic ; 25 miles N.N.W. of Ongola.

JUMILLA, a town of Spain, in the province of Murcia ;

22 miles SAV of Murcia. The town is final!, but contains

about Sooo urhabilants. It is fituated at the entrance of a

4 G large

J U N

large and magnificent valley, at the foot of the mountain
on which its o'd caiUe ftands. Tlie ftreets are llraight,
long, and large, but unsaved ; the hoiifes are clean, though
not fplendid. It has an hofpital imder the title of the Holy
Ghoft, a convent of Francifcan monks, and two parifli
churches.

JUMILLAC, LE Grand, a town of France, in the
department of the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton,
in the dillrift of Nontron ; 9 miles N. of Exideuil. The
place contains 2424, and the canton 8oj6 inhabitants, on
a territory of 2 1 5 iiiliometres, in 7 communes.

.lUMMANEAH, a town of Hindoollan, in Candeifli ;
10 miles N.E. of Pcploud.

JUMMEEDY, a town of Bengal ; 24 miles S. of Ghi-
dorc.

JUMMOO, Jumbo, or Jumhhu, a town of Hindoollan,
and capital of a diilridl in Lahore, to which it gives name.
It is dillant 41 coffes from BifTooly, and jo abou. N. by E.
from Lahore. It is lituated on the iide of a hill, near the
river Rauvee, and divided into Upper and Lower Towns.
This place is a mart of conliderable confequence. Various
circumftances concurred to divert the trade of Cachemire
or Cafhmere to Junimoo, and thus to render it a place
of extenfive commercial i-efort, where perfons of all de-
fcriptions, under the proteftion and encouragement of its
chief, experienced in their perfons and property full fecurity.
The commodities, conftituting the trade of Jummooand Cafh-
mere, are tranfported by men, ufually Cachemirians, whofe
burdens are heavy, two of them making the load of a mule,
and the hire is fixed at the rate of four rupees for each car-
rier. The fliawls, when exported from Cachemire, are packed
in an oblong bale, containing a certain weight or quantity,
■which, in the language of the country, is termed a " bidding,"
enclofed in an ox"s or buffalo's hide, and carried by the
Cachemirian as a Scotchman carries his pack.

In 1770, the period of Runzeid Deve's death, Jummoo fuf-
tained a grievous lofs; for oneof hisfonsfeized the government,
put to death one of his brothers, who was intended by the fa-
ther for his fuccelTor, and imprifoned another. The Seiks em-
braced this opportunity of invading Jumbo, from which they
had before exafted a moderate tnl^iite. The moft valuable
divilion of tlie Jumboo dillrifts lay in the plain country, and
formed a part of the Panjab. Thefe were bid wafte by the
Seiks, under a pretence of giving affiftance to the fugitive
chief, who recurred to them for proteftion. N. lat. ly.
E. long. 74^ 5'. f

JUMMUCANDY, a town of Bengal, 20 miles S.W. of
Moorfhedabad. N. lat. 23 56'. E. long. 88" 13'.

JUMNAH, a river of Hindoollan, which rifes in Thi-
bet, and pafTmg by Delhi, runs into the Ganges at Allaha-
bad.

JUMNEE, a town of Bengal ; 20 miles W. of Noony.

JUMOTTO, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ximo' ;
12 miles S.E. of Nangafaki.

JUMP, in Mining, is one among the very numerous ap-
pellations, which the diflocations of the ftrata have received
from the practical miners of different dillrifts. See our
article Fault.

JUMPER is the name for a long iron tool, with a fteeled
chiffel-like point, which they ufe in quarries and mines, for
drilling, or buring (hot-holes in rocks, which require to be
blafted with gunpowder. Drill, noger, and gad, are other
terms for this tool.

JUMUNDERAD, in Geography, a town of Sweden,
in the province of Angermanland ; 24 miles N. of Herno-
fand.

JUNAGUR, or Chunagur, a city and fortrefs of Hin-

J U N

dooftan, in Gu/.erat ; 170 miles S.W. of Amedabad. N.
lat. 24' 50'. E. long. 6g' 54'.

JUNASKA, one of the Fox iflands, in the Pacific ocean.
N. lat. 53 26. E. long. 1S9 14'.

JUNAT, a town of Bengal; 13 miles N.E. of Rogo-
natponr.

JUNCAGO, in Botany, Tourn. Inft. t. 142, fo called
from its refemblance to zjuncus, or ri;(h. See Tulglochin,
Arrow-headed grafs.

JUNCAL, in Geography, a fea-port of South America,
in the country of Chili, fituated on the coaft of the Pacific
ocean ; 50 miles N. of Copiapo.

JUNCALAS, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Pyrenees, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Argeles ; 12 miles S. of Tarbes. The place con-
tains 400, and the canton 4572 inhabitants, on a territory of
I02i kilionietres, in 18 communes.

JUNCAW, a town of Hindoollan, in the circar of Mo-
hurfuns;e ; 25 miles N. of Harriorpour.

JUNCE^, in Botany, Brown 'Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i.
257, See below.

JUNCI, the 13th natural order of plants in Juffieu's fyf-
tem, or the third of his third clafs. It is named from one of.
its principal, or leading genera, Juncus, the Rulh, properly fo
called.

Jufiieu's third clafs comprehends monocotyledonous plants
whofe ftamens are inferted into the calyx or corolla. His de-
finition of the prefent order is as follows.

Calyx [\v\nc\\, in fome of the genera, we fhould, with
Linnaeus, term corolla) inferior, in fix deep fegments, (ra-
ther of fix leaves,) either equal or unequal, the three alternate
ones, in the latter cafe, being larger, and petal-hke, or it is
glumaceous, and akin to the hulks of grafles. Stamens defi-
nite (except in Sagitlariaziii perhapsyf////?,'^),mofl;Iy fix, rare-
ly three or nine, inferted into the lower part of the calyx.
Germcn fuperior, in fome fimple, with a fingle ilyle ; the
fligma fimple or divided ; capfule of three cells and three
valves ; with many feeds, inferted into the partitions origi-
nating from the centre of each valve. In others the germens,
ftill fuperior, are three or fix, rarely indefinite, fometimes
united at their bafe ; ttyles and fligmas equal to them in
number, as well as the capfules, which are fingle-celled,
either dillinft or united, either fingle-feeded and often not
burlting, or many-feeded, feparating into two valves at their
inner edge, the margins of the valves, (or the partitions) bear-
ing the feeds. Corculum (perhaps of all) in the fear of a
horny albumen. Plants herbaceous. The radical leaves, as
well as thofe on the lower part of the ftem, alternate and
(heathing ; the upper and floral leaves often affuming the form
of a fpatha, and fefii'e. I'lowers furnifhed with fpathas.

The feftions are four.

1. Germen folitary. Capfule of three cells. Calyx gluma-
ceous.— This comprifes five genera, all Linnsean, Eriocaul.n,
Rejlio, Xyris, jlphyllanthes, and /ancuj, the lalt only properly
anfwering to the cliarader.

2. Germen folitary. Capfule of three cells. Calyx halt
petal-like. — Here are fix genera, Mnafium of Schrcber
(which is Rapatea o{ A\ih\eX.), Syena oi Schreber (Aublef's
Mayaca), Pollia of Thunberg, Callifia, Ccmmelina, and Tra-
defcnntia of Linnaeus.

3. Germens feveral. Capfules as many, fingle-celiccl.
Flower-ftalks radical, unibcllate or whorled, the umbels ar.il
whorls encompalfed with a three-leaved involucrum. Plants
aquatic. — The genera are Biitomus, Dama/onium, yi/i/mu,
and Sagiltaria.

4. Germens feveral (moftly three). Capfules as many,
finglc-celled, fometimes united at their bafe. Flowers pani-

ckd

J U N

cled or fpiked — Here we find NcSrh of Schrebec ( Cn'
bomba of Aublet), Scheuchxeiia, Tngkchin, Narthecium (To-
fzUiaoi Hudfon and Smith), Hcknias, AL-laiUhium, Fcra-
trum, and Cokhicum.

This, nearly analogous to the Trtprtalo'idet of Linnxus, is
perhaps, on the whole, one of the leaftcorred of Juffieu's
orders. The order of Juncex, extraftcd from it by Decan-

J U N

lity. Widows who burn themfelvcs with tlicir huftands'
corplc, always do it, where praclicabic, at the junftion of two
rivers : this liorrid facrifice is called Sdt't, «hich fee. As
well as this fpetics of meritorious filicide the Hindoos recog.
nize fomc others, and if performed at the confluence of rivers
the merit of the ac\ is greatly enhanced.

" One of the holiell fpots of the Ganga (or Ganges) in

i/o/A-and Brown, is much better defined, in conl'cqucnce of where it joins the Yamuna (Jumna) below Delhi. A third

the expullion of RtJIlo and its allies on the one hand, and "" ' ' .--•■- -

Commelina, &.C. on the other, with the removal of other ge-
nera to their proper places.

JuMCl Lapidei, in Natural Hi/lory, the name given by
authors to a fpccies of foflile coral, of the tubularia kind,
and compofed of a congeries of fniall tubules, which are
ufually round and ilriated within.

JUNCKER, GoTTLOB John, in Biography, a learned
phyfician, was born on the 3d of June, 1680, at LondorfF,near
Gieflen, in Hefle. He piirfi-.ed his medical thidies at Mar-

purg and Erfurt, and afterwards took the degree of M.D.
at Haile, in the year i;i8. He became fubfequently a dif-
tinguifhed profefibr in this univcrfity, and attained a high re-
putation as phyfician to the public hofpital. He died at
Halle, on the 25th of Odober, 17J9. His works, which
are chiefly compilations, have been much efleemed, and are
ftill occafionally referred to, efpecially as they contain the
bed and moll compendious view of the dodlriiies of Stahl,
which he efpoufed and taught. They are as follows ;
I. " Confpeitus Medicince Theoretico-praftic^e, Tabulis 137
primarios morbos, methodo Stahliana traclandos, exhibens,'
Halle, 1718, 4to.; - 2. " Confpeftus Chirurgix, Sec." Hid.

facred river, the Sarafivati, is fuppofcd to join them fub-
terraneonfly, whence the junction is called Triveni, or the
three plaited leclis . Pilgrims here begin the ceremonies after-
wards completed at Gaya. The confluence of rivers is a
fpot peculiarly dear to Hindoos ; and this, more tfpeciaily
of the Ganga and Yanuma, is fo highly cftecmcd, that a
perfon dying there is confident of immediate beatitude, with-
out ri(l< of farther tranfmigration. Suicide is not only par-
donable, but in fomc cafes meritorious with Hindoos. Cut-
ting one's throat at the above holy junction, is, in reference
to its immediate refult, an inllar.ce of the latter. ^See Sui-
cide.) Widows who becomeyij/i, qt pure, by burning thcni-
felves with the bodies of their decealed hulbands, which i.-
generally done at the fangam, or confluence of rivers, per-
form an adt of meritorious fuicide. And all ads in them,
felves good, are rendered vallly better if done on iuch a
fpot." Moor's Hindoo Pantheon.

JUNCTURE, any joint, or clofing, of two bodies. See
Joint.

Juncture, in Oratory, is a part of compofition, particu-
larly recommended by Quintihan, and denotes fich an atten^
tion to the nature of the vowels, confonants, and fyllablcs in

1721,. 4to.; — 5. " Confpedus Formularum Medicarum, the conncdion of words, with regard to their found, as will

Sec." Hid. 1723,410.; — 4. " Confpedus TherapeiK genera- render the pronunciation moll eafy and pleafant, and bell

lis, &c. TabuliS 20 methodo Stahliana confcriptus," Hid. promote the harmony of the fentence. Thus the coalition

l73j,4to.; — 5. "Confpedus Chemise Theoretico-pradic:^ in of two vowels, occafioning an hollow and oblcnie found,

forma Tabularum ReprKfentatus, 6cc. Tomus prior." ii/W. and likewife of fome confonants rendering it liarlh and

1730, 4to. This is an elementary work on chemillry, ac- rough, fhould be avoided; nor fliould the fame lyl a-

cording to the principles of Becher and Stahl. — 6. "Con- ble be repeated at the beginning and end of words, be-

fpeflus Phyfiologise," /^/W. 1735, 4to. ; — and 7. " Confpec- caufe the found becomes hereby harfli and unpleafant.

tus Pathologiae," «i^/^. 1736, 4to. Jnncker likewife pub- The following verfe in Virgil's iEneid is an example of junc-

Lfiied many academical thefes on medical, chirurgical, and ture:
philofophical fubjeds. Eloy. Did. Hid. — Gen.^Biog.

" Arma Virumque cano, Troja qui primus ab oris."

JUNCULAM, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Java, on the S.W. coall ; 55 miles S.S.W. of Batavia.
S. lat. 6^ 40'. E. long. IC5- 15'.

JUNCUS, in Botany, an old Latin word, a jungendo,
fay the etymologiils, from the uCe of the plants which bear
this name in joining or binding things together. The
Rufli.— Linn. Gen. 173. Schreb. 230. WiUd. Sp. PI.
V. 2. 204. Mart. MiU. Dic^. v. 2. Sm. Fl. Brit. 374.
Brown. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 2j8. JulF. 44. Tourn.
t. 127. Lamarck Did. V. 3. 263. lUuilr. t. 2jo. Gserln.
t. 15. Clafs and order, Hexandria Motiogynia. Nat. Ord.
Tripetaloidee, Linn. June:, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cal. Pei-ianth of fix oblong, pointed, per-
manent leaves, inferior. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments fix,
(in i . conglonnratus only three), capillary, very flioit ; an-
thers oblong, ered, the length of the perianth. Pijl.
Germen fuperior, pointed, triangular ; ilyle (liort, thrcad-
fliaped ; lligmas three, long, thrcad-fhaped, downy, intlexed.
Perie. Caplule invelled with the calyx, triangular, of three
more or lefs completely divided cells, with three valves, the

with niglit, the forenoon with the afteriiooB, &c. are duly partitions from their centre. Seeds various in number, rarely

reverenced, by (Irid obfervers, with appropriate prayers and fohtary, roundifli.

JUNCO, in Geography, a river of Africa, whichcrofles the
Grain Coall, and runs into the Atlantic ; 90 niiles E.S.E. of
Cape Monte.

Juxco, in Ornithology, the reed fparrow. See E.mbe-
RIZA Schoeniculus.

JuNCO is alfo ufed by Bellonius for a bird, feeming, by
his defcription, the fame with what we call the ilint. See
Trixga Cinclus.

JUNCTIN, Francis, in Biography, a mathematician of
Florence, who ilourilhed in the fixteeiith century, and was
for a time a Carmelite, but quitted his order, and going to
France, abjured the Roman Catholic religion. He became
a corredor of the prefs, and afterwards a manufadurer of
paper, and a banker, by which avocations he gained a large
fortune. He died about the year i jSo. He was author of
fome arithmetical works, commentaries on the fpherc of Sa-
crobofco, on the Reformation of the Calendar, and on the
age of the Loves of Petrarch.

JUNCTIONS. Among the Hindoos, jundions or meet-
ings of many things are deemed holy and myllerious ; more
efpecially the jundions of rivers. The jundion of the day

ceremonies ; but the jundion of rivers, above all, are very
myfterioufly contemplated. An ad performed there, be it
ever fo good, is rendered vallly more fo by this holy loca-

Eir. Ch. Calyx of fix leaves,
Capfule fuperior, of three valve
Seeds fevcral. Stigmas three.
4G

permanent. Corolla none,
s, with one .or three cell*.

J U N

The extenfive and very natural genu? of Juncus is Com-
ir.odioufly enough divided into two feftions ; the firft con-
taining fuch as have le:\flefs ftems, the fecond ihofe with
leafy ones. Of the former Willdcnow reckons fifteen
fpecies, of the latter twenty-fis'e. This author has judi-
cioudy enriched liis Hock by adopting thofe indubitable,
chiefly alpine, fpecies, which Scheuchzer, Haller, Allioni
and otlicr alpine botanills had well defined, but which Lin-
nrr^'.is had, rather incautioully, huddled together under his
f;l.fus ^nA campejlns. His Syll. Veg. ed. 14, contains only
twenty-two in all. I^amarck has thirty-two. The pallefccns
of the latter, omitted by Willdenow, is very dillinft,
though near articulalus, found at Buenos Ayres. Its
flowers are much fewer together than in nndofus, to which
Lamarck fufpefted it might belong. Mr. Brown has added
nine Ncvv Holland fpecies, previoufly nondefcript, to the
catalogue, and we believe America affords feveral more.

Kight Britidi fpecies are found in the firft fecfion, fifteen
in the fecond. Of the former may ferve as examples,

J. acutiis, Engl. Bot. t. 1614, a large and rigid fpinoiis-
pointed plant, found on fome of our fandy fea-coalls, bat
rarely.

J. maril'imus, t. 172J, much more common, and found
not only in clean fand. but in muddy falt-marfhes alfo, con-
founded wiih ihe former by Linnx-us, from which it differs
in its more ilender form, glaucous colour, and oblong cap-
fules.

J. conalomeratits, t. R^y, which is triandrous, and ejfufus,
t. 836, are both extremely common in moill places,

fquarrofus, t. 93 j, on the nioll dry and ba

fandy

The fecond (eftion, with leafy flenis, is much more va-
rious and remarkable. In the beginning of it we find a
tribe whofe leaves are internally cclhilar, v.ith tranfverfe
partitions, fo as to feel, and even to look, jointed. Thefe
are fcarcely yet well underftood, efpecially the American
cnes, to which the Linnaean nndnfus belongs. Thofe of
Britifh growth have lately been well elucidated by the Rev.
H. Davies in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10. See Engl. Bot.
t. 238, now called acuttf.nrns. t. 2143, himpocarpus, and
t. 2144, obtiifijlorus, all confounded by Linna;us under his

articulalus A more (lender tribe fncceed. J. bidbofus,

t. 934, very improperly fo called, from a bulbous-rooted
fpecies, J. ullglnofus, t, 801, vvh«fe fynonym was once re-
ferred to it. J. bujotuus, t. 802', with a very compound
flender ftem, is common in watery places, and rather extra-
ordinary in its genus for having only an annual root. .1. gra-
cilis, t. 2174, a new ScottiHi fpecies, refembles it in general
afpeft, but is not fo much branched, nor fo leafy.

J. biglumis, t. SqS, triglumis, t. 899, and cajlaneus, t. 900,
are three rare and curious mountain kinds, the firl'i in par-
ticular, a Lapland plant, extremely uncommon in Britain,
and fcarcely well known by fome of our heft botanifts. It
may however always be dilUnguilhed from two-flowered
fpecimens oi triglumis, by the flowers being pla«.ed one above
another, not in the fame plane.

The genus finilhes with another very diftinft tribe, whofe
copious broad leaves, and more or lefs panieled numerous
flowers, with a fhining brown, yellow, or brilliant white
calyx, give their leading charafters. Of thefe are the com-
mon J. pilofus, Engl. Bot. t. 736; the more rare J. Forjleri,
t. 1293 ; the gresi.'. fyhaticus, t. 737 (Willdenow's masimus) ;
the beautiful luteus of Allioni, Villars Dauph. t. 6, common
on the alps of Switzerland, Savoy, &c. ; the elegant iii-ucus
found on the mountains of Italy, Switzerland, and fome
pjrts of Germany ; and our common campijlris, Engl. Bot.

J U N

JUNDGEH, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Ta.k-; „
in the province of Natolia ; 16 miles W. of Kiutaja.

JUNDOO, a town of Bengal ; J miles S. of Ghidore.

JUNE, the fixth month of the year, during which the
fun enters the fign of Cancer. The word conies from the
Latin Junius, which fome derive a Junoiic. Ovid, in the
fixth of his Falli, makes the goddci's fay,

" Junius a nollro nomine uomen habet."

Others rather derive it a juniorilut, this being for young
people, as the month of May was for old ones.

" Junius eft juvenum, qui fuit ante fenum."

In this month is the fummer folfticc.

JUNERE, or Jencagiiue, in Gvography, a town of
Hindooftan, in the country of Baglana ; 122 miles W.S.W.
of Anrnngabad. N. lat. 19° 11'. E. long. 73 ' 59'.

JUNES, El, a town of Morocco; 15 miles N.E. of
Azamor.

JUNGDRAWBERG, a town of Pruflia, in the pala--
tinate of Culm ; 20 miles S. of Dantzic.

JUNGERCAD, a town of Hindooitan ; 35 miles \V.
of Benares. *

JUNGERMANNIA, in Bolany, a cryptogamic genus
of plants, very niunerous in ipeeies, as well as ditlinft iu
charafter, named by Ruppius and Micheli, who have been
followed by all botanifts fince, in honour of Lewis Juiiger-
mann, Profeflor of Botany at Altdorf, and afterwards at
Gieffen, in the early part of the feventeenth century. Ke
wrote catalogues of the wild plants found near thofe towns,
as well as near Leipfic, his native place, and Frankfort on
the Maine. Haller fays he left a fine hurtus ficctis of two
thoufaiid plants, which is ftill preferred at Altdorf. Of
him it may juftly be faid, that the genus in queftion has
preferved his name, rather than his merits, from oblivion ;
for thofe to whom it is familiar, commonly rather wonder
than take anv pains to inquire, who Jungermann was.
Linn. Gen. 564. Schreb. 764. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 2.
Mich. Gen. 6. t. J. Hedw. Theor. 83. t. 22, 23. Schmi-
del. Monogr. ann. 1760. cum tab. Jiiif. S. Lamarck
Dia. v. 3. 27S. Illuftr. t. 875. (Lichenaftrum; Dill.
Mufc. 479. t. 69 — 74 ) Clafs and order, Cryplogamia A!-
gie, Linn. (7. Hepatic^, Schrcb. Nat. O^i^.' Algx, Linn.
Hepatic^, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. and Cor. none. Stam. Anthers
aggregate, of an indeterminate number, in pov.'dery heads,
wliich are either llalkcd, feffile, or immerfed in the fubftance
of the frond.

Female on the fame (rarely on a feparate) plant. Cal.
Perianth ereft, tubular, truncate, variouily crenate or
jagged. Cor. Veil membranous, feflile, fmaller than the
perianth, fomewhat globofe, clofed on all fides, crowned
with the ftyle, at length burfting at the top. Pijl. Germeu
oblong, feflile, enclofcd in th.e veil ; ftyle folitary, cylin-
drical, terminating the veil; ftigma abrupt, tubular. Peri:.
Capfiile elevated on a long, flefliy, very tender, pale, finiple,
cylindrical rtalk, globofe, of one cell, at length burfting in-
to four equal, permanent valves, fpreading in the form of a
crofs. Seeds very numerous, globular, adhering by fpiral
elaftic fibres to the bafe, fummit, dilk or margin of the
valves.

Obf. Several germcns are often found in one perianth,
though only one of them comes to perfection, the others
withering at the bafe or fides of its veil.

Eff. Ch. Male, Anthers aggregate, in powdery heads.
Female, Capfule of four valves, on a ftalk rifing from a tu-
bular calyx. Seeds attached to elaftic filaments.

8 Nothing

J U N

Nothing can be more elegant tlian the general habit of
this genus, which is, in a manner, intermediate between the
true Moffes, or Miifd, and the other HepatUx and jHgx.
It is throughout highly vafcular or cellular, exhibiting the
appearance of iine internal reticulations, as in Honleria and
fome other mofles ; but the texture is commonly more ten-
der and fucculent than in that family. Some fpccies emit
an aromatic fraa;rance, like that of red cedar wood, very
perceptible and delio;htful in groves, or the ihady walks of
gardens. The capfule is edentially different from that of
the true mofTes, va having no opfrciilum or lid ; but the fin-
gular character of the ityb tcrminatmg the veil, or corolla,
is proper to both. Great ambiguity occurs in the botanical
delcriptions of the various fpecics, from Linsxu'? having
termed the whole plant a frond, though he often inadvert-
ently calls its fegmcnts leaves, folia, and fpeaka of the Jhm,
as if the plant were a real herba, as in tl-.e Mufcs. On this
fubject the writer of the prefent article has long been at a
lofs to form a decided opinion, and in the delcriptions of
manv Jun^erntjnnis ill l-lrigU/]} Botany, lias given into the
pradtice of Schreber and others, who ule the terms leaves
and ilipulas, for what, according to the original Linnxin
principle, are fegm«nts of the frond, leaHets, or fcales. On
mature deliberation, however, it feems beft to keep rigidly
to this laft-mentionej principle. The llalks, and tlie leaf-
lets, or fegments of the fronds, will always be found homo-
geneous and infeparable. The apparent leaves are never
thrown off like the real leaves of other plants, but are of one
fubftance with the part that bears them. The Jungcnnanwie
acauks, which conftitute the laft fefiion of the genus, as epi-
phylla, Hedw. Theor. t. 21 — 23 ; pingiiis, p:ngl. Bot. t. 18,-;
mullifiJa, t. 186, S:c. have to all intents and purpofes real
fronds, not Items and leaves ; and it would be offering great
violence to nature to fuppofe fome fpecies of a genus to be
frondofe and others herbaceous. Some German writers in-
deed cut this gordian knot, by abolilhing the term frond al-
together; but againft fuch a meafure we muft put in our
decided proteft. (See Frond.) Little difficulty will arife
from calling the fegments leaflets inilead of leaves, and what
•have been termed Itipulas, may, by the analogy of ferns, be
fafely named fcales, fquamx. In Engl. Bot. v. 3 i. p. 2231,
we have fuggelled the propriety of terming the larger half
of the leaflet, (in thofc fpecies ufually known by the appel-
lation of auricled,') in Latin hhvs, and the fmaller one, or
auricle, lolulus. This wi'.l be found very commodious in
conftrufting neat fpecilic characters. In Englilh leaflet and
Jlde-hbe will be equivalent to thofe terms.

On all thefe particulars, and others, we have had frequent
confullation with our able friend Mr. W. .1. Hooker, whofe
attention to this genus has been very deep and minute, and
who has undertaken to illuftrate the Britifh fpecies in par-
ticular, witii excellent figures and defcriptions.

Our native fpecies amount to above 60, tho\igh Hudfon
has but 30. The foreign ones are very numerou,";, but the
greater part remain undefcribed, except what profeffor
Swartz has given in his Prndromns. Mr. Archibald Menzies
collefted, at the Cape of Good Hope, Staten Land, the
well coaft of North America, and cfpecially at Dnn<y bay,
in New Zealand, a profufion of new and magnificent fpecies,
of which he has favoured us with fpecimens, but he referves
to himfelf their defcription, which is anxioufly expefted by
his friends. It is prefumed that 150 J ungermanr.is might
eafily be reckoned up. I^innaeus's SylL Veg. ed. 14, has
but 33 in all, but his herbarium contains many more.
Dillenius was the firft who laboured with much fuccefs to
■Jxplain the fpecics of this genus, though Miclieh alio be-
ftowed no fmall pains upon them, but his figures are, in this

j U N

inllance, not very cxprcllive. Schmidel, in his Icones, has
illullrated a few fpecics to amply and accurately as to leave
nothing to be wiihed. It is but jullice to Mr. Sowerby to
fiy, that the plates he has given of Jungcrmanmt, in En^I.
But. are as djaraclerillic as molt botanical figures of any
kind.

A natural dillribution of the fpecies is dill wanting. Lin-
nius divides them into five feCtions.

1. F ruiirls pinnate ; leaflets turned to one fide. Of this the
common J. ajphmoides, Engl. Bot. t. 178*$, and bidentatat
t. 606, are examples.

2. Fronds pinnate ; leafets -zvitlj auricles, orjlipnlas {rather
fcales), beneath.

.See J. nemorofn, t. 607, which has auricles (fide-Iobcs)
and reptans, t. 608, which has fcales.

3. Fronds imbricated.

Under this head are arranged tamarifcifoUa, t. 1086, cilia-
ris, t. 2241, and fome other very fine fpecics.

4. Shoots imbricated on all fids, the leaflets fcattcred.

To this belong concinnata, t. 2229, and trichophylUt,
t. 22J2. /. rupeflris and alpina are properly cllablithed as
a genus of real iV/«y2-i by Ehrhart, under the name oi Andre<eay
^ndraa of Fl. Brit. 1178. Engl. Bot. t. 1277, 1278, and
2162, and Hooker in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10 381.

J. IVithout aflem, the fronds beinnfimple.

To this, as we have already faid, hduug epiphylla, pinguis,
and nntltifida.

The intelligent reader will eafily perceive the ijifufficiency
and inaccuracy of thefe fubdivifions, and- the necefiitj of
better. The difficulty lies in finding technical charaotcrfv
to mark natural fedtions. It is eafy enough to arrange any
natural objeAs by fuch characters artificially^ without re-
gard to their real affinities. S.

JUNGEVSKOI, in Geography; a town of RufTia, in the
government of Tobollk ; 56 miles S. of Kemllcoi.

JUNGFRAU (probably from the Celtic Jim-fra, i. e. a
place from which water delcends), a mountain in the canton
of Bern, in Switzerland, which, according to profeffor Tral-
les's trigoxometrical furvey, rifes 12,852 feet above the level
of the fea, and afford? a fpectacle, the fublime beauty of
which is fcarcely equalled by any other object of nature in
the Alps. The midd'e part of this ItupendcHis mafs is more
generally known by tiie above name ; the cuneitorm rock,
towards the right hand (when viewed from the Plelfch
mountain) is called the Alcnl; and the fimimit, covered by
eternal fiiows, is called the Jungfrau-lx.nt. The valley of
Lauterbrunn, at the foot of this mountain, is too confined
to allow the eye to feize the whole grandeur of the object
before it ; but from tiie neijjhbouring Pletfch mountain it
maybe feen to the greatell advanUige, together with the
vait groups of other craggy mountains and glaciers with
which it is connected.

We read in an article from Bern, in the Moniteur of i5tli,
Aug. 181 1, that, in the beginning of that month, two Swifs
gentlemen have fucceeded in afceuding the fimimit of this
Itupendous mountain, an undertaking which, hitherto, has-
been deemed impraaicable. After having fpent three days
and four nights on the fnow and ice, and made fome fruitlefs
attempts, they have feen their endeavours crowned, on the
3d of Augull, when they reached the fummit, where they
fixed a black flag. They intend publiUiing an account of.
this remarkable journey.

JUNGFRUN, SroR, a fmall ifland, about fix miles in
circuit, on the \V. fide of the gulf of Bothnia ; it is high
and rocky, and dangerou'4 tg navigators. N. hvt. 61 10'.
E. lung, if 10'.

Jt-NfisnuH.

J U N

JuvcFRUK, LUl, another fmall idand on the W. fide of
the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 6i° i6'. E.long. 17° 9'.

JUNGHERAH, a fmall ifland in the river Ganges, on
which is a feminary of Hindoo mendicants ; 1 2 miles from
Boglipour.

JUNG I A, in Botany, fo named by the younger Linnasits,
in memory of Joachim Jungius, a learned German botanill
of the 17th centurv. (See Jungius.) Linn. Siipph 58.
Schrcb. 589. Wiild. Sp. PI. V. 3. 2391. Mart. Mill.
Dia. V. 2. Jufl". 17J.— Clafs and order, Syngenejia Poly-
gamia-ffgregata. Nat. Ord. Compofite cap'ilatic, Linn. C'lna-
rocephale anomale, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Common perianth of many, fomewhat
fpreading, hnear, obtnfe, channelled leaves, containing three
or four flowers : partial longer, many-flowered, of many,
nearly equal, oblong, channelled, obtnfe, ereft leaves. Cor.
compound, of uniform, hermaphrodite, equal florets : partial
of one petal, fnnnel-fliaped ; the tube dilated upwards ; hmb
of two lips ; the outer longeft, revolute, Hnear, toothed at
the e.\tremity ; inner deeply divided into two fmall, ereft,
acute fegments. Slam. FiLuiients five, very fliort, inferred
into the tube of each floret ; anthers united into a cylinder.
Pljl. Germen inferior, linear, angular ; llyle thread-fliaped ;
ftigmas two, revolute, obtufe. Perlc. none, except the un-
altered calyx. Seeds folitary, angular. Doiun long, feflile, .
feathery. Recept. clothed with fcales, refembling the leaves
of the calyx.

Eir. Ch. Receptacle cliafFy. Common perianth containing
three flowers. Florets tubular, two-lipped ; the outer lip
lignlate ; inner deeply divided.

1 J. ferniginea. Linn. Suppl. 390. Gathered by Mutis,
or fome of his pupils, in New Granada. A tree or Jhriib,
whofe branches are round, clothed with foft down, of a ruily
hue, at leafl; in the dried fpecimen. Zfsw.r alteinate, re-
mote, ftalked, flat, rounded, bluntly five-lobed ; heart-fliaped
at the bafe ; hairy on both fides ; lighter coloured beneath.
The only leaf we have feen is two inches in diameter, but
there is reafon to think the lower ones may be much larger.
jFoolJIalhs downy and rufly. Pan'ule terminal, large, re-
peated y branched with downy ftalks. Flowers in roundilh
cluftcred heads, plorets purple, encompaffed with the long
white down of the feed.

This plant is known in Europe by the fingle fpecimen
in the Linnasan herbarium only, nor has any figure of it ap-
peared.

JUNGILE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
"Bena'-es ; 20 miles S. of Bidzigur.

JUNGIPOUR, a town of Hmdooftan,in Bengal, where
the Eafl; India Company have a fa£lory for raw filk ; 20
.iri'es N. of Moorihedabad.

JUNGIUS, JoAtiiiM, in Biography, an eminent mathe-
matician, phyficiauj and botanill, the fon of a fchoolmafter at
Lubec, in Germany, was born on the 2 1 ft of Oftober 1587.
J-Iis mother was daughter to a clergyman of the cathedral
church at Lubec. Jungius having unfortunately been de-
prived of his father very early in life (for he was itabbed
one evening upon his return home from a convivial party),
and being left with a flender patrimony, was obliged to de-
pend almoft entirely upon his own exertions for whatever
knowledge and information he was anxious to acquire, the
narrownefs of his circumftances not enabling him to pafs
through the ufual routine of a learned and philofophical
educ.ition. Notwithftanding this obllaele, we are informed
that, in his youth, he became a very fubtle logician, and in-
genious difputant. By a clofe attention to fuch ftudies he
prepared his mind for that clearnefs of inveftigation and
accuracy of judgment, which were fo eminently confpicuous

J U N

in the works which he pubhflied at a more advanced period
of his life. Selefting the ftudy of medicine as a profefiion,
he travelled, at the age of 30, over a great part of Italy, and
vifited many of the principal places in Germany. His great
objeft in travelling was to become acquainted with fome of
the moll dift;inguiihed phyficians of that time, from whofe
company and converfation he hoped to derive much amufe-
ment and inftrudtion. He had previoufly graduated at the
univerfity of Gielfen A. D. 1607, at which time he war.
ranked firft among his competitors in the hil of honours, and
he remained there a few years in the capacity of mathemati-
cal tutor. In 1624 he married Catharine, the daughter of
Valentine HafFeman, a refpeftable citizen of Roftock, in
Lower Germany, by whom he had no ilTue. She died in
i6?8, from which period he remained a widower. He had
been chofen profciTor of phyfic at Helmftadt in 1625, which
had led him to remove from Roilock ; but, on account of
the Danifli war, he was obhged, foon after his appointment,
to fly to Brunfwick, where he refided for a fdort time, and
pradtifed as a phylician. However, he foon returned to
Helmftadt, till, in 1629, he was appointed reftor of the fchool
at Hamburgh.

Jungius feems to have eminently diftinguifhed himfelf in
the ieveral ftudies of theology, medicine, mathematics, meta-
phyfics, and botany, upon all which purfuits his opinions
and obfervations are handed down to us in his writings,
though the molt famous part of his work, entitled " Doxo-
fcopis PhyCc:e Minores," is upon the latl mentioned fub-
jecl, botany. This book was firft printed at ?Iamburgh,
in 4to. A.D. 1662, and again, in 1679, under the care of
Martin Fogel, with this additional title, " Prascipuarum
opir.ionum phyficarum." A copy of the former edition of
this work is in the Linnoean library, having been prefented
to Linnseus by his pupil, pro.feflbr P. D. Gifcke, of Ham-
burgh. The botanical part of it, included in the third
feCtion of the fecond part, occupies about too pages. Here
are to be found many judicious and acute rules tor making
diftiniil fpecies of plants, as well as fome curious remarks
upon genera. ProfefTor Jungius was alfo the firft author
who contended that trees cannot with prepricty be Icparated
from other plants with refpeft to their claflilication, thougii
the honour of having firft ilarted this idea is often bettowed
upon Rivinus, for till this time trees had been regarded as
a fuperior kind of productions in the vegetable kingdom.
Jungius preferred the difcriminative marks afforded by thr
herbage m general, viz. the leaves, ftalks, and flower-cups of
plants to thofe which are taken from colour, talle, or fme!!.
He was a great critic in botanical nomenclature ; and coii-
ilrufted a variety of terms which agree with thofe of Lin-
nsus. Many fpecies of plants were judicioufly feparated
and determined by him, which had before been entirely mif-
placed or confufedly arranged. He moreover detedlcd the
feed of certain plants which, till his time, were fuppofed to
have been deftitute of feed, efpecially in the genus Sal'tx.
His remarks upon botanical difcrimination have been of
confiderable advantage to i'ucceeding botaniils, and many of
his definitions are repeatedly made ufe of by our immortal
countryman, Ray. What further teft of his abilities is re-
quifite ? It has been faid, with a viev*' to detract from the
fame of Linnseus, that the works of our author furnifhed
him with many hints which he never ackno;' Icdged ; but
this is fcarcely poflible, for though their ideas accord in
many points, yet there is reafon to believe that Linnseus
never faw the writings of Jungius till long after his own were
publifhed.

Much credit is due to the fubjedl of our memoir for having
been the firft who projeded and raifed a literary fociety in

Germany,

J U N

Germany, though this inftitution did not (hare a better fate
than the one which had ju(t before been found in this coun-
try (and which appears to have ferved for its model) by
Hugh Latimer, Thomas Lmacre, and others, for the pur-
pofe of difcufrmg- and ilhillrating Arillotle's philofoptiy.
They both flouriftied but for a fiiort period, though the
Heunetic or Ereunetic fociety, as it was called, eftablifhed
by profettbr Jungius, was on a far more comprelienfive
plan than the other, and may indeed be confidered as having,
in feme meafure, embraced the fame views witli which the
Royal Society was afterwards inftitutcd in Great Britain.
The fame of Jungius was originally diffufed through this
country by his noble pupil, the honourable Cluules Cavcn-
difh, who appears to have iludied under him at Hamburgh.
This gentleman was brother to the earl of Newcaftlc, v/ho
had the care of Charles I. when a youtli.

After a long life, fpent in the acquirement and diffufion
of general philoi'ophical knowledge, and having always
iv.anifefted a ftrong attachment to the Lutheran church,
profeflbr Jungius departed this life on the 23d of September
1657, at the age of 70 years, and was buried in the church
of St. John at Hamburgh, where a handfome tablet was in-
fcribed to his memory by his friend and pupil, Michael
Kirften. The following is a lift of his works, as given by
Martin Fogel, who edited the fecond edition of his " Dosu-
fcopi*."

I..ogica Hamburgenfis. Hamb. 1638, in 8vo.
Geometria Empirica. Roftock. femel et Hamb. bis, in
4to.

Doxofcopias Phyfici Minores, fine Ifagoge Phyfica
Doxofcouica. Kamb. 1662, in 410.

Kurzer Bericht von der Didaftica oder Lehrkunft Wolf-
gangi Ratichii, durch Chriftoph. Helvicum und Joach.
Jungium. Gieflen, 1614, in 4to,

Difputationes de naturali Dei cognitione : de potentia
aAiva : de lojo Ariftotelis, lib. 3. de coelo, t. 66 : de figuris
locum replentibiis : de relationibus : dp notionibus fecundis :
de demonftratione tritermina : de definitionibus, &c.

Haller's Bibl. Bot. Witten. Memorix Philofophorum,
Franckfort, 1679.

JUNGKEN, Joiiv Helfric, a phyfician, was bom at
Kalern, in Heffe, in December 1648, and was diftinguifhed by
his abilities during his early ftudies. He purfued his medical
education at Marpurg and at Heidelburg, and took the de-
gree of doctor at the latter univerfity in 167 1. After this
period, he fpent many year.s in travelling in purfuit of know-
ledge, and finally fettled at Frankfort on the Maine in 1689,
and was appointed phyfician to the public hofpital there in
1693. He obtained a high reputation and a moll e.Ktenfive
practice, in the courfc of which, however, he publiftied feveral
works. He died, greatly regretted, on the 5th of January,
1726. His writings are now feldom referred to, and it will
be unnecelTary here to detail the long titles of them. They
treated of every branch of the profefiion, but chiefly on che-
iniftry and pharmacy ; and his pathology was founded on
the mathematical doctrines, efpecially thofe of Defcartcs.
Elov. Dicl. Hift.

JUNGLEBARRY, in Geography, a town of Bengal ;
50 miles N. of Dacca.

JUNGNAU, a town of Germany, and capital of a lord-
fhip belonging to the princes of Furftenberg ; 14 miles W.
of Buchau.

JUNGS Hound, or Head, a cape of Denmark, on the
E. coaftof the ifland of Zealand, N. lat. 53" 7'. E. long.
12^ 11'.

JUNIATTA, a town of America, in Pennfylvania, 5
miles W.N.W. of Huntingdon.— Alfo, a river of Pennfyl-
3 ■

J U N

vania, which rifes from two fprings in the Alleghany monn-
tains, and runs into the Siifquehannah, 15 miles N.W. of
Harrifburg.

JUNIEU, St., a town of France, in the department of
tlic Ujjpcr Vicnnc, and chief pLice of a canton, in the diftrift
of Rochechouart ; 15 miles W. of Limoges. The place con-
tains 6046, and the canton 12,519 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 170 kiliometres, in feven communes. N. lat. 45^53'.
E. long. 9 5'.

JLT^NIOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Brac-
law ; 52 miles N. of Braclaw.

JUNIPA, in Botany, the n.?me of a tree of the Caribbee
illands, and fome other plac-s, the fruit of which is faid to
yield a juice as clear as water, yet yields a fine violet-
coloured dye, and being rubbed twice on the fame place,
makes it black. This tinfture, it is Taid, cannot be got out
by foap, or any other method of cle.niling, but after nine or
ten days difappears of itfelf. I( is faid alfo, by the fame
authors, that hogs and parro'.s, feeding on this fruit, have
their fltrti and their fat all tinged throughout of a violet
colour.

JUNIPERUS, an ancient Latin name, of whofc mean-
ing or derivation no account is given. - Juniper. Linn.
Gen. 531. Schreb. 705. Sm Fl. Brit. 1085. Mart.
Mill. Did. v. 2. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 413 Tournef.
t, 361. JulT. 413. Lamarck. lUuftr t. 829. Ga:rtn.
t. 9i.-Clafs and order, Diacia Monadelphia. N.tt. Ord.
Conifers Linn, and JulT.

Gen. Cli. M.ile, Cal. Catkin conical, confiding of a com-
mon receptacle, bearing three rows of three flowers each,
with a terminal one ; the bafe of each flower is a broad, fliort,
incumbent fcale fi.\ed by a (lalk to the common receptacle.
C^r. none. 5/(7m. Fiiaments (in the terminal flower) th.-ee,
awl-fhaped, united below into one body (in thelateral flowers
fcarcely perceptible); anthers three, dillindl in the terminal
flower, but in the lateral ones attached to the bafe of each
fcale. Female, Cal. the fcales of a catkin, fewer, imbri-
cated, the upper ones at length flefliy and permanent. Cor.
none. Pijl. Germens tliree, imbedded in the uppermoft
fcales; ftylcs three, fimple ; ftigmas fimple. Petic. Berry
fleihy, roundifh, marked in the lower part v.-ith three, oppo-
lite, obfolete tubercles, the points of the coaii.lced fcak-s, and
at the top umbilicated with three teeth. Seeds. Nuts three,
oblong, convex on one fide, angular on the other; abound-
ing with cells of turpenthie on the outfide.

Efi". Ch. Male, Calyx-fcales of a catkin. Corolla none.
Stamens three. — Female, Caly.x-fcales of a catkin, fewer, at
length pulpy, united into a berry with three feeds.

I. J. communis. Common Juniper. Linn. Ep. PI. 1470;

Engl. Bot. t. 1 100. Woodv. Med. Bot. 1.95 Leaves

three together, fpreading, tipped with a fpinc, and longer
than the ripe fruit. — A native of open, hilly places on a cal-
careous foil, flowering in May, though by no means a com-
mon plant in Britain. — T\\h Jljvub is generally of humble
growth, much branched, rigid, Imooth, evergreen. Juice o£
the whole plant a kind of turpentine. IVoad hard and
durable. Leaves oppofitc, acerofc, channelled, /harp-
pointed, glaucous above. Cntkiiis dioecious, axillary
Berry globofe, dark-purple, covered with a glaucous dew,
fweetifh and aromatic — The alpine variety /S is more humble
in its growth, and more depreffed, having broader leaves and
rather oblong berries — The bark of juniper is frequently
converted mto ropes, and it is well known that fpirits, whert
impregnated with the eifential oil of its berries, become
Juniper water, or Gin. — Linnajus obfcrves, in jjis Flora
Lapponica, n. 376, that the Laplanders drink infufions of
the Juniper-berrieSj as w« do tea and coffee, and that the

fewedet

JUNIPERUS.

Swedes prepare a beverage from tliem in great eftimation
for its diuretic and antifcorbutic qualities — There is reafon
to prefume that the Swedifli variety of this fhrub, which is
much taller and more arborefceiit than our's, may be a dif-
tinft fpecies.

Linnxus enumerates nine fpecies of this genus, and pro-
felTor Martyn eleven, the moli remarkable of which are the
following. — /. Oxyccdnis, the brown-berried Juniper, a na-
tive of Spain, the fouth of France, and the Levant. — The
wood of this fpecies is fuppofed to have been the famous
cedar of the ancients, celebrated for its durability, of which
fome of their firft ftatues were made, before the ufe of marble
in this branch of art was known. — J. •virgininna, a native of
North America, the Well India illands, and Japan. — The
wood of this tree is celebrated for its very po -erf ul fra-
grance, and for refilling the attacks of infcfts, being the
well-known red cedar, ufcd for lead pencils, and formerly
in great requell for wainfcotting, and cabinet-work. Large
trees of it are not uncommon in the older gardens and
fhrubberies of this country. — J. berniuAiana is alfo a hardy
tree witli us. It is fufpedled that more fpecies than one
liave been -confounded under this or the laft. — J. Jaltna, the
common Savin, a native of the fouth of Europe, is fuffi-
cisntly well known, and is a popular medicine in fome female
complaints, being alfo fuppoled to be pov/erfnlly capable of
procuring abortion. It is commonly of liumble growth,
hut fometimes forms a handfome dark evergreen bulh three
or four feet high. In Greece it is faid to become a tree
like a c-yprefs, with a trunk a foot in diameter. Botanifts
are by no means correflly verfed in the fpecies of this
genus, or the varieties to which they are fubjed. — J. Lycla,
is with difficulty dillinguifhed from the lall ; its (lioots are
however fomewhat thicker, and its leaflets more acute and
lefs cluRered. It is a native of the fou'h -of France and tlie
Levant. — The gum-refm Olihanum, of a ilrong fmell, and bit-
terifli pungent tafte, iscxtratied from the Lycian cedar, and
is fuppofed to have been ufcd by the ancients in their facri-
lices, being ilill employed in Catholic countries in their re-
ligious ceremonies, as incenfe.

JUNlPEiltjS, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the ever-
■f;reen tree and (lirub kinds, of which the fpecies generally
cultivated are, the common juniper (J. communis) ; the
brown-berried juniper (J. oxycedrus) ; the Spanilh juni-
per (J. thufifera) ; the Barbadoes juniper (J. barbadenfis) ;
the Bermudas juniper (J. bermudiana) ; the favin (J. fa-
bina) ; the Vir^rilliau juniper, or red cedar (J. virginiana) ;
tbe Phoenician juniper, or cedar (J. phoenicea) ; and the
Lycian juniper, or cedar (J. lycia).

The iixth fpecies has a variety with variegated leaves.

And the feventh fpt-cits affords the Swediih or tree juni-
per, which rifcs to a very confiderable height. Alfo the
alpine or mountain juniper, which lias the leaves broader
a:id thicker, and the berries of a rather oval fliape.

Method of Culiure — -t,11 the.'e plants, except the fifth
fort, uiay be increafed either by feeds, layers, or cuttings ;
the latter methods are proper for the favin kinds.

The feeds or berries {hould be fowu in beds of light earth,
in the early autumn or fpiing, but tlie former is the better
in light foils, in a warm nitllered fituatiou, in the open
ground, being well raked in. The bedj fhonld be kept per-
t'eclly clear from weeds, and tlie young plants be occafionally
watered during the fummer feafon. When the plants have
hid two years growth in tliefe bcjs, and are become Ihong,
they fliould be removed into nurfery rows at two feet apart,
and a foot or eighteen inches diftaut in the rows. 'I'hcy
fiiould remain in thefe fituations till of proper growth to be
planted out where they are to remain.

The layers of the young branches fhould be laid down 3t
either of the aliove feaions, and, when well rooted, taken w3,
and planted in tlie nurferv, in tlie fame manner as the feedlii.g
plants.

The cuttings fliould be made from the young branches,
and be planted in a fhady border, in the latter end of fum-
mer, watering them occafionally till they have taken good
root ; when they may be taken up with earth about their
roots, and be managed in the fame manner as by the other
metliods.

The plants raifed in thefe laft ways f^ldom grow io up-
right, or to fo large a fize, as in the feed inethcd.

Tlie common upright and ftriped favins may hkewile be
increafed by planting flips of the young br.mches ; for the
laft fort the moil variegated being made ufe of, in the latter
end of fummer, or in the autumn, in a fhadcd border, due
water being .given. When the plants are come up, they mull
be managed as the other forts.

The fifth fort mull be fown in potf or tubs, at the fame
feafons as the other forts, btiiig placed in a fraae to have
the prote^Mon of glaffes when the weather ii frclly
and fevere. As the feeds are long m comir^g up, the
mould in the pots, &c. mud remain undilhnhed till
they appear, being fliaded from the fun, and ilightly
watered occafionally. The young plants ihould be kept
qi.ite free from weeds, and be duly watered till they
have attained fufficieat growth to be removed into
feparate fmall pots, filled with light earth, wbich is
generally when from one to two years old. In removing
them, they (hould have ball.-- of earth preferveJ alnjut their"
roots, and be watered, and placed in a warm iituation.
The bell feafon for this is in the early fpring ; but it is of
great advantage to plunge tlie pots in a mild hot-bed.
They muft be protcdled in the winter, either in frames, or
under a warm fence ; the pots being plunged in the earth.
When they have been removed into different larger pots, till
of fufficient large growth, they may be planted cut where
they are to grow, which fliould be in a war.Ti fituation. It
is proper to'ftelter them the firfl: two winters during fevere
frolls, by mats, or other fiirilar coverings.

The proper periods for removing all the different forts
into the open ground are in the early autumn or fpring -
months.

Thefe plant* all fucceed in the open ground, and grow in
any'common foil and fituation, with other hardy plants of
the tree kind ; though they are the ir.cll profperous in a
light fandy foil, where the afpe£l is fheltered.

In placing thefe kinds of plants in the clumps and'fhrub-
bery plantations, attention flwidd be had to arrange them
according to their degrees of growth, fo as to exiiibit a re-
gular gradation of lieii;ht ; placing the low growing forts, as
the common juniper and favin kinds, towards the fronts,
and the other larger growing forts more backwards, in af-
femblage with other ornamental flirubs and trees of the ever-
green tribe ; and fome may be placed as fingle llandardf, on
open fpaces of fliort grafs, in the pleafure ground quarters.
Some of the large growing forts nuiy alfo be introduced into
the foj-ell-tree plantations, as they have a fine effctl, and
afford excellent timber for many ufes, more particularly the
Virginia cedar, which arrives at a confidcxable fize, efpecially
when the under branches are trimmed off occafionally whi.e
young.

Jt NiPKRlii, in the Materia Meilica. The tops and fruit
or berries of the Ihrub juniperns, \\hich is common on heaths
in different parts of Europe, are much ufcd in medicine ;
but the latter are preferred.

Thefe berries, which are firiT green, and when ripe of a

• . ■ d.ifk

JUNIPERUS.

■Sark purple colour, ripen in the autumn. They are chiefly
'brought to us from Holland nr.d Italy ; and (houlJ be
c'nofen frefh, not much fluivcUed, and free from mouldincfs.
Their fmell is moderately ftronsr, but not difagrccaiile, and
their tafte is warm, pungent, and fweetilli, which, after tliey
have been long chewed, or previoufly well bruifcd, is fol-
lowed by a confiderable degree of bitternefs. The fvveet-
hefs of thefe berries appears to rsllde in the juice, or foft
pulpy part ; the bitternefs in tlie feeds ; and the aromatic
flavour ia oily veficles, fprend throughout the fubftance,
both of the pulp and of the feeds, and didinguiiTiable even
by the eye. Tlie frefh berries yield, on exprefiion, a rich,
fweet, honey-hke, aromatic juice ; and if the feeds are tho-
roughly broken, tlie juice proves tart and bitter.

Juniper berries give out nearly all their virtue, both to
water and redlified fpirit, tinging the former of a browniili-
yellow, and the latter of a bright orange colour. Dillilled
with water, they yield a yellowifh effential oil, very fiibtile
find pungent, refembling the berries in fmell, and in quantity,
ivhen tlie berries have been fuHlciently bruifed, about one
ounce from forty. This oil is a very ftimu'ating diuretic ;
the decotlion infpifiated to the confiftence of a rob or cx-
traft, has a pleafant, balfamic, fweet tafle, widi a greater
or lefi degree of bitternefs. A part of the flavour of the
b?rri;.-s arifcs alfo in diftillations with reftilied fpirit : the in-
fpilfated tinfture confills of two diJlinft fubllances ; one
oily and fweet ; the other tenacious, refmous, and aromatic.
The e>;tra3; may be ufed wiih advantage in cafes where the
more ftimulating preparations would be improper ; as in ca-
tarrhs, debihties of the ftomach and inteilines, and diffi-
culties of the urinary excretion?, in pcrfons of an advanced
age. Among the aromatics that iiave been tried in compofi-
tion with juniper berries, fncet fennel feeds, and carraway
feeds, feem the bell adapted to improve their flavour. A
cordial water is prepared in the fhops, by drawing off a
gallon of proof-fpiiit from a pound of the berries, and an
ounce and a half of each of the feeds. To this water may
be ufefully fuper-added, a proper quantity of the rob.
Lewis.

The berries are chiefly ufed for their diuretic effefts ; and
they arc alfo confidered to be ftomachic, carminative, and
diaphoretic. We have feveral tellimonies in favour of the
efficacy of juniper berries in many hydropical affeftions by
phyficians of great authority ; but authors do not leem to
b; perfeclly agreed which preparation of the juniper is mod
efficacious ; many preferring the rob or infpiiTated decoc-
tion ; but Dr. Cullen obfervcs, that this is an inert medi-
cine, alleging that to the effential oil, which is much the
fame as that of turpentine, only of a more agreeable odour,
he thinks all the virtues afcribed to the dilferent parts of
juniper are to be referred. Hoffman, on the contrary.

llrongly recommends the rob, and declares it to be of great
ufe in debility of the ftomach and inteilines ; and he found
it to be particularly ferviceable to fuch old people as are
fubject to thefe diforders, or labour under a difficulty with
regard to the urinary excretion ; whence it appears, that
the berries retain medicinal powers, though deprived of the
medicinal effcfts of the effential oil. Van Swicten prefcribed
the following formula: R. Rob. bacc. junip. Jii; dilue in
aqua junip. th'' > add. fpirit. bacc. junip. ^ii ; quandoque
fpiritus nilri dulcis |ij ad fitim fedandam additur. Of this
mixture one or two ounces were given every three hours.
But juniper being now feldom or ever relied upon for tlie
cure- of dropties, and only ufed in aid of more powerful re-
medies, it is jullly obferved by Duncan (New Ed. Difp.)
that " perhaps one of the bell forms under whicii the berries
ciin be ufed is that of a fim.ple infalion. This by itfclf, or
Vox.. XIX.

with the addition of a little gin, is a very ufefiil drink for
hydropic patients." Medical writers have alfo fpokcn of
the utility of juniper in nephritic cafes, uterine obftruftions,
fcorbutic all'cctions, and fome cutaneous difeafes ; and in tlw
two lall -mentioned complaints, the wood and tops of the
plant are faid to have been employed witli greater adviuitage
than the bc-rrics. Our Pharmacopeias direct the effential oil
and a fpiiituous dillillation of the juniper berries to be kept
in the fliops : tiie former, in dofes of two or three drops, is
found to be an active and ftimulating medicine ; the latter
contains this oil, and that of fome other aromatic feeds
united to the fpirit, and therefore differs not ccnfiderabiv
from the genuine geneva imjjortcd from Holland : but there
is great reafon to believe, that the gin ufuaily fold iieie K
frequently nothing but the frumentaceous fpirit, imbued
with turpentine, or other materials to give it a flavour.
Woodv. Med. Bot.

Etmuller had a high opinion of juniper berries. The rob
made of the exprcffod juice of the green berries has been
called by many, the tkeriaca Gtrmanonn.-i ; fo much are
they eftcemed by that nation for their aicxipharraic qua-,
litie.s.

The wood of juniper, it is faid, will laft a hundred years
xvithout corrupting ; the chemifts add, that a coal of juni-
per, covered with afhes of the fame kind, will keep on ilrc
an entire year.

From this juniper, the gum fandaracha i;i obtained : it
exudes through the crevices of the bark, or the perforations
made by infects.

The bark of the Jmuperus Lyc'ia yields the officinal
gummy refinous fubftance, called Olibanum. See FilA^;K-
IXCF.Nsi; and Olib.'VNU.m.

Th.e Jun'ipents Sab'tna, or common favin, is a native of the
fouth of Europe and the Levant : it I'.as been long cdrivated
in our gardens ; and from producing male and female flowers
on feparate plants, it was formerly diftinguifiied into the
barren and beriy-bearing favin. The leaves and tops of
favin have a moderately ftrong fmell, fomewhat difagreeable,
and a hot, bitterifh, acrid tafte : they give OHt part of their
active matter to watery liquors, and tlie whole to rectified
■' ' ' ' a large

Hoffm;
five ounces of this oil, in which tlie whole virtue of the
plant feems to refide. Decoftions of the leaves, infpifiated
to the confiftence of an extract, retain a confiderable fhare
of their pungency and warmth along with their bitternefs,
and have fome degree of fmell, not refembluig that of the
plant itfelf. On infpifTation of the fpirituous tiiidlure, there
remains an extraft, confifting of two diftii.ft fubftances, of
which one is yellow, unftuous or oily, bitterilh, and very
pungent ; the other black, refinous, tenacious, lefs pun-
gent, and fuballringent. Lewis' Mat. Med.

Savin is a powerful and active medicine, and has been long
reputed the mofl efficacious in the Materia Medica, for pro-
ducing a determination to the utcras, and thereby proving
emmenagogue : it heats and ftimulatcs the whole fyftcni
very confiderably, and is faid to promote the fluid fccretions.
Its force in overcoming interior obftruftions is fo great,
that it is faid to have been employed, and too fuccefsl'ully,
for purpofes the moft infamous and unnatural. It has, how-
ever, fometimes failed as au emmenagogue, which has, in
fome meafure, been afcribed to the fmallucfs of the dofe
given by phyficians. Dr. Hume (fee Clinical Exper.)
iecms to have had very great fucccfs with this medicine ;
for in five cafes of amenorrhoea, which occurred at the
Royal Infirmary at Edinburgh, four were cured by the
fabina, adininiftcrcd in powder from a fcruple to a dram
4 H twice

fpirit. Diftilled with water, they yield a large quantity of
cftL-ntial oil. From thirty-tvvo ounces Hoffman obtained

J U N

twice a day. He fays it is well fuited to the debile, but
improper in plethoric habits ; and he therefore orders re-
peated bleedings before its exhibition. Externally favin is
recommended as an efcharotic to foul ulcers, K-philJlic
varts, &e. Woodv. Med. But.

JUNISEN, in Gcr.^raphy, a town of Sweden, in the
lapmark of Kcmi ; 6+ miles N.N.E. of Kcmi.

JUNIVILLj;, a town of France, in the department of
the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton, hi the dillridt of
Relhel. The place contains 984, and llie canton J775 in-
hhabitants, on a territory of 215 kiliometrcs, in 13 com-
munes.

JUNIUS, Francis, in Biography, a learned French
Protellant divine, defcendcd from a noble family, was born
at Bourges in the year 1545. At tiie age of tliirteen, he
liad made an extraordinary proficiency in learning ; and be-
ing intended for public life, he began the lludy of the civil
law, and after profeciiting it for fome years, he was fent to
Lyons, to join the train of the ambaflador from the king of
France to Conllantinople. He unfortunately arrived too
- late, and accordingly remained in that city to attend the

Eublic leftures of the college. Here, by his avidity in pur-
ling knowledge, he recommended himfelf to the principal,
vhich was of great fervice to him in liis ftudies. In this
eity he became acquainted with a perfon deeply tinftured
with fceptical notions, and became himfelf an atheill. On
his return to Bourges, his father engaged him in a courfe of
reading, particularly of the New Teftament, which in-
fenf:bly reclaimed him from thofe principles which he had
imbibed at Lyons ; and from this period he attached himfelf
to itudies connefted with facred literature and piety. In
1565 he was appointed rainilter of the Walloon church at
Antwerp, where his labours were eminently ufcful in fpread-
ing the reformed religion, on account of which his father
had been murdered a (hort time before by the bigotted Ca-
thohcs. Junius foon became obnoxious to the Inquifition,
which had been lately introduced into the Low Countries ;
and many attempts were made by the emiflaries of that tri-
bunal to get poflcfiion of his perfon, which timely informa-
tion enabled him to elude. In i j68 he was made chaplain
to the prince of Orange, 'whom he accompanied during the
imfortunate expedition to the Netherlands ; and upon his
return, he refumed his minillerial functions at Schoon, to
which he had been before appointed by the eleftor palatine
F'rederic III. He was, after this, noticed by Henry IV.
of France, and employed upon fonie public millions ; which
being accomplilhcd, he accepted the divinity profefTorfhip at
Leyden, the duties of which he performed with ability and
great reputation for the fpace of ten years. He died of the
plague in 1602, in tiie 57th year of his age. He was
author of nutnerous works, theological, controverfial, and
philological, of which the following may be mentioned :
" Cominenlaries," on the firft three chapters of Genefi?,
tlic prophecies of E'/.ekiel, Daniel, and Jorah ; " Sacred
Tarallels," and "Notes." upon the book of Revelation;
" A Tranflation out of Hebrew into Latin of the whole
Old Teilament ;" " Hebrew Lexicon ;" " Grammar of
the Hebrew Tongue ;" " Notes on Cicero's Epiftles to
Atticus."

Junius, Francis, fon of the former, was born at Hei-
delberg in 1589, and was educated at Leyden. He wjs lirll
intended for the military profefTion, hut circumftances in-
duced him to change his purpofe, and he devoted himl'elf
entirely to letters. As a Hterary man, his firft occupation
was in collecting and publilhing fome of his father's works.
In 1620 he came to Enjjland, and rcfided in the family of
Thomas earl of Arundel, as librarian, during the fpace of

J U N

thirty years. Being, it is faid, void of all- ambition, anj
indifferent to the ufual objedls of worldly purfuit, he made
Uudy the whole bufinefs of his life. His frequent vifits to
the Bodleian and other libraries led him to obtain an intimate
knowledge of books written in the Anglo-Saxon dialeft.
Convinced that in this he could difcover the etymologies of
all the tongues of northern Europe, he applied to it, and to
the other dialefts connefted witii it, with the greateft alll-
duity. His final tonclufion was, that the Gothic was tlie
mother of all the languages of the Teutonic Hem. In hopes
of hearing the ancient Saxon fpoken in its ancient purity,
he went and refided in Friefland for two year^. On his re-
turn through Holland, he met with the MS. of the four
evangelills in filver Gothic letters, known by the name of
the lilver MS. This he fct about explaining, and pubUdie*
it with a glolTary, fubjoining a verlion of the fame in the
Anglo-Saxon, with note-; by Dr. Marfiiall. He returned
to England in 1674, and died at Windfor in 1677, at the
age of eighty-eight. He bequeathed all liis MSS. and col-
ledions to the piibhc library at Oxford. His works are
" De Picfura Veterum ;" " Obfervationes in Willeromi
Francicam Paraphras in Cantici Canticoruni." But hi*
great labour was a " GloflTarium Gothicnm," in five lan-
guages, comprifed in nine volumes. An " Etymologicum
Anglicanum" was publifhed from his papers, bv the Rev.
Edward Lye, in 1743. Bayle. Wood Ath. Ox.

Junius, in Geography, a military townfliip of America,
in Onondaga county, New York, at the N. end of Cayuga
lake.

Junius Cr^ii, a northern branch of the Little Kanhaway,
which interlocks with the weftern waters of Monongahela
river. See Kanhaway.

JUNK, a river of Guinea, which runs into the Atlantic,
N. lat. ()' p- W. long. 10° 5'.

Junk, in Sea Language, a name given to any remnants or
pieces of old cable, which is ufually cut into fmall por-
tions, for the purpofe of making points, matts, cafliets,
fennit, &c.

Junks, large flat-bottomed veflels, from 100 to j'oo tons
burden, ufed by the Chinefe. They have tliree mails, and
a iliort bowfprit placed on the llarboard bow. The malls
are fupported by two or three fhrouds, which at times are all
carried on the windward ilde. On the fore and main mail is
hoifted a fort of lug-fail, made of cane or bamboo. Thcfe
fails are confined by iron travellers, that encircle the mall,
and fixed to bamboos at feveral divifions on the fail. The fail
is kept to the wind by two ropes, fallened to wood flirrups,
fixed to the foot of the fail, and lead to the mall-head. The
lee part of the fail is hatded aft, by a rope that branches into
fliort legs, that are made fall to each fold of the fail. On the
mizen-mail is a gaff-fail, made of coarfe cotton ; a top-fail
made of the fame is carried on the niain-maft ; alio a jib and
fprit-fail, that are fet on the bowfprit. Similar to thefe
junks are the Japanele barks, which are 80 or 90 feet long
on one deck, but have only one mall, that carries a fquare
fail, and forward one or two jibs made of cotton. They
only ufe fails when the wind is large.

JUNKER, CiliilsTiAX, in Biography, was born at
Drefdcn in 1688. He Ihidicd at Leipfic, was made firit
reClor and librarian at Eifenach, and hilloriographer to the
prince of Saxony. In 1711 he was elefted a member of
the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berhn, andin 1713, di-
retlorof the gymiiafium at Altenburg. He died in the fol-
lowing year through grief from the lofs of his wife, whofe
death preceded his own but five days. Of his literary ta-
lents he gave fufficient proof by the many works which he
publilhcd, and particularly by his "Geography of the

Middle

J IT N

J U N

^liilJIc Ages," in quarto. This work, wliicli was puWirtied (led, lead, eiitlcry, and broad cloth, biiinf; almoft the only

at Jena in 171:
eluded with a

divided into two parts, and the whole con-
lifeful index of all the countries, towns

imports. riic tnide of this ifland is coiifulerahle in ivory
and tin. The exportation of tin is annually cllimated at 500

villages, forefts, rivers, and mountains known in the middle tons. N. lat. 8'. E. long 98 20'

ages. His other principal worksare, "Vita D. Mart. Lutheri >"• •"•

ct ffCceiTuni Evangelicre Reformationis," &c. ; "Vitajohi

Ludolphi, accedunt Epill, aliquot clariiF. virorum, nee non

Specimen Lingua: HottentotticE ;'' " Principles of the

Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of the Old and NcwTeftament :" and

" Lines primx Eruditionis univerfx HiftorixPhilofophicsc,"

Gen. Bio^r

JUNKOWADA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Yani ; 12 miles W. of Pifania.

The Birmans, wiihing to obtain the entire dominion of
the wcllern coad, as far as the territories of the Maiay
prince of Qneedah, made an attempt, in ijSj, to get pof-
fefiioii of this ifland. By fo doing, they would iiave bceii
able to monopolize the commerce of the pcninfula, and pre-
vent the Siainefc from communication v;ith India by
any other channel except the gulf of Siam. Bcfidcs, thf
ifland was dcllrable on account of its mild climate and lux-
uriant foil. Having fitted out a powerful armament of i i

■. JUNKSEILON, or Junk Ceyi.ox, an ifland in the fliips and 8000 men, they attacked the fort, which is fituatcd
Eaft Indian fea, on the E. fide of the bay of Bengal, be- on the E. fide of the ifland, and fiicceeded, notwithllanding
longing to Siam, and governed by a viceroy from that court, a fpirited refiftance on the part of the Siamefe governor.

It derives its name, accorduig to captain For:

from a who afterwards withdrew from thu fort into the inter

iption of " Oojong Sylan,'' fignifying, in the Malay lan-
guage, point or promontory of Sylan, the S. point pro-
jedling a little way into the fea. It ftretches nearly N. and
S. about JO or 60 miles long, and is about 1 j miles broad ;
its centre is fituated in 8 N. l.U. feparated from the conti-

the ifland. The triumph of the Birmans was of fliort du-
ration : the Siamefe governor rallied iiis forcer, and drovi-
the Birmans to their Ihipping with great lofs. Appreheriii\e
of greater difaiters they returned to Mcrgui, whence the
fleet failed for Rangoon, and the troops marclied to Martabai).
nent of Malacca by an iilhmus of fand, about a mile long In the year 1786, the Birmans renewed their attack, and
and half a mile broad ; which iilhmus is covered only at blocked up the harbour of Junkleylon ; but in the event
high water, and flints up in the N. part an excellent harbour, they were completely routed by a powerful army of th-
called " Popra," with good anchorage round it, generally king of Siam. Symes's Embafly' to Ava, vol. i. Sec
on a muddy bottom. The hills of this ifland are of mode- SlAlit.

rate height ; and in;":ead of rivers, it has creeks, running JUNO, in the .ff^aMfn il^'/io/ojj^', a goddcfs; the daughter
into the fea, through flat marflies of mangrove trees from of Saturn and Rhea, the filter and wife of Jupiter : (lie is
pleafant brooks in the interior parts. The veflels ufcd by otherwife called Lucina. According to Hofiod, file wa^
the inhabitants conlift of a few prows, about the fizc of the mother of Hebe, Venus, Lucina, and Vulcan.
Indiamen's long boats, and fniall canoes, in which they fail Juno, as well as Jupiter, had a great variety of charaiTtcr?
up the creeks to the cultivated plains in the middle of the among the ancients, but the favourite one of them all, ainoii;.;;
ifland, abounding with rice fields. Befides Popra, there is tie Romans, was that of the Juno Matrona, drefled like th:-
another capacious harbour on the S. W. part of the ifland. Roman matrons in a long robe which covered her from head
The place where fliips generally anchor is in a good road, to foot. The figures of the Roman emprefles were oftc;'i
■well fheltered behind a fmall ifland, joined at low water to formed under this character of Juno. Such is the ilatue of

the main land. In this ifland are 17 towns or villages,
and the number of inhabitants is eftimated at about 12,000.
They have many elephants procured from Mergui, but no

Sabina, at the Villa Mattel in Rome. This Juno was called
indifferently, Juno Matrona and Juno Romana. The Juno
Regina, and Juiio Moneta, are always rcprefented on the

horfes ; they have bullocks and buffaloes for labour, ; wild ancient gems and medals, in a very fine and

hogs and deer ; a few tame goats ; no flieep ; domeftic dogs
and cats. They have fome of the common poultry. Thee

refs, with the inftrumcnts of coinage, and under the latter
appellation flie had a temple at Rome. We may obferve,

mate IS agreeable, without extreme heat ; the rain comes on that Virgil, jEn. i. v. 17. and jEn. ii. v. 614, ipeaks of

gently in July, and continues, but not without frequent inter- Juuo, not according to tlie appearance flie ufed to make

mifliins, till November, when fine weather fucceed3,v,-ith very among the Romans, but according to the reprefentations

cool N.E. winds at night, favourable to the cultivation of ve- of her in other countries. In one place, where he defcribes

getables. The opium, formerly fold on this ifland in great her arms and military chariot, he fpeaks of the Carthaginian

abundance, was brought in Englifli fliips from Bengal, and Juno ; and in the other he has given her an angry and war-

purchafed by thofe who ufed Malay and Buggefs prows : like figure, wliich belongs to the Juno Argiva, or fome par-

they fold it by retail to the natives for tin, and exchanged it ticular Juno of tlie Greeks. Howevt-r, the Juno Sofpita,

with the Bengal veflels for opium, wliich they carried chiefly among the Romans, appears on feveral medals in a warcha-

to Celebes and other Malay iflands. The mixed cargo riot, and with a fpear in her hand. She was called Sofpita,

of the Malays was generally a chequered cloth, called Bug- becaufe flie watched over the falubrity of the air, the intem-

gefs cambays, made on the ifland of Celebes, painted peraturc of which is the caufe of difeafes. Under this name

cloths and painted handkerchiefs of Java, generally made flie lutd three temples, one at Lanuvium, and two at Rome :

from Hindoollan long cloth, Java gongs, brafs pots, and and Cicero informs us, that the conluls, before they entered

other utenfils of brafs made in that ifland ; China and Java upon their ofiice, were obliged to oiler a facrifice to her.

tobacco; various porcelain; blue and white unbleached Another name of Juno was the " Queen," or " Regina,"

cloth called " kangan," and white and blue called " com- under which appellation llie had a itatue at V'eii, that was

pow," brought from China by the junks that refort to tranfportcd to the Aventine mount, under the dictatorfliip

Siam, Macaffar, Sooloo, Batavia, and other places. But of Camillus, where it was confccrated by tlie ladies of the

the courfe of trade is much altered of late : opium being city. This ilatue was held in fucli reverence, that none but

forbidden to the natives, the iinportatioii of it is prohibited, her pried could touch it. There was alfo a mild Juno, as

and a heavy duty is laid on the exportation of tin by orders well as a mild Jupiter, among the Romans : under which cha-

from Siam ; fo that the trade has much declined. Hindoo, rader, her face appeared more gentle and good-humoured

ilan piece goodsj and fome European articles, fuch as iron, than ufuul : but the luoll obvious and ftriking charafter of

4 Ha '•■■■'

Juuo,

J U N

Juno, which we derive from the writings of Homer and
Virgil, is that of an i;Tiperious and haughty wife. Thcfe
poets oftenerreprefcnt her fcolding at Jupiter, than carcfling
him. Neverthelcfs, (he was anciently confidered as the great
patronefs of marriage and a wedded life. Under this cha-
rafter (he had the name of Ju^a and Pronuba, (Virgil,
JEn. 4.) and had an altar in the (Ireet called Jugara. Wlien
fhe prefided ov^;r women in childbed, and was confounded
with Diana, (he obtained the name of Lucina, and was re-
prc'entcd as a matron, holding a cup in her right hand, and
a fpearin her left, with this infcription, " Junoni Lucina;."
Sometimes {lie was reprefented fitting on a chair, holding
in her left hand a child in fwaddling cloches, and in the right a
ilower refembling a lily; and alfo a whip and a fceptrc, the
wli'.p lignifyiug a happy delivery. Juno, under the charac-
ter of prefiding over the air, is reprefented in a light car,
drawn by peacocks, and attended by the Aurs, or nymphs of
the ai»-.

Of all the divinities of the Pagan world, there was not one
whole ivor.Oiip was more fo'emn and more general than that of
Juno. It was not confined to Europp alone, but found its way
into Afia, efpeciilly into Syria; and alfo into Egypt, and
other parts of Africa. Greece and Italy abounded with tem-
ples, chapels, or altars dedicated to this goddefs, and in
fome places of diitinftion (lie had feveral of thefe. Among the
more celebrated towns, tliere were three that paid a more
particular wor(hip to Juno than others, 'viz. Argos, Samos,
and Carthage. The prieftefTes of Juno of Argos were
highly refpected in Greece ; and their prieilhood ferved to
dilHngui(h the principal eras of the Grecian hillory. Among
the birds, the hawk was appropriated to her, and above all the
peacock, which lall was frequently an appendage to her ftatues.
According to iE; ian ( De Animal. 1 , the Egyptians confecrated
to her the vulture. Dittany and the poppy were the plants
which the Greeks offered to her, when they took her for Juno
Lucina. Among the animals, the ewc-lanib was peculiarly
confecrated to her, and was the moll common victim offered to
her in facrifice. It was ufual, liowever, to offer to her a fow
on the firll day of cacli month. We may infer the high ve-
neration which v,'as paid to Juno, efpecially by the wom.en,
from this circumftance, that their guardian deities were called
" Junoncs," as thofe of the men were denominated " Ge-
nii." Apuleius fums up the honours that were paid to
Juno in a comprehcniive manner, by informing us that (he
was worfhipped as the " Queen of the Goddeflfes.'' See
Jupiter, infra.

Jb'NO the AfFyrian was called AJlarte, which fee.

Juno, in yljlroiwmy, the name given to one of the new planets
by M. Harding the aftronomer, who difcovered it at Lihen-
thal, in Germany, the ill September 1804. Two of thefe fin-
gular bodies, Ceres and Pallas, had before been difcovered by
Piazzi and others, and the great difficulty with which they
Kre formed after they have been enveloped in the fun's rays,
fiijjgerted the tadi to Mr. Harding, of conllrufting a fpe-
cies of zodiac, to enable alironomers to find thefe two fmall
jJasets. In this zodiac he placed not only all the ftars in
the catalogues, but alfo all the fmall liars which he himfelf
could obferve and place in the probable tract of the planets.
Ifwas in executing this laborious undertaking, that he per-
ceived a fmall ftar which he thought had not been in the
fame place a (hort time before. Three days afterwards it
liad evidently changed its place, and advanced towards the
call two degrees. A feries of obfervations foon convinced
lUm that he had difcovered a third planet of the fame clafs
;ts Ceres and Pallas.

Its orbit has been calculated by Mr. Ga.ifs and Mr.
BurckLardt, as follows :

I V o

J, I ft Jan. 1805.

Mr. Burckhardj,
2' 36" !■ 12. 17' 31"

1 .i9 1 -- 49 °
416 5 - ' 60
3 3« '3 5 o

8i5".959,-
i 22 43 45.2

o 2,-4236 . o 2JC96

2 06445 2 657

planet, as feen from the earth, is.

Seeb
Mr. Gaufs.
Longitude 1' 12'

Aphelion 7 23

Node ^ 5 21

Inclination ij

Diurnal motion
Annual motion
Excentricity
Semi-axis Maj.

The mcjn diameter of

according to Schrocter, ^"-O^j, but he differs in his opii

on this fnbjedl from Dr. Herfchel, who ellimatcs it muife

fmaller, and aflronomers are at prefent unable to decide to j

which theory they (liould incline. ^- '

Under the article Pl.wets we (liall again refume the fub-
jeft of thcfe newly difcovered bodies, and attempt to (hew
the flrong arguments that may be urged to prove that they are
all fragments of a large planet which once circulated between
Mars and Jupiter.

JUNOH, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan, in Bahar;
35 miles N E. of Nagnour.

JUNONES. SeeGEML-s.

JUNONIA, the name given at Rome to a fedival infli-
tnted by the Greeks in honour of Juno, and bv them calkd
Her^a; which fee.

JUNQUERA, L.\, in Geography, a fmall town of
Spain, in the province of Catalonia, fituated at the entrance
of a plain, v.hich, as Strabo fays, was fertile in flax and
fpart, or fea-rulh, whence it acquired tbe name of " Cam-
pus Jnncariiis," and the town that of " Juncaria." This
town was ellablifhed by a colony of Maffi ian?, and was
formerly confiderable ; but is now much reduced. It has a
parifli church, but little trade. The environs abound with
cork trees ; 30 miles N. of Gerona.

JUNTA, called alfo Junto, and Jimdo, a council, or
company, of feveral perfons, meeting for the difpatch of
any buiinefs.

The term is particularly ufed in the Spanifh and Portu-
guefe affairs. On the death of Charles II. king of Spain,
the kingdoiTi was governed, during the abfence of Philip
V. by a junta.

In Portugal they have three confiderable juntas : the jun-
ta of commerce, that of the three ejlates, and that of tobacco.
The firfl was ellabliflied by king John IV.; this is a council
of marine. The fame king alfo affembled the flates of his
kingdom, to create the tribunal of the junta of the three
ellates. King Peter II. created the junta of tobacco in
1675 : it conlifls of a prefident and fix counfcllors.

IVOIRE, in Geography, a towm of France, in the de-
partment cf the Leinan ; 13 miles N N.E. of Geneva.

IVORY, ^Ebur,) the tulks or large conical teeth in the
upper jaw of the elephant. This name is alfo fom.etimes impro-
perly given to the teeth of the fea-unicorn (Moncdon mono-
ceros), the morfe (Trichecus rofmarus,) and tltofe cf the
Hippopotamus (fee thefe articles).

The elephants' tufks from Africa are in general preferred
by the dealers in this article; they generally run confiderably
larger, but it is a common opinion,, tliat the ivory from
Ceylon is lefs liable to turn yellow when cxpofed to the
adlion of the atmofphere, whence it is fold at a higher
price than the other. By far the greateft part of this
merchandize is brought from Africa ; and 3 part of Gni-
iiea, which has furniflied the greatell qiumtity of it, has ob-
tained the name of the Ivory Coail : the trad of coail from
Cape Palmas, to Af ollouia or Trcfpuiita, is more partitu-

Livly

IVORY.

larly known by this appenatJon. But the principal market
for fome time palt appears to Iiave been ai the cail coall of
Africa, where tlie ivory is fiippoft-d to be found of fuperior
quahty ; indeed the Englilli inercliaiils at Surat pay a
greater price for tiie tiilks fiirnidicd by this part of the
codll liian for fuch as are brought from any oilier part of
Africa.

The bed tufKS are thcfe that are leall curved, without
fpots, and molt folid towards the bafe. Some writers on
this fubjedt pr.?tend that fuch elephants as inhabit fwarapy
places, generally produce blue, fpongy, and knotty tulks,
in every refpcci inferior to tliofe of elephants living in
hilly countries or 0:1 dry plains. The Ethiopian elephants'
tulks, according to Paul Lucas, are furniflied with larger
cavities, and are therefore lefs elleemed.

In commerce, unwrought ivory pafles under the appel-
lation of marlil, or mortil, a word which Frifch derives
from the Spanidi, but is probably of Mooridi or Indian
origin. Tuiks under a certain weight (fome fay 14, others
2 5 pounds) are called C-<-w.'Av by the African merchants;
a word wiiich appears to be the fame with EfcarbalU, or
EfcarleW.e of the French, and Scarwjdks of the Spaniards
and Portuguefe.

Elephants' teeth conditute a very important article of com-
merce Labat computed the quantity of ivory annually
imported into France at his time, by the Senegal company,
to be joo quintals, or jo,ooo pounds. In 1784 the num-
ber of tulks imported into Nantes was 744, belides 360
pounds weight ; and into Havre de Grace, in the fame year,
4j5 tuflis and iSoj pounds, and into Bourdeaux 5599
pounds. In the following year 3007 pounds and 471 tulks
were imported in'.o Nantes; in 1787, 16,184 pounds """^
395 teeth ; and into Havre de Grace 3784 pounds.

In an account which the houfe of commons ordered to
be given in, of the quantities of the principal articles in the
nature of raw materials, imported and ufed in the manu-
fadtures of Great Britain for twelve years preceding the year
1799, we tind the toUowing refpecling the importation of
elephants' teeth ; i;'c.

17SS 1,387 cwt.

I7S9 2,I4J

1790 ')47'j

1791 .^TS)

1792 1,484

1793 I>412

1 794 2,203
"'795 i'"47

1796 1,167

1797 1,969

1798 S89

and in an account, likewife delivered to the houfe of com"
mon?, of the quantity of the fame articles, on an annual
medium of four periods of five year?, each commencing the
5th of January 1772, the following related to the article under
corilideration ; liz. Five years preceding
5th January 1776 690 cwt.

1787 1.339

1792 2,CJO

J 799 1,291

The component parts of ivory being the fame as thofe
of bones [viz. phofphate of lime combined with a gelatinous
fubilance), ar.d difi'ering only with regard to texture, hard-
refs, and whiteuefs, the preparations it undergoes in the
arts are equally applicable to the bones of animals. The
whitencfs which ivory acquires depends chiefly on the degree

of drynefs it has acquired. When yellow, its gelatinous
matter is altered by the air, and appears to be combined with
the oxygen of the atmofphere. Oxygenated muriatic acid
\\ill rellore it to its original v.hitencfs. Thofe employed in
working ivory, diftinguilh the luh'ite and the gnat. ' The
furiiicr is known by the whitiflt or lemon coloured rind of
the tulks, the other by the brown and blackifli. The green
ivory (fo called from a gicenilh or faint olive colour per-
vading its fubltance) is preferred, it being of a clofer
texture, and known foon to exchange its green hue for
the moll beautiful white, which is lefs liable to turn yel-
low. This green ivory is, however, more brittle than the
other.

Heat cannot be made ufe of for making ivory pliant,
though it is rendered fofter by being expofed to that agent.
It is divided by the faw ; fometimes (for delicate work) under
water, in order to prevent its being heated or rent in the
operation. It is polifhed with pumice and tripoli. Ivory
has been faid to become foft by being placed in milliard ;
but that end is attained with greater certainty by itueping it
in lu!ne diluted mineral acid. Both ivory and common bones
becorr.e alfo foft by being imraerfed in an alkaline lye made
of foda and quick lime.

By burning this fubllance in clofed velTtls, and afterwards
levigating it with water on a porphyry (lab, we procure what
is called ILici ivory, much ul'ed for painting and other pur-
pofes that require a very intenfe velvet-like black colour.

The following obfervations, relative to the nature of the
tud<sof elephant.-, are extrafted from Cuvier's excellent me-
moir " On living and foflil Elephants," in the .-\nnales du
Mufeum, and tranflated in the Philofophical Magazine, vols,
xxvii. xxviii. and xxix. to which, efpecially as our article
Elbpiia.st was written previous to the publication of that
elaborate memoir, we refer our readers for a more complete
natural hiftory of that remarkable animal.

Cuvier, in examining the varieties of tufl<s, and the dif-
ferences remarked in this refpecl among elephants, obferves,
that their texture exhibits no important dilTerence. It al-
ways prefents, upon its tranfverfe feclion, thofe ilreaks which
proceed hke an arc of a circle from the centre to the cir-
cumference, and form, in growing, curvilinear lozenges
which occupy the whole difk, and which are more or
lefs broad, and more or lefs perceptible to the eye. This
charafter, common to all elephant ivory, and depending im-
mediately on the pores of their pulpy nucleus, is not to be
found in the tu/lvS of any other animal. It is to be feen in
all foflil tuiks, and it refutes the opinion of Leibnitz,
adopted by fome other writers, and even by Linnxuf, that
the mammoth horns might have belonged to the Tricliecus
rofmarus. The tulks of tliefe animals, however, feem wholly
compofedof fmall round accumulated grains.

The fi/.e of tulks varies according to the fpecies, faxes,
and varieties; and as they are growing all their lives, age,'
more than any thing elfe, influences their dimenlions. The
Afri'-an elephant, as far as we are able to afccrtain, hai
very large tulks in both fexes The African female, 17
years old, the Hieleton of which is in the mufeum of Paris,
has larger tulks than any male or female Indian elephant of
tlie fame fize that we are acquainted with. It is from Africa
we receive the moll ivory, and the greater number of tulks ;
and they are alfo harder and whiter than any others. B.ut
our limited knowledge is confined to the elephants of the
weilern coalls, and to thofe of the fouth of Africa. We
are ignorant if thofe of the eallern Ihores rcfemble them in
every thing, and if there be any varieties in the interior.
We know from PenBaut, however, that the coail of J/Kj-

fambique

IVOR Y.

fambiquc furniilics tuilvs ten feet long, being the largefi; from Peg\i, which weigh T50 pounds. It is, in faft, frorrii
ever known. In the Indian fpccies there are more vaiieties Pegu and Cochinchina that the largeft elephants and tufits

of the Indian fpecies come. The coafl ot Malabar fur-

of tu(l<s, which Mr. Corfe has developed with more care than
any other writer (fee Phih Tranf. 1799, and art. Eleph.'^s ;)
but all thefe varieties have nothing conftant, and are mixed
indifcriminately with each other. In Bengal, the tu/lcs
weigh little more than 72 pounds, and they do not exceed
50 in the province of Tipperah, wl '
eieph?.ntf. There are tuflcs in Lond

nifhes no tuflcs, according to Pennant, more than four feet
long.

Cuvier has drawn up the following table cf the length,
diameter, and weight of the largell tuflcs taken from o.theF
h produces the bell authors, or adlually infpeded byhimfelf: the tuflcs from
however, probably Africa arc not diilinguiflied here from thofe of India.

Vive quoted j
he F=fts. I

Their Autlioiltics ami

Dc.aila vijion the Origin of ihc Tuiks.

t)ian:fter

at tlle
thick End.

Tuflc from Sumatra, according to Louis Vartoman

quoted by Jonilon .....
Tulk mentioned by J. C. Scaliger, " de Reb. Ind."
Tuflc from the Cab. of Septal, quoted by Herzog
Tuflc mentioned by Vielhauers, " Traitc d

Hartenfels
Elcphanto-
graphia,

p. 47, 48.

Camper
Defer. Anat.
d'un Eleph.

Faujas Gco-
'ogie, 24^.
Mcm.d'Hift
Nat.del'Ital,

Dro.7

Tufl<, by Louis Barth, " de Reb. Indie."
J Tuflc at Bade, brought from India, quoted by Munfier
in his " Cofmographie''

Idem ........

Another tuflc mentioned by J. C. Scaliger

Idem by Al. Cadamollo .....

The largeft tuflc, according to Gyllius

A tuflc in the poffefiion of a merchant of Venice

The tuflcs taken from Firmus, by Aurelian, according ]
L to Flavi'.is Vopifcus
r Common tuflcs from Guinea ....

A tuflc belonging to Mr. Wolferf, merchant in Amfter-]
I dam - - . .....J

Tuflc belonging to Mr. Ryfsnyder, merchant in Rot. |
tcrdam, according to Klockner - . . -J

Tuflc fold at Amilerdam ; fame author
(_ Tuflc in Camper's cabinet ....
( The largeft tuflc in the Mufeum of Natural Hiftorv at")
1 Paris '

Tuflc in the Florence cabinet

Pennant. -j The large tuflcs from Mofambique

Br.ffon HilL
Nat. t. xi.
4to.

Several tuflcs mcafured by Eden ...

I..opcs ...
Brack
Tuflcs from Lowango, according to the Voyage of the
I Indian Company ......

(^Tuflcs from the Cape, according to Kolben

more than c'
8'

'4'

10' Rom

7 '4'' of France

6"
6' 6"

lo' Eng. or

9'2''of Fran.

9' Eng.

5' 4"
7" 6'"

162
160

525

100

120
20S

350
105

125
200
200

— from 60 to

As the tuflcs, M. Cuvier adds, grow during the life of the
animal, and the body does not, the fize of an elephant can-
nut be concluded from its tuflcs, even by eilablifliing the
proportion between individuals of one fame variety, and the
tame fex : as, on the other hand, the tuflcs rot or break at
their points, according to the greater or lefs ufe the animal
makes of them, and they are fharpened, more or lefs ab-
ruptly, into a point, we cannot conclude their length from
the diameter at their bafe. Finally, their weight cannot be
concluded from their dimenfions (Mefferfchmidt in the Phil.
Tranf), becaufe their cavity at the bafe may be more or
lefs filled. The degree of curvature of the tuflis of elephants

varies almofl as much as their Cze. In various cabinets there
are feveral tuflcs to be feen vAth curvatures more or lefs
ftrange, and in particular fome are fpiral. Camper faw fe-
veral of them in the Britifli Mufeum, and Grew reprefonts
one which is turned round feveral times ; and Cuvier knows,
from M Fabroni, that tlicre is one of that defcription in the
Florence cabinet alfo. They arc frequently feen in the form
of an Italic S, Sec.

A green dye may be given to ivory, by fteeping it in aqua-
fortis, tinged with copper or verdigris, or in two parts of
verdigris and one of ftil ammoniac, ground well together,
with Ilrong white-wine vinegar poured on tliem : and by
4 converting

IVORY.

fonverting tlie aqua-fortis into aqua rcgia, by diffolving a
fourth part of its weight of fal ammoniac in it, ivory may be
llained of a fine purple colour.

Ivory, bone, horn, and other folid parts of animals, may
be ftained black, in the fame manner as wood. Thefe fub-
ftances may be ftained yellow, by boiling them firil in a
[ folution of one pound of alum, in two quarts of water ; and
I then, having prepared a titifture of the French berries, by
'• boihng half a pound of the berries, pounded, in a gallon of
I water, putting them into this tindure, after it has boiled
! about an hour, and letting them remain there half an hour.
' Turmeric root may be ufed inftead of the berries ; but in
this cafe the ivory, Sic. muft be dipt in alum water after it is
taken out of the tindure. Ivory, Sec. may be ftained blue,
by firft ftaining it green, and then dipping it in a folution of
pearl afhes made ftrong, and boiling hot : or it may be other-
wife boiled in the tindure of indigo, prepared by the dyers ;
and afterwards in a folution of tartar, made by dilTolving
three ounces of white tartar, or cream of tartar, in a quart of
water. For other proceffes and colours, fee DvKixf; of
Bone, Sec. Colouring ami Staining of BoSE. and ToKTOlsi;
Sb^/l.

Ivory may be prepared as a ground for miniature paint-
ing, by cleanfing the ivorv leaves or tables, and rubbing
them over with the juice of garlic. This is faid to be more
effential for taking off the greafinefs, which prevents the
colours from fixing on the ground, than foap or gall.
Ivory has the fame medical virtues with hartlhorii ; its
fliavings too, like thofe of hartftiorn, boil into a jelly with
water, and have the fame reftorative quality. See Haris.

HORN".

Ivory BlacL See Ivory Black.

Ivory, Fcj/!l, in Nalural Hijlory. It is not uncommon
in the moft modern alluvial foils, like the vallies in the bafin
of Paris, mentioned by Cuvier and Brogniart, and the foil
in which the docks adjoining the Thames were excavated,
to find the bones, teeth, and tnfks of elephants ; and this
foflil ivory is not, in fome inftances, much altered, though
in general it has loft its confiftence in a great meafure,
and readily fcaSes off in concentric rings, and in others is
impregnated v.ith metallic fubilances, fo as to imitate, if not
form the Turquoife ftones, the Callais of Pliny, &c. as
Dr. Woodward has ftiewn in his Letters on the j.Iethod of
Foffils, p. 15. It may, however, be doubted, we believe,
whether foffil ivory has ever been found imbedded in the
ftrata, or the parts of any dry-land animals, numerous as
their remains are in the hft alluvial covering of fome dillricls
The abundance of elephant.^' teeth found buried in different
parts of the world, and many of thofe parts fuch as no ele-
phant is ever known to have lived in, have given amazenie;il
to naturalifts.

' The long tufl<s, which are what we call ivory, are the
only teeth the vulgar are acquainted in this creature ; yet
even thefe, in their foflil ftate, have often been miftaken for
horns, or other animal parts. The grinders of this animal
are fo enor.moully large, and of fo lingular a ftiape, that it
requires fome knoA-ledge in natural hiltory to difcover them
at fight, and many have miftaken them, when iniperfed, for
parts of a petrified fhell-filh of the nautilus kind, their root
being hollowed all along, and armed with an indented ridge
on each fide, in the manner of the back parts of fome (hells
of that and of the Cornu ammonis kind.

• We are not to wonder that the teeth of elephants are
found more frequently than any other bones of the animal,
fmce their ufe in the creature required that they ftiould be
harder than any other bone, and that hardnefa has preferved
thsm in places w!;crc the other bones have perjflicd. The

different ftate in which tliefe teeth are found, is wholly
owing to the different juices abounding in the earth in the
place where they were depofited, fome of thofe juices
being of power to preferve, others to deftroy them ; fome
eating them infenfibly away, fome as it were calcining
them by flow degrees, and others rendering them greatly
more hard and durable than before. Mem. Acad. Par.

Count Marfigli, and fome other writers, have thought it
an eafy folution of the queftion of the teeth and bones of
elephants being found in countries where elephants are not
naturally found, that we owe them to the Ronian.s, who,
bringing them over for their ufe in war, buried them whcrc-
ever they happened to die. But fir Hans Sloane expreffes
himfelf very juftly agaiiift this opinion : he obferves, that
of the remains of elephants found in Europe, nothing is fo
common as the ivory tuiks. Now, as he well obferves, the
Romans held ivory in the liigheft efteem, and it fold among
them at a great price ; wherefore, had they been the buriers
of the elephants, they would certainly have taken away tlie
ivory tulks firft. It is certain, therefore, that accident, and
not defign, hath buried thefe bones, and that accident can
have been no other than fome prodigious inundation.
Woodward is defirous of making the univerfal deluge to
have done all this, but that feems not neceflary to be fiip-
poftd in every cafe. .Sir Hans Sloane gives an enumeration
of the moft curious of thefe pieces of foflil ivory, which
his o«-n cabinet contained, and of fome others of the moft
remarkable, mentioned by authors ; from which we may
form a very diftind idea, both of the nature of the bodies
themfelves, and of the places where they are ufually met with.
See Philof Tranf N^ 403. p. 458.

The power of fubterranean calcinations to render things
of this kind brittle, is remarked by the fame author from
Moreton's Hiftory of Norihamptonfliire, in the inliance of
a foffil tnfk of an' elephant, which was in the wliolc at Icaft
fix feet long, and had preferved its natural whitenefs, though
rendered fo brittle as to fall into feveral pieces in the digging.
This was dug up near Little Bowden, in Northamptonfhire ;
and the ftrata of the place where it lay were as follows :
I. Vegetable mould, 14 inches. 2. Loam, a foot and a half.
3. Large pebbles, with a fmall mixture of earth among them,
two feet and a half. 4. Blue clay ; in the upper pai-t of
this laft ftratum the tooth was four.d.

Sir Hans mentions another elephant's tuflc very entire and
found, found in Siberia. The hke are common in Siberia
and many parts of RulTia, and arefo little injured, that they
are ufed as ivory, and are fuppofed to be the teeth of a valt
animal called the mammoth, which they think lives under
ground. Phil. Tranf. N' 468. See farther on this fubjed,
BoNCs, Fvffll, Ei.KPliASTs' Bones, and Teeth, FsJfiL

IvouY CoaJ}, in Gcogrnphy, a name given to a country of
Africa, fituated on the coait of the Atlantic, between Cape
ApoUonia to the F.. and Cape Palmas to the W. Tiie prin-
cipal towns and villages are Groua, or Grua, Great Tabo,
Little Tabo, Grand Drewin, Batrou, Laho, Apollonia,
and Val'.o. Thefe lie at the mouths of rivers, whence they
derive their names. The interior of the countr)- is littlj
known, as the natives do not allow the Europeans to eftablifli-
fettlcments, or even to trade among them, except very
cautioufly, by means of the coaft negroes. The chief com-
modities are gold, ivory, and flaveS. The inhabitants are
reckoned favagc, and in a high degree jealous and lufpicious ;
infomuch that in their traffick with the Europeans, they are
artful and impofing, and fo eafily incenfed and alarmed, that
they will precipitate themfelves into the fea from the
European fliips, and fwim to their caBoes._

The

I V o

The whole coaft, if we except a few capes, from Cr.pe Pal-
mas to Cape Apollonia, is fo low and Uraight, that it furnifues
no diflinCt hind-marks befidesthe hc-ights and mountains round
Drewin. The landing is every where dangerous, on account
of the fwelliiig waves and hik'h furfs ; and the negroes, who
are acquainted with this fea, are the only people tliat can
combat witli the fury of hi winds, tides, and vraves, in their
little canoes. From Cape Palmas to Cape Apollonia, thefe
-canoes are employed in loading and unloading our fliips, tliat
dread coming near the (liore. Every country witliin the
limits of thelvory Coaft is fruitful in rice, peafe, beans,
goofebcrries, citrons, oranges, and cocoa-nuts, befides fugar-
canes. Upon the whole, the Ivory Coaft is reckoned one
of the fined divilions of Guinea : the mountains and vallies,
filled with villages, which are furrounded with lofty palms
and cocoa-trees, prefent a delightful profpeft. The foil of
the high land is a reddidi earth, which, with the perpetual
verdure of the trees, forms an agreeable mixture of colours.
Cotton and indigo are the fpontaneous growth of the pro-
vinces of Great Drewin and St. Andrew, which are the rich-
eft of the whole. Palm wine and oil are plentiful ; together
with a fpecies of fruit, growing on a fort of palm-tree,
which the natives call tombo, or bourbon. This the negroes
cat with great pleafure, drinking at the fame time a wine,
drawn from the fame tree, mixed with water. All forts of
tame animals, Iheep, cows, goats, and hogs, are fo numerous,
that they are fold almoft. for nothing. The coaft affords
great variety and abundance of fiili. As to the people, they
are rather above the common fixture, clean-Lrabed and well
proportioned ; but their features on the firft glance are hi-
■deous ; yet when the firft imprefiion is removed, Villault
and Der Marchais concur in reprefenting them as the moft
rational, civilized, and polifhed people in all Guinea. This
account, however, is reftrifted to the natives of the Quaqua
coal^, that is, from the river Drewin to cape Apollonia ;
for as to the others, all authors defcribe them as the moft
barbarous, cruel, and lavage of all nations. Drunkenncfs is
a crime of fo odious a nature among the moft civilized, that
the laws have prohibited it under the fevcreft penalties, and
on pain of death. Their diet is coarfe and indelicate. Their
teeth are fliarp, as they are in the conftant habit of pointing
them, and in general they are crocked and irregular. Long
nails and a quantity of hair are deemed very ornamentah
They are niueli addiiSed to the chewing of betel, with the
'piice of which they moiftcn the neck and chin, under a notion,
that it gives a fine varnifli and beautiful luftre to the flcin.
Round the fmall of the leg they wear large and heavy rings
of iron, to which are appended bells, witli the tingling found
of which they are moft delighted ; and the multitude of
thefe, as they imagine, conftitute their dignity and grandeur.
The common people only wear a piece of cloth round the
waift, from a regard to decency ; but pcrfons more opulent
cover themfe'ves with a fort of cloak or furplice, with long
(leevcs, wliichthey wrap round the ftioulders, and hang down
below the knee ; and by their fides they wear hangers or
flioit fwords. Some of the women, who do not part with
their hair to the men, adorn it witli little plates of pure gold ;
and they are fond of coftly trinkets. Their drefs is a cloth,
which falls over the fore-part of their bodies, the hinder
parts being left naked ; and indeed there are hardly any peo-
lile on the whole coaft of Guinea fo primitive and fimple in
this particular, as the natives of the Ivory Coaft, and parti-
cularly of Quaqua. Their form of faUitation they have in
common witli all negroes ; that of laying hold of the fingers,
making them crack, and repeating the word " quaqua"
feveral times in a low voice. It is a conftant rule among
ibem, that the fon follows the profellion of the father, what-

J U P

ever it may be. 'In the mechanic arts they are fingtJarly i:^-
expcrt ; a common door-lock is reckoned a great curiolity ;
a watch excites ftill higher admiration ; and making pajur
fpeak, as they exprefs it, is a perfect miracle. Their ivi -
.gion, like that of the people on the Gold Coaft, is whi'l n
founded in ignorance ar.d fupcrftition. They entertain gr. .*-
reverence for their princes and priefts ; and tliey arefiiliv
perfuaded, that magic andforcery are powers infeparable fn :a
majefty and priefthood. The natives of Quaqua cukiva' ■
feveral branches of trade with afiiduity ; and crowd on b.iai d
any fiiips that approach their coaft with all the produce d
their country, gold, ivory, provifion, and ilaves. The 1^(.-
ropean factors are much amufed with obferving canoes filled
with men crowding round them, whilft every mouth utters
the fame found, quaqua, quaqua, which feems to be a word
by which they exprefs welcome. The negroes of Quaqua,
however, are timorous and jealous in their intercourfe and
traffic with Europeans. The ufual trade carried on in tliis
part of the coaft coufifts of cotton cloths, ivory, gold, and
fla.cs. The maritime negroes aCf as brokers to the inland
negroes, fell their fluffs for them, and receive fo much^cr cent.
by way of con-.mifuon. The Quaqua negroes maniifafture
a kind of plant, refenibling hemp, into a ftrong cloth, to
which they give beautiful colours, and pleafing flowers and
defigns that indicate them to be no bad artifts m their way.
They have alfo a coufiderable trade in fait with their inland
neighbours, to whom they fell it at a very high price, on ac-
count of the diltance and cxpence of carriage. All the
countries behind Quaqua furniili large ftore of elephant's
teeth, the moft beautiful ivory in tlie world. This is cop-
ftantly bought up as foon as it is brought to the coaft by the
Englifli, Dutch, French, and fometimes by the Danes and
Portuguefe. Villault infers from the quantity of pure gold
which the women wear for ornament, that the i;dand country
has mines that furnifh virgin native gold. The European
commodities which tlie negroes accept moft readily in ex-
change for their own, are fuch as arc held in eftimation in other
parts of Guinea ; with this diflerence, that here the brace-
lets and rings for the legs, either of copper or iron, mult be
of an intolerable weight.

Although the Ivory Coaft be divided into a variety of petty
flates or kingdoms, yet they have fcarcely any feparate in-
terefts ; for among themfelves war fc'dom happens, and of
confequence, the Have trade here has borne but a fmall pro-
portion to that traffic on the Gold and Slave Coafts.

Authors have obferved, that the exomphalus, hernia umbi-
licalis, or preternatural tumour of the abdomen at the navel
from a rupture, is a diforder extremely con-.mon on the Ivury
Coalt ; though they are unable to account for its prevalence.
Other deformities are as rare as ihis is common. Mod. An.
Hift. vol. xiv.

JUPARITUBACA, a river of Brazil, which runs into
the Atlantic, S.lat. ii'^io'.

JUPITER, a river of the i.land of Anticofti, which
runs into the river St. Lawi-ence, N. lat. 49 25 . W. long.
63 42'.

J'JPITEK. or Jove, in the Heathen Mythology, the fove-
reign god of the iieathens ; the fon of Saturn and Rhea ;
born in theidand of Crete, at the fame birth with Juno ; he
married Juno, expelled his father out of his kingdom, and
divided the kingdom of the world with his brethren. Un-
der feveral ihapes he is faid to have played many wanton
pranks ; fo that, according to poetic fidtion, he filled hea-
ven with his natural children.

The philofophers, as we learn from Cicero's difcourfes on
the nature of the gods, took Jupiter only for the more pu..
riiied air, or the ether, and Junu, his wife, for the gruffer

JUPITER.

air tlial fm-roiinds O'.ir cartli. Tbofc wlio refj;u-(lwl Iiim as
an animated god, or one of thofe men, wlio, for their iiluf-
trious aclions or ufeful inventions, were raifed to divine
honours, after having- conlidered him as the fovcreign of gods
«ind men, or as an ahnighty god, who, by the mere move-
ment of one of his eye-brows, made Olympus tremble, de-
•graded him afterwards by afcribing to him the mod unwor-
thy actions and the; mo*t enormous crimes ; he is, according
,to them, guilty of inced and adultery, an ungrateful fon, a
faithlefs hufband, choleric, paffioiiate, and revengeful.
.■\Vhence, we may naturally inquire, did the Greeks and
Romans, renowned for their genius and philofophy, derive
•fuch ideas of their lupreme divinity ? Tliey were the poets,
it is faid, who gave fuch a reprefentation of their Jupiter ;
but they mud have borrowed it from the prevalent theology
of the times. Hov>-ever, the hiilory •( this god is per-
plexed by the number and variety of perfons, to whom the
name has been applied. We may obferve, that the liillory
of Jupiter, who was beft known, is that of him, « ho had
^leen king of Crete, and this hiilory is filled up with the ad-
ventures of all the relt. The ancients are not agreed v.'ith
refpeft to the number of thofe, to whom the appellation of
Jupiter was applied. Diodorus Siculus reckons only two ;
one, who was the prince of the Atlantidae, and the other,
fuppofed to be his nephew, who became much more famous,
and was king of Crete, the hmits of whofe empire extended
to the extremities or Europe and Africa. Cicero admits
three ; two from Arcadia, one the fon of ^thcr, and father
of Proferpine and Bacchus, and the other, the fon of Cxlus,
and father of Minerva, who is faid to have invented war, and to
i\ive prefided over it ; and a third, the fon of Saturn, born in
-Crete, where, fays Cicero, his tomb is ilill to be fcen. The
jHoit ancient of thefe, v.lio bore the name of Jupiter, is faid
.to have been Jupiter Ammon of the Lybians. (See Am-
ilON.) Jupiter Serapis, worthipped alfo in Egypt, is very
.ancient. (See SEU.\ri.s.) Jupiter Belus claims high anti-
■quity ; he is faid to have had a temple at Babylon, and was,
according to Herodotus, the Jupiter of the Affyrians.
(See Bki.us.) Jupiter of Thebes has been fuppofed by
fome to have been Ammon, and by others O.lris. (See
OsiRl.s.) The Scythians, tlie Ethiopians, and feveral other
nations, had their refpective Jupiter. Indeed, it is impofiible
.to give a compleat lill of all who bore that name, fince, ac-
cording to Varro and Eufebius, they amounted to 300. Be-
fides, all the gallantries that are afcribed to Jupiter of Crete,
and which, according to the poets, lalled 4C0 years, cannot
belong to one and the fame perfon. Jupiter of Crete, having
baniflied his father Saturn, and overthrown the Titans and
■Giants, determined to make his fubjedls happy. According
to Hefiod, he was feven times married, and the lall
of his wives was Juno. His true name is faid to have been
" Joii," fignifying young, to which was afterwards added
the appellation of " Pater," father, whence was derived
Joupater and Jupiter. Others derive Jupiter from Juvan, or
Juvaiis Pater. The Greeks call this god Zeus, The deilg-
-natioM of father was intended to point out his fupcriority over
.the other gods, which was alio exprefled by the epithets
." Optimus Maxiinus." Jupiter, having become mailer of
a vail empire, married his filler, named by the Latins Juno,
and by the Greeks Hera ; and as he found it difficult to go-
vern dominions of fo wide an extent, he diflribntcd tliem into
different provinces. Accordingly we learn from Diodorus
iJicuUis, that Atlas governed tjie frontiers of Africa. The
ancients alfo inform us, tliat Pluto was appointed governor of
the wellcrn parts of the empire of the Titans, of the Gauls,
and Spain ; which government was afterwards transfrrred,
.(ipon Pluto's death, to Mercury^ who, having fignalized
Vol. XJX.

himfclf, bccnm? the groat diviiiityof lliC Cehx. Jupiter'
referved to himfelf the whole eall ;;.that is, Greece, the I lies. ,
and that part of Afia whence his anccilors had fprr.ng.
Thofe of t!ie ancients who wrote tlie hiilory of Crete, ex-
tolled Jupiter for his prudence, valour, and julliee, andl')r
other civil and military virtues ; and from lis-re hiitoriaiu-,
whofe works are now loll, the Greek authors are faid to li.'.v-
taken the accounts they have given us of this prince. Ou-
preffed with old age, after many adventiires wiiich oug]|t to
have been afcribed to other princes who bore his name, he
died in Crete, where iiis tomb was, for a long time, fern
near Gnoffiis, one of the principal cities of the ifland, wi-h
this epitaph, " Here lies Zan wlio v.as ci.ded Jupiter." lie
lived to I 20 year;;, having reigned 62 years from the defeat
of the Titans and the death of Saturn. Banter reckons his
reign to have begun 1 842 years B.C., and to h;rv'e terminated
at his death 17 So years B.C. After liis deatli his domi-
nions were divided into feveral petty kingdoms ; of which
we have no account. The poets embelUftied the aixient tra-
ditions, probably in part true, and in part falfe, wivii a
great variety of fabulous circumllances, which bell fuited
the age and country in which they lived, and the purpofcH
for which they wrote ; and it would be endlefs to give a mi-
nute detail of the various fables which their luxuriant fancy
created. Perhaps, in the better and more ajjprovcd mytho-
logy, Jupiter might reprefent the fuprenie god, who governed
at once heaven, earth, and hell. (See Paufanias in Corinth,
c. 24.) Tlie various names by which this deified Jupiter,
who was the great divinity of the Pagan world, and who was
univerfally worihipped from Egypt to the centre of Spain,
was diiliiiguiflied, were derived from the places where he
was worihipped, or from fome circumllances that gave rife
to the temples, chapels and altars that were confecrated to
him ; but it is needlefs to recount them. Many of them
occur in the fequelof this article, and make feparate heads iu
the Cyclopedia. Of all the gods of Pagauifm, whether
they were derived from tl;e elements of nature or from lonie
eminent perfons, who were raifed to this rank, the Jupiter
feems to have been pre-eminent, and of courfe his worfoip
was the moft folemn, and attended with the gieatell variety
of ceremonies. The mod common victims offered to this
god were the Ihe-goat, the fltcep, and tlie white bull, wlioff
horns they took care to gild. In feveral cafes they had no
vidim, but made him an offering of flour, fait, and incenfc,
efpecially at Rome ; at Athens, they facri.lccd an ox ; and
when he reprefented Jupiter the avenger, the facritice ol
atonement prefented to him was a flie-goat. He had a tem-
ple at Rome, under that name, near the Capitol, wh?ie he
was reprefented with arrows in his hand, to denote that hs
was ready to execute vengeance upon crimes. Among the
trees, the oak and the olive were confecrated to him. None
worihipped iiim more religioufly, if we may believe Cicero,
than tlie Roman ladies; "A Matroiiis Romanis cailillima
cultus". fays that author. (Do Nat. Deor. 1. i.) Jupiter's
three orac'es, tiiat of Dodona, that of Trophonius, and that
which he had in Libya, were famous. See Ok.acle. .

As mankind are directed by an internal ipirit or mind,
the univerfe alto is governed by an over-ruling intelligence,;
wliich, as the caufe and prcfervcr of all aiiiuul beings, v.as
c&Wciilfj.: a Zo;;. See- God.

The heathrns in general believed that there was but one
fuprcme God ; but when they foafidercd this cne gnat
being as influencing the affairs cf the world, thi y gave h:m
as many different names ; and hence proceeded Uieir variety
of nominal gods. When Jie thundered or lightened, they
called him JvtjjUer ; when lie calmed tlie fea, Neptune ; whew
he guided their councils, Minerva ; iuid \shen he gave them
J 1 Uraig'k

I U P I T E R.

ftrength in battle, Mars. In procefs of time lliey ufed dif-
ferent repiefentatlons of this Jupiter, &c. and conlidered
lliem, vulgarly at leail, as fo many different perlons. They
afterwards regarded each of tliem in different views : e. g.
the Jupiter that (howered down blefTings, was called the
KmJ Jupiter: and when punifning, the Tirrible Jupiter.
There was alfo one Jupiter for Europe, and another for
Africa ; ard in Europe, there was one great Jupiter v.ho
was the particular friend of the Athenians, and another v.ho
^as the fpeclal proteftor of the Romans : nay, there was
fcarcely a town or hamlet perhaps, in Italy, that had not a
Jnpiter of its own ; and the Jupiter of Terracina or Jupiter
WiKxur, reprefentcc- in medals as young and beardlels, with
rays round his head, more rcfcmblcd Apollo than the great
J .'piter at the Capitol. In this way Jupiter at length had
temples and different characters almoil every where : at
Carthage, he was called Ammon ; in Egypt, Serapis ; at
Athens, the great Jupiter was the Olympian Jiipiter ; and
at Rome, the grcatcll Jupiter was the Capitoline Jupiter,
■who was the guardian and benefactor of the Romans, and
whom they called the bell and greatefl Jupiter, " Jupiter
optimus maximus." The figure of this Jupiter was repre-
fented in his chief temple or. the Capitoline hill, as fitting
«n a turule chair, witii the fulmen or thunder, or rather
lightning, in one hand, and a fceptre in the other. This
fulmcn in the figures of the old artifts was always adapted
to the charafter under which they were to reprefent Jupiter.
If his appearance was to be mild and calm, they gave him
the conic fulmcn or bundle of flames wreathed clofe to-
gether, held down in his hand. When punifhing, he holds
tip the fame figure, with two tranlverfe darts of lightning,
fometimes with wmgs added to each fide of it, to denote its
fwiftnefs: this was called by the poets, the three-forked
bolt of Jove : and when he was going to do fome exemplary
execution, they put in his hand a handful of flames, all let
loofe in their utmoft fury ; and fometimes filled both his
hands with flames. The fupcriority of Jupiter was prin-
cipally manifefted in that air of majefly which the ancient
artifts endeavoured to exprefs in his countenance : particular
*tention was paid to the head of hair, the eye-brows, and
the beard. There are feveral heads of the mild Jupiter on
ancient fcals, where his face has a mixture of dignity and
eafe in it, admirably defcriheJ by Virgil, JEn. i. v. 2j6.
The ftatues of the Terrible Jupiter were generally of black
marble, as thofe of the former were of white : the one fitting
with an air of tranquillity ; the other Handing, more or lefs
difturbed. The face of the one is pacific and fercne ; of the
other angry or clouded. -On the heads of the one tlie hair
is regular and compofed ; in the other, it is fo difcompt^fed,
that it falls half-way down the foreltead. The face of the
Jupiter Tfjtians refembles that of the Terrible Jupiter : he
J8 reprefented on gems and medals as holding up the triple
bolt in his right hand, and Handing in a chariot, which
feems to be whirled on impetuoully by four horfes. Thus
he is alfo deferibed by the poets. Ovid. Deian. Here.
V. 28. Horace, lib. i. od. 34. v. 8. Jupiter, as the intelli-
gence, prefiding over a fingle planet, is reprefented only in
a chariot and pair : on all other occafions, if reprefented in
a chariot, he is always drawn by four horfes. Jupiter is
well known as the chief ruler of the air, whofe particular
province was to direft the rains, the thunders, and the llglit-
nings. As the difpenfe* of rain, he was called Jupiter
Pluvius ; under which charafter he is exhibited feated in the
clouds, holding up his right hand, or extending his arms
almoft. in a llraight line each way, .and pouring a dream of hail
and rain from his right hand on the earth ; whilft the fulmen
is held down in his left. The wings tliat are given to liim

relate to his charafter of prefiding over the air : his hair am!
beard in the Antonine pillar are all fpread down by the rain,
which defcends in a flieet from him, and falls for the re-
frefiiment of the Romans ; wiiilft their enemies are repre-
fented as ftruck with the lightnings, and lying dead at their
feet. Spence's Polymetis, p. 46. 1S2, and 21", &c.

JupiTf.n, in j4jlrotiomy, the largeft of the planets of the
folar fyftem ; his diameter being 1 1 times greater than that
of the earth, or 89,170 Engliih miles. Its revolution on its
axis is performed in 9 hours, 55 minutes, and 37 feconds.
This planet moves from weft to eaft in a period of 1 1 ye.ars,
3 iS days, 14 hours, 27 minutes, 10.7 feconds. Its fynodical
revolution is about 399 days. Before its oppofition with the
fun, and at about 115- from it, its motion becomes retro-
grade, and its velocity continually augments till the moment
of oppofition, after w hich it diininifhes, and when at about
I I J- from the fun, its motion changes from retrograde to
direft. The duration of this retrograde motion is about 121
days, and the arc of retrogradation about 10 degrees : and
it may be obferved as a general rule with, the fuperior
planets, that the farther they are from the fun, the lefs is
their arc of retrogradation ; but the longer time, is taken in
defcribing it, for were the dillance of planets indefinitely
great, the arc of retrogradation would be extremely fmall,
and its retrograde motion would laft half a year, refembling
the effeft of parallax of a fixed liar, if ever this Ihould be ren-
dered fenfible to our inllruments.

Jupiter is, next to Venus, the mofl brilliant of the planets,
and fometimes even furpaffes it in brightnefs. Its apparent
diameter is greater at the oppofitions, and is then equal to
nearly 4S" ; its mean equatorial diameter is eftimated at 38.8".
Its figure is an oblate fpheroid, the proportion of its equa-
torial to its polar axis being about 1410 13. La Place from
theory deduces this proportion to be 1,000,000 to 9,286,922,
a refult obtained from computing the effecl of the equa-
torial regions of the planet in difturbing the nodes of the fa-
tellites. Almoil every perfon is fufficiently acquainted with
the telefcopic appearance of Jupiter, to know that its fnrface
IS remarkable for being always covered with u number of
belts or ilripes of various Ihades. Thcfe appearances differ
much at different times, and even at the fame time in tele-
fcope? of different powers. Ufually thefe belts feem to be of
an uniform tint ; but in very favourable weather, they fome-
times appear to confift of a number of curved lines, like the
ilrokesof anengraving. Fi^s. T43, 144, 145, 146. PlauXYl.
yljlronomf, reprefent four views of this planet, as given by
j5r. Herfchel and Mr. Schroeter.

Thefe belts were firft obferved at N.iplcs by Zuppi and
Bartoli, two Jefuits ; and about the year 1660, they were
obferved by Campani, with refracting telefcopes of his own
conftruflion, and not much inferior in diflintfnefs to thofe
of th.e prefent day ; the great modern improvement in re-
fradting telefcopes, coniiilmg rather in the reduftion of their
fize tlian in the iccreafe of their magnifying power.

Jupiter is accompanied by four fatellites, which were dif-
covered by Galileo, the Sth of January 1610. He at firit
took them for telefcopic fixed ftars ; but continued obferv-
ation foon convinced him that they really accompanied the
planet. The relative fituation of thefe fmall bodies changes
at every inllant : they dfcillate on each fide the planet, and
ii is by the extent of thefe ofcillations that the rank of thefe
fatellites is determined ; that being called the firft fatelhte,
whofe ofcillation is the leaft. They are fometimes feen to
pafs over the difc of the planet, and projeft a fhadow in the
form of a well-defined black fpot, which then defcribes a
cherd of this difc.

J I. piter and his fatellites, therefore, are opaque bodies,
5 enlightened

J U P I r E R.

ctiliglitcneJ by the fun ; and when the latter interpofe be-
tween the fun and Jupiter, they produce real folar echpfes,
precifely fimilar to thofe wliich the moon occafioiis ou the
eartli.

This phenomenon leads to tlie explan;i?ion of another
whicli the fatcUites prefcnt. Tlicy arc ofttii obfervcd to
difappear, though at fome diftance from tl)f difc of tlic
planet : the third and fourth rc-appear fonu'tinies on the
fame fide of the difc.

The fiiadow whicli Jupiter projects behind it, (relatively
to the fun,) is the only caufe that can explain thefe difap-
pearances, which are perfectly fimilar to eclipfcs of the
inoon.

The circum (lances which accompany them leave no doubt
of the reality of this caufe. The fatellites are always ob-
ferved to difappear on the fide of the difc oppofite to the
fun, and confequently on the fame fid- to whicli the conical
fliadow is projefted. They are echpfed nearell the difc,
wlien the planet is nearell to its oppofition.

Finally, the duration of thefe cclipfes anfwers to the
time which ftiould elapfe while they traverfe the (hadow of
J upiter.

Thus it appears that th;fe fatellites move from well to enO,
in returning orbits roi.nl the planet. Obftrrations of their
ec'ipfes are the moil exacl means ofdetermining their motions.
Their mean fidereal and fynodical revolutions, as feen from the
ccnlrv; of Jupiter, are very accurately determined by com-
paring eciiples at long interva's from each other, and ob-
ferved near the oppofition of the planet. It is thus dif-
coVered that the n.otion of the frtellites of Jupiter is nearly
circular and uniform, becaufe this hypothefis correfponds
very nearly with thofe cclipfes which happen when we fee
this planet in the fame pofition relatively to the fun. There-
fore, the pofitions of the fatellites at every inllant, as feen
from the centre of Jupiter, may be determined. From
hence lefiilts a fimple and futF.ciently exact method of com-
paring with each other the diftances of Jupiter and of the
fun from the earth: — a method which tiie ancient aftro-
nomers did not poffefs. For the parallax of Jupiter is in-
fenfible even to the precifion of modern obfervations, when
it is neare.l to us. They only judged of its diftance by th.e
time of its revolution ; as they etlimated thofe planets to be
the fartheil from us, whofe period of revolution was the
longed.

Let u» fuppole that the total duration of an eclipfe of
the third fatellite has been obferved. At the middle of the
eclipfe, the fatellite, feen from the centre of Jupiter, is
nearly in oppofition to the fun. Its fidereal pofition, ob-
served from this centre, (which may eafily be deduced from

its mean motion,"/ u, thercfoi-e, t!:e fame as that of li.e
centre of Jupiter ieen from the centre of the fun.

Direcl obfervation, or the known motion of the fun, gives
the pofition of the earth as feen from its centre. Thus,
fuppofing a triangle to be formed by the right hnes which
join the centres of the fun, the earth, and Jupiter, we have
given in this triangle the angle at the fun, obfervation will
give that at the earth, and we fliall obtain the rectilinear dif-
tance from Jupiter to tiie earth and to the fun, at the inilant
of the middle of the eclipfe, in parts of the diilance from the
fun to the earth.

It is found by thefe means that Jupiter is at lead five
times farther from us than the Hin, when its apparent dia-
meter is ^B'.^. The diameter of the earth, at the fame dif-
tance, would not fubtend an angle of 5".j ; the volume of
Jupiter is, tlierefore, at leaft a thoufand times greater than
that of the earth.

The apparent diameters of thefe fatellites being infenfible,
their magnitude cannot be exactly meafured. An attempt
has been made to appreciate it, by the time they take to
penetrate the (liadow of the planet. But there is a great
difcordance in the obfervations that have been made to afcer-
tain this circumllance. This arifes from the various powers
of telefcopes, the different degrees of perfection in the light
of the obferver, the ilate cf the atmofphere, the altitude of
the fatellites above the horizon, their apparent diilance froirr
Jupiter, and the change of the hemifphere prefented to u-.
The comparative brightnefs is independent of the four firil
caufes, which only alter tbeir proportional hght, and ought,
therefore, to afford information concTerning the rotatory
motion of thefe bodies. Dr. Herfchel, who is occupied in
this dclicbte inveftigation, has obferved that they furpafs
each other alternately in brilliance : — a circumllance which
enables us to judge of the niaxhmim and mimmum of their
light. The relation of this mushnum and nun'niwm to their
mutual pafitions has perfuaded him, that tluy turn upon
their own axis, like the moon in a period equal to the dura-
tion of their revolution round Jupiter : a refult which Ma-
raldi had already deduced with regard to the fourth fatellite,
from the returns of the fame fpot obferved on its difc m its
pafTage over the planet.

The great diilance of the celeftial bodies weakens the
phenomena which their furfaccs prefent, till they are re-
duced to flight variations of light, which eicape tlie iirit
view, and are only rendered fenfible by a long coiirie ot ob-
fervations. But information derived from this fource ought
to be received with the greateil caution ; conCdering how
much we may be milled, on fuch eccaliuiis, by the tfi'ect
of imagination.

I2

T.\EI.E

J U P I T E R.

Table I. Epochs of the Mean L.ongituJe of Jupiter, witli the ArgHinents of the Equations.

i Mean Lo:., |

Apl

el ion.

Node.

i

1

1

Arg.lArg,
II. illl.

Arg.
IV.

Arg.
V.

A'-g.
VI.

VII.

Arg. Arg
VIII.' IX.

!

i

1 ^^

ars. 1

s.

D. .M. S.

S. D.

M. s.

S. D. M. S
2 20 33 S

2487 9957

2467

2290

_

5"

^

220

234

iKar.J

.C. ol

4

29 32 4I.8J

,- 12

46 27

lOO

10

5 5° >>°'

5 M

21 0

2 21 32 38

2841 6374

9237

539'

223

482

974

629

I4C0

■)

27 38 26.4

6 4 50 10

3 4 26 8

7451 1 9790

7270

7002

473

997

779

762

1

15 CO

3 J) 3 9-6

6 6

24 43

3 5 25 38

7Sob b2i3

4040

0203

185

498

533

•157

\b. ..

s. 1600

4

9 23 40.2

6 7

59 14

3 6 25 7

8145 2626

0772

3381

893

995

286

570

\^-

1700

9

15 3O 14.2

b 9

33 47

3 7 24 37

85CO ; 9043

7543

6979

bo5

49 i

040

945

\^-

1740

2

0 7 I5--3

6 ic

11 37

3 7 48 2,

8b4i

5010

4251

l>t>bO

289

896

742

303

\h.

1760

10

7 22 46.0

6 IC

30 31

3 8 0 19

8712

5893

7605

6500

632

596

093

982

,b.

1780

0

14 38 16.6

0 IC
6 IC

49 26
55 6

3 8 12 13

8783
IS04

2177

0959

3 '4°
81^1

974
677

296

406

444.
549

661
86"5

1786

0

16 46 26.3

3 8 15 47

I7S7

I

17 6 58.0

6 IC

5f> 3

3 8 lb 23

2308

332b

033

8962

"94.

591

S6b

899

B.

1-IS8

2

17 32 28,9

b ic

57 0

3 8 16 59

2812

<490

6301

979c

911

584

933

1 7 ^'9

3

17 53 C.6

6 IC

57 57

3 8 17 34

S?'5

3'>54

b<;69

0628 028

961

602

967

1790

4

i« «3 32-4

6 IC

5« 54

3 8 18 10
3 8 iS 46

38 '9
4322

3S18
3982

7636
S304

■459 1 145
2290I 262

146

"31

619

COI

"034

1

i7<)i

.

,8 34, 4..

6 IC

59 5'^

637

B.

1792

b

18 59 35.0

6 I

0 47

3 8 19 21

4S2b

41, b

8971

31241379

516

654

cbS

1793

7

19 20 6.8

6 I

I 44

3 8 19 57

5329

4310

9639

395^149^

701

672

102

1794

8

19 40 38.3

6 I

2 41

3 8 20 33

5«33

4474

0307

4787

614

886

689

13b

1/9)

9

20 I 10.2

6 I

3 37

3 8 21 9

3 S 21 44

<^337
6840

4639

4803

°974
1642

5618
6452

731
848

071

2i7

707

170

B.

1796

10

20 26 41. 1

6 I

4 34

724

204

'797

II

20 47 12.9

6 I

5 3t

3 8 22 20

7344

49b7

23.0

7284

965

441

742

238

179^

0

21 7 44.6

6 I

6 28

3 8 22 56

7847

,131

2977

811,-

Q82

b26

7bo

272

1799

I

21 28 16.4

6 I

7 24

3 8 23 31

835'

5295

3649

8940

199

811

777

3C6

c.

1800

2

21 48 48.1

& I
6 I

8 21

9 18

3 8 24 7
3 8 24 43

8854
9358

5459
5624

4313
4981

9778
0 09

31b

99b
181

795

340

iSoi

^

22 9 19.9

S12

374

I8C2

4

22 29 51.6

0 I

10 14

3 8 25 i3

<>86i

5788

5648

1441 j 550

366

830 I4C8

I80C,

22 50 23.4

0 I

II II

3 8 25 54

o:;b5

5992

b3i6

22,21668

551

847 442

B.

IS04

6

23 J? 54-3

6 I

12 8:3 8 26 ?o

o8b8

61.16

0984

^106

7i^

736

865 476

1805

7

23 36 26.0

6 I
6 I

13 5:3 8 27 6

1372
1876

6280
6444

7051
83 '9

3938
4769

902
019

921

ic6

882

5:0

IS06

7

23 56 57.8

r 14 I

3 8 27 41

900

544

1807

9

24 17 295

b I

1458

3 8 28 17

2379

6609

8987

56CO

136

291

917

578

1808! 10

24 43 0.4

6 I

15 SS

3 8 28 5^^

288;

'^'773

9b 5 5

6434

2>3

476

935

612

i8o<)

II

2j 3 32.2

b I

16 52

3 8 29 28

338b

t'937

0322

72bf

661

952

646

1.810

0

25 24 3-9

b I

17 48

3 8 30 4

3890

7101

0990

8097

4t'7

846

970

680

1811

I

2> 44 35-7

6 I

18 5

3 8 30 40

4393

7265

1658

892S

c;i

938

713

B.

1812

2

26 10 6.5

b I

19 42

3 8 31 15

4897

7429

2,S2 5

97621722

216

005

747

1 8. 3

3

26 30 38.2

6 I

10 39

3 8 31 51

5401

7593

2993

0593I-59

401

023

781

1814I 4

26 JI lO.O

b I

21 35i3 8 32 26

590417757

3660

1425 oro

5S6

040

8,5

1815 5

27 11 417

6 1
6 I

I 22 32

3 8 33 2
3 8 33 38

640817922

4328

4996

225b 073,871
5090 190' 956

058

849

883

h.

1816! 6

27 37 12.6

23 29

6911

80S6

075

1817! 7

27 57 44 4

b I

24 263 8 34 13

74 » 5

8250

5664

3921 [308: 14.

093

917

i8i8i 8

28 iS 16 i

6 I

25 22 3 8 34 49

7918

8414

6331

47531425 326

110

951

i8i--V 9

28 ^S 47-0

6 I

26 19 3 8 35 25

8422

8578

6999

5584i542'5ii

128

9«5

B.

i>;j'j 10

-v; 4 i.vi.

0 I

27 i0'3 8 30 I

8925

8742

7007

041 81 659 696

H5

019

J U P I T E R.

TAr.LE II. Mean Motion of Jiipiter for JtiFuri Tccirs, with the Arguments of the Equations.

M

..i„L..,n,

,N

Ot.

Aph.

M

ot.NoJe.

(

Arg.
11.

Arg
III.

Arg
IV.

Arg.
V.

Arg

VI.

Arg. Arsr.
VII. VIII.

.Arg
IX

1

Years.

•-•

D. M. S.

s.

1).

.M. S

s.

D. M, S.

0504

0164

0668

0S51

185

018

034

I

,

0 20 31.7

0

0

° 57

0

0 0 36

2

2

° 4' 3-5

0

0

1 53

0

0 III

1007

032«ii335

1663

234

370

035

068

„ .^

.?

I I ZS-^

0

0

2 50

0

0 1 47

151 I

0493 1 2003

2494

351

S5S

053

102

B. 4

4

I 27 r-.i

0

0

3 4:

0

0 2 23

2014

of .5 7 2671

3328

46S

740

070

136

'1

S

» 47 37-y

0

0

4 44

0

0 2 58

2518
3021

0^-! 1*3339

1

0985 '400C

4159
4991

5S6

703

925

no

088

105

170
204

6

2 S 9.6

0

0

5 40

0

° 3 34

P d

7

2 28 41.4

0

0

6 37

0

0 4 10

iV-S

1 149 4674

5822

820

295

123

23S

B. S

8

2 54 12.3

0

0

7 34

0

0 4 46

4028

13 '3 5343

6656 937

480

140

272

9

9

,1 H 44-0

0

0

8 31

0

0 5 21

4532

1478,6009

7488

■=54

665

158

306

IC

3 IS Ji-S

0

0

9 27

°

0 5 57

5035

1642

6677

8319

171

850

'75

339

1
II

,,

3 5? 47->

0

0

10 24'

0

° <5 33

5539

1806

7345

9150

288

035

'93

373

B. I 2 1

0

4 21 1S.4 0

0

1 1 21

0

078

^'043

1970

8012

9984

40J

220

210

407

I3I

1

4 41 5c. I 0

c

12 iS

0

0 7 44

6546

2 '34

8680

0S16

523

405

228

■14'

U

2

5 2 21.9

0

0

13 H

0

0 s 20

7050

2298

9348

1647

640

590

245

475

'5
B. 16

3

5 22 Si-^

0

0

14 II

0

0 8 56
0 9 31

7553
8057

2463
2627

0016
o6S^

247S
3312

757
S74

775
960

263

509
543

4

5 48 24 S

0

0

>5 S

281

5

6 856.3

0

c

16 4

0

0 10 7

85O0

2791

^$5'

4144

991

'45

258

577

18

6

6 29 28.0

0

0

17 1

0

0 10 43

9064

2955

2019

4975

108

330

316

611

19

7

6 49 59.8

0

0

1758

0

0 1 1 18

95f'7

3 '19

2686

5806

225

515

333

645

B. 20

8

7 JJ 3°-6jO

0

18 ss

0

0 11 54

0071

3283 13354

6640

342

700

351

679

4°

4

'4 31 1-3

0

0

37 49

0

c 23 48

0142

6,-67 [670S

32S0

6S5

400

702

^5^

60

0

21 46 3 ' -9

0

0

56 44

0

0 35 42

0213

9S50 0062

9920

027

lOI

052

'=37

So

S

29 2 2.j

0

I

15 38

0

0 47 3''

0284

3>.34l34if'

6561

369

8c I

4°i

716

ICO

5

6 17 33.2

0

I

34 3.3

0

0 59 30

'^iSS

6417:6770

3201

712

51

754

395

2 CO

10
—

12 35 0.4
18 52 39.6

0

3

9 6

0

I 59 c

0709
1064

2834
9251

354'
0311

6402
9602

423

002
504

508

79c
'84

3CO

0

4 43 39

o~

2 58 30

262

.^•

400

8

2J 10 12.7

0

6

18 12

0

3 58 'o

.418

566S

70S I

2S03

S46

005

017

579

^

ioo

2

I 27 45.9

0

7

5^ 45

0

4 57 3°

1773

20S5

3S52

6004

558

506

771

974

?J

600

7

7 45 19-'

0

9

27 19

0

5 57 0

2128

5802

0622

9205

269

007

525

369

-

700

0

■4 2 5--3

°

1 1

I 52

0

6 56 30

7 56 0

2482
2S57

4920 7392
1337 4i'^2

2406
5607

9S1

<^93

508
010

279

764
15R

800

5

20 20 2, -.J

3

12

36 25

033

900

10

26 37 5S.7

0

<4

10 5><

0

8 55 3°

3 '9'

7754^C933

8807

404

5"

787

553

1000

4

2 55 31.8

0

'5

4> 3>

:°

9 5S °

3546

417', 7703

200S

116

012

542

948

2000

8

5 5' 3-7

I

I

31 2

1°

19 50 0

7092

8342:5406

4017

23'

024

083

806

3CC0

1 0

8 46 35.5

1

''

16 33

0

29 45 0

0638

2513 31C9

6025

347
46J

036

625

844

4000

4

1 1 '42 7.4

2

^

3 4

1

9 49 0

4.S4

^)S4 08 1 2

8033

.04S

.1^6.

792

5C00

8

'4 37 39 2

2'

18

47 35

I

19 35 °

773c

0S56I8515

0042

579

059

708

740

K

r-oco

0

17 33 ! I ch

4

;,3 (•

I

29 30 0

1276

5027 ;62ui 2050 604

071

249

680

J U P I T E 11.

T'able'III. Mean Motion of .Tup'tcr for Mon'J::,
the Arguments ot the Eq'.uuions.

vSLE V. Mean Motion of Jupiter for Day:, with the
Arguments of t!»e Ea-Jaliur.s.

VI.M-Jis.

M

.,.Lons.

Aph.

Node

i3

<

>

a.

1"

1"

<

^

jf

..

^

Sec.

Sec.

=

< .2

s

.X

Jan.

0

0

0.0

0

„

0

0

0

!

0 0

p

0

0

Fi-1..

«4

.17.2

5

3

43

14

57

71

10

16

1

a

Mardi

^

54

16.6

9

6

81

27

10b

134

19

30

3

6

April

,

•28

53.9

14

9

124

41

,„

205

oq

45

4

a

May

9

.'>S

19

12

1G5

54|2I9

2 73

3S

bl

6

1 1

June

12

aj

9 0

23

15

208

68

«.

'"

48

76

14

Julv

,,

„

47.0

OR

IS

250

331

412

58

91

9

17

A...,'.

17

.17

24.2

03

21

292

95

388

483

68

107

lO

20

Sci-t.

20

12

1.4

as

24

335

109

444

553

78

123

12

23

oa.

,.,

41

a9.4

42

27

376

123499

622

88

I3S

13

2 5

Nnv.

"'<

16

1 f..ft

47

30

4 19ll37|55f.,G92

97

154

28

I)..-.

54.5

:ij

4C0450l«llj761
1 1 '

Iu7|l69

_1.

[16

c

Table IV. Mean Motion of Jupiter for Hours and
M:nu!c5.

§^Mot.Lon.

13
'4
'5

%

lb

Mot. Lon.

M. S.
2 42.1

2 54-6

3 70

3 i;-r

3 32-0
3 44-4

2

3

4
5
6

9

12

>5

18

21

24

Mot. Lon.

~~'

0.2 '

0.4

0.6

i.o

1.2

I.Q
2-5

3-1

3-7
4.4
50

27
30

33

36
39
42

45
48
51

54
57

60

r —

Mot. Lon.
Sel^

Z 1

• , .M. S.

l| O 12,-
2! O 24.9

3' ° 37-4

5.6
6.2
6.9

4, 0 49.9
y, I 2.3
6| I 14.8

8.7

?! I 27-3
s: I 30.8
9: I 52.2

19

20

21

3 5^>-9

4 94
4 21.9

9.4

10. 0
10.6

10. 2 4.7

12 -i. 29.6

1

22
23

4 34-3
4 46.8
4 59-3

II. 2
11.8
12.5

1

Motion

2

>

>

>

>

>

>

>

•^

in

>

Z

0-^

74

A

w-

n

t^

&q

S"

Longitude.

g

g-

;:;

"

<

^

<

<;

<

y

"

:^

D. M. S.

Sec.

Sec.

. I

0 4 593

0

0

I

0

2

2

0

I

0

0

2

0 9 58 5

0

0

3

1

4

5

I

I

0

0

3

0 ,4 i7.8

°

0

4

2

5
7

7
9

I

2

2

0
0

0

0

4

0 19 57.1

0

6

5

0 24 56.3

0

7

2

9

II

2

3

0

0

b

0 29 55.6

I

I

8

3

ir

14

2

3

0

'

7

0 34 54-9

.

10

3

«3

16

2

4

0

I

8

0 39 54.1

'

11

4

15

18

3

4

0

I

9

0 44 53-4

I

12

4

16

20

3

5

0

I

10

0 49 52.7

2

14

5

iS

23

3

5

0

I

II

0 ,-4 51.9

2

'5

5

20

25

4

6

1

1

12

0 ,'9 51.2

2

10

5

"

27

4

6

I

I

13

I 4 50.4

2

17

6

24

30

4

7

I

1

14

I 9 40.7

2

19

^

26

32

4

7

I

1

'5

I 14 49.0

2

21

7

27

34

5

8

I

I

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

16

I 19 4S.2

3

22

7

29

36

5

8

1

2

17

I 24 47-5

3

23

8

31

39

5

9

I

2

18

I 29 46.8

3

25

8

33

4'

6

9

I

2

19

I 34 46-0 j 3

26

9

35

43

6

10

I

2

20

I 39 45-3 1 3

2»

9

37

46

6

10

I

e

21

I 44 44.6

3

^9

9

38

48

7

II

'

2

22

I 49 43.S

3

3°

10

40

5°

r

«i

I

2

23

' 54 ^rl--^

4

32

10

42

52

7

12

I

2

24

25

I 59 424

4

--

33
35

-

44
46

55

57

8

13

I

2

2 4 41.6

4

26

2 9 40-9 1 4

30

12

48

59

8

13

I

2

27

2 14 40.2 I 4

37

12

49

y

14

I

3

28

2 19 39-4 1 4

39

13

5'

64

9

14

I

3

29

2 24 3S.7 5

40

J 3

Si

66

9

'5

I

3

lO

2 29 38.0 5

4'

n

55

68

10

'5

1

3

3'

2 34 37-2 5

43
—1

u

51

71

10

16

'

3

In the Months January and Fibruary of a BifTc.xtHe Year,
fubtrutt I from the given D.iy of the Month.

J U P I T E R.

Table VI. The great Inequality of the Motion of Jupiter, with the Correaions of the .A rgumcnts wWch
reguhite die other InequaHtics.

V.ar.

Equations.
M. s.

Diff.
SeZ"

Arg.
II.

Arg.
III.

Arg.
IV.

Arg.
V.

Arg.
VI.

.■\rir.

VII.

Arg.

VIII.

Arg.
IX.

1 r-^c
'i,

- I 18.5

+ 0 7-7

I 3,^7

86.2
86.0
85.4
84.6
«3-.^
81 6
79-6

74-3
71.2
O7.7

63-9

?9-9
55-4
5-0.9
46.0
41. 1

35-6

?:■?

19.1

'3-3

7-4

1-7

-4.2

lO.O

15.8
21.J
27.1

32-5

37-8
42.9

47-9

56.9
61. 1

6-. I
68!6
71. 8
74.S
77-3
70-5
81.4
82.S
83.8
84.J
84.7

— 2

+ 0

2

- 3

4- 0

4

- 5

4- 0
6

— 9

4- I

II

iS
30
39

4- 0

i

— 0
4- 0

I
2

4- 0
— 0

4^ 0

0

I, -So
1590
1000

2 59-1

4 2.-!-7

5 47-0

5
9

1 S

! 12

'5

12
18

24

1610
1620
1630

7 S.6

8 2S.2

9 4;-.?

II
'5

J9

22

27

30
35
41

49
58
66

4

3
3

- 3

- 3

- 4

- j

1640
1660

.0 s->-^^

12 lO.S

,3 ,8.5

17
19

29
32
35

46

9«

6

I

4
4

5

5
5
6

— 4

— 4

- 5

- 5

— 6

- 6

- =

1670
1680
1690

14 22.4

15 22.3

16 17.7

24
25

38
40

43

6o
64
68

98

10;

S
9
9

- 2

1700
1710

I B

27
28
29

4j

47
49

-1
78

;:;

10

lO

6

6

- 6

- 7

— 2

J740

19 1 1.2

19 41.5

20 6.2

3°
30
31

50
52
53

80
82
84

134

137

''

7

7

- 7

- 7

- 7

- 2

1760
1780

20 2, -.3

20 3s. 6
20 46.0

3-

32
32

54
54
55

%

87

139

'^

7
7

- 8

- 8

- 8

- 2

179=
iSoc
iSio

20 47.7

2° 43->
20 33.5

32

5-

55
54
54

87
87
86

142
14'
140

12
12
12

7

7

— 8

— 8

— 8

- -

1S40

19 5^'-2
19 79.1

31
31

3=

53
5-
5'

!^

m8
'36
«33

12

7

- 7

2 '

i860
1S70 '

1 8 ,'6.r.

iS 18.8
'7 3) -9

29
28
27

48
46

79
77
74

129

12,-

JI4

109
102

10
10

7
6
6

— 7

— 6

— 2

iSSo .
1890 ,
1900 1

16 48.0
14 5 '^-4

.1'

23

44
42
39

67
62

10
9
9

6
6

5

- 6

- 6
"~ 5

- 2

1930 1

'-^ >7-3
12 ^2.2
II 43.6

22
20
18

37
34
31

58
54
49

95

88
80

8

7

5
5
4

~ 5

- 5

- 4

— 2

1940
'9' =
i960 1

7 59-7

,2

28
21

44
39
33

72
64
54

6
5

5

4
3
3

- 4

- 3

- 3

— '

1980

1990 ;

6 4C-2
) 1S.8
3 Sf^-o

10

8
6

18

14

10

28
16

45
36
27

4

3

2
1

— 2

— I

— 0

2C20 '

2 ^2.2

4 I "7-7

4
4- 2

— 0

7

+ 3
— 0

10
4- 5

+ 8

"'

I 1
4- 0 1

— I

-^ c

— 0

jTTPITE R.

Table VII. Equation of Junker's Orbit for

t'.ie SecuLr V.irij

Avgument. Long.

14 cor. by Tab. VI. — .■\ph?lioii, or me

Ill Anomaly.

SIg. 0.

Sig. I.

Sig. II.

1

1

Equation.

Diff.

Sec. Var.f

Equation.

DifT.

Sec. Var.

Equation, j DifF.

Sec.V„.

-

-

-

-

1

Sec.

D.

Sec.

D. M. .S.

S,:c.

0.

M. S.

0 o

1 o

2 1 O

0 0.0

10 52.9
16 19:1

5 26.,-

5 26.0
5 2, -.6
5 25-2

5 24-7

5 24-2

5 23.5
5 22.7
5 2T.9

J 2!.0
5 2C.1

5 iS.o
5 17-6

5- 16.5-

5 15-3

,- 12.2
5 10.7
5 9-0
5 7-4
5 5-5

; ■;..

4 59-0
4 57-4

4 S^--
4 5-2.9
4 5°-^

0.00
0.86
1.72
2.5S

2
2
2

37 '-S
41 49.9

4>'J 35-4
51 18.4-

4 4"'-i
4 4 5-5
4 43-3
4 4=-3

4 37-5
4 34-'J

4 3'-7
4 23.7
4 25.6
4 22.6

4 '9-3
4 16.0

4 12.6

4 9-2

4 5-^'
4 2.0

3 5«-4
3 54-S
3 J0.8

3 46-9
3 43-°
3 39-0

3 34-9
3 30-7
3 26.5-

3 22-3
3 '7-9

3 '3-5
3 9-0
3 4-5

25.00

25-79

26.55
27.31

4

4

4
4

37 Sf^'-S
40 36.1

43 31-3
46 21.8

2 59. 8
2 55-2

2 50.5

2 45-7
2 40.8

2 35-9

3 30.9

2 25.9
2 2o.y

2 15-7
2 10.6
2 5-3
2 0.0

: S:;

1 43.9
I 38.4
I 32.9
I 27.3
~i 21.8
I 16. 1

I 10.4

I 4.7
0 58.9

° 53-1

0 47-3
0 41.4

0 3S->
0 29.7
0 23.7

45.06
45.58
46.10
46.61

30
20

38

4 ! 0

21 4,-.r
27 10.7
32 35-9

3-44
4.31
5.16

2

0 ^6.2
5 '10.8

2S.0S
28.S3
29-57

4
4

49 7-5
51 4^-3
54 24-2

47.C9

47-57
48.03

26

25

24

7 °

8 o

9 0

38 0.6
43 24-8
A^ 4S-3

6.01
6.8S
7-73

3

9 42-5
14 11. 2
1 8 36.S

3 --3 2
31-04
31-77

4
4
5

56 55.1

59 21.0

I 41.9

4S.49
48.94
49-37

23

10

1 1

12

54 "-^
59 3 2-9
4 53-9

8.57
9.42
10.27

-^

22 5-f;.4

31 34-7

32.48
33.20

33-90

5

3 57-^'
6 8.2
8 13-5

49-78
5c. 18
5°-57

20

19
18

'3
'4

I 10 14.0

I 1 3' 3 --9
I 20 5-0.5

11.12
11.97
12. Si

3
3
3

3 5 47-3
39 5^'- 5
44 2.1

34.60
35-29
35-<'7

5
5

10 13.5

13 57'5

50.95
5. .31
51.65

17
16
15

i6
17

r 26 7.0

I .3' 2 2..^

I .;6 .;-rM

13. 6j
14.40
15-32

3

48 4.1
52 2.5

37-30
37-95

5
5
5

1^ 41.4

17 19.8

18 52.7

51.99.

52-32
52.62

34

19
20

I 41 48.3
I 46 5-9.0
I 5-2 8.0

i6.i,-

16.08
17.80

3
4
4

59 4S.1
3 3^-°
7 18.0

38.59
39-23
39.86

5
5
5

20 20.0
22 57.9

52.01
53.20
53-46

Ji
10
9

2".

24

!■

57 '5-4
2 20.9

7 24-5

18.62

'9-43
20.24

4
4

4

10 57.0
14 31-0
18 2.6

40.49
41.08
41.68

5
5

5

24 8.3

25 13-0

26 II. 9

51-71
53-94
54-17

8
6

26

1 3

12 26.1
17 25.7
22 23.1

22.65-

4
4
4

21 20-1

24 5 '-4

28 9.3

^2:8;
43-41

5

5

27 5.0

27 52-3

28 33-7

54-38
54.56

54-73

4

3

. 28
29

JO

27 iS-3

32 I'-2

37 !•-

1 :is

1 25.00

4
4
4

31 22.8
34 31-8
37 3^>-3

43-97
44-52
45.06

5
5

5

29 9.2

29 3'--9
^0 2.6

54-89
55.02

55-15

1 ]

1 '-^

4-

Sig. XI.

+

4-
Sig. X.

4-

Sig. IX.

4-

JUPITER.

Tabii: VI t. Equition of Jupiter's Orbit for 17,0, with the Secular Variati

Argument. Long. 4 cor. by Tab.

VI.—

Aphelion,

or

mean Anomaly.

1

S

g- ni.

S

'S-

IV.

Sig

V.

1

30
29
28
27

Equation.

Diff.

Sec. Var.

Equation.

Diff.

Sec. Var.

Equation.

Diff.

;Sec. Var.

-

-

-

-

-

-

D.

M. .S.

M. .s.

Sec.

D.

.M. .S.

M. S.

Seo.

0

M

-

Sec.

0
I
2

3

^

30 2.6
30 2=-3
30 32-°
30 37-7

0 17.7

0 II. 7
+ 0 5.7

-0 0.3

0 6.4
0 12.5

0 18.6

0 24.6
030.8

0 37.0

0 45.0

0 49.1

° 55-3

1 1.6
I 7.6
I 13.8

. 19.8
I 26.0

I 32.2

1 44.4
I 5c. 5

1 56.,-

2 2.C

2 8.6

2 14.7

2 20. J
2 26.6

55.26

S5-3S
55-43

4
4
4
4

54 45-6
52 1-4
49 11-3
46 15.5

2

2
2

3

1

3

3
3

3

3

3

3
4
4

4
4

4

4
4

4

4
4

4
4
4

5

5
5

44.2

50.1

55-8

1-5

12.8

18.5

24.0
29.5

349

4^-3
45-7
50.9
55-9

6.3
11.2
i6.i

20.9
25.6
30.3
348

59-4

43-7

:;:

56.4

::

8..

50.75

50.40

49-97
49.51

54 15-1
49 3-3

43 47-8
38 28.8

5
5

5

5
5

5

5
5

5

5

5
5

5

5
5

5
5
6
6
6

6
6
6
6

6
0

II. 8

19.0

22.4

25.7
28.9

32.0

349
37-7
40.4

43-0

47-9
50.2
52.2

542

56.0
57-8

59-4
0.8
2.1

45
5-3

11

7-4
7-9
S.I

8.2

3<^-78
2g.88
2S.96
28.03

4

^

3° 37-4
30 31-°
30 ,8.5

55.48
5552

55-55

4
4

4

43 '4-0
40 6.7
36 53-9

49-03
48.53
48.02

33 6.4
27 40.7
22 11.8

27.09
26.15
25.19

26
25
24

8
9

29 59.9

29 35-3
29 4.5

55-56
55-55
55-52

4
4
4

53 35-4
30 1 1.4
26 41.9

47-48
46.95
46.38

,

16 39.8
It 4.9

5 27.2

2423
23-25
22.26

23
21

10
11
12

28 27.5
26 55.4

55-48
55-41
5S-33

4

23 7.0
19 26.7
15 41.0

45-79
45.19
4457

I 59 46.8
I 54 3-8
I 48 18.3

21.26

20.25
19.24

20

19

18

13
'5

26 0.1
24 5S.5
23 5-0.9

55-24
55.11
54-99

4

4
4

II 50.1
■7 542
3 53-1

43-92
43-29
42.63

I 42 30.4
I 36 40.2
I 30 48.0

18.21
17.19
16.15

17
16
'5

16

17
18

5

21 -17.3
19 51-3

54.S5
54.67
54-49

3

3

59 46.8

SS 3S-<'^
51 19.5

41.95
41.24
40.51

I 24 53.8
I 18 5-.S
I 13 0.0

15.10
14.04
12.98

■4

: 19
■ 20
: 21

5

18 ,9.1
16 40.8
14 56-4

542s

3
3

46 5S.6

11 %

39.80
39-04
38.29

7 0.6

0 59.S

54 57-7

11.02
10.S5
9-79

9

22
24

13 5-9
II 9.4
9 6.8

53-56
53-29
52.99

3
4

24 4.8

37-50
36.72
35-91

0
0
0

48 543
42 49.8
36 445

8.72
7-63
6-54

8
6

26

27

6 3-8.2
4 43-3
2 23.0

5--35
51.99

3
3

19 16.8
14 24.5

9 28..

35.0S
3426
33-40

0

30 3S-4
24 3>.6
18 24.2

5-45

5
4
3

28
29

50 56.4
57 23-0
54 45-6

51.62

3
1

4 27.6
59 23.2
54 'v'

B

0
0

12 16.3
6 8.2

0 0.0

2.l8
l.IO

0.00

2
1

0

S

g. vin.

1

j 4

c:

+
is. VII.

4

Sig^'I. j

4

Vol. XIX.

*K

J tl P I T E R.

[ \T.iy- Vlli. Kqn^tion Tl

1

.ir.i.f

IX.

Equation III.

Argument III.

1
Arg.

Equat.
III.

DifF.

Arg.
III.

^iTr^'ff

Arg.
III.

\rt

DitT,

]

1

M. S.

Sec.

M. s. Sec.

M. S.

Sec.

c'

, 46.0

8.y

S 6

Uool

4 29.4

+ =6.3 ^:'

6700

= 36.1

5-7 •

lOOi

I 54-5

i5°°

6800

0 30.4

20o'2 3.11

3600J4 22.7! ■> 1

6900

D 2;. 2

1

8.6
8.7

R 7

1 . „i

40C'

2 II. 7

2 20.4

3700
3800

0 1

4 iS.7|

4 14-2

4-5

5.0

70000 20.4
71000 16.]

4-3

;oo

2 29.1

39004 9.2

720c

0 12.3

8.7

5-5

3-4

1

6oo;2 37.S!

8.6

40004 3.7

' 8

7300

0 8.9

2.8 '

2-3

700

I 46.4

R <

4100^3 57.9

6.2

74000, 6.1

Soo

2 54.8

42003 51.7

750c 0 3.S

8-3

R -

1

6 6

900

T 3.1

43-° 3 45-1

7600

0 2.1

1000

^ 11-.^,

7-9

4400,3 38.1

7"700

0 0.9

0.7

II003 19.2

450°,3 3°-S

78CC

0 0.2

7-7

7-4
7.1

7.6

7.8
8.0

0.2

0.4
1.0

1200

1300
1400

3 26.9
3 34-3
3 41-4

4600
4700
4800

3 23.2
3 15-4
3 7-4

7900
8000
8IOC

0 0.0
0 0.4
0 1.4

AC

8.2

8.4
8.5

, 4S.2

C.4
6.1

4900

2 59.2

8200

0 2.9

2.C
2-5

1600

3 J4-6

5000

2 50.8

8300

0 4.9

1700

4 0.7

5100

2 42.3

8400

0 7.4

J'7

8.6

13-

lBoO;4 6.4

>200[2 33.7

R 6

8,-00

0 10.^

3.6
4.0

19C04 11.6

4.S

4-3

3-8
3-4

53C0I2 2 J. I

8.7
8.7

8.7

S 6

S6oo

0 14. 1

2000*4 16.4

5400

r ''■'

8700

0 18.1

2100
2200

4 2°-7
4 24-5

P«

2 7-7
,1 59.0

8800
8900

0 22.6
0 27.6

5-° :
5-5 ;

2300

4 27-9

J 700

. 50.4

9000

0 33-1

—

2.8

8.4

5.8

240c

4 30-7

2-3

jSco'i 42.0

8-3

910G

0 38.9

6 2

2;oc

4 M-^

jgoc

I 33-7

9200

0 45.1

6.6

2fJOC

I4 34-7

1

'

I 25.5

7-9
7-7

9300

0 51.7

270c

!. ,,.-..

610C

i
I ,7.6

94 0

0 58.7

2SCC

4 V'-'

0.2
0.4

- I.O

O20C

|i 9.9

9500

I 6.C

7.6
7.8

8.C

8.2
8.4

290c

4 36.^

63Qo|i 2.5

96c 0

I l^«

300c

4 3(^-A

64000 5j^

A Q

97CC

1 21.^

3IOC

4 3J-

65000 48.6

6.4

980c

1
I 29..^

320c

'14 33-<

6600J0 42.2

99oo|' 37-^

33°^

'I4 3'-'

) , -

67000 36.1

ICOOO I 46.C

340c

^4 20-41 ^

1

1

JUPITER.

Tabi

F. X. Equal

on IV

Argument IV.

Ara.
IV.

Equal-

DifF.

Arg
IV.

Equat
IV.

Diff

Arg.
IV.

^^'- DifT.

M. S.

Sec.

M . S.

Sec.

M. s Sec.
1

o

,00

0 10.2

0 15.0

0 16.0

2.8

3-0
3-3

3400
35°o
3600

2 43-4
2 45-';

2 48. 2

2.C

-3

2.0

6700

6S00
6900

r 23.1

v5
J- 4

VJ

400
500

0 19.^
0 22.9

3-<J
3-8

4-1

3700
3S00
3900

2 50.2
2 ,-1.7
2 53.0

r-5
1-3

0.9

7ooc|. ,2.2
7 10c! I 6.0
;2oo[i i.C

5-3

1

)•-

6co
700
Soo

0 30.S

0 3,-.o

° 39-;

4.^
4-5

4.7

4.9
5.0

5.2

4000
4100
4200

2 53-9
2 54- J

0.6
°-3

00

04

0.8

7300,0 56.4
74000 51.3
75000 46.4

4-9

4.S

4.6
4-i

4.2

900
1000
1 100

0 44.2
0 49.1
0 54.1

4300
4400
4500

^54-4
2 53-6

0 41.6
0 37.0
0 32-7

1200

IjOO

1400

° 59-3
' 4-5
I 9.8

5-2
>-3

3-4

5-5
5-5

S-5

5-4
5-5

5-3

4600

4800

2 52.4

3 50.9
2 49.1

;:i

7900
8000
8100

0 28.5
0 24.5
0 20.8

4.0
3-7

3-4

3-'
2. 9

i6cc.
1700

I IJ.2
I •0.7
I 26.2

4900

JOOC

5100

2 47.0
2 44.6
2 41.8

2.4

2.8

3-0

i1

S20oio ,7.4

S3oo|o 14.3

1 80c
190c
2000

I 31-7
I 37-1
I 42.6

5-200

)3°o
5400

2 3S.8

2 3v5
2 31.9

85000 8.9I , ,

86000 6.61 ;'-^

87000 4.OJ -

1 '"'

2100
2200
230c

I 47.9

I 5.^--
1 58.4

i-3
)•-

5-'

4.9
4.8

5600
5700

2 28.1
2 24.0
2 19.8

4.1
4.2

4-5

4-7
4.9

88000 3.1
89oo|o \.S
9000 0 0.9

1-3

0.9

0 6

2400

26CC

^ 3 -.5
2 8.4
2 13.2

J 800
5900

6cco

2 i;.3

2 10.6
2 5.7

91000 0.3
92C0O o.c

93000 0.0

0-3

0.0

4.6

4-3
4.2
4.0

3-7

2700
2GO0

2QOO
,3000

2 17..'!
2 22.1

2 26.3
i 303

''.100
6200
6300
6400

2 0.7

' 50-3
I 45.0

5--
J. 2

v3
5-4

1 1 ■*

9400J0 c.4J ^_f^
95oo;o 1.2
96co;o 2.41 •
9700,0 3.9J 5

'

1 j

J 200
340c

2 34.0
2 37-4

2 40.,-
2 43-4

3-4
3-'
i-9

6yoo
0600
6700

I 39.0
' 34- '
I 28.6

5-3
S-S

9800J0 5.7!^_,
9<)ooo 7.8 ,
10000,0 10.2 "■*

TAP.Lr. XT, Eqii

Argument V.

\rg

I Equat.
I V.

. I.

o;j 4-3'
100I5 lo.o
200J5 15,

Equat,
V.

3°° J i9-7f , .
400I5 2;.r] ■■'■ '
50CJJ 27.CJ ^-^

6oOp- 29.7
700,5 _:
8005 "33.0

9=0; 33-

iooo'5 34-0
■io°'5 33-4

3001; 3°-3
4005 27.8

600' 5

1700I5

1900,5 5.Vj

0004 59.8

ioo'4 53.2

2004 46.0

300,4 38.4

14004 30.4
:,-co4 22.0
:0oo4 13.2

7oo'4 4. 1

2X003 54.6

'OOC3 44.q

30003 35.0

^ico'3 24

3200I3 i4-4j;;;]

3300,3 -l-'liol

400,2 <3.-i ■ ■

-Uco,^ 53-7
; 50012 43.2

;70c!2 22.,
380012 12.0

3<)00ii 1.8

I

400Q-1 51.81
4ioo!i 42.0,
42001 32.5

Ec^iai. y;(^.

+-'°°:' =.5 -3' 9.0

44C01 14.3! ^ ,

45001 5.8; ■'

' S.I

46oo|o 57,
4700,0 50.0
4800^0 4

4900^0 :^^.
OOOjO 29.
loo'o 24.

52000 18.8

300I0 14.3

4000 10.4

j^Qok) 7.0

6coo 4.3

70o!o 2.3

58000 l.O
l;00 o 0.2
0000,0 0.0

0.6

6(oojo

2000 1.9

6300)0 3.7

1400 !o 6.2

i

6500I0 9.4

60COO 13.2

670c o 17.6

67000 17.6
68coiO 22.5
6yoc|o 28. 1

lOOiO 40,

2000 48.C

730c

7400

0 55.6

« 3.6

1 12.0

76oo'i 20.8
I 29.9
7800

7900
Sooo
8100

8200
8300
8 40c

86cQ
8700

49.1
59.C
9.2

2 UjJ
2 29.(
2 40.3

50.8

J -3

8800
8900
9000

3 22.C
3 32-2
3 42-2

91003 52.C
920o|4 1.5
93004 10.7

9400I4 19.7

950c !4 28.2

o6ooi4 36.3
970c

4 44-c

9S00I
9900

cooo

4 5S.>
J 4-3

10.3
4

JUPITER.

Table XII. Equation VI.

Table XIII. Equation VIL

Argument VI.

Equat.

Equat.

Equat.

Arg.

VI.

Arg.

VI.

Arg.

VI.

VI.

VI.

VI.

Sec.

Sec.

Sec.

o

30.2

340

2 2

670

'5 5

lO

29.7

350

1-7

680

16.,

20

29.2

S'^o

1-3

690

17-5

30

2S.6

370

I.O

700

,8.,-

40

28. 0

380

0.7

710

19.5

5°

27-3

390

0.4

720

20.5

60

26.5

400

0.2

730

21. J

70

25.8

410

0.1

740

22.4

80

25.0

420

0.0

750

23-3
24.2

90

24.1

430

00

760

100

23.2

440

0.1

770

2,-.!

110

22.3

450

0.2

780

259

-
120

21-4

460

0.4

790

26.6

130

20.4

470

0.7

800

27.4

140

19.5

480

1.0

810

28.1

150

,8j

490

1-3

820

287

160

n-5

5CO

1.8

830

29-3

170

16.5

510

2-3

840

29.8

180

'VJ

920

2.8

850

3°-3

190

14. J

530

3-4

860

30-7

2-0

'3-5

540

4.0

87*

31.0

210

i2.y

?Vo

4-7

880

313

220

■ II-5

y6o

5-5

890

3i.ft

230

10.5

570

62

900

31.8

240

9.6

580

7.0

910

3 '-9

250

S.7

590

7-9

920

32.0

260

7.8

600

8.8

930

32.0

270

6.9

610

9-7

940

31-9

280

6.1

620

10.6

950

31.8

290

5-4

630

1 1.6

960

,,.6

300

4.0

640

12.5

970

3'-3

3'o

3-9

650

13-5

980

31.0

320

3-3

660

14.9

990

30-:

33°

2-7

670

iJ-5

1000

30.2

340

2.2

Argument VII. 1

Equat.

JEquat.

Equat

Arg.

VII.

Arg.

Vii.

Arg.

VII.

VII.

VII.

VII.

Sec.

Sec.

Sec.

0

lO.Q

340

24.;

670

2.6

10

II. 7

350

24.1

680

'' 2.2

20

12. J

360

23-7

690

1.8

30

13-3

370

2 3-4

700

1.4

40

14.1

380

22.9

710

1.0

50

14.9

390

22.3

720

0.7

6o

15-7

400

21.8

730

0.5

70

16.9

410

21.2

740

0.2

80

17-3

420

20.6

750

0.1

0.0

90

18.0

430

19.9

760

100

18.7

440

19.2

77°

0.0

no

19.4

450

18.5

780

0.0

120

20.0

460

18.0

790

0.1

130

20.7

470

17. 1

800

0 2

140

21.3

480

16.2

810

0.4

150

.21.9

490

i?4

820

0.6

160

22.5

500

147

830

0.8

170

23.0

510

13-9

840

1.1

180

23-4

,-20

13-1

890

1-5

lf)0

23-8

J3=

12.3

860

1.9

;oo

24.2

54°

1 1.5

870

2.2

210

24.6

5?o

10.7

880

2-7

220

24.9

560

9.9

890

3-3

230

25.1

570

9.1

900

3-«

240

25-4

580

8-3

910

4.4

250

25-5

590

7.6

920

5.0

260

2,-.6

600

0.9

930

5-7

270

.2?.6

610

6.2

94°

6:4

2,-.0

620

^.6

95°

7.1

290

2v.-

630:

4.9

960

7.8

300

25.4

640

4-3

970

8.5

310

2?.?

650;

, 3-7

980

9.4

320

25.0

6fio;

3-f'

990

10.2

3^0

24.8

I 670=

.2.6

1000

10.9

34°

24.5

JUPITER.

Table XIV. Eqin-Joii VIII.

T.\BLK XV. Equation IX.

Argument VIII.

Eqiiat.

Equal.

Ecjiiat.

Ars;.

VIII.

Arg.

VIII.

Ar;^.

VUI

VIII.

VIII.

VIII.

Sec.

Sec.

Sec.

o

24. 1

340

.4

670

13.6

10

23.6

35°

I.O

'4-5

20

23.1

360

690

'5-3

30

22.5-

37°

0.

700

1 6. 1

40

21.Q

380

°-3

710

16.8

5°

21.4

390

0 I

7-0

17.6

60

20.8

400

0.1

730

18.4

70

20.1

410

0 0

740

1 9. 1

So
90

194

420
43°

0.0
0.1

75°

19.S

:6d

20.4

100

18 c

440

0.2

77c

21.0

no

17. 2

450

0.4

7S0

21.7

120

16.4

460

0.6

79°

2-3

130

1V.6

470

0.8

Sco

22.9

140

14.S

480

1.2

810

23-4

150

,4.0

490

1-5

820

23-9

160

13.2

500

1.9

830

24-3

I/O

12.4

510

2-4

840

24.6

25.0

•iSo

II. 5

5"

29

8,-0

IQC

10.7

530

3-.-

860

200

9.9

540

4.0

870

^5-5

210

q.2

55°

46

8S0

2v7

220

8.4

560

?2

890

-v9

230

7.6

57°

59

900

25.9

240

69

,-80

6.6

910

26.0

2JO

62

59°

7-3

920

26.0

260

5(>

600

8.0

93°

25.9

270

J.O

610

S.S

94°

2, -.8

280

4-3

620

9.0

95°

2^6

290

630

10.4

900

25 )-

300

31

640

II. 2

970

25.2

24.8

310

2,6

650

12 0

..>So

32c

21

660

12.8

990

-4-)

330

I 7

670

13.0.

1000

24.1

340

14

Argument IX.

Ec,uat

i

Equat

! E.iual.

Arg.

IX.

Arg.

1 IX.

Arg.

iX.

IX,

IX.

IX.

Sec.

Sec.

See.

0

,9.8

34°

.4.1

670

O.J

10

20.3

35°

'3-4

680

0.8

20

20.8

300

12.7

690

1.0

3°

21.2

370

12. 0

700

••3

21. 5

380

11.2

710

50

21.9

39°

10.5

720

2.0

60

22.2

400

9.8

73°

2.4

70

22.5

410

9.1

74°

2.9

So

22.8

^20

8.4

75°

3-4

90

23.0

43°

7-7

760

3-9

loo

23.1

440

7.0

77°

4-5

110

23.1

45°

^•3

780

5.0

120

23.2

460

5-C-

790

^6

130

23.2

47°

J.O

800

6.3

140

23.1

480

4-5

SlO

7.0

150

23.1

490

3-9

820

7-7

160

23.0

500

3-4

8,0

8.4

170

22,7

510

2.9

840

9-1

180

22.4

?20

2.4

8,-0

9.8

190

22.2

v3°

2.0

860

10.5

200

21.9

54°

1-7

870

II. 2

210

21.5

55°

1-3

880

12.0

220

21.2

,-00

890

12.7

230

20.8

570

0.8

900

13-4

240

20.3

,-80

0.4

910

14. 1

250

19.8

59°

0.2

920

14.8

260

19-3

600

0.1

930

'5-5

270

18.7

610

C.I

' 94°

16.2

280

18.2

620

0.0

950

10.9

290

17.6

630

0.0

960

17.6

300

,6.9

640

0.1

970

18.2

310.

16.2

6^0

0.1

9S0

18.7

320

15-?.

660

0.2

990

19-3

330

14.8.

670 ,

0.5

1 000

19.8

340

14.1

JUPITER,

Table XVI. Equation X.

Table XVIL Equation XI.

Argument X. = VII. - VIII. 1

Arg.
X.

Equat.
X.

Arg.
X.

Equat.
X.

Arg.
X.

Equat.
X

Sec.

Sec.

Sec.

o

lO

20

17. 1

17-5
17.9

340
3>°
360

12.2
1 1.6
10.9

670

680

690

0.4,
0.7 ,
0.9:

30

40

50

18.3
18.6
18.9

37°
3S0
390

10.3
9-7
9.1

84
7.8
7.2

700

710

72D

••4

i.S

60

70

80

19.1
19.4
19.6

4DO

410

420

730

740

750

-•5
2.9

90
100

no

198
19.9
19.9

430
440

45°

6.6
6.1
5->

760

3-3

.3-8
•4.4

,.0

130
140

20.0
20.0
20.0

460
47°

480

4.9-

4-4.
3-S

8^^o
810

4.9

I JO

160
170

19.9
19.S
19.6 ■

49°
500
510

3-3

2.9

2-5

8-0
830
840

6.6

7.2 !
7.8

180
190

200

193

520
5-30
54°

5 5°

57°

2.1
1-7
1.4

850

860
870

8.4
9.1 !
9-7

210
220

230

18.6
18.2
17.9

■0.9
0.6

880

890
900

10.3
10.9
II. 6

240
250
260

I7-;
1 7. 1
16.7

580
590

600

0.4
0.2
0.1

910

920
930

12.1
12.8
'3-4

270
280
2^0

SCO

16.2
1-5.6
15..
'4-;

610
620
630
640

0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0

94c
950
960
970

»3-9

145

310
320

340

14.0
13-4
12.8
12.2

6yo

660
670

0.1

0.:

980

990

ICOC

T6.2
16.7
17.1

A

rgtimen

XI. =

z VII.

+ VIII.

Equat.

Equat.

Equat.

Hrg.

XI.

Arg.

XI.

Arg.

XI.

XI.

Sec.

Sec.

Sec.

0

3-9

34°

[.8

670

10.7

10

3-)

35°

2.1

6S0

108

20

3-2

3"°

2.4

690

I0.8

30

3°

37°

2.7

700

10.8

40

2-7

380

3-0

710

10.8

50

2.4

39°

3-3

720

10.8

60

2.1

400

36

730

10 7

70

1.8

410

3-9

740

10.7

80

1.6

420

4.2

750

10.6

90

1-3

43°

4.6

760

10.6

100

I.I

440

4.9

770

104

no

0.9

45°

5-2

780

10.2

120

0.8

460

v6

790

10. 0

130

0.6

47°

59

Sco

99

140

0.4

4!>o

6.2

8io

9-7

1,-0

0.3

490

6.6

820

95

160

0.2

500

69

830

92

170

0.1

510

7-3

840

90

180

0.0

520

7.6

S,-o

8.7

190

0.0

53°

7.8

860

84

2 CO

0.0

54°

8.1

870

8.1

210

0.0

550

8.4

88d

7.8

220

0.0

j6o

8.7

890

76

230

0.1

570

9.0

900

7-2

240

0.1

580

9.2

910

6.9

250

0.2

59°

9-^

920

66

260

0-3

600

9-7

930

6.2

270

0.4

610

99

940

5-9

280

0.6

620

1 0.0

950

56

290

0.8

630

10.2

960

52

300

0.9

640

10.4

970

4.9

310

i.i

6jo

10.5

980

4.6

3:0

1.3

660

IC.6

990

4.2

330

1.6

670

IC.7

lOCO

3-9

340

T.8

JUPITER.

iBi.F. XV'III. Radius Vetlor of Jupiter's Orbit for 17JO, with the Secular Variati'

Argument I. The mean Anomaly of Jupiter

I Secula
Variatio

Rad. Ved. 1 DifF.

5-44'J45
5-44f>34
5-44f'i7

5445-93
5-445^'i
5-445 '3

5-44475
5-4-!4-'>
5.443^8

I 5-443C2

; 5.442:9

12 I 5.4415°

! 5.+4c6r

14 : 5-43971

5-43 rf>4
5.43651

5-43 5-31

5-43405
^•4327 1

5-42-32
5.4267.

5.42506
5-42333
5 42 1 54

5.41969
5-4i7r7
5-4' 579

192
198

69.64

69.6;
69.6"i
69.57

69.51
69.43
f'<>3+

69.22

69.C9
68.05

68.79
68.61
6S.40

6S.19
67.98
67-74

67.45
67.18
66.87

f>5-?2
64.74

64-32
63.88
63-44

62.98
62.49
61.99

Sig. I.

Rad. Vea.

541579
541375
5.41165

5 4°949

5.40726
5.40498
5 40263

540023
5-39776
539)24

539267
5 39003
53S734

5 33459
538.79
5-37893

5.37602
537306
5-37005

536698
5-36387
536C70

5 35749
5-35422
5-35=9'

534756
5344'6
5-34071

5-3372 2
5-33368
5-3 30 "

204
210
216

240
247

264
269

275

2S0
286

291

296
301

340
345

354

357

Secular
Variation

61.99
61.49
60.95
60.41

59-83
5<v-25
58.05

58 C5

57 43
50.78

56.12
55 44
54-77

54.06

5333
52 60

5 ' 85
5J.C9

50-31

47.88

4705
46.20
45 33

44 '45
43.56
42.65

4'-73
40.79

39.86

Sig. 11.

Rad. Vea.

5-3301 1
5.32649
5-32283
5-3i9'4

5-3 '540
5-3 "63

5-30782

5.30398
5.30010
5.29619

5.29325

5.28827
5.28427

5.28023
52.7617
52.7209

5.26797
5.26383
5.25967

5-25549
5.25.2S

5.24706

5.24282
5.23856
5.23428

5.22990
5.22569
5.22137

5.21704
5.21270

5.20836

362
^66
369
374

377
381

384
388
391
394
398
400

404

406

408

4'2

4-14
416

418

421

422

426
428

430
432

434
434

39-86 I ,0

38.90 29

37-93 28

36-95 I 27

35-96 26

34-95 25

33-93 24

29-75

28.68

26.50
25.40
24.29

23.17
22.05
20.92

19-76
18.60
'7-44

16.27
I 5.1 1
'3-92

12-73
11.54
10.34

9.14

7 93

6.72

JUPITER.

Table XVIII. Radius Veftor of Jupiter's Orbit for 1750, with the Secular Variation.

Argument I. Th<

Anomaly of Jupiter.

DifT.

01.82
00.61
00.64

01.87
03.09
04-34

05.^8
06.82
08.06

14.22
15.44

16.66
.7.89
19.11

23-9'

2J..IC

26.28

27-45
28.62
29.78

Rad. Vea.

5.0S063
5.07609
5.07278
5.06S91

5.C6508
5.06128
5-°5753

5.05582
5.CJ016
?-046f5

5.04296
5-03595

5.03252
5.02914
5.025S1

5.02253
5.0193 1
5.01615

5.01304
5.00999
5.C07C0

5.00407
5.00120
4.99839

4.99569
4.99298
4.99036

4-98534
4.98293

394

387
383
3S0
375
371
366
363
3S7

353

348

343

,^38
333
328
322

311

305
299

293

267
262

254
248

Secula
Vanatic

29.7s
30-93

33-20

54-32
3 5-43
36-53

37.62
38-70
39-76

40. « 2
41.86
42.89

43-91
44.89
45.88

46.8 j
47.S0
48.75

49.66

50.56
51.46

53-19

54-83
S^-(^3
56.41

57-17
57-9'
58.63

4,98293
4,98059

497832
497612

4-97400
497195
4 96997

496806
4 96624
4-96448

496281
4 96121
4 95969

495825
495689
495560

4-95440
4.95328
4.95224

49512b
4.95040
4,94961

4.94890
4,94827
4 94773

198
191

167

160

144
136
129

Secula

Variatic

58.63

59-33
60.02
60.67

^^
61.92
62.50

63.07
63.62
64.14

64.65

65.59

18

66.02
66.43
66.82

17
16

'5

67.18
67.51
67.82

14
13
12

68.11
68.37
6Sj5i

10
9

68.83
69.02
69.18

8

7
6

69.32
6943
69.51

5

4
3

69.58
69.62
69.64

JUPITER.

Equations of theRadi'.'.s Vector,
always additive.

Equations of the Radius ^'e£lo^, always

additive.

Arg II

Equatioi

1 II

Arg. II.

_^o_.o_

Dift

o

075

3
9

toooo

100

07S

9900

coo

C87

9800

_5oo

101

H

9-00

400

1:0

19

9f 00

500

14J

25

23

95°°

6co

■73

9400

700

205

32

9300

800

240

35

9200

37

900

-77

9100

1000

316

39

gooo

1 1 00

-Jl^—

39

38

8900

1200

3 '^3

~88c~

1300

430

^l

8700

1400

466

36

8600

1500

499

33

8500

i6co

52<i

30

8400

1700

5,-6

27

8300

23

iSco

579

8200

1900

59S

'9

Sioo

2000

612

14

8000

2100

622

10

79-0

2200

627

5

7800

2.? 00

628

7700

2400

624

4

7

7600

2500

617

75CO

2600

605

1 2
16
20
22
26

_740£_

2700

589

7300

2800

569

7200

2900

_^+I_

7 I CO

3000

521

28

7CC0

^100

493

6goo

_32 0O_

_463_

30
32

6800

3 3 CO

431

6700

340^

397

34
35
35
3S
36

6600

3500

362

6500

3600

327

C)4oo

3700

292

6300

_3?5i_

25^

6200

35

39C0

221

3.^

6100

4C00

iR8

6coo

4100

,56

32
28

_59Co

42CO-

.26

5800

4^00

C98

2J
21

5700

_4400_

073

_jf>co

4500

052

18

5500

4600

034

14
T 1

5400

4700

020

5300

4800

009

52CO

4900

002

2

JICO

5=°^

000

5CO0

Arg. IV.

Equation IV.

Arg. IV

Equatwn IV.]

o.co

Diff

0.00

Dirt

0

049

50CC

~i^

100

044

51CO

141

200

_o39

5200

_i46

300

035

55^0

'5'

400

0:50

5400

'55

500

026

55°°

'59

6co

022

5600

163

700

oi8

5700

167

800

015

5800

900

012

5900

'73

1000

009

6000

176

1 1 00

007

6 ICO

178

1200

005

6200

180

1300

C03

6300

182

1400

002

6400

'83

IJOO

001

0

~65c~

184

1600

000

6600

'85

1700

000

0
0

6700

185

~8oo~

oco

~685S~

'85

1900

001

J

6900

'85

2000

C02

7000

.84

2100

003

J

7100

'83

2200

004

2

72CO

181

2300

006

7300

179

240 J

008

2
3

74C0

177

25CO

01 I

7500

'75

2600

2-00

o'4
017

3
3

7600

7700

~l6S~

2rf00

3

7800

.65

2930

024

4

7900

161

3000

02 S

4

5

8000

'57

3100

<=>35

8100

153

3200

_°1^

4

5

82C0
8300

148
'43

3300

042

340a

047

5

5

8400

'3S

3500

_?j'-_

8,-00

'33

3600

057

5
6

8600

128

i70°

003

8roo

'23

■3800

068

5

8800

"7

6
6
6

6

3900

074

8900

111

40CO

080

90C0

106

5

6

4IC0

_oS6_

9100

100

5

6
6
6
6

5

6

42CO

09";

9:00

094

6-
6

4300

D<)7

9300

088

^440£_

_1^3_

9400

C82

4500

109

9500

077

6
6

4600

"5

9600

071

4700

120

9700

—'^^

4800 ]

126

6

5
5

9800

060

5

1

49ro ;

'3'

9900

054

?cco '

U6

ICCOO

049

Vol XiX.

JUPITER.

Tablb XXI.
Equations of the Radius VeAor, always additiv?,

Arg.

Equation

Arg.

Equation

Arg.

Equation

Arg.

Equation

V.

V

V.

V

V.

V

V.

V.

0.00

Diff.

0.00

DifF.

0.00

Diff.

0.00

Diff.

o

087

II

2500

38.

7
7

6

5

5000

334

7J00

040

lOO

008

2600

388

5100

3^i

"

7600

'>33

200

109

12

13

2700

395

5200

312

7700

026

.s°°

121

2S00

401

5300

300

7800

020

400

IJ4

2900

406

5400

2S8

'-

7900

OIJ

500

146

13

13
13

13

13

3000

411

4
2

5500

27^

8000

010

600

159

3100

415

5600

262

13

8roo

006

70s

172

3200

417

5700

249

8200

004

800

18 j

33°o

419

2
0

5800

236

8300

002

900

198

3400

421

5900

223

•3

S400

000

1000

211

3500

421

6000

210

S500

oco

1 100

224

13

13
13

3600

420

I
2

6100

•97

>3
•3

8600

001

1200

237

3700

419

6200

184

8700

002

1300

250

3800

417

6300

13

8800

004

1400

263

3900

414

6400

158

8900

007

13

3

-.!

1500

276

12

13

12

4000

411

5

:

6500

145

•■'

gooo

DID

5
5

6

7

1600
1700

2S8
301

4100
4200

406
401

60 00
6700

132
120

9100
9200

015
020

1800

312

3;oo

39>

6800

1C9

9300

026

1900

324

4400

388

6900

C97

94C0

033

2000

335

4500

380

8

7000

086

9500

041

8

2100

34J

10
9

4600

372

8

10

7100

076

10

I

9O00

049

8
10

2200

555

4700

364

7200

066

9700

C57

2300

364

4800

354

73ro

"^l

9800

C67

2400

373

49c 0

344

7400

048

9900

077

2500

.».

5000

s»

7500

040

I coco

087

JUPITER.

Table XXII. Heliocentric Latitude for 17JO, with the Secular Varration.

Argument XII. Longitude of Jupiter — that of the Node.

Latitude.

Differ.

Sec.
Var.

Latitude.

Sig. I. A^.
3ig. VII. 5

Differ,

i

Sec.
\ar.

Latitude.

1

Differ

Sec.
Var.

■ 1

Sig. 0. A^.

-

-

Sig. II. A^.

-

Sig. VI. S.

-

-

Sig. VIII. 5

-

D M. S.

M. S.

Sec.

D. M. S.

1 M. S.

i S--

D. M. S.

Sec.

Sec.

0
2

000

0 1 23
0.2 45

I 23

I 23
I 23
I 22

' 23
I 22
I 22

I 22
I 21
I 22

I 21

I 21

I 20

I 20

I 20
I 19

I 19

I IQ

I 18

I 17

: I

' 'J
I 14

I 13 !
I 13 1
I 12

0.0
04
0.8

° 39 3'
0 40 42
0 41 S3

0 43 3
0 44 12

0 4j 20

1 ' ''

1 I 10

I 9

I S

I 7

I 7
I 5

' 5

I 4
I 3

: :

I 0

0 59

0 58
0 57

0 56

° 55

° 54

0 J2

0 52

0 50

0 49

0 48
0 47

0 45

0 4j

0 44
0 42

1 1.4
' II-7

I 8 27
I 9 7
' 9 47

40
40

38

37
?6

34

33

32

30

28
26

2)
23
22

21
19
18
17

'5
14
12
II

9
8
7
5 ^

3

2
I

19.0
19.2
19.4

19.6
19.8
20.0

30
29

28

27
26
25

3

4
5

0 4 8
0 5 31
0 6 S3

I.I

'•5
1.9

12.0
12.3
1..6

I 10 25
III 2
I II 38

6

S

0 8 16
0 9 38
0 II 0

2-3

2-7

3>

0 46 27
° 47 34
° 48 39

'2-9
13-5

I 12 12
I 12 45
I 13 17

20. r
20.3
20.4

20-5

20.7
20.S

24
23

22

23
19

9
10

0 12 22

0 13 43
0 15 5

3-4
3-8
4.2

0 49 44
0 50 48
0 51 51

0 52 S3
0 S3 54
° 54 54

° ^l ^^
0 56 5.

0 S7 4S

0 58 44

0 59 39

1 ° 33

.3.8
14. 1
14.4

I 13 47
I 14 16
I 14 44

12
13
14

0 16 26
0 17 4;
0 19 7

46
5.0

5-4

14.7
15.0
15-3

I 15 10

I 15 35
I 15 53

20.9
21. 1
21.2

iS
16

15
16
17

0 20 27
0 21 47
0 23 6

^6:1
6.5

6.8

7-2
7.6

15-5
15.8
16. 1

I 16 20
I 16 41
I 17 0

21.3
21.4
21.5

21-5
21.6 ,
2 1.fj

15
14
13

12

II
10

9

8
7

18
12

20

21
22
23

2-4

%

a?
28
29

3°

0 24 2,-
0 25 44
0 27 2

0 28 19
0 29 36
° 30 S3

0 32 9
0 33 24
° 34 39

0 3=; 53
0 37 6
0 38 19
° 39 31

Sig'. XI. 5
Sig. V. N.

16.3
16.0
16.9

I 17 18

I 17 3S
I 17 50

8.7

I I 25
I 217
I 3 7

17. 1
17.4
17.6

I .8 4
I 18 16
I 18 27

21.7
21 8
21.8

90
9.4

9-7

1 0.0
10.4
10.7

I I.O

I 3 56
I 4 44

I 5 31

17.8
18.1
.8.3

I 18 36
I 18 44
I ,8 5.

21.9 ■
21.9

22.0

6

5
4

I 6 16

,8.5
18.7
18.9
19.0

I 18 56
I 18 59
1 19 1
I 19 2

22.0

2i.o
22.0
22.0

3
2

0

Sig. X. 5.

-

Sig. IX. s.

-

Sig. IV. A^.

-

Sig. III. N.

-

For any time before 1750, the Secular Variatian changes tlie S

g"-

4L 2

JUPITER.

Table XXIII. Reduftion to tlie Ecliptic, and the Logarithm of the Cofine of the Heliocentric Latitude.

Argument Xll.

1

Rcduaion

to
Echptic.

Sig. 0.

Sig. VI.

Sec.

Log. cofin.
Lat. htlioc.

Redi.aion

to
Ecliptic.

Log. coHn.
Lat. helioc.

Rcd-jrtion

to
Ecliptic.

Sig. IL

1
j

Sig. I.

Sig. VII.

Sig. VIII.!

Sec. '

Sec.

23.6
24.0
24.5

o

2

O.D
C.9
1.9

0.000000
0.000000
o.oeoooo

9.999971
9.999970
9.999968

23.6

;^2:6

9.999914
V.999912
9.999910

3°
29

28

3
4
5

2.S

3-«

4-7

o.coocoo
9.999999
9.999999

24.9
25-.3
25.6

9.999966
9.999964
9.999962

22.1
21.5
20.9

9.999909
9.999907
9.999906

27
26
25

6

7

1:1

-•5

9.999999
9.99999S
9.99999S

25.9

26.2
26.4

9.999960
9.999958
9-999957

20.3
19.6
19.0

18.2

9.999904
9.999903
9.999901

9.999900
9.999899
9.999897

24
23
22

20
•9

18
16

'^

84

93

1C.2

9.999997
9.999997
9.999996

zf.y
26.8
27.0

9-999955
9-999953
9.999951

12

'3

II. I
12.0
12. S

9.999995
9-999994
9-999993

27.1
27.2
27.2

9.999949
9-999947
9-999945

16.0
15.2
14.4

9.999896
9.999895
9.999895

',1

17

,.6
14.+
.5.2

9.999992
9.999991
9.999990

27.2
27.2

9-999943
9.999941

9-999939

'.it

12.0

9.999893
9.999S93
9.999891

»5
'4
>3

18
19

20

16.0
16.8
'7-5

9.^99989
9.9999HS
9.999987

26.8

9-999937
9-999935
9-999933

II. I
10.2

9-3

8.4
7-5
66

5-7
4-7
3-8

9.999890
9.999889
9.999889

9.99ySS7
9.999887

9.999SS7
9.999886
9.999886

11

10

<)

8

7

6
5
4

3

2
I
0

21
22
23

24

25
26

18.2

19.0
19.6

9.999985
9.9999S4
9 9999^^2

9909981
9.999980
9.999978

26.7
26.4
26.2

25.9

25.6

25-3

9-999931
9.999929
9.999927

9.999925
9.999923
9.999921

20.:;
2C.9
21.5

27

28
29
30

22.1
22.6

9.999976
9-999974
9-999973
9-99997 «

24.9
24.5
24.0

23.6

9.999919
2.999917
9.992916
9-9999 '4

2.8

1-9

0.9
0.0

9.997886
9.999885

9.'.99-S«5
9.909885

sie

XI. 4-

Sig. X. +

Sig. IX. 4-

S,g. V. +

S,g

IV. +

S:g.lU. +

JUPITER.

Explanation of the Talks of Jupiter,

The firft Table contains the epochs of the mean lonoritude
•of the aphelion and node of Jupiter; together with the
Ai -^'umeiitsof the equations expreiled by dividing the circle
10,000 eqi;al parts for Arguments II, III, IV, V ; and
izoo equal parts for Arguments VI, VII, VIII,
' V Table II. cohtains the mean motions of the fame for
\ jars. Tabic III. contains the mean motions for months ;
that is, for the beginning of each month reckoned from the
beginning of the year; Table IV. contains the mean mo-
tions for days. Table V. contains the me.ui motions for
hours and minutes. Table VI. contains the groat equa-
tion of Jupiter for every to years. Table VII. contains
the equation of Jupiter's orbit for the year 17^3, with
the fecular variation. Table VIII. contains the equa-
tion of the orbit corrjfponding to Argument II. Table
IX. contains the equation anfwering to Argument III.
Table X. contains the equation anfwering toArgument IV.
Table XI. contains the equation anfwering to Argument V.
Table XII. contains the equation anfwering to Argument
VI. Table XIII. contains the equation anfwering to Ar-
gument VII. Table XIV. contains the equation anfwering
to Argument VIII. Table XV. contains the equation an-
fwering to Argument IX. Table XVI. contains the ccjua-
tion anfwering to Argument VII. — Argument VIII. Table
XVII. contains the equation anfwering to Argument VII. +
Argument VIII. Table XVIII. contains the radius veftor
i)f the orbit of Jupiter for 1750, with the fecular variation;
the mean diiance of the earth from the fun being unity.
Table XIX. contains the equation of the radius veftor an-
fwering to Argument II. Table XX. contains the equation
anfwering to Argument IV. Table XXI. contains the
equation anfwering to Argument V. Table XXII. con-
tains the hehocentric latitude of Jupiter for the year 1750,
with the fecular variation. Table XXIII. contains the re-
duAion to the ecliptic ; with the log. cofine of the heliocen-
tric latitude.

All the above mentioned equations of the motion of Ju-
piter, the equations of the orbit e.xcepted, arife from the at-
traction of Saturn, and depend upon the relative Situation of
Jupiter and Saturn. The theory of thcfe equations was
given by M. de la Place in the Memoirs of 1786, from the
theory of gravity, and they were computed by M. de
JLambre.

Let a exprefs the number of years from 1750, S the
mean longitude of Saturn, / the mean longitude of Jupiter :
then the great equation of Jupiter is,

- (20' 49", J -ax. o".o42733) x fm. (ji' - 2/
+ 5' .U'«" - " X 58 '.88).

The great equation of Saturn arifing from the attraftiou
cf Jupiter, is alfo found to be (Mem. 1785),

- (48-44" -rtx o".i) X fin. (5.?- 2/ +5:" 34' 8"-

a X 58".8S).
The period of thefe two equations is 918.76 years. By
way of diilinction, thcfe are called ihe great equations of Ju-
piter and Saturn : thefe two equations of Jupiter and Sa-
turn are very nearly in the ratio of 3 to 7. Now it is mani-
fell, that when 55" — 1I — ax 58'. 88 = 360 , the equation
riiuft then begin again, and therefore this will determine the
period; now 55 — 2I — a x jS '.88 uicreafes i4lo".6 in a

, . j6o'=: 1206000'' „ ,

common year; therctore " ■ — ; = 01070

^ 1410.6

years, the period in which thefe equations return again the
lame.

Thefe equations (hew the rcafon, why the pretnt mean

motions of .lupiter at^d Saturn differ from the true mean mO'
tion?, as the latter cannot be determined but by taking in
the above period. We have the apparent mean motion of
Saturn, in a common year, by addiiig to its mean annual
motion, the quantity by which the great equation varies in
that time, and this quantity is very nearly rr — (48'44" —
a X o".i) X fin. 2,5'3l" X cof. (56' — 2 / -)- J ' 34' 8''
— ax 5S".S8) ; and tlie apparent mean motion of Jupiter is
this quantity with a contrary fign, diminidied in the ratio oj
7 to 3, and added to his mean annual motion.

Now the fluxion of the cofine of any quantity = fine x
flux, arc, therefore when cof. = a maximum, fine x flux,
arc = o, or the fine of the arc =: o, or the arc = o ; there-
fore when the above quantity =3 a maximum, j5 — 2/ -(-
5 34'8" — rt X 58 '.88 =0, which happened in the year
I yf)o. At that time, the apparent annual motion of Saturn
was iefs than the true, by 20". i, and that of Jupiter greater
by 8".6 ; fince that time their apparent mean motions ha'.o
been approaching to their true mean motions, and in I78<j
their apparent and trwe mean motions were equal. Tliefe rc-
fults fliew, why, in comparing the modern with the ancient
obfervations, the mean motion of Saturn appears to be re-
tarded, and that of Jupiter accelerated ; and that from a com-
parifoh of the modern obfervations, the mean motion of Sa-
turn appears to be accelerated, and that of Jupiter to be re-
tarded.

Now if H be the heliocentric mean longitude of Jupiter;
h that of Saturn, corrected by the above equations rcfpec-
tively, computed from the equinox of the j'car 1750; the
other equations of the motion of Jupiter from the action of
Saturn, are,

- I 22 '.7 fin. (H- h) + V24".?fin. 2 [H-Ij) + 17"

fin. 3 // - /•) -!- 3 .9 fin. 4 ^'H - h)
+ 2'i8'.4fin. ( //- 2h - \y 33' 7" + fl x I3".7)
-f I 27.4 fin. {2H — T,h — 61 59 48 4- a x 21.0)
+ 2 47.0 fin. (3// - 5/j 4- ))- J9 21 + a x 43 .0)

[6.0 r.u. (3//

I 19)

+ 12.S fin. (3// — 2/) - 8 30 15)

— 13.0 fin. (^A — //— 5831 o;
f II 6 fin. (/ji- 4 J 4')

-I- lo.o fin. (4// — 5/j 4. 4,- 16 32 )

— 5.4 fin. [2H — A f 16 I 27 )

Now the fum of the maxima of all thefe equations, is
II' 56 '.3; and in the Tables computed for thefe equa-
tions, each equation is increafed by its maximum, i[i order
to render ail the equations additive ; this quantity, there-
fore, mud always be fubtraftcd from the fum of the
equations taken from the Tables.

To Jintl the heliocentric Latitude and Longitude of Jupiter.

From Table I. of the epochs, take out the epochs of the
mean longitude of the aphelion and node, with the Argu-
ments II, III. IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, and place
them in an horizontal line. But if the given year be not
found in that Table, take the nearefl year preceding the-
given year as an epoch, and take out as before ; under
which, from Table II, place the mean motion in longitude,
of the aphelion and node, with the Arguments, anfwering
to the number of years elapfed fince the epoch to the given
year.

Under thefe, write down (Table III.) the mean motions
of the fame, for Uie given month.

Under thefe, write down (Table IV.) the mean motions
of tlie fame, for the given day of the month.

ITndcr thefe, write down (Table V.) the mean motions

of the fame, for the given hours and minutes. The aryu-

mi nts fov hours and minutes arc fo fmatl that they are here

6 omitted-;

JUPITER.

'emitted ; the mean motions for feconds are alfo omitted for
the fame reafon. In our computations, therefore, we take
to the ncarcft minute.

Under thefe, write down the great inequality (Table VI.)
in the firfl cohimn, with the correfponding arguments.

Add together the lunnbers in the feveral columns, rejeft-
ing 12 S, or any multiple thereof, if they occur ; and in
the arguments, rejefting 10,000 for Arguments II, III, IV,
V, and 1000 for Arguments VI, VII, VIII, IX, or any
multiples thereof, and you get, for the given time, the
mean longitude correfted for the great equation, the aphe-
lion, the node, ar.d the arguments corrected for the great
■equation.

From the longitude correcled for the great equation, as
already found, fubtraft the longitude of the aphelion, and
you have Arg I. Arg VII. — Arg. VIII. gives Arg. X. ;
Arg. VI. + Arg. VIII. gives Arg. XI.

With Argument I. making proportion for the minutes
and feconds, take out the equation of Jupiter's orbit in
Table VII., together with the fecular variation, with their
proper lign?, except the time be before 17JO, in which cafe,
the fecular variation is to be taken out with a contrary fign ;
then fay, 100 : the years from 1750 to the given time : :
the fecular variation above found : the fecular vtriation re-
quired. With Argument II. take out the equation in
Table VIII, making proportion in this, and in the follow-
ing equations, for the intcr^nediate numbers of the argu-
ments. With Argument III. take out the equation in Table

IX. With Argument IV. take out the equation in Table

X. With Argument V. take out the equation in Table XI.

With Argument VI. take out the equation in Table XII.
With Argument VII. take out the equation in Table XIII.
With Argument VIII. take out the equation in Table XIV.
Witli Argument. IX. take out the equation in Table XV.
With Argument X. take out the equation in Table XVI.
With Argument XI. take out the equation in Table XVII.
Take the fum of all thcfe equations (regard being had to
the figns of the firfl equation and the fecular variation, the
figns of the others being all pofitive), and from it fubtraft
1 1' 56".^, and you have the value of thefe eleven equations ;
and this applied, with its proper fign, to the longitude al-
ready found as correfted bv the great equation, gives the
longitude of Jupiter in his orbit.

From the longitude thus found, fubtraft the longitude of
the node, and you get Argument XII.

With Argument XII. enter Table XXIII. and take out
the rcduftion to the ecliptic with its proper fign, making
proportion for the minutes and feconds of the argument ;
and this applied to the longitude of Jupiter in his orbit,
gives his true heliocentric longitude on the ecliptic, reckoned
from the mean equinox.

With the Argument XII. enter Table XXII.; take out
the latitude with its fecular variation, making proportion
for the minutes and feconds of the argument ; and apply
the fecular variation, according to its fign, to the latitude,
and you have tlie true heliocentric latitude of Jupiter.

With the mean anomaly of Jupiter, enter Table XVIII,
and take out the radius vector, and correct it by the follow-
ing Tables, and you have the true diftance of Jupiter from
the fun ; the earth's diftance being unity.

E sample.

JUPITER.

Exaniple. — To fnd the trui heliocentric Latitude and Lon/ttude cf Jupiter, on July li, 17S0, at f' 49' mean 7~:ir

at Greenivich.

Longitude.

Aphelion.

Node.

Arguments. |

, ^ , „

so;,.

J

0 / »

II.

III.I IV.

V. jVI

VII.

VIII.

IX.

Epoch for 1 7 So

6 14 3S 166

6 10 49 26

3

8 i^ 13

8783

2177:0959

3140 974

296

444

661

July -

15 2 47.0

28

iS

250

81

ii''

412 58

91

9

17

"k

54 5 '-9

2

I

•)

5

20

25

4

6

I

I

>

I 2-J

49' . -

10 0

Great equation -
Sum

20 46.1

32
9080

ss

2318

IJ97

141
37^8

12

7

-8

— 2

7 0 SI 5i-9

6 10 49 56

y

8 1232

48

400

446

677

Sura of 1 1 equat5.

Long, in orbit -
Red. to eel.

HcKcc. long.

- I 48 ,-7-8

7 0 57 54

_^

29 8 56

446

48

6 29 8 56.1

020 7 58

5,

20 56 24

Arg. X. 954

494 Arg Xll

+ 18.2

Arg. I. s^

rg. XII.

Arg I. _ - . - I 47 40.0

6 29 9 143

1

oecular variation - — r.2
Maxima of the next equations — 1 1 56.3

Latitude heliocentric (by Arg. XII.) 1° ij'49" N

Secular variation
True heliocentric latitude

-6

N.

Sum of the negative parts — i 5941.5

Arg. II. . . +01 ;; 6
Arg. in. . . 4V8.4

1 1.? 43

Arg l\'. . ..15.-

Arg. V. . - - 2 20.3

Arg. VL . . 27.4

Arg.Vn. - . . ,1.8

Arg. Vin. - . 0.3

Arg. IX. . . . 0.7

Arg. X. . . . J4.8

Arg. XL

Sum of the pofitive parts
Value of 1 1 equations -

Argument I. and the fee

0.7

■f 0 10 43.7

- I 48 57.8

ilar variation

being negative, they are added to n' if-''.^

to get the negative parts ; but if the two

firll taken together had been pofitive, they

would have been put above Argument II.

amongft the pofitive equations, and then all

the pofitive equations miglit have been added

up, and ii'56".3 fubtraded from the fum.

This is the true heliocentric longitude on the ecliptic,
from the mean equinox ; and if we want it from the true
equinox, we muft apply to it the equation of the equi-
noxes.

In this operation, the firft five lines are taken out im-
mediately from the Tables. The great equation is thus
found: for the beginning of 1780 it is 20' 46", as found
immediately in the Table. The great equation for a very
Uiftant period is thus found : the variation is cxprefled by
- a X o'. 042733 X fin. (5 5 - 2 / r 5° 34' 8" - a X
58".88) ; if we take a - 459.38, which is li:.if a period,
a X o".042733 = 19.'6, which ia additive i^ir*- 1750; this
then is the greatell variation of the equation, taking $ S —

2 / 4- 5' 34' 8 ' — a X 58".8S = 90", fo that its fine may
= I, a maximum ; that is, it is the variation anfworing to
the prcfent greateft equation 2c' 49'. 5, for this is the greatcd
equation when a = o, or for 1750, and therefore will be
very nearly fo for the prefent time. Now fuppofe we
wanted to know the equation for May l6, in the year 133,
or in the year 133.37 ; then we multiply a half period by
fuch a number, that the produd added 10 133 may produce
fome year in our Table VI., and then we find ihe equation
for that year ; multiply therefore 45Q 38 by 4, and add it
to 133, and it gives 1970, correfpoiiding to which, the equa-
tion IS 6' 40 '.2 ; now tiic variat:on -of the greatell equation
is I9''.6 for half a period, and therefore it is 4 x iy'.6 =

78".+

JUPITER.

7S" 4 for 4 lialf periods ; lience, the greateft equation 20'
49 '5 : 6' 40". 2 :: 73".4 : 26', which (as the time is before
1750) added to 6' 40". 2, gives 7' 6". 2, the equation for
May 16, 13^;. This, however, is only an approximation.
We calculate for half periods, becaufe then all the argu-
ments return again the fanse. Now from that time to the
given time, that is, July 11, y", the interval is 0.J3 of a
year ; and for 10 years, the increafe of the equation :s I ".7 ;
hence, 10 : 053 ;: i"." : o".og, the variation in 0.53 of a
year; which added to 20' 46', gives 20' 46".09, or 20'
46". 1 , taking it to the aearell tenth of a fecond, the great
equation. The arguments of the great equation are taken
from the year 1780, they not having fenlibly altered from
that time to the given time. The fums of all the columns
give the longitude corretted by the great equation, the
aphelion, the node, and the arguments, for the given time.
The Arguments I, X, XI, are immediately found accord-
ing to the rule. The equation to Argument I. is thus
found : the Argument is 20" 7' 58". Now in Table VII.
the equation anfwering to 20' is — l' 46' 59 ', and the va-
riation for 60' is 5' 9'; hence, 60' : "' 58'' :: 5' 9" : 41",
which (as the equation is increaling) added to — i- 46' 59",
gives — I 7' 40', the equation required. And to find die
fecular variation, that variation is — l6".98 for 20 \ and it
changes o".82 for 60' ; hence, 60' : 7' 58" :: o".82 : o" 1 1,
which (as the variation increafes) added to — 16". 98, gives

17'' 09, the fecular variation correfponding to the given

argument. Now this fecular variation is reckoned from
1750, and from thence to .July ii, 17S0, there has elapied
30.53 years; hence, lOO : 30.53 :: — \~"o<) : — 5" 2, tlie
fecular variation for 30.53 years. With 90S0 take the
equation from Table VIIl. Now the equation is i' 30^.6
for the Argument 9000, and it changes 3".7 for ico;
hence, 100 : 80 :: 3".7 : 3", which (as the equation is in-
creating) added to i 30".6, gives i' 33".6, the equation re-
quired. By proceeding thus to Argument XI. we get all
thefe equations. And by taking the difference of the pofi-
tive and negative parts, we obtain i"4S' 57 '.8, the value of
thefe 1 1 equatiom^ which applied, with the proper fign, to
7' °^ 57 53"-9> g'^*^^ ^^ -9 '^ 5*5 '.I, the longitude of Ju-
piter in his orbit. Now for the reduftion of this to the
ecliptic, we have Argument XII. = 3' 20' 56' 24"; and
the reduftion in Table XXIV. is 4- 17".5 for 3^ 20 ; and
n changes o'' 7 for Go'; hence, 60' : 56' 24" ;: o".7 : o''.7,
taking it to the neareft tenth of a fecond ; and this (as the
reduftion increafes) added to + 17 '.5. gives ^- 3S".2, the
reduftion, which applied to 6' 29 8' 56".!, gives 6' 29 9'
I4' 3, the true heliocentric longitude of Jupiter in his orbit,
from the mean equinox. With Argument XII. enter
.Table XXIII. and the latitude for 3= 20'' is i" 46' 16" N.,
and the variation is 29'' for 60'; hence, Oo' : 56' 24" ::
29" : 27", which (as the equation is dirainifliing) fubtraded
from i"46' 16' N., gives l^ 13' 49" N., the latitude un-
correfted for the fecular variation. Now for 3= 20 56' 24",
the fecular variation is — 20".), as we n ay take it the lame
as for 3' 21'; and the time from 1750 being 30.53 years,
6", the iecular varia-

ve hav

100 : 30.53

20".5 :

tion for 30.53 years, and thus applied to 1-=; 13' 49

13 43"

N., the true heliocentric latiti

jf Ju-

gives
piter.

G'men the heliocentric latitude and longitude of Jupiter ; to
find the geocentric latitude and longitude, and his di/lar.ce from
/he fun and earth.

Example.— 7'5 fnd the geocentric latitude and longitude of

Jupiter, and his dijla
al 5' 49' mean time.

Hel. long. Jupiter
Longitude earth

•from the earth, or. July II,

6 29 9 14..^

9 19 52 28.3

Commut.

2

20 43 14.0

P'M^. [S V E -^ S E -c)
Half Sup. - -

3
I

9 16 46
10 3S 23

8 52 16

Elongation

2

23 30 39

Long, full 4- 20"

3

19 52 28.3

Geo. long.

6

18 23 7.3

Ar. CO. I. fin. 99'' 16' 46"

fin. 18 ^0 39
Tan. hel. lat. i 13 43

; ■"

0.C0573
9.99985
8.33126

Tan. geo. lat. 1 14 39

-

8.336S4

Arg. I.
Secular variation

-

5-43=5^

20

Arg. II.
IV.

-

2S5

2

V.

-

419

Radius vedor

-

5-43978

Log. rad. vec.

0-73S5SI3

Log. cof. hel. lat.

.

9.99990c t

Log. Sv

0.7354814

Log <?.-.+ 10
Log.5£

'-

1C.7354814

0.C071010

Tan. 79" 24' 48" (d)
4>"

1C.7 283804

Tan. 34 24 48
Tan. 49 38 23

'-

9.8357262
1C.070O464

Tan. 58 52 16

99063726

Log. 51;

.

0.7354814

Log. fin. 80° 44' 14''
Ar. CO. 1. fin. 88 30 39

-

9.9942791
0.0001467

Ar. CO. 1. cof. 1 14 39

.

0.0001924

Log. £P = 5.3715

0.7300995

Jupiter, among Alchemifls, fignifics the philofophers'
gold. The gentlemen of this profeffion apply every thing
to their art, which the mythologifts mention of the god
Jupiter, pretending that the ar.cient fables are to be undcrllood
in a figurative fcnfe : for infiance, Jupiter is the mailer of
the gods ; and gold, fay they, is the moft precious of
metals. Mercury is the ambaffador of Jupiter ; and this
fhews with how much eafe Mercury infinuates into every
thing. Jupiter holds the thunderbolt as his fceptre ; which
evidently points out the external fulphur uftd in projection.
Juyiter has the heavens for his ordinary habitation ; this

fhew»

J IT R

fhews him volatile, dry, nixi hot. The debauches of Ju-
piter, who fought for pleafurc in the low, but prolific and
' rhil ear:h, difcover, fay they, irs fecundity, and that
! night be made, were but the way "f preparing it dif-
1 'd. In a word, Jupiter is the fon of Saturn, which
■ fome refemblance between the qualities of gold and

rrxER, iR Chem'ijlry, denotes tin.
i- I'lTsa's Beard. Burba Jovii, in Botany, the name given
to a fpecies oi nnihyllis.

JuPlTEs'.s Br.ru. American, is a fpecies of Amorpha.

JupiTEu's Lijl.-jJ', is a fpecies of Salvi.\ or fage.

Jupiter Fulmtn.ms and Fulgurator. See Fulminant.

JlJl'lTEit, Flamen of. See Flames.

JUPlfS.A.. in Ornithology. See OniOLVS N^morrho:i:.

JUPUJUB.\, the Brafilian name of a bird of the wood-
pecker kind, more commonly known by the name Jupu.
See Oriolus Pirficus.

JUyUER, in Botany. This plant is found in Brafil, and
is of a poifonous nature ; but if we may credit Piio, its root
is its antidote.

JUilA, in Geography, one of the eleven departments of
the ea'lern region of France, compofed of the bailliages of
Djle and .-^val, in 46 ' 40' N lat , between Saone and
Switzerland. It is bounaed on the N. by the department
of the Upper Srjp.?, on the E. by the department of the
Doubs, and the caiuon of Bjrne in S.vitzerland, on tlie S.
by the department of the Aifne, and on the V'. by the de-
partments of the SaoneandLoire.and Coted'Or. Thecapital
is Lons le Saulnier. This department contams 5273^ ki-
liometres, or about iy6 fquare leagues, in four diitn^ls, 32
cantons, and 728 communes ; and 289,8'i5 inh;:bi;ants.
The diilrids or circles are Dole, including 63 581 inliabit-
ants ; Poligny, 69,378; Loiis-le-Saulnier, 107,478; and
St. Claude, 49, 28. Its contributions amount to 2,005,226
francs, and its expences to 225,873 f 1 . 58 cents. The plains
in this department produce gram, wine, fruits, and paftures ;
the hills yield little grain, but abound in pailures and exten-
five forefts. It has mines of copper, lead, iron, folt, coal,
with quarries of marble, t'.one, &c.

Jl'RA, one of the Hebrides, or weftern iflaiids of Scot-
land, 13 lituated oppofitt to the diilricl of Knapdale, in Ar-
gylelhire, to which county it is politically annexed. Its ex-
t.-nt is upwards of thirty miles in length, and, on an average,
feven in breadth. Of ali the weftern iiles. Jura is the moil
rugged,- being chiefiy compofed of mountains of vaft rocks,
apparently piled on each other in the utmoft diforder, with-
out a poffibility ot cultivation. The four principal of thcfe
mountains are termed the Paps-of-Jura ; which form a ridge
fro.Ti iouth to north, nearly through the middle of the
idand. Thefe are confpicuous at a great dillance, and termi-
nate the weilern profpecl from the continent ; from their
fituation and height, they arc frequently enveloped in clouds
and da'knefs. Of thefe four, the fouthern is called Bcinn-
Achaolais, " the mountain of the found,'' from its proximity
to the found of Ifla ; the next, which is the highcll, Bcinn-
an-oir, " the mountain of gold ;"' the third, Beinn-fiicr.nta,
" the confecrated mountain ;" and the northern Corra-hliicn,
" the deep mountain." Pennant reports that he afcended
Beinn-an-oir with great difHculty, and deferibes it as being
compofed of large ftoncs, covered with modes near the
bafc ; but all above were bare and unconneclcd with each
other. «' The whole," he fays, " feems a cahn, the work
of the fons of Saturn." The grandeur of the profpcft
from the fummit, however, compenfaied liim for the fatigue
of the afcent. Jura itfelf afforded a ftupendous tcene of
rock, varied with innumerable fmall lake:, and calculated to

Vol XIX-.

J U R

raife fublime emotions in the mind of the fpeftator. From
the weft fide of the hill ran a narrow Uripof rock, tailed
ths Jl'idc of the ohlhag, and terminating in the fea. To the
fouth appeared Hay, extended hke a r.-,ap ; and beyond it,
the nor! !i of Ireland; to the weft. Gigha and Car«, Can-
tvre and Arran, and the Firth of Clyde, bounded by Ayr-
fl-.ire ; an amazing trafl of mountains to the north-eat!, as lar
asBcn-lomond ; Skarba finiflied the northern view ; and over
the weftern ocean were fcattered Colonfay and Oranfay, Mull,
lona, and the neighbouring group of iilands ; and ftiU fur-
ther, the long extents of Tivey and Col juft apjiarent. Sir
Jofeph Banks and his friends, in their journey to Scotland,
afcended Beinn-fheunta, and found it to be 2359 feet above
the level of the fea ; but Beinn-an-oir exceeds ttiat in height
by 61 feet. The weft fide of the idand is not fit for culti-
vation, being fo wild and rugged, and fo interfered by tor-
rcn's rufliing from the mountains, that no perfon choofes to
make his abtrde in it. All the inhabitan's, therefore, live on
the call fide; where, a ong the margin of the fea, the coaft
is pretty level ; but at a fmall diftance from the ftinre there
is a gradual aicent. The only corn cultivated here is cats
and barley ; potatoes and .lax are alio produced : the only
manure is the fea-wecd, which is caft on fliore. Artificial
grafles are unknov.n ; and lime cannot be procured bv the
poor hiifbandmen. On the eaft co.ift of the ifiand arc tvvo
good harbours : that to the iouth called the Small Ijles ; the
other the Lcwlandman's Bay : there aie alfo fume anchoring
places on the weftern coaft. The mountains of Jura abound
with fev.ral kinds of red deer: and they are are alfo fre-
quented by plenty of groufe and black game Mr. Pennant
mentions his having "Tome obfcure account'' of a wt m, a
native of this ifiand, which, though lefs pernicious, bears
f jme refembl-ince to the Furia infenalis of Linrxus. There
are fcveral barrov.-s and caftelia in the idand ; and on the
coaft, near the harbour of fmali ides, are the nmams of a
very confiderable encam.pment. The ftones of whith the
mountains are formed, are of white or red qiiartzy l raiiite ;
fome of which-are brecciated, or filled with trjilalline ker-
nels of an amethyftine colour. Here is great abiindante of
iron, and a vein o'f the black oxyd of miin/antfe. The cli-
mate of Jura, t!ioui;h neceflarily of a very n.oift character, is
confidered to be viry healthy, and favourable to longevity.
When vifited by Mr. Pennant in 1772, it contained only
about 750 inhabitants ; but in 1793 the ni;mber was 13S7.
The parilh is fuppcfcd to be the l.ugefl in Great Britain ;
and the duty the moll tioublefome and dangerous ; it coni-
prifes Jura, Colonfay, Oronfay, Skarba, and fevtral little
ides, divided by narrow and hazardous fbunds ; forming an
extent of fiKty miles ; the whole of whic:h is fupplied by only
one minitler and an aliiflaiit. Pennant's "Voyage to the
I Icbridef.

.UitA Sound, on the weftern coaft of Argylelhire in Scot-
land, is a very wide channel, except at its northern end,
which feparates Hay, , Jura, Luning, Skarba, and fome
ftnaller idands, from the main Und of Scotland. The found
of Juraconnecl^ with Ida found, Tarbat weft loch, Kilided
loch, Achaftill loch, Crinan loch, and the Crinan cai^l,
Graigncfs loch, S;c. Gliia, Cara, Taxa, Auchurin, Bor-
fill, Mackermores, Craigendive, Rnkcel, Shunda, tind
other fmall idands, are fituatcd in this capacious found

Jl'U.\, [Jttrajli, I.at. ; Juras, Strabo ; Jnu-sag, i.e.
the domain of God or Jupiter, in Celtic), a chain of moun-
tains, defending, like a ftupendous bulwark, the N W. fide
of S.vitzerland. The Jura runs S.S.W. to N.N.F. from
the Vouache in Savoy to the canton of SchafliaufcH, nearly
parallel with the high chain of the Alps ; its width towards
N.W-. being from about 35 to 45 mile?. Its higheft ridge
" 4 M 18

J U R

!3 neaicft to the Alps. Aicencliiig from the plains of Sv\at-
zerlatid, like the fides of a Itceu roof, to the htight of from
two to three thoufand feet, (which elevation it preferves
iic.uly for the whole of its length,) it dcfcribes an undulated
line, here and there divtriificd by riling hills, vliich appear
from fioo to loco feet liigher than the reft of the ch.iin ; and
■it is feen gradually to decreafe in height towards Bnrgnndy.
The moil elevated parts of the Jura (according to Mefiis.
Tralles and Pidet) are, the Dole, 50S2 feet above the level
of the fca ; tlie Mont Tendre, 5170 ; and the lleculet (the
■fumniitof the Thoiry) 5196 feel.

The Jura not attaining the height of the line of fiiow,
is every fpring deprived of its fnowy covering ; nor are gla-
ciers ever feen on it, and it is only in fonie deep grottos, fuch as
thofe behind Nyon, and between the Travcrs and Bevine val-
iies, that pillars and ilabs of ice are found throughout the year.
The pafture-meadows of the Jura are much drier tlian thofe
of the High Alps ; there are, however, in fome of its parts
(for inftar.ce in the canton of Dade) full as btautiful and fertile
alpine meadows as there are in the central chains : indeed
the fame alpine plants are found there which in thofe diltriCls
are feen at the elevation of as mucli as 500 feet above the
level of tlie fea. The brown bear Hill inhabits the weftern
dcfart regions of the Jura, and is remembered to iiave feveral
times made a defcent into the Pays de Vaux. '

The whole Jura confillsof compaiS lime-llone, the ftrati-
ficaf ion of which affet'ts various inclinations. Marie, gypfum,
jpetrifaClions, and iron-ores, are frequently met with almotl
in every part of it ; the iinell and fcarcell petrifaftions are
found in the department of the Jnra, near Orgelet, in a
mountain called Pcroufe. Along the Whole of the E. fide
of the Jura a tlratum of iron-iliot clay may be followed,
which contains the iron-ore called bean-ore, and is wrought
in different places. Here and there ftrata of brown-toal
and fources of afplialtuin are feen in the vallies of the Jura :
they owe tlieir origin to forefts fwallowed up by thofe terri-
ble earthquakes, to which the Jura has been fubject in pall
ages. As geologically remarkable may likewife be men-
tioned the numberlefs blocks of granite and gneifs, difperfed
all along the call fide of the Jura, in fome parts even to the
height of 2400 feet. For a more detailed account, fee
Dr. Ebel's Ban der Erde in dem Alpen gebirge, 1 805.

.]V R.\r AM— J //ifa cadit injurauim. See As.si>i.\.

JUR.\TI. SeejLii.\T.s.

JURATIS, Nonpomndo in. See Nov Pomndo.
; JURATORES, DisTKiNGAs. See Distkingas.

JURATS, JuR.'VTi, magiltrates in the nature of alder-
men, for the government of feveral corporations.

Thus we meet with the mayor and jurats of Maidftonc,

Rye, Winchelfea, &c So alfo Jcrfey has a bailiff and

twelve jurats, or fworn aflillants, to govern the idand.

JURBERG, in Geography, a town of Samogitia ; 20 miles
S.S.W.of Rofienne.

JURBO, a river of South .-America, which runs into the
gulf of Daricn, N. lat. 8" 15'. W. long. 76'. 44'.

JURBY Point, a c?.pe 011 the N.W. part of the Ifle of
"Man, five miles W. of Ramfay. N. lat. 54^^ 23'. W. long.
4^28'.

JURE, De. See De Facto and Possession.

}viv£. Diiino. See /J;^/j/ /o //jc Crow.n and Tithes.

JlKE, Qjio. See Quo Jure.

IVREA, or JuiiE.v, in Geography, a ;pwn of France,
in the department of the Dora, late a city of Piedmont ;
originally a Roman colony, cftabhflied there during the lixth
confulihip of Marius, and the firll of Valerius Flaccus ;
called Eporcdia. Ii is Htuated partly on a plain, and partly

J U R

on the declivity of a hill ; the number of inhabitants is sbouf ■
6000 ; it was the fee of a bilhop, fuffragan of the arch-
bilhop of Turin, and the cathedral is faid to have been an-
ciently a temple of Apollo. It has a callle joining to the town .
and two fortrefles Befides the cathedral, it has three other
paridi churches, and feveral religious houfes : 20 miles N. of
Turin. N. lat. 45 ' 24'. E. long. 7 44'.

JUREV PovoLsKoi, a town of Rufiia, in the govern-
ment of Koftrom, on the Volga ; 73 miles E.S.E. of Kof-
trom. N. lat. 57' 10'. E. long. 43 14'.

JUREVSKA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Olonetz ; 42 miles N.E. of Olgflioi. .

JURGIANY, a town of Lithuania,in the palatinate of
Troki ; 28 miles S. of Eirza.

JURGISTAN, a town of Perfia.in the province of Far-
fiilan ; 105 miles N. of Schiras.

JURIAGUR, atown of Bengal ; 30 miles S.W. of Ro-
gonatpour. N. lat. 23- 45'. E. long. 86 35'.

JURIDICI Dies. See Dies.

JURIEU, Peteii, in Biography, a celebrated Proteftant
divine, was born at Mer, a fmall town four leagues from
Bh>i3, in the year 1637. He received part of his educa-
tion in Holland, but completed his ftudies in England under
his uncle, Peter du Moulin. He was admitted to holy or-
ders in the Englilh epifcopal cluirch ; but on the death of
his fatlicr he returned to fuccecd him at Mer, and fubmitted
to be re-ordained by Prelbyteis according to the Genevan
form. Jurieu, though he differed in many refpefts from'the
reformed, fct himfelf up as a rigorous defender of ortho-
doxy. Either his opinions, or the violence of his temper,
obliged him to quit the church at Mer, and another alfo at
Vi ry, and proved the caufe of many mortifications which
he met with at Sedan, to which he afterwards went^ In
1OS2, through the influence of his friend Eayle, he obtained
the profefforfliip of divinity at Rotterdam, and in conneftiorj-
with this he was appointed minilkr of the Walloon church
in the fame city. In 16S5, Jurieu publiflied " Prejugez legi-
times conlre le Papifme," in two volumes ; which was fol-
lowed, in the year 1686, by a work intitled " ')"he Acfarn-
plilhment of the Prophecies, or the approaching Dclivera-^'.f; .
of the Church:" a work in which it is proved that "Pr^ve'i'..
is the kingdom of Antichrill ; that this kingdom is ..ot far
from its ruin, and that this ruin is very foon to begin : t'nat-
the prefent perfecution cannot continue moie than three-
years and a h.ilf.' With the expetlation which the title of.
this book expreffes he publifhed " Palloral Letters," to
prepare the mmds of the reformed in France for the great-
revolution. The event foon falfified his prediftiwns ; and he
acknowledged he had miftaken the time, but lirmly believed,
that God had raifed up king William to execute his great,
delign of humbling the perfccutor in France, ar.J of bring-
ing about a ipeedy deliverance of the reformed. After this-
he embroiled himfelf in a controverfy with his friend Bayle,.
wliom he ufed extremely ill, as he did many other perlons ■
who were the objects of his diflike, and who objetted to tJie.
extravagance of his opinions. He alfo offended his bell
friends by the irafcibility of his temper in charging M. Sau-
rin and other eminent perfons with heterodoxy. He died at
Rotterdam in 1713. His principal works are "The Hif-
torv of Calvinilm and Popery ;'' " On the Unity of the
Church ;" " An .A bridgment of the Hillory of the CouncU
of Trent ;" " Hillory of the Opiiiions and Religious Cere-
monies of the Jews;" "Sermon?,"' &c. Life of Bayle.
Moreri.

JURIEWICZE, in Geography, a town of Lithuania,,
in the palatinate of Minlk ; 40 miles E. of Minflc.

JURIEWO, ,

J U R

JURIEWCa town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Mini!.- ; 20 miles E N.E. of Minflc.

JURILGUNGE, a town of Bengal, in C!iittigong ;
^^ miles N-NAV. of Ifiamabad.

,II?RIN, Jaues, in Biography, a phyfician of the ma-
thematical feet, was, durin;T feveral years, an aiitivc member
and fecretary of the Royal Society of I^ondon, and, at t'le
time of his death, in 1750, was prefsdont of the College of
Phyf:cians. lie dittiu;;uinied himfelf by a ferics of inge-
t'ions eflays, to the number of fevsnteen, which were pub-
lillied iu the Piiilofophical 'IVanfadlions in the years 1718,
1719, t'<c. ; and afterwards printed collectively, in 17^)2,
ui'der the title of " Phyiico-Mathematical Diil'ertations,"
in which mathematical fcience was applied with conlidcrable
acutenefs to phyfiological fubjefts. Thefe papers involved
him in leveral philofophical controverfies ; full with Keill,

in confequcnce of his calculations in rcga>-d to the force of confulted, th'-ough age and experience, but never pleaded
the contractions of the heart, againll which alfo Senac pub- ^ the bar. Their pleading advocates or lawyers never li

lilhed fome objections, wliich he anfwered. .Turin computed :..-:/• i-i.-

conlraftile force of the heart to be eaual to tiftcen

J U R

among the Romans, was a perfon learned in the law ; a
mailer of the Roman jurifprndence ; wlio was confulted on
the interpretation of the laws and cullums, and the difiicult
points in law-fuits.

The fifteen books of the Digeft were compi'ed wholly
from the anfwers, or reports, of the ancient jurifconfultj.
Trebonianus, in dellroying the two thcnifand volumes from
whence the Code and Digeil were taken, has deprived the
public of many things, which would have given them liglit
into the oiTice of the ancient jurifcoufiilii.

We fliould fcarce have known any ihinsf beyond their
bare names, had not Poniponins, who lived in the fecond
century, taken care to prcferve fome circumllances of their
office.

The Roman jurifconfulti feem to have been the fame with
our chamber counfellors, who arrived at the honour of being

t!;

pounds four ounces ; that of the right ventricle being equal
to fix pounds three ounces, and that of the left to nine
pounds one ounce. To Smith's Syftem of Optics, publiflied
in 17^8, Jurin added " An EfTay upon diiiindt and indif-
tinft Vifion," in which he made fubtle calculations of the
changes neceffary to be made in the figure of the eye to ac-
commodate it to the different dillances of objecls. This
paper was commented on by Robins, to whom .Turin wrote a
reply. He had likewife controverfies with Michclotti re-
fpecting the force of running water, and with the philofo-
phers of tiie fcliool of Leibnitz on living forces. He com-
municated to the Royal Society fome experiments made with
a view to determine the fpecific gravity of the human blood,
and he contributed much to the improvement of their mete-
orological obfervations. He was a warm partifan and an
a£live defender of the practice of inoculation ; and in feveral
publications, giving an account of its inccets from 1723 to
1727, ellablilhed its utility upon the true foundation of a
companion between the refpeCtive mortality of the cafual
and the inoculated fmall-pox. He did not, however, fore-
fee, that this pra ;ice, although preferving the lives of thofe
who had recourfe to it, yet contributed to increafe the mor-
tality in general, in confsquence of keeping up an artilicial
epidemic, as it wtre, by a conllant multiplication of the con-
tagion. His papers in the Philofopli'

the PhilofophiceJ Tranfactions,
, to Ixvi. incluiive. Eloy. DiCt. Hi

papers
to be found in vols. 1
Gen. Biog.

.lURINGL in Gig^^raphy, a town of Japan, in the ifland
of Niphon ; 40 miles W.N.W. of Jedo.

JURLS Uthtm, in La'X', a writ called the par.'im's
writ of right (Booth. 221.), which lies for the parfon of a
church, or prebc-ndary, at common law, and for a vicar by
flat. 14 Ed. HLc. 17. whofe predecelTor hath alienated the
lands and tenements thereof, by which they may recover
lands and tenements belonging to the church, or of which
they were diffelfed ; or which were recovered againil them by
verdict, coufefllon, or default, without praying in aid of the

came jurifconfulti

In the times of the commonwealth, the advoiati had by
much the more honourable employment, as bcinij in the
ready way to attain to the highclt prefei nunt*:. They then
defpifed the jurifconfulti, calling them in derilionyw-mH/rt/jV
and leguk'n, as havi4ig invented certain forms and nionofvl-
lables, in order to give their anfwers the greater appeiu-ance
of gravity and myilery. But in j)rocefs of time they became
fo much elleemed, that they were called /./7«/i«/i/ and _/«/';<«-
tes, and the emperors appointed the judges to follow ilieir
advice. Augulhis at length advanced ihcm to be piil>lic of-
ficers of the empire ; fo that they were no longer conlined
to the petty counfelsof private perfons.

Bern. Rutilius has written the lives of the molt famou.s
jurifconfulti, who have lived within thcl'e t«o thoufand
years.

JURLSDICTION, a power, or authority, which aman
has to do jultice in cafes of complaints made befcne liini.
There are two kinds of jurifdiction ; the owe ecdefi.ijl'.^alt
the oilier ficitlar.

Secular, belongs to the king, and his juiliccs, or dele-
gates.

Til- rn,„t. nn,l judges at Wellmialter have iurifdiaion ail
1' 1 ' . i are not rellranied to anv cour.ty r-r plncK ;

1. rts are confined to their parti.- lirjurif*

li; I . ir they exceed, whatever '.licv do is eiTOne-

ou.-^. There are three forts ofiiif.rior iiirHV.i,:tr i;s ; the lirll
U tenerv pLjc'iIa, to luild pleas aini the pl.iiLtiir ;;i.iy fuceitiier
tliere or in the king's courts Another is tiic conufaixe of
pleas, where a right is invelled in the lord of tlie franchifc
to hold pleas ; and he is the only perfon that can take ad-'
vantage of it. by claiming his franchi.'c. The third fort is
an exempt jurifdiCtion, as where the king grants to fome
city, that the inhabitants fliould be fued within their cic)»

and no
witlilla

ifewhere ; though there

ifdi.

that
rliorar'i to the fuperior courts. i\mong thr
various beneficial regulatioi^s of Edward L he defined,
the limits of the feveral temporal courts of the liighefL
j;;rifdiction, thofe of the king's bench, common pleas, and

patron and ordinary ; or on which any perfon has intruded exchequer, fo as they might not interfer
fince the predeceifor's death. ( F. N. B. 48, 49. ) But fince
the reilraining llatute of 13 Eliz. c. 10. whereby the aliena-
tion of the predecelTor, or a recovery fulfered byhiaiof the
lands of the church, is declared to be aiifolutely void, this
remedy is of little ufe, unlefs where the parlon himfelf has been
deforced for more than twenty years ( I3ooth 221); for the
fuccclFor, at any competent time after his acceffion to the
bcnclice, may enter, or bring an ejeflment.

JURI6CON0ULTUS, Cr JcUtCO.^.'SVLSUS, ICTU.S,

each other's
proper bulinefs : to do wiiich they mull now have recourfe
to a fiction, very neceiTary and ufeful to the prefent en-
larged llate of property. He alfo fettled the boundaries ofj
the inferior courts in counties, hundreds, and manors ; con-
fining them to caules of no jjreat amount, aicording la.
their primitive inllitiition. See Jf.sTKK, and Court.

iVir/(-/?,i/?/V<// jurifdictioR belongs to bilhops and their depu-
ties. See Bi.suop, and Oj-fki \i„

Bii'hops, &:c. have tW4) kinds of jurifdiction ; the one in-^
4M 2 tfimil.

J U R

ierntJyw'tnchh exercifed over the confcicnce in things purtly
fpiritual ; and this they are fiippofed to hold irnmedjately of
God.

The other is contentious, which is a privilege feme princes
have given them in terminating difputes between eccleliadics
and laymen. (See Contentious.) Edward I. gave a mortal
woiind to the crcronchments of the pope and hid clergy, by
limiting and ellablilhing the bounds of eccldia'HcHl jurif-
d'.ftion ; and by obliging the ordinary, to whom all the
goods of intellates at that time belonged, to difcharge the
debts of the deceafed.

Jurisdiction-, Encroachment of, an injiiry, cognizable
by the courts of the comTnon law, v.hich coniiils in calling
one "coram non judice," to anfwcr in a court ihat has
no legal cognizance of the caufe. For this injury the com-
mon law has provided a remedy by the v.rit of prohibition.
See Prohieition-.

JuniSDiCTiox, Pica to the, is where an indiftment is taken
before a court that hath no cognizance of the offence : as
if a man be indiiled for a rape at the fheriff's tourn, or
for treafon at the quarter fefTions : in thefe, or fimilar cafes,
he may except to the i'.irifdicHon of the court, v/itbout an-
fwering at ail to the crime alleged. 2 Hal. P. C. 236. See
Dif-ATORY Pleas.

JURISPRUDENCE, the fcience of what is juil and
v.njiiit, or of the laws, rights, culloms, ilatutes, &c. necelTary
for the doing of jullice.

C/Wjurifprudence is that of the Roman law; canonical
that of the canon i.iw ; and feudal, that of fees.

JURJURA, in Geo^apky, a mountain of Africa, the
hi, heft in Barbary, anciently called the " Mors ferratus."
It is, f.iys Shaw (in his Travels) at leaft eiglit leagues long;
and if we except a pool of good water, bordered round with
ar.-ble ground, that lies near the middle of it, the whole,
from one end to another, is a continued range of naked rocks
and precipices. In the winter feafon the ridge of this moun-
tain is covered with fnow ; and it is remarkable, that whilll
the inhabitants of one fide of it maintain an hereditary im-
pljcable animofity againll thofe of the otiier, yet, by confent,
this border of fnv)w puts a full '.lop to all hoftilitics during
that feafon : v.-hich, hke thofe of the cran.^s and pigmies,
as related by the poet, are renewed wi;hfre!h vi^^our in the
fpring :

Kj^-iCij fi' «f* Taiy» x'XKvy j'^tda rr^oCrc'-'^-

■ I!. -,. V. 7.

Tl'.is mountain lies between Dellys (Rufcurium) and Bou-
jeiah (Saldis).

JURKONE, a town of Hindoollan, in the circar of
Kitchwara ; 15 nuks S. of B'.ubwar.

JURMO, a fmall illand in tlie Baltic, between the ifl.md
of Aland and the coall of Finland. N. lat. 60' 33^. E.
long. 20 52'.

JURO, or Devil's Ifnnd, a fmall ifland in the Gre-
cian Archipelago. N-l.it. 39 33'. E. long. 24' 15.'

JUROCO, a town of Brazil, in the province of Minas
Geraes ; 1 10 miles S.W» of Villa Rica.

JUROR, JuRATOU, in a Legal Setife, is one of thofe
twenty-four, or twelve men, wlio are fworn to deliver truth
\ipon fuch evidence as (hall be given them touching any mat-
ter in quellion.

The puni(hmcnt of petty jurors attainted of giving a ver-
<!ift contrary to evidence, vvdhngly, is very fevere. See
Attaint.

The praflice, heretofore in ufe, of fining, imprifoning, or
cthcrwife punifhing juror i, merely at the difcretion of the
«0dr£, for finding their verdift contrary to the dircftion of

J U R

the judge, was arbitrary, unconftitutional, and illegal, 'and
was treated as fuch by fir Thomas Smith, more than 200
years ago ; who accounted " Inch doings to be very violent,
tyrannical, and contrary to the liberty and cullom of the
realm of England." For, as fir Matthew Hale well ob-
ferves (2 Hal. P. C. 313.), it would be a moft unhappy
cafe for the judge himfelf, if the prifoner's fate depended
upon his direftions : unliappy alfo for the priloner; for if
the judge's opinion mull rule the verdidt, the trial by jury
would be ufelefj. Yet in many in (lances, where, contrary
to evidence, the jury have found the pnfoner guilty, their
verdict hath mercifully been fetafide, and a new trial granted
by the court of king's bench ; for in fuch cafe, as it hath been
faid, it cannot be let right by attaint. But there hath yet
been no inUance of granting a new trial v/here the prifoner
was acquitted upon the firit. 2 Hawk. P. C. 442. IJlackft.
Com. b. iv.

JuKOKS, Challenge to the. See Ch.\llenc.e.

JUROUDA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Chandaree ; i j miles S.E. of Seronge.

JUROZEE, a town of Ruffian' Lithuania ; 80 miles
S.E. of Minsk.

JUR-TCHEREMONSKOI, a town of RnfTm, in the
go\ernment of ToboUk, on tlie Oby ; 68 miles S. W. of
To.-nfk.

JURVA, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Wafa; 32 miles N.N.E. of Chiiitianiladt.

JURUCU.-^, in Zoology, the Brafilian name of a fpecies
of tortoife. This has feet almoft in ftape of wings, the
fore ones about (w inches long, the hinder ones confiderably
Ihorter ; its tail is (hort, and of a conic figure ; its eyes
large and black ; its mouth has no teeth, but refembles the
beak of a bird. It frequently grows to four feet long,
and about three in width ; its ribs are faitened to the (hell,
and are eight on each fide ; the middle ones of thefe are
the longeii, the fore and hinder ones being the fliorter.
The flefn and eggs of this fpecies are very delicately tafted ;
they lay their eggs in holes on the fea-(hore, covering them
over with fand, and leaving them for the fun to hatch them.
There are ufiially a great many very odd figures, like geo-
metrical lines, running in various direftions on the fhell ;
the whole ground of the (hell is ufcally black and very
glofFy, adorned with yellow variegatijns ; but this is no
certain character of the fpecies, the varieties in the colour-
ing of thefe (hells being very great. See Testudo Mydas,

JURUNCAPEBA, in Ichthyology, the name of a fea-
filT), of the turdus or wraiTe khid, caught ibout the (hores
of the Brafils, and called alfo itaiara. It is ufually about
five or fix inches long, about a third part cf its length in
breadth ; its mouth is extremely large aiid wide, and of a
fomewhat triangular figure.

It is caught among the rocks, and is a very delicate fi(h
for tlie table.

JURUNGE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar, on the Bogmutty ; 13 miles W. of Durburgah.

JURURA, in Zoology, the name of a fpecies of tortoife.
common in the Brafils. It is a fmall ki;;d, feldom exc< <
ing ten fingers in breadth, and eight or ni~e in lei:glli,
of an elliptic figure; its under Ihell is about nine fin
long, and four and a half broad, and is flat ; it can at |
fure hide its whole body in the fhell, or thrufl out its i. .
to three fingers' breadth diltance ; the head is tliick
long, the nofe elevated and pointed; the mouth is L.i
and the eyes black ; it lias four long claws on its feet ;
tail is ihort and pointed; and its (l<in is rough and i^ '
The upper (hell is brov/n, the lower yellow ; its egg'-

JURY.

^■T'itc and round, and about half tlie Cue of a hen's egg, and than once infided on, as the principal bul-.v-ark of our li-

are very well tailed. berties. (Sec Jvmcivsi panuiii ) And it has boon ever

JURY, in Common Lav.', fignifies twenty-four, or twelve eftcemed, in all countries capable of appretiating its im-

men, fwoni to inquire of a mnttcr of faft, and declare the portance and utility, a privilege of the highell and moll

tr;:tli, upon fuch evidence as ihall be delivered them touching beneficial nature,
the matter in quelliun. Trials by ju»y in civil caufcs arc of two kinds ; extraor-

_The mode of trial by jury, called a!fo the trial " per dinary and ordinary. The firll fpecies of extraordinary trial

pais," or " by the country," is very ancient, and feems to by jury is that of the grand alTize. See A.«S1ZES.
have been coeval with the civil government cf this nation. Another fpecies of extraordinary juries, is the jury to try

Some authors have endeavoured to trace the original of zn Atta'ml ; which foe.

juries up as high as the Britons themfelves, the firil inha- With regard to the ordinary trial by jury in civil cafes,
bitants of our illand ; it is certain, however, that they were when an ifiue is joined, the court awards a writ of I'enirc
in ufe among the earlielt Saxon colonies, their inlUtution facias, which is accordingly iffued to the (herifF. Thus the
being afcribed by bilhop Nicholfon to Woden himfelf, their caufe Hands for a trial at th: bar of tlie court itfclf, pro-
great legiflator and captain. Sir John Soelman has repre- vided it be of confequence ; but all trifling fuits arc ended
Tented Alfred as the author of trials by juries ; but his proof in tlie court baron, hundred, or county courts. However,
has not been thought to be docifive. Dr. Pettingal, who when the ufage began to bring adions of any trifling value
has found the ufe and praitice of juries amongil the ancient in the courts of Wel'iminfter-hall, it was found very incon-
Greeks and Romans, and who thinks that the rife of the venient to compel the parties, witneffes, and j'.irors, to come
Enghfh jury may be deduced from them, has fupported his from the remoteil parts of the country to try a trivial atlion
opinion with much ingenuity and learning. at Wcftminiler ; and, therefore, the Icgiflature referred

Traces of this mode of trial in Germany have been matters in iffue to the juftices of pffife. Accordingly it was

thought to be vifible in the lOO co-afiefTors, mentioned by enatled by I ; Edw. I. cap. 30. that a claufe oimfi print

Tacitus, as chofen out of the Ingenui, which the lord of a iliould be 'inierted in all the writs of venire facias, by virtue

territory had when he fat in judgment. This number, fays of which the (herifF returned his jurors to the court of the

Mr. Carte, prevailed undoubtedly among the Saxons, as it juftices of afiife, which was fure to be held in the vacation

did likewife in all the northern nations, till fucceeding times before Ealter and Michaelmas terms, and there the trial was

gave occaiion to fome alterations. Thus, among the Danes, had. But this method was inconvenient, and therefore was

the number of thefe aflTciTors was rellramed to twelve in the altered by 42 Edw, III. cap. 11. which llatute ena:led,

time of Redner Ladebrog ; and the fame number is flill that no inquells, except of affife and gaol delivery, (liuuld be

kept up in Sweden. When it was firft thus reduced in taken by writ of tiift prius, till after the fheriff had returned-

England does not appear from any palfage in our old liif- the names of the jurors to the court above. It is now the

torian'!. Neverthelefs, Mr. Carte infers, that this was the courie to make the flierifF's venire returnable on the lad

ellabhflied number in Alfred's time, from his hanging Cad- return of the fame term wherein ilTue is joined, viz. Hilary

wine for fentencin^ a man to that kind of death, without or Trinity terms, which are called iffuable terms ; and he

the afient of all the twelve jurors, upon whom he had put returns the names of the jurors in a panel, i.e. little pane,

himfelf to be tried ; and from the laws which he gave to or oblong piece of parchment, annexed to the writ. This

Gothurn. According to the fame hiitorian, it is very pro- jury is not funimoned, and therefore not appearing at the

bable that Alfred was the author of extending to civil day, mull unavoidably make default : for which reafon a

caufes the trial by jury, which had been, perhaps, ufed be- compullive procefs is now awarded againft the jurors, called

fore only in criminal cafes. Sir William Blackilone con- in the common pleas a u-rit of haber.s corpora juratorum, and

tends, that this is a mode of trial which has prevailed time in the king's bench a iliflringas. The entry, therefore, on

out of mind in this nation. Accordingly he fays, traces the roll or record is, " tliat the jury is rcfpited, through de-

of juries may be fo\iHd in the laws of all thofe nations feft of the jurors, till the lirll day of the next term, then to

which adopted the feudal fyilem, as in Germany, France, appear at We'iminller ; unlcfs before that time, viz. on

and Italy, and in England we find aSual mention of them Wednefday the fourth of March, the jullices of our lord

fo early as the laws of king Ethehcd, and even then not as the king appointed to take allizes in that county fhall have

a new invention. The truth, fir William fays, feems to be, come to the place aiTigned for holding the afiizes, Sec."

that this tribunal was univerfally eflablifhed among all the And as the judges are fure to come and open the circuit

northern nations ; and f^) interwoven in their v.ry coiiili- commiflions on the day mentioned in the writ, the (hccifF

tution, that tl;e earliell accounts of one, jjive us alfe fome returns and fummons this jury to appear at the aflizes, and 1

traces of the other. On the other hand, there are not there the trial is had before the juftices of affize and nifi

wanting confiderable names, who refer the introdu.Slion of prius ; among whom arc ufually two of the judges of the

juries into England to a much later period. Dr. Hickes, courts at Weftminfler, the whole kingdom being divided

who finds the original of this intlitusion in Scandinavia, into fix circuits for this purpofe. If the fheriff be not an

afferts, that it v.'as not known to the Saxons, and that it indifferent pcrfon, or if he be a party in the fuit, or be rc-

•did not take place in our own country till after the Norman lated cither by blood or affinity to either of the parties, the

conqueft. Mr. Harrington and Dr. Henry, in deference, as -ocnire iTiall be dircded, not to him, but to the coroners ;

it (hould principally fec;n, to Dr. Hickes's profound know- and if any exception lies ag-.inft them, to two clerks cf the

ledge in Saxon learning, have given their faniflion to thefe court, or to two perfons of the county named by the court

fentiments : but it clearly appears that they have done fo and fworn, and called elifors, or clciflors, whj (hall indif-

without fu.Ticicnt reafon. The cflablifhment and ufe of ferently name the jury, and their return is final. In order

this mode of trial, in our idand, though for a time greatly farther to remove all fufpicion of partiality, it is provided

impaired and (hakcn by the introdudion of the Norman by the itatutes 4 Edw. III. cap. 2. 8 R;c. II. cap. 2. and

trial by battle, were fo highly efteemed and valued by the 2>S Hen. VIII. cap. 24 that no judge of afTize (hould hold

people, that no conqued, no change of government, could pleas in any county where he was born or inhabits. See

<ver pjevail to aboLfh it. In " Magna Carta" it is more 12 Geo. II. c, 27. and Jl'stice.s of Oyer, &c.

When

JURY,

When the general day of trials is fixed, the plaintiff, or
Jiis atloniey, rhult bi-ing down the record to tlie alUzes,
and enter it with the proper officer, in ordt-r to its being
called in courfe. If it be not fo entered, it cannot be tried ;
therefore it is in the plaintifl's breall to delay any trial by
not carrying down the record, unlefs tlie defendant under-
takes to bring im the trial by giving proper notice to the
plaintiff. This proceeding is called the trial by provifo.
Jiowevcr, this practice hath begun to be difufed, lince the
llatute 14 Geo. II. cap. 17, wiiich cna^.s, that if, after
ilfue joined, the caufe is not carried down to be tried accord-
ing to the courfe of the court, the plaintiff lliall be elkemed
to be non-fuited, and judgment ihall be given as in cafe of
a non-fiiir. .In cafe the plaintiff intends to try the canfe,
he is bound to give the defendant (if he hves within forty
miles of London) eight days notice of trial ; and it he lives
at a greater dillance, fourteen days notice ; and if he changes
his mind, and does not countermand tlie notice fix days be-
.fore the trial, he ihall be liable to pay colls to the defendant
for not proceeding to trial, by the lail-nientioned ftatute.
The defendant, however, or plaintifl", may, upon good caufe
.fhewn to the court above, as upon ablence or ficknefs of
a material witnefs, obtain leave upon motion to defer the
trial of the caufe till the next allizes. But when the caufe
is called on regularly in court, the record is conveyed to
tlie judge, while the jury is called and fworn. To tliis end
the IherifF returns his compulhve procefs, tlie writ of hahtfas
corpora, oT.diJhhi^as, with the panel of iurors annexed, to
tiie judge's officer in court. The jurors contained in the
panel are either fpecial or common juror . See Special ivKY.

A common jury is one returned by the fheriff, according
to the directions of the ftatute 3 Geo. II. cap. 25, which
appoints tliat the (lieriff or officer fhall not return a feparate
panel for every feparate caufe, as formerly ; but one and the
fame panel for every caufe to be tried at the fame afhzes,
containing not lets than forty-eight, nor more than feventv-
two iurors : and that their names, being written on tickets,
jhall be put into a box or glafs : and when each caufe is
called, twelve of thefe perfons, whofe names fhall be liril
drawn out of the box, ihall be fworn upon the jury, unlefs
abfent, challenged, or excufed ; or unlefs a previous view
of the lands or tenements, or other matters in quellian, fhall
have been thought necelTary by the court (flat. 4 Ann.
c. 16.) ; in wliich cafe fix or more of the jurors returned,
to be agreed on by the parties, or named by a judge, or
other proper officer of the court, fliall be appointed to take
fuch a view, and then fuch of the jury as have appeared upon
the view, fhall be fworn on the inqneft, previous to any
otlier jurors.

Lilis of 'the jurors qualified according to the afts 4 & 3:
W. & M. cap. 24. 7 & 8 W. III. cap. 32. and 3 & 4
Ann. cap. 18. are now to be made from the rates of each
parifh. The juIHces at Midfnmmer leffions arc to iffue
warrants to the high conilablei who require the petty con-
ilables to prepare fuch lifts ; and if the high conllables
neglect to iffue their precepts for tliis purpol'e, they fhall
forfeit 16/. Tbefe lifts are to be fixed on the doors of
churches, '.Sec. twenty days before Michaelmas, that public
notice may be ^iven of perfons omitted who are qualitied,
and of perfons inierted, vvhocught to be omitted. (3 Geo.II.
cap. 25.) And ff any perfona are inferted wrongfully, or
omitted for the fake of reward, &c. the petty conftable incurs
a forfeiture of 2s/. Tlic lifts (hall be delivered by the petty
conflables, at Michaelmas feffions, in open court ; or when
thev are fubfcribcd by them, and attetled on oath, and alfo
ligned by the jullice, they ftiall be delivered by the petty
conllables to tlie hig!i conftables, who fhall dehver them,

upon oath, in open court. The conftable failing to niakp
fixh return fliall forfeit 5/. Perfons not qualified may be
difcliarged by the j'.iftices at the feihons. Tlicfe lifts ftiall
be then fairly entered in a book by the clerk of the pe<icc,
on forfeiture of 20/. and duplicates of them fh^tll, during the
feilior.s, or within ten days after, be dehvered by him to the
flierifl", who fliall c lufe the names, with their additions, S:c.
to be entered in a book of his owi! ; and if the iherift" ftiaJl
return any perfon whofe name is not in the duplicates, he is
liable to a fine not exceeding 10/. nor lefs than 40.'.
(3 Geo. II. cap. 25.) Every fummons of jurors (liall be
made by the flieriif, his officer, or lawful deputy, fix days
before the feihon:: at leaft, in Wales eight days before ; and
in the counties palatine fourteen days before ; and the pe-
nalty of neglect, or of excufing any perfon for favour or
reward, is 20/. by 7 & 8 W. cap. 32, or a fine of lo,'.
or under, impofed by the judge of affize. (3 Geo. II.
cap. 25.) No perfon ftiall be fummoned, who has ferved
within one year before in the county of Rutland, or two
years b;fore in any other county, not being a county of a
city or town, and except the counties of York and Middle-
fex, under a fine not exceeding 5.'. Every perfon who has
ferved, fliall have a certificate gratis, teftifying his attend-
ance. (3 Geo. II. cap. 25.) In the county of York,
jurors fliall not be returned above once in four years ; and
the flieriff neglefting his duty ftiall forfeit 100/. and for not
difcharging a juror, who has ferved within four years, and
giving notice to the party fummoned, fix days before the
alhzes or feffions, ftiall forfeit 20/. to the party with full
colls. (7 & 8 \V. cap. 31. 3 & 4 Ann. cap. 18. and
10 Ann. cap. 14.) In the county of Middlefex, no perfon
fhall be returnable to ferve as a juror, at any feffions oi ni/i
prills, who hath been returned in the two term.^ or vacations
next before, on pain of the fheriff being fined by the judge
5/. or under. (4 Geo.- II. cap. 7.) And by '7 & 8 W .
cap. 32. the inhabitants of the city and liberty of Weflmin-
fler Ihall be exempted from ferving on any jury at the fef-
fions for Middlefex, by reafon of their attendance at the
courts of Weilminiler. By the common law, jurors re-
turned, and not appearing, fhall lofe and forfeit the ifl\ies
returned upon them. And if a juryman be called, and,
being prefent, refule to appear ; or, having appeared, with-
draw before he be fworn, the court may fine him at their
difcretion. (35 Hen. VIII. cap. 6 ) And by 29 Geo. II,
cap. 19. a juror not appearing and ferving in any court of
record within the city of London, or in any other city or
town corporate, liberty or franchife, after being openly call-
ed three times, &c. fh;Jl, without reafonable excufe, be fined
not more than jps nor lefs than 201. And by 3 Geo. II.
cap. 2J. in caufes of n//; prius, every perfon whofe name
ftiall be drawn, and who fhall not appear without reafonable
excufe, ftnll forfeit not exceeding 5/. nor lefs than 40/. If
a juror take a bribe of either party, he fnall forfeit ten times
as much as he hath taken. (5 Edw. III. cap. 10.
34 Edw. III. cap. 8. 38 Edw. III. flat. i. cap. 12.)
if a wan affault or threaten a juror for giving a verdici
againft him, he is punifhable by fine or imprifonment ; and
if he ftrike him in the court, in the piefence of a judge of
affize, he ftiall lofe his hand and. his goods, and profits of his
lands during life, and fufter perpetual imprifonment.

The jury is to be chofen of the fame clafs or rank with
the parties, and by the policy of the ancient law, the jury
was to come Je viciiifto, from the neighbourhood of the
vill or place where the canfe of atlion was laid in the decla-
ration, and for want of this, the array might be challenged
for defect of hundredors. However, this pradice was en-
tirely aboliihed by 4 & 5 Ann. cap. 16. upon all civil

actions.

JURY

a£Hons,- except upon penal" ilatutfs : and upon thofe alfo
by the 24 Geo. II. cap. ifi. t!ie jury being now only to
come, tU corppre coniitalus, from the body of the county at
large, and not di iHCinelo, or from the particular ncighbour-
liood. It is. alfo cnaC.k'd by 28 Edw. III. cap. 13. en-
forced by 8 Hen. V"I. cap. 2(j. that where either party is
an alien born, the jury fliall be one half aliens, and the other
denizens, if required, for the more impartial trial. But
y.'here both parties are aliens, the whole jury arc directed to
be denizens, by 21 Hen. VI. cap. 4. For other grounds of
challenge and qualification of jurors, fee Cif.M.i.KNOE.
Jurors in London .uid Weftniinilcr mull not only be houfe-
keepers, but have lands or goods uorlli one hundred pounds ;
and they may be e.\aniincd on oath as to that point.
(3 Geo. II. cap. 2) ) All cities, boroughs, and corporate
towns, are excepted out of the aft that fettles the qualifica-
tions of jurors flir county alii/ces or fefTions ; and triers of
felons in corporations may ba men worth 40/. in goods,
though they have no freehold. Jurors in the torn (Iiall have
20J-. a-year freehold, or ids. 8./. copyhold. Any perfon
V hatfoever is capable of being put upon the jury in a court-
leet, and upon the coroner's jury. The qualifications of jurors,
with regard to ellate, depend upon a variety of Itatutes. But
by the lall (latute 3 Geo. II. c. 25. any leafe-liolder .*br
the term of joo years abfolute, or for any term determinable
upon life or lives, of the clear yearly value of 20/. per annum,
over and above the rent referved, is qualified to ferve upon
jiiries. By the common law every grand-juryman ought to
be a freeman (i Hawk. 255); and a freeholder (2 H.
H. 155.) But in Yorkfhire, they ought to have 80/.
a-year, freehold or copyhold. (7 & 8 W. c. 32.) Perfons
excufed from ferving on juries are thofe that are fick and
decrepit ; thofe not commorant in the county, and men
above feventy years old, by 13 Edw. I. c. 38. and by
7 & 8 V/ill. III. c 32. infants under twenty-one. This
coemption is alfo extended, by divers ftatutes, cuftoms, and
charters, to phyficians, and other medical perfons, counfel,
attornies, ofHcers of the courts,_ and the like ; all of whom,
if impannelled, mull (Tiew their fpeclal exemptions. Difient-
fng teachers, qualified under the toleration acl, are exempted,
and alfo quakers. Clergymen are aifo ufually excufed ; but
if they are feifed of land and tenements, they are ftriftly liable
to be impannelled in refpetl of their lay fees, unlefs they
be in the fervice of the king, or of forac bifliop.

If, by means of challenges or other caufe, a fufficient
number of unexceptionable jurors doth not appear at the
trial, either party may pray a tales. When the legal num-
ber of twelve is obtained, they are then feparately fworn,
well and truly to try the ifTue between the parties, and a
true verdift to give,, according to the evidence ; and hence
they are denominated theyary, jiirata, and jurors, fc. jura-
tares. Pleadings are then opened to them by counfel on
that fide which holds the affirmative of the quellion in iflne ;
the nature 01 the cafe, and the evidence intended to be pro-
duced'arc next laid before them by counfel alfo on the
fame lide ; and when their evidence is gone tiirouyfi, the
advocate on the other fide opens the adver."!; cafe, and fup-
ports it by evidence ; and then the party which began is
heard by way of reply. See Evidknck.

As to fuch evidence-as the jury may have in their own
confciences, by their private knowledge of facts, it was. an
ancient doftrine, that this had as much right to fway their
judgment as the written or parol evidence which is delivered
in court; and, therefore, it hath been often held, that
thoU:,'h no proofs be produced on either fide, yet the jury
mi^ht bri<ig in a verdift. But this doftrine was gradually
exploded, when attaints began to be difuled, and new trial*

introduced in their ileaJ. And if a juror knows any thin!»
of the matter in iffue, he may be fworn as a witncfs, and give
his evidence publicly in court. When the evidence on both
fides is gone through, the judge, in the prcfence of the parties ,
the counfel, and all others, fums up the whole to the jury ;
who, unlefs the cafe be very clear, withdraw frtmi the bar
to conlider of their vcrdift ; and, in order to avoid intempe-
rance and caufelefs delay, they are to be kept without meat,
drink, fire, or candle, unlefs by permiffion of the judge, till
they are all unanimoully agreed. And if they cat or drink,
or have any eatables about them, without coHfent of the-
court, and before verdict, it is finable ; and if they do fo
at his charge for whom they afterwards find, it will fct afidc
the verdict. Alfo, if they fpeak with either of the parties
or their agents, after they are gone from the bar, or if tliey
receive any fredi evidence in private, or if, to prevent dif-
putes, they call lots for whom they fliall find, any of thefe-
circumfiances will entirely vitiate the verdift. And it has
been held, that if the jurors do not agree in their verdiA
before the judges are about to leave the town, though they
are not to be threatened or i.Tiprironcd, the judges are not
bound to wait for them, but may carry them round the cir-
cuit from town to town in a cart. When they are all unani-
moiilly agreed, the jury return back to the bar ; and before
they deliver their verdid, the plaintiff is bound to appear iiv
court, by himfclf, attorney, or counfel, in order to aiifwcr
the amercement, to which by the old law he is liable, in
cafe he fails in his fuit, as a punifhment for his falfe claim ;
a form which is llitl continued, though the amercement is
difufed ; and if the plaintiff does not appear, no verdicl can
be given, bat tiie plaintiff is faid to be nonfuit. But in
cafe the plaintiff appears, the jury by their foreman ^Ielivcr
in their verdicl. When the jury have delivered in their
verdidl, and it is recorded in court, they are then difchargcd.
Such is the procefs of trial by jury in civil cafes ; a trial
which, befides the other vail advantages winch altend it, i;;
as expeditious and cheap, as it is convenient, equitable, and
certain. On thefe accounts, fays judge Blackilone, " the
trial by jury ever has been, and I trail ever will be, looked
upon a-, the glory of the Englilh law." It is " the moll
tranfccndent privilege which any fubjecl can enjoy, or wifh
for, that he cannot be affedcd either in his property, his
liberty, or his perfon, but by the unanimous coiifent of 12
of his neighbours and equals. A conllitution, that I may
venture to affirm, has, under Providence, fecurcd the julk
liberties of this nation for a long fucceffion cf ages, and
therefore a celebrated French writer ( Monti: fquieu), wJio-
concludes, that becaufe Rome, Sparta, and Carlhagej have
loll their liberties, therefore thofe of England .muft in time-
perifh, fliould have recolleftcd, that Rome, Sparta, and.
Carthage, at the time when their liberties were loll, wer---.
llrangers to the trial by jury." This trial by jury, which
is the grand bulwark of our liberties, as Enghfhmen, is
fecurcd to us !)y the great charter, .^Heu.IlI. c. 19. The
anticpiity and excellence ofthis trial, for the fettHng of civil.
pro;)erty, have been already- brielly fiated. But if it has f *
(Treat advantage in regulating civil property, how much mnit
that advantage be heij'htcned, when it is applied to criminal
cafes 1 " In times of diflicidty and danger," as Blackiloiur
has wellobfervcd, ." more is to be apprehended from tho
violence and partiality of judges appointed by the crown,
in fuits between the king and the fubjec^,- than in difputes
between one individual and another, to fettle the me-tes and
boundaries of private property. Our law has therefore
wifely placed this llrong and twofold barrier, of a pn-fent-
ment and a trial by jury, between the liberties of the people,
and the pretogalive of the ctowu," — «' The founders of tho
^ " Eiighfl^

JURY.

EnglilK h\v have with excellent forecaft contrived, that no
man (hould be called to anfwer to the king for any capital
Ci-ir.'.e, iinlefs upon the preparatory accufation of 12 or more
of lus fellow-fubjpfts, the grand jury ; and that the truth
of every accufaticn, whether preferred in the (liape of in-
diclment, information, or appeal, Aiould afterwards be con-
firmed by the unanimous fultraije of 12 of his equals and
neighbours, indiiferently chofen, and T perior to all fufpi-
cion. So that the liberties of England cannot Lnt fubfift,
fo long as this palladmm remains fucred and inviolate : not
only from all open attacks, (which none wi'l be fo hardy as
to make), but alfo from all fecret machinations, which may
fap and undermine it ; by introducing new and arbitrary
methods of triil, by juftices of the peace, commiflioners of
the revenue, and courts of confcience. A nd however cot-
irnicai thefe may appear at firft, (as, donhtlefs, all arbitrary
powers, well executed, are the moft convenient,) yet let it be
again remembered, that delays, and little inconveniences in
the forms of juftice, are the price that all free nations mull
pay for their liberty in more lubftantial matters ; that thefe
inroads up.m this facred bulwark of the nation are funda-
mentally oppofite to the fpirit of our conttitution ; and that,
thou^di be^un in trifles, the precedent may gradually in-
creafe and fpread, to the utter difufe of juries in queitions
of the moll momentous concern."

In criminal cafes, it is provided by the equity and lenity
of the Enghfli laws, that no man (hould be call;d to an-
fuer fr.r any capital crime, unlefs, as we have already ftatcd,
upon the preparatory accufation of twelve or more of his
fellow-fubj-'dts, called the _fri7:!^ jury. This iury coniiders
all bills of indidment againll criminals preferred to the court,
which they either approve or find, by writing upon them
liiHa "vera, or difallow, by indorfing igncremus, and i^enerally
confifts of gentlemen that are freeholders of fupcrior quality
to thofe who form the ft/it jury, who try the prifoners m-
difted by the other jury, and convidl them by verdi-t.

When a prifoner, on his arraignment, has pleaded not
guilty, and for his trial hath put himfelf i:pon the country,
which country the jury are, the ftierifF of the county mull
return a panel of jurors that are freeholders, wi'hout juft
exception, and of the ■vi/nc, or ncighbourheod, i. e. of the
county where the faft ij committed. If the proceedings are
before the court of kuig's bench, there is a time allowed,
between the arraignment and the trial, for a jury to be im-
panelled by a writ of vcr.'ne faaas to the (herifF, as in civil
cauftrs ; and the trial in cai'e of a mifdemefnor, is had at ti'ifi
priu!, unlefs it be of fuch confequence as to m.erit a trial at
bar ; which is always invariably had, when the prifoner is
tried for any capital offence. Bnt, before commiflioners of
cycr and terminer, and jjaol dehvery, the fheriff, by virtue of
a general precept, direfted to him beforehand, returns to the
court a panel of forty-eight iuiors, to try all felons that may
he called upon their trial at that feffion ; and, therefore, it is
ufual to try all felons immediately, or foon after their
arraignment. But perfons indicled of fmaller mifdemefnors,
ufually give fecurity to the court to appear, for trial at the
next afiizes or feffion. See IsDlCTMENT.

When the trial is called on, the jurors are to be fworn,
as they appear to the sumber of twelve, unlefs they are
challenged by the party. (See Cii.\LLKXC;e, l^ fupra)
Tales may be awarded as in civil caufos, till the number of
twelve is fwoni, " well and truly to try, and true deliver-
ance make, between our fovereigu lord the king, and the
prifoner whom they have in charge ; and a true verdid to
give, according to the evidence." When the jury is fworn,
if it be a caufe of any confequence, the indictment is ufually
opened, and the evidence itated by the counfel for the cro^wn.

or profecution. But it is a fettled rule at common laxv
(inconliilent, indeed, with the humane treatment of prifon-
ers by the Englifh laws, but palliated by the declaration of
law, that the judge Ihall be counfel i -x the prifoner, t.t.
(lull fee th't the proceedings again il him are legal and
ftrictly regular) that no counfel (hall be allowed a prifoner
upon his trial, upon the general iflue, in any capital crime,
unlefs fome point of law (lioiild arife proper to Ije debated.
(2 Hawk. P.C. 400. ) However, the judges never fcruple
to allow a prifoner counfel to (land by Inm at the bar, and
inilrnft him what qucftions to a(k, or even to aik queftions
for him, with refpecl to matters of fjfl ; for as to matters
of law, arifmg on the tria', they areentilkd to the afTiilance
of counfel. When the evidence on both fides is clofed, the
jury cannot be difcharged, (unlefs in cafes of evident
ncceffity,) till they have piven in their vcrdicl ; but are to
confider of it and deliver it in, with the fame forms as upon
civil canfes ; only that they cannot, in a criminal cafe, give
a privy vcrdift. (2 Hal. P C. 3C0 2 Hav.k. P. C. 439 )
But nn open verd.ft may be euiier genera', guilty or not
guilty ; or fpecial, fetting forth all the circumftances of
the cafe, and praying the judgment of the court, whether,
for inftance, on the facts ftatcd, it be m.urder, man (laughter,
or no crime at all. (See VtnniCT and JuiiORs.) If the
jur)- find the prifoner not guilty, he is then for ever dif-
charged of the accufation, except he be aj pealed of felony
within the time limited by bw. (See Aiteal.) And
upon (nch his acquittal, or difcharge for want cf profccu-
tion, he (hall be immediately fet at large, without paynent
of any fee to the gaoler. (Stat. 14 Geo. III. c. 20.) But
if they find him giulty, he is faid to hi conviSeJ of the crime
whereof he (lands indicted. On a conviction for any felony,
in general, the reafonabie expences of profecution are, by
(lat. 25 Geo. II. cap 36 aad 18 Geo III. c. 19. to be al-
lowed to the proiecutor out of the connty llock, if he peti-
tions the jndge for that purpofe ; and if he be poor, a com«
pcnfation for his trouble and lols of time ; and by 27 Geo. II.
cap. 3. explained by ftat. 18 Geo. III. c. 19. poor perfons
bound ovL-r to give evidence are likewife entitled to be paid
their charges, as well without convidlion as with it. More-
over, on a conviction of larceny in particular, the profecutcr
(hall have reilitution of his goods, by 21 Hen. VIII. cap. 11.
which enadls, that if any perfon be convifted of larceny by
the evidence of the party robbed, he (hall have full reilitu-
tion of his money, goods, and chattirls ; or the value of
them out of the offender's goods, if he has any, by a writ
to be granted by the jullices ; and this writ iTiall reach the
ftolen goods, though the property of ihem is transferred to
another by fale in open market, (i Hal. P.C. 543.) With-
out fuch writ of reilitution, the party may peaceably retake
his goods wherefoever h'e finds them. And if the felon be
convicled and pardoned, or allowed his clerg;,', the parry
robbed may bring his action of trover againft him for his
goods, and recover a fatisfaftion in damages. Such are the
proceedinijs and confequences of a trial by jury in criminal
cafes. S^-e Blackll. Comm. book iii. iv.

Jury, Special. Where it is conceived that an indifferent
impartial jury will not beretnrncd between party and party
by the (heriff, the court upon motion will order the (heri(r
to attend the fecondary of the king's bench, with his book
of freeholders of the county ; and the fecondary, in the
prefence of the attornics on both fides, is to ftrike a jury.
And when a caufe of confequence is to be tried at the bar,
the court of king's bench, on motion and affidavit made,
will make a rule for the fecondary to name forty-eight free-
holders ; and each party is to (Irikc out twelve, one at a
time, the plaintiff, or Jiis attorney, beginning nrft : and

fro in

J u s

from the remainder the jury for the trial are to be drawn.
'I'his is called \x fpeeial ]nTy .

By the ftat. 3 Geo. II. cap. 2j. either party is entitled
upon motion to have a fpecial jury ftruck upon the trial of
any ifTue, as well at the a.Tizes as at bai- ; he paying the
extraordinary expence, unlefs t\a judge's writ certify, in
purfuance of the (lat. 24 Geo. II. cap. 18. that the caufe
required fuch fpecial jury. And no perfon ferving on a fpe-
cial jury fhall be allowed more than the fum which the judge
fhall think reafonublc, not exceeding one guinea, except in
cafes where a view is directed. When any fpecial jury Ihall
be ordered by rule of the court of Weilminfter, in any
caufe arifingin any city, &c. the jury is to be taken out of
lifts, or books of perfons qualified, which fliall be produced
by the (heriffs, &s. before the proper officer. The fame in-
dulgence is granted botli to merchants and foreigners ; for
where two merchants are plaintiff and defendant, a jury of
merchants may be returned to try the iflue between them ;
and if either of the parties in the fuit be an ahen, the jury,
at the defire of the party, is to be compofed of half foreigners
and half Engliih.

Juries, ClerL of the. See Clerk.

Jury of Matrons. See Matrons.

JURY-MAST, an appellation given by feamen to a tem-
porary or occafional mail, patched up of yards, or other
pieces of timber, and fet up in the room of a true mafl,
which has been loll in a light, or by a Itorm.

JURZEC, in do^mphy, a town of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of Minik ; 20 miles N. of Rohaczow.

JUS, and JcRA. See Law, Right, &c.

Jus accrefcendi, in Law, is the right of furvivorfhip be-
tween joint-tenants.

Jus ad rem, is an inchoate and imperfeft right, fuch as a
parfon promoted to a living acquires by nomination and in-
ilitution ; in contradillinction to the jus in re, or complete
and full right, by corporal pofTefTion.

Jus Anglorum, denotes the law and cuftoms of the Weft
Saxons, in the time of the heptarchy, by which the people
were for a long time governed, and which were preferred be-
fore all others.

Jus corona, rights of the croiun, is part of the law of Eng-
land, which differs in many things from the general law con-
cerning the fubjeft. Coke en Litt.

The king may purchafe lands to him and his heirs, but
he is feifed thereof injure corona ; and all the lands and poffef-
fions,' whereof the king is thus feifed, fhall follow the crown
in defcents. &c. See Prerogative.

Jvscurialitatis Anglie. See CouRTESY.

Jus dupl'icatum. See Right.

ivsjiduciarium, in the Roman Law, a right in truft for
which there was a remedy in confcience.
. Jvsgentium, is the law by which kingdoms, and fociety in
general, are governed.

.Ivs g/adii is mentioned in our Latin authors, and the Nor-
man laws, where it fignifies a fupreme jurifdidlion. Camd.
And hence it is, that at the creation of an earl, he is faid to
be gladlofucc'mSus, to lignify that he had a jurifdidlion over
the county of which he was made earl. See Ple^vs of the
Siuord.

Jus imaginum was the foundation of civil nobility among
the Romans, and denoted having the image of one anceftor
at leaft, who had borne fome curulc office.

Jus legilimum, in the Roman Larv, a legal right which
was remedied by the ordinary courfe of law.

Jus patronalus, is a commilfion granted by the bifhop to
fome perfons to enquire who is the rightful patron of a church.
If two patrons prefent iheir clerks, the bifhop ftiall deter-
. Vol. XIX,

JUS

mine who fhall be admitted by right of patronage, J:c. o»
commilfion of enquiry by fix clergymen and fix laymen, liv-
ing near the churcii ; who are to enquire on articles as a
jury, whether the church is void ? whoprefcntcd laft ? who
is the' rightful patron ? &c. But if coparceners fcverally
prefent their clerks, the bifhop is not obliged to award a
jus palronatus, becaufe they prefent under one title ; and arr
not in like cafes, where tv.o patrons prefent under fevcral
titles. The awardini.^ s. jus patronalus is not of neceffity,
but at thepleafure of the ordinary, for his better informa-
tion who hath the right of patronage : for if he will athi.^
peril take notice of tie right, he may admit the clerk of
cither of the patrons, without z jus patronalus.

Jls precarium, in the Roman Laiv, a right in courtefy, for
which the remedy was only by intrcaty or rcqueft.

Jus quale. See OuAl.Kyuj.

Jus toga. See Toga.

JUSKPOUR, in Geography, a circ.-ir of Hindooftan, in
the cotintry of Oriffa, bounded on the N. by Surgooja, on
the E. by a part of Bahar, on the S^. by the circars of
Gangpourand Ruttunpour, and on the W. by Ruttunpour.
The capital is Odeypour.

JUSOFIE, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hads.
jar, on the S. coaft of the Perfian gulf. N. lat. 25^ 34'. E.
long. JO 30'.

JUSQUIAMUS, in Botany, a name ufed by fome au-
thor.' for the hyofcyamus, or henbane.

JUSSAUHA, m Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Moultan ; 14 miles W. 0? Toulomba

JUSSEY, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Saone, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Vefoul, fituated on the Amance ; i j miles N. W. of Vefoul.
The place contains 3033, and the canton 14,776 inhabitants,
on a territory of 227 J kiliometres, in 22 communes. N.
lat. 47" 49'. E. long 5" 59'.

JUSSIiEA, in Botany, fo named by Linnoeus, (who, as
it appears by his Tour in Lapland, v. i. 284, had at firft def-
tined for this purpofe the plant he afterwards called Sibbal-
dja,) in honour of the two illuftrious brothers Antony and
Bernard de Julfieu. The former was profefFor of botany at
Paris, and wrote numerous papers in the Memoirs of the
academy, being alfo the editor of the work of Barrelier. He
was born at Lyons in 1686, and died at Paris, where he
prajtifed medicine, in 175S, aged 72. His brother Ber-
nard, a firft rate botanift, who, as Waller obfervcs, was de-
terred by excefs of modefty from giving his ideas to the
world, was one of tlie firft who laboured at a natural fyileni
of arrangement. His nephew, the prefent A. L. deJulTieu,
has given us a plan of his method, according to which the
garden of Trianon was arranged in 1759, and which in fact
laid the foundation of his own celebrated work, pub!ilhed
in 1789. Bernard de Juflieu was demonttrator of botany at
the Jardin du Roi, and died in 1777, aged 79. A third
brother, Jofeph, travelled to South America as a furgeon,
and fent home di-ied fpecimens of many curious plants. —
Lmn. Gen. 21J. Schreb. 292. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2.574.
Mart. Mill. Diet. v. 2. Ait. Hort. Kcw. v. 2. 63. Jiiff- 319.
Lamarck. Uluftr. t. 280. Gsertn. t. 31 — Clafs and order,
Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Calycanthema, Linn. Oiia-
gra, Julf.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth fupcrior, in five, (fometiraes but
four,) ovate, acute, permanent fcgments. Cor. of five,
(fometimes but four,) roundifti, fpreading, feflile, equal
petals. Stam. Filaments ten, (fometimes eight,) very fhort,
thrcad-fliaped ; anthers roundifh. P'l/}. Germen oblong,
prifmalic, inferior; ftyle thread-ftiaped ; ftigma capitate,
flat, marked with five flreaks. Pcric. Capfide oblong, an-
A N ffubr.

JUSSIiEA.

gular, of four or five cells, burfting at the angles, crowned
with the calyx. Serds numerous, fmall, fmooth, and po-
lifhed, difpoied in rows upon the angles of the central co-
lumn, vvliich are oppofite to the partitions, the latter origi-
nating from the centre of each valve. See Gartner.

EIT. Ch. Calyx fuperior, of four or five leaves. Petals
four or five, equal. Capfule of four or five cells, oblong,
burfting at the angles ; partitions from the middle of the
valves. Seeds numerous, minute.

Obf. Gasrtner afferts the difference between this genus
and (Ettothera to be merely faftitious and imaginary. In
our opinion the permanent, leafy, equal calyx, deftiuite of
a tube, and the fmooth, round, not angular nor fpongy,
feeds, are fufficient to mark Juffiaa, not to mention the un-
divided iUgma, which in this tribe is perhaps of no great
moment. — As to its place in the Linnian fyllem we are lefs
decided, and think Lamarck moft correft in removing it to
OSandr'ia.

The greater number of the fpecies are natives of the
warmer parts of America ; a few are found in the Eaft
Indies, or in Guinea. Linnxus defines five in his Specks
Plantarum ; Wilidenow has twelve.

1. J. repeiis, Linn, Sp. PI. 5JJ, (Nir-carambu ; Rheede
Hort. Mai. v. 2. 99. t. 51. _) — Stem creeping. Leaves obo-
vate, obtufe. Flowers five-cleft. Calyx -leaves lanceolate. —
This is truly an Ea!l Indian fpecies, growing in watery
places, and throwing out from its procumbent branched

Jlem, large tufted fibrous perennial roots. The herbage is
fmooth. heaves alternate, ftalked, obovate, entire, veiny,
obtufe, often emarginate, an inch or more in length. Flo-Tvers
on folitary, fjmple, axillary ttalks, fliorter than the leaves,
but the ripe fruit and ftalk together are about as long as
each leaf. Segments of the calyx five, lanceolate, narrow,
acute, entire. Petals five, roundifh, whitifh, with orange-
coloured claws. -J. adfcendeiis, Linn. Mant. 69, appears
to be the very fame plant, defcribcd from a fpecimen, where-
as J. repens was originally taken up from books.

2. J. inclinata. Linn. Suppl. 235, (J. ereda ; Amoen.
Acad. V. 8. 256.) — Stem afcending. Leaves obovate, ob-
tufe. - Flowers four-cleft. Calyx-leaves elliptical, broad —
Sent from Surinam by Dalberg, being a part of the collec-
tion preferved in fpirits, which king Guftavus III. gave
Linnxus. The latter at firll miftook this fpecies for a to-
tally different one, ereita. It is more akin to repens, but
larger, and the above fpecific charadter fufficiently marks it.
The very hro:\d ca/yx-leaves are remarkable.

3. J. ptruviana. Linn. Sp. PI. JJJ. (Onagra laurifolia,
flore amplo pentapetalo ; Feuill. Peruv. 716. t. 9, not II.)
— Stem, ereft. Leaves elhptic-lanceolatc, acute, roughifh.
Flowers four or five-cleft. Calyx-leaves ovate, pointed,

toothed. — Gathered by Feuillce about the fides of rivers
the plain of Lima. He reports that the natives highly

eileem the bruifed leaves, as a coohng application to difpel
tumours. Mutis fent Linnieus a fpecimen from Mexico,
which anfwers precifely to Feuilice's plant, except the^ow.rs
being four-cleft, upon which we lay no Itrc-fs. The toothed
calyx in our'sis remarkable. The petals are large and yellow.
Leaves roughifh with fhort, rigid, fcattered hairs ; their
under fide pale.

4. J. Inrta. Willd. n. 6. (CEnothera hirta ; Linn. Sp.
PI. 491. Onagra frutefcens et hirfuta, nerii folio, flore
magno luteo ; Plum. Ic. 167. t. 174. f. 2.) — Stem erett,
hairy. Leaves elhptic-lanceolate, acute ; hairy beneath.
Flowers four-cleft. Calyx-leaves ovate, pointed, entire. —
Known to us only by Plumier's figure, who gathered it in
fome part of South America. If that figure be exaft, the
entu-e calyx, and more hairy herbage, diilinguifli it from the

lafl. Wilidenow has properly followed Swartz and Vahl in
removing it from CEnothera.

5. J. pubefter.s. Linn. Sp. PI. 555. Loefl. It. 282.
n. 205 — Stem upright, hairy. Leaves oblong. Flowers
five or fix-cleft. Calyx-leaves lanceolate, pointed, hairy
beneath — Gathered by Loefling in South America. We
have an unnamed fpecimen which anfwers well enough to
the fliort accounts cf this fpecies given by authors. Of the
fynonym of Sloane we do not prefume to judge with cer-
tainty, but it appears to belong to J. peruviana. The
Jlem of- cur plant is ereft, clothed with loofe, fpreading,
white hairs, as are alfo the leaves more or lefs, the long
{lender germen, and backs of the calyx-leaves. The latter
are fix in every flower we have examined, lanceolate, taper-
pointed, wavy, fcarcely crenate, very fmooth above. Petals
fix, white or yellowifh. Leaves linear-lanceolate, near two
inches long, on fliort hairy ttalks.

6. i.fuffruticofa. Linn. Sp. PI. 555. (Cattu-carambu ;
Rlieede Hort. Mai. v. 2. 97. t. 50.) — Stem erect, much
branched. Leaves lanceolate, downy. Flowers four-cleft.
Calyx-leaves ovate, downy beneath. — Native of the Eaft
Indies, flowering during the rainy feafdn. The whole plant,
two or three feet high, is ufually clothed with denfe foft
pubefcence, though occafionally nearly fmooth. Leaves
numerous, lanceolate, almoll feffiie, about two inches long.
Fruit nearly as long. The ovate four-leaved calyx, downy,
not hairy, beneath, efTentially dillinguifhes it from the lait.
Linnaeus adopted this fpecies from books ; and though he
had fpecimens, never rightly determined them.

7. J. oaoval-vis. Swartz. Obf. 142. (CEnothera oflo-
valvis ; Jacq. Amer. 102. t. 70. Linn. Sp. PI. 492. Onagra
fohis perficarise angullioribns, flore magro luteo ; Plum.
Ic. 168. t. 175. f. I.) — Stem erecl. Leaves lanceolate,
downy. Flowers four-cleft. Calyx-leaves ovate. Capfule
of eight valves. Native- of wet places in the Weft Indies.
This feems to be the plant incorredly figured by Merian,
Inf. Surin. t. 39. There is great difficulty in dittinguifhing
it fpecifically from the laft, as we have leen no fpecimen, but
we have no doubt of their being different. The prefent js
faid to be an annual plant. The petals are yellow, and in-
verfely hcart-fiiaped.

8. J. ere3a. Linn. Sp. PL 556. Swartz. Obf 173.
(Onagra fohis perficje amplioribus, parvo flore luteo ; Plum.
Ic. 168. t. 175. f. 2. Carambn ; Rheede .Hort. Mai. v. 2.
9 J. t. 49. ) — Stem eredt. Leaves lanceolate, fmooth.
Flowers four-cleft, feflile. Calyx-leaves lanceolate.— Native
of marfliy places in both Indies. The root is faid to be
annual. Whole plant fmooth or nearly fo. . Leaves two or
three inches long, ftalked, lanceolate, pointed. Flo'u.'crs
fmall, yellow, axillary, feffile. Calyx-leaves flightly downy
and three-ribbed beneath. Fruit obovate, not an inch long,
the membranous fides, between the ribs, becoming torn to
let out the feed.':.

9. J. acuminata. Swartz. Ind. Occ. v. 2. 745. — Nearly
ereft, fnriooth. Leaves lanceolate, broad, tapering at each
end. Flowers four-cleft, nearly feflile. — In low ground
in the fouth part of Jamaica, but rare. Swarts. This
differs from the laft in the fingularly taper-pointed leaves,
and in the Jlem being decumbent at its bafe. — The caly.-i-
kaves, moreover, are defcribed as fomewhat ovate.

10. J. tenella. Burm. Ind. 103. t. 34. f. 2. — Ereft,
fmooth. Leaves lanceolate, oppofite. Flowers five-cleft,
nearly feflile.— Native of Java. A fmall plant much
branched. Leaves (according to Burmann) oppofite, an
inch long. The Caniaranbaya of Marcgrave, 30, f. i, which
he quotes, is more like J. cclovalvls.

11. J. linearis. Willd. n. 3.— Leaves linear, feffile,

hrfpid.

J u s

liifpid. Flowci-f! fonr-clcft — Native of Guinea. Sim
ereft, braiicliev.1, fmooth, Ihiatcd, round, clothed witli feat-
tered hairs at the top. Leaves two inches or more in
length, blunti(h, feflile, alternate, fcarcely veiny, rough with
minute, rigid, upright hairs. Flowers feflile, axillary. Ger-
men hifpid.

12. J. linifoUa. Vahl. Eelog. v. 1. },2. Willd. n. 4.
Leaves and calyx-leaves linear-lanceolate, fmooth. Flower:;
feflile, fonr-cleft. — Native of South America. Stem her-
baceous, creft, llender, fmooth, branched, angular. Leases
Dearly feflile, fcarcely an inch long, narrow, tapering at
each end. Floivers axillary. Leaves of the calyx four,
lanceolate, tapering, about one-fourth of an inch long. Cap-
fule an inch long, fk-nder, round and fmooth. Vahl. S.

JUST, the meafurcd can or cup out of which the monks
ufed to drink tlieir liquor. It appears from the Monalli-
Con, that the monks of Evefliam Abbey were allowed two
jiills of beer every day ; and we are informed by William of
'Malmfciiry, thar thofe of Glallonbury, ubout the time of the
Conquellj-had their jufts filled with hydromel or mead on
great feftival days.

Just, a fportive kind of combat on horleback ; man againft
man, armed with lances.

The word is by fom.e derived from the French joujle, of
the Latin juxta. bccaufe the combatants fought near one
another. Salmafius derives it from the modern Greek
Zouflrc, or rather t^=-;7. ; which is ufed in this fenfe by
Nicephorus Gregoas. Others derive it from jujla, which,
in the corrupt age of the Latin tongue, was uied for tliis
exercifc, becaufe it was fuppofed a more jult and equal com.
bat than the tournament.

Anciently, julls and tournaments made a part of the en-
tertainment at all folemn feails and rejoicings. The Spaniards
borrowed thefe exercifes from the Moors, and called them
juego ih cannas, reed or cane-play. Some take them to be
tlie fame with ludus Trojamis, anciently praftifed by the youth
of Rome.

The Turks ufe them ftill, and call them hmclng the
girid.

The difference between jufts and tournaments confifts
in this, that the latter is the genus, of which the former is
only a fpecies. Tournaments included all kinds of military
fports and engagements, which were made out of gallantry
and diverfion. Jufts were thofe particular combats where
the parties were near each other, and engaged with lance and
fword ; add, that the tournament was frequently performed
Ijy a number of cavaliers, who fought in a body; thejull
•was a fingle combat of one man againil another. Though
the julls were ufualiy made in tournaments, after a general
rencounter of all the cavaliers, yet they were fometimes
lingly, and independent of any tournament.

. He v/ho appeared for the full time at a juft, forfeited his
helm, or cafque, unlefs he had forfeited before at a tour-
nament.

J UST Appu't. S ee A p p t'l .

Just, in Biography, a graceful and pleafing compofer of
fljort and eafy progreflive leffons for beginners on the harp-
fichord or pianoforte, in Holland, about jo years ago.
■ Just, St., in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the dillriift
of Clermont ; 9 miles N. of Clermont. The place contains
and the canton 10,620 inhabitants, on a territory of
kiliomctres, in 2 2 communes. — Alfo, a town of
, in the department of the Marne ; 10 miles S.S.E.
.-.nr.e. — Alfo, a town of France, in the department of
;iron ; 6 miles S.S E. of Sauvtttrrc. ■

JUS

JtST cii Chcvslct, St., a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the dillridl
of Roannc ; i 2 miles S.W. of Roanne. The place contains
2346, and the canton 9149 inhabitants, on a territory of
li-jh kiliometrcs, in 8 communes.

JUSTABAS, a town of South America, in the province
of Tucuman ; 45 miles N.W. of St. Fernando.

JUSTELL, ClIltiiToi'HEK, in Blograpliy, was born at
Paris in i j8o. Having laid a good foundation in elementary
learning at fchool and at college, he apphed his maturer
ftudies to ecclefiaftical l;illory, and became the author of
many learned works. He died at the age of 69 in the year
1649. His principal pieces are, " Codex Canonum Ec-
deiix UniverfE a concilio Calchedonenfi et Juftiniano Imp.
Confirmatus Gr. ct Lat. ;" " Codex Canonum Ecclefiafti-
corum Dionyfii Exigui," &c. ; " Codex Canonum Ecclefis
^ fricana;, Gr. et Lat. ;" " Bibhotheca Juris Canonici
Vcteris ;" " A Genealogical Hiftory of the Houfe of
Auvergne," &c. Juftell was fuppofed to be better ac-
quainted with the civil hiftory and antiquities of the middle
age than any perfon of his time. He kept up a corre-
fpondence with moft of the literary charafters of his time,
among whom were archbiftiop Ufhcr and fir Henry Spel-
man.

JUSTICE, in a general fenfe, or umverfal juftice,
comprehends the wiiole duty of man to God, to his neigh-
bour, and to himfelf. In this latitude the term " rightcouf-
nefs" often occurs in fcripture. Cicero was not ignorant
(De Nat. Deor. 1. i. ^41.) that juftice expreflcs more
than the performance of the duties owing to our fellow.
creatures; for according to his ftatement, " Eft enim pietas
juftitia adverfum Deos," i. e. Piety is juftice towards the
gods.

JusTic T., Jiijlhia, in a more reftrifted fenfe, and confidered
as a focial virtue, denotes a conftant dcfire, or inclination, to
give every one his due ; or a habit by which the mind is
difpofed and determined to give every man his own. Ac-
cordingly juftice has a neceifary vefpeCl to the perfons and
rights of oiiicrs. As there is a twofold right (fee Right),
there is alfo a correfpondent diftindion of juftice. A right
is either perfect or imperfecl. A perfd! right is that which
perfons have to things properly then- own, the rendering
of which is the payment of a debt, rather than the conferring
of a favour : a right which human laws, as well as divine,
generally allow men to challenge, anu aflift them to recover.
I am not obliged to every' one who docs not rob or murder
me. Thus a'.fo, the making of a promifc may be free,
but the performance of it is not fo. An imperfeei right
dctrai-ts nothing from the kindnefs, refpcft, and good will
of thofe who give to others what they can only claim by
virtue of fuch a right ; but leaves to fuch aftions their full
luftre and merit. Notwithftandingany fuch right, men are
obliged to their benefactors for doing what they could not
have been conftrained to do, ar.d which demonftrate the
goodncfs and generofity of their temper ; being an aft of
juftice, fo as at the fame' time to have tlie nature of a gift.
"The ofiices of civility, gratitude, and charity rell on this
foundation. Juftice, grounded on this diftinftion of right,
is diftinguidied into jimple aiu\ mix.d ; or, according to Puf-
fendorf, uitiv^rfal and partindar ; or, acctrding to Grotius,
expletory md attributive. ByjC'H.;/'/.^ juftice, we may underfland
juftice in tlie ftrifleft fenfe of liie term, of which Cicero fays
(De Oflic. 1. iii. c. 6.), •' Hxc ima virtus omnium eft ddmina
et rcgina virtutum ;" /. e. " It is the miftrefs and queen
of all the other virtues." By m/.v../ jullice, we may under,
ftand that which has other virtues joined witli it, as liumanify,
liberalitv, and I'r.e like. Thus Cicero fays (De Ollic-. 1. i.

4 N 2 .. :.

JUSTICE.

c. 7, 8.), " Ju(liti« conjundla eft beneficientia :" Beneficence
is connefted with juftice. And again, " Injuftitise duo
genera," &c. There ai-e two kinds of injulHce, one of
thofe who do an injury to others ; another with which they
are chargeable, who negledt to vindicate and defend the
injured, when it is in their power. To the fame purpofe
Antoninus fays (rsj. S!j/,m«, 1. ix. c. j.), " A man may be
unjuft not only by doing, but negkcling to do fomething."
Thefe philofophical writers feem evidently to have thought,
that the duties of humanity are parts of juftice properly fo
cal ed. Simple juftice we have already defined, agreeable to
the accurate definition of it in the civil law. " Juftitia eii
conilans et perpetua voluntas jus fuum cuique tribuendi :"
i. e. J:tftice is a conftant and prevailing will, or difpofition,
to render to every one iiis due.

Ju'^ice doth not derive its being from fear, as is affirmed
by Mr. Hobbes, who fuppofes mankind in their natural
ilate to have a licence iincircumfcribed by any other
bounds, befides their owti natural force. This licence
iliey are induced to exchange for a more limited right
in fociety, to prevent that war of every one with every
one, which would be the confequence of every one's in-
fifting upon his natural rights. " According to this hy-
pothefis," as Dr. Cudworth well obferves (Intellett.
Syftemj, "juftice and civil government are plainly things
not good in tliemfelves, nor defirable (being a hindrance
of liberty, and nothing but fliackles and fetters), but
by accident only, as neceflary evils. They are lefler evils
fubmitted to purely for the fake of avoiding a greater.
Hence it inevitably follows, that all men muft be ay.cir^i
hy.-j.:-A, iinwilhngly juft, or not with a full and perfcft, but
mix-d will only." The true principles of juftice are fuch
as thefe : It is reafonable that his will, who is the common
father of mankind, fliould be the meafure of their behaviour
one towards another. It can never be thought a thing
pleafing to God, who has originally the fame affeftion for
one as for another, that one man, by fraud or violence, ftiould
ufurp dominion over another, or any way moleft or hinder
him. Befides, this would introduce confufion into his works,
the glory of which is their order and harmony. " If it be
the difpofition of mankind," fays Cicero (De Offic, 1. iii.
J 5.), that every one for his own advantage ftiould opprcfs
and rob his neighbour, it is neceflary that fociety, which is
the moft natural ftate of mankind, be entirely diffolved.
Juft as in the human body, the whole muft be weakened
and deftroyed, if every member coidd have this perfuafion,
and aCl upon it ; that it ftiould flourifti by drawing to itfelf
the ftrength and nouriftiment of the member neareft to it.''
Thus from that original and univerfal fociety to which a'l
mankind belong, neceffarily flow obligations to mutual
juftice ; and Mr. Hobbes's ftate of vi-ar appears to contra-
difr the very firft view of human nature. But befides this
general focioty, particular civil focieties have, by the direction
of nature, been erected in feveral parts of the world. The
Ai.thor of nature has formed his rational creatures with a
ftrong bent and inclination to combine into bodies pohtic.
It is iiiclination, therefore, which makes men feek fociety, not
the bare profpeft of benefiting themfelves by it ; to fatisfy
nature more than to defend themfelves from violence.
When focieties are formed, though juftice be ncceftary to
make them flourifh, and hence we infer the will of the great
. governor of the world ; yet in the nature of things, the
obligation to juftice is antecedent to any fociety whatfoever.
From the inclination to fociety with which God hath made
man, we infer his will to be, that juftice ftiould be cultivated,
which is necefiary to the fupport of fociety ; but civil
fociety is not the original of juilice. Aiiother prin-

ciple of juftice is, that the good of the whole is to be
preferred before the good of any one part. Is it good,
pleafing to a moft benevolent creator, and confequently de-
ferving the approbation and concurrence of every rational
agent, that this or that man ftiould be happy ? It is much
better that a greater number, and beft of all that all ftiould
be fo. But how can all men be made happy, witliout a
conftant regard to tlie rules of juftice. Biftiop Cumberland
(DeLegibus Natura, cap. i- § 23.) not only refolves juftice,
with the feveral duties annexed to it, into this principle, but
even the riglit of felf-prcfervation. Farther, it is altogether
reafonable, that we ftiould, or ftiould not do to another,
what we would, or would not that he fliould do unto us.
Every man is agreed to think every other man unjuft, who
deprives him of any good thing which he lawfully enjoys.
We fliould therefore confidcr, that others may reafonably
expect of us, whatever we may reafonably demand from
them. Moreover, ail men have their rights and properties.
He tliat is born to leaft, is born with a riglit to life,
liberty, and fafety. If there be right, there muft be juf-
tice : thefe mutually fuppofe one another. Again, what-
ever is enjoyed or poffeffed by a moral agent, independently
of another, may be ufed, enjoyed, and encouraged, with-
out being fubjctt to the controul of that other ; provided
that the poffelTor has not alienated or forfeited his right ;
and that he ufes it not to the prejudice of any other perfon.
Upon this principle is founded the natural equahty of man-
ki-'.d, that is, an equality of right. This equality fubfifts in
all the effentials of being and happinefs, under ail tbe
changes of condition to which every man is liable. Let a
man's condition be wliat it will, high or lov»-, rich or poor,
a prince or a fubjeft, as he has an equal ri^ht to what he
lawfully pofteftes, with that which any other man can have ;
fo there are certain pofieflion?, the right of which he cannot
transfer to another ; of which number are hfe, limbs, and
liberty, both civil and rehgious: in all which refpefts, there-
fore, the meaneft perfon, while innocent, is equal to the
greateft among men. Mr. Hobbes indeed (De Cive, 1. i.
c. I. $ 3.) proves the equahty of mankind from the equal
power they have of doing mifchief. M. Barbeyrac ob-
ferves, that this equality may be called an equality purely
phyfical ; whereas it is a moral equahty, or an equality of
right, that muft be laid as the foundation of juftice. Puf-
fendorf deduces this equality of mankind from the famenefs
of nature ; which feems to make it, as well as that of Mr.
Hobbes, a phyfical equahty. Of Mr. Godwin's fentiments
concerning the fubjedt under prefent difcufiion, we ftiall
probably have occafion to give fome account under the arti-
cles Politics, Society, and Virtue.

Having briefly ftated the great principles of juftice, we
fliall now proceed to the divifion of it. According to
Ariftotle, juftice is univerfal ov particular. Univcrfa! ]\i^\ce
confifts in the obfervance of the laws, which extend to all
the adtions of mankind capable of good or evil, and thus
comprehends all the virtues. Hence arofe the common fay-
ing, " Ev oE uky-xios-j-.n (TvWrfilvi va.:' Afsin sri," that if, all
virtue is included in righteoufnefs. Particular ]u^\cQ refpe£ts
the rights of other men, and confifts in the obfervance of
eq'jality, or in challenging no more than our own ; and in
giving to others what is theirs. Particular, or fimple juftice
is either di/lribiiti've or commutative. D iflriliulivs juiticc is con-
cerned in the diftribution of honour, money, or whatever
elfe is to be divided among the members of a fociety, for
in all thefe there is room for equality or inequality ; and
therefore to diftribute as we ought is a part of juftice. In
other words, it is concerned in matters of government, ani
of bcr.eficencc ; and is either remuncratory, or punitive : it

obferves

J u s

obferves an equality in dealing rewards and punifliments, ac-
cording to each man's condition and merit ; for as aftions
are either good or evil, for the good, rewards mull be
alTigned ; and for the evil, punilhments ; and herein a geo-
metrical proportion is obferved. Commutative ']\iihce fiiper-
intends the management and difpofal of fuch things as enter
into compacts and agreements ; or it is converfant in matters
of commerce, and in the equal coruniutation, or changing,
of tilings ; and proceeds according to aritlimetical cq'.iali'.y,
wi'.hout any regard to perfous and circumlhinccs. To
which we may add %.i/jnriicc, that v.hich relidcs in the
ftate, or morarch, by vi-hofc power and authority the e3ects
of commutative and dillribntivc jiidice are frequently fuper-
feded, or fufpended ; as in a dearth of corn, if a perfon
that has a ilock by him will not fell it, it fntil be -taken
from him ; and the like.

Dr. More dii^ributes juftice into elbicjl, ecommkal, and
political; the firil ccnfiders all maiikind as on a level ; the
iecond regards thera as alfocintcd ir.to families under ih.e ffveral
rtlations of huftand and -.vite, parents and children, ma.'lers
and fervants ; and the third comprehends them as u;:iied into
1 I'Vic !':;;tjj, :.'-J Jjiiged to certain duties, cither as magif-

.'ce, f;:y3 the civil law, arc thefe,
. . iilteruni non Ixdcre, fuuni cuique

t.; ..:c!-c ;"' il'.f i,-., to live honellly, to injure no or.e, and
to render to all iheir due. The tvvo lail precepts belong to
ftria jullice, and thefe may accordingly furniili a dillinftion
of juftice into tiegativ: and p/itive. Negative j'.ulice denotes
every man's right to exemption from injurious aftions ; and
pofiiive juftice comprehends the performance of all thofe
aiftions, which by contradt, or any other way, arc due to
hira. Some diiiinguidi between " injuftitia" and " injuria."
Injuftice is oppofed to jullice in general, whether negative
orpofitive; an i- jury to negative jullice alone. A perfon
may be injured in his mind or fonl, his body, his name,
his relations, and his eftate. (See Injury.) Pofitive ]\i{\\ce
is the rendering to all their dues ; and things may be due
by a natural' or an acquired right. (See Right and Pro-
perty.) On the fubjett of this article, fee Grove's Syilem
of Moral Philofophy, vol. ii. and the authors to whom he
refers.

Justice, Hand of. See H.\n-d.

Justice, OJictrsof. SeeOrFKERs.

JfSTiCE Poetical. See Poetical.

JusTlTiAM, Temperamentitm ad. See Te.mi'EKAMENTUM.

Justice, JuJIiliarius, is likewife an officer appointed by
the king or commonwealth, to do right by way of judg-
ment. . .

He is called ju^if^, not judge; anciently /-//^/V/a, not jujl:-
tiarius, becaufe he ha.T his authority by deputation, as dele-
gate to the king, and not^'arf magiflratus ; fo that he cannot
depute any other in his ftead, the juftice of the foreft only
exceoted.

OJF thefe juftiees we have various kinds in England ; -viz.^

Justice oJ the King's B.nch, Chief, is the capital juilice of
Great Britain, and is a lord by his ofilce. His bufmefs is
chiefly to hear a;;d determine all plea-i of the crown ; that is,
fuch as concern offences againft the crown, dignity, and
peace of the king ; as trcafons, felonies, ficc.

This officer was formerly not only chief juftice, but alfo
chief baron of the exchequer, and niafter of the court of
wards. He ufually fat in the king's pa'ace, and there exe-
cuted that office, formerly performed /f/- fflM/Vf/n /«/«"'/ he
d.tcrmincd in that palace all the diff'erenccs happening be-
tween the barons and other great men.

I L- had the prerogative of being vicegerent of the king-

J V s

dom, whenever the king went beyond fea^ and was ufnally
chofen to that office out of the ])rime nobility ; but his
power was reduced by king Richard I. and king Edward I.
His office is now divided, and his title changed froin capi-
talis yfiig/ia jii/litiaritii, to cnpitalis jujlitiarius ad placila. coram
rege tenenda, ov capituHs jujiiliarius ianci regii. See CoUKT of
ting's bench.

Justice of the Common Pleas, Chief, he who, with his af-
fiftants, hears and determines all caul'es at the com:non law,
that is to fay, all civil caufes, between common prrfons, as
well perfonal as real ; and he is alfo a lord by his office.
See Court of Common Pleas.

Justice of the Forefl, is a lord by his office, who has
power and authority to determine offences committed in the
king's forefts, &c. which arc not to bo determined by any
other court, or jullice.

Of thefe there are two ; whereof one has jurifdiclion over
all the forefts on this fide Trent, and the other beyond it.

By many ancient records, it appears to be a place of
great honour and authority, and is never bellowed but on
ibme perfon of great diftinftion. The court v.'hcrc this
jullice fits, is called t\\e juflice feat of the forefl, held once
every three years, of which 40 days' notice ought to be given,
for hearing and determining all trefpaftes within the foreft,
and all claims of franchifes, liberties, and privileges, and all
pleas and caufes whatfoevcr therein arifing, (4 Inft. 291.)-
This court may fine ?.vA iniprifon for offences within the
foreft (4 Inil. 313.), it being a court of record; and
therefore a writ of error lies from hence to the court of
king's bench. The lail court of juftice feat of any note
was that held in the reign of Charles I. before the eail of
Holland. After the Reftoration another was held, for
form fake, before the earl of Oxford ; but fince the Revo-
lution in 1688, the foreft laws have fallen into total difufe,
to the great advantage of the fubjeft.

This is the only juftice who may appoint a deputy : he is
z\{o caWedjuficein eyre of l/.efore/l.

Justices of AJffze, were fuch as were wont, by fpecial
commiffion, to be fent into this or that county, to take
affifes, for the eafe of the fubjeifts.

For whereas thefe acliens pafs always by jury, fo many
men might not, without great damage and charge, be
brought up to London ; and therefore juftiees, for this
purpofe, by commiflions particularly authorized, were fent
down to them.

Thefe continue to pafs the circuit, by two and two,
twice every year, through all England, except the four
northern counties, v.here they go only once, difpatching
their feveral bufineffes by feveral commiffions ; for they have
one commiffion to take affifes, another to deliver gaols, and
another of oyer and terminer. In London and Middlefex
a court of general gaol-delivery is held eight times in the
year.

All the juftiees of peace of any county wherein the
affifes are held, are bound by law to attend them, or elfe
are liable to a fine, in order to return recognizances, 5cc.
and to affift the judges in fuch matters as lie within their
knowledge and jurifdidion, and in which fome of them have
been probably concerned, by way of previous examination.
See A.SSISES and Jury.

Justices in Eyre, jufliciarii ilinerantes, or erranles, were
thofe who were anciently iVnt with commiffion into divers
counties, to hear fuch caufos efpecially as were termed /Aw
of the croiun ; and that for the cafe of the fiibjeCt, who
muft elfe have been hurried to the courts of WellminlUr
if the canfe were too high for the county courts.
According to fo.iic, thefe juftiees were fent once m fevea-

years J

J u s

years ; but others will have them to have been fetit oflener.
C.imtlcii fays, they were inilituted in the reign of king
Henry II. A. D. 1184 ; but they appear to be of an older
date.

Tliey were fomewhat like our juflices of aflife at this
day ; though for authority, and manner of proceeding, very
different.

Justices of Gaol-delivery, thofe commiffioned to hear and
determine caufes appertaining to fuch as, for any offence,
are call into prifon.

Jullices of gaol-delivery are empowered by the common
law to proceed upon indiftments of felony, trefpafs, &c.
and to order execution or reprieve ; and they have power
to difcharge fuch prifoncrs as upon their trials fliall be ac-
quitted ; alfo all fuch againft whom on proclamation made,
no evidence appears to indidl ; which jullices of oyer and
terminer, &c. may not do. (2 Hawk. 24, 25.) But
thefe jullices have nothing to do with any perfon, not in
the cullody of the prifon, except in fome fpecial cafes ; as
if fome of the accomplices to a felony may be in fuch
prifon, and fome of them out of it, the jullices may re-
•ceive an appeal againft thofe who are out of the prifon as
well as thofe v.'ho arc in it ; which appeal after the trial of
fuch prifoners, ffiall be removed into &. R. and procefs
iffue from them agiinft the reft. But if thofe out of
prifon be omitted in the appeal, tliey can never be put into
any other ; becaufe there can be but one appeal for one
felony.

In this way the gaols are cleared, and all offenders tried,
puniftied, or delivered, twice in every year.

Their commiflion is now turned over to the jullices of
affife. See GAOL-iklkvry.

Justices 0/ Ni/i Prius, are now the fame with juftices of
affife. It is a common adjournment of a caufe in the com-
mon pleas, to put It off to fuch a d;!V, Xifi prius jujUtiarii
'venerint ad eas parks ad capi::; ' "i which claufe

of adjournment they are ccW y prius, as well

■SA jujlices of ajjife, on accoui't '. mI actions they

have to deal in. See N1.SI Priuj, and Jii;v.

JusTiCE.s of Oyer nnd Terminer, were juftices deputed on
fome fpecial occalions to hear and determine particular
caufes.

The commiffion of oyer and terminer is direfted to cer-
tain perfons, upon any infurredlion, heinous demeanour, or
trefpafs committed, who muft firlt enquire, by means of
the grand jnry or inqueft, before they are empowered to
hear and determine by the help of the petit jury. It was
tormerly held, that no judge or other lawyer could aft in
tlie commiffion of oyer and terminer, or in that of gaol-
delivery, within the county where he was born or inhabited ;
but it was thought proper by 12 Geo. II. cap. 27, to allow
any man to be a juftice of oyer and terminer and general
gaol-dchvery, within any county of England.

Ju.sTlOES of the Peace, are perfons of iniereft and credit,
appointed by the king's commiffion to keep the peace of the
county where they live.

Of thefe, fome, for fpecial refpcft, are made of the
quorum, fo as no bufinefs of importance may be dif-
patched without the prefeiice, or affent, of them, or one
of them. Now the praftice is to advance alnioft all of them
to that dignity, naming them all over again in the quorum
claufe except perhaps only fome inconfiderable perfon
for the fake of propriety ; and no exception is now allow-
able, for not cxpreffing in the form of the warrants, &c. that
the juftice who iffued them is of the quorum. Whenever
any juftice intendsto adl under this commiffion, he fues out
a writ of •* dediraus poteltatem" from the clerk of the

J u s

crown in chancery, empowering certain perfons th
named, to adminifter tiie ufual oaths to him ; whicL ■
Jie is at liberty to aft. Every jufHce of peace hath a
rate power, and his ofRce is to call before him, exa
iffue warrants for apprehending, and commit to pi .
all thieves, murderers, wandering rogues; thofe that 1 !
confpiracies, riots, and almoft all delinquents which .
occaiion the breach of the peace, and quiet of the ful
to commit to prifon fuch as cannot find bail, and i-
them brought forth in due time to trial ; and bind ovci-
profecutors to the affifes. And if they negleft to en
examinations and informations to the next gaol-del; ,
or do not bind over profecutors, they fliali be lined,
juftice may commit a perfon that doth a felony in
own view, without warrant; but if on the inform <;
of another, he muft make a warrant under hand an :
for that purpofe. If a complaint and oath be made hi
a juftice of goods ftolen, and the informer, fnfpeftin^-
they are in a particular houfe, fliews the caufe of hi, i _
picion, the juftice may grant a warrant to the conftable, £:c.
to fcarch in the place fulpefted, to feize the goods and per-
fon in whofe cnilody they are found, and bring them before
him or fome other juftice. The fearch on thefe warrants
ought to be in the day-time, and doors may be broke open
by conftables to take the goeds. Juftices of peace may
make and perfuade an agreement in petty quarrels and
breaches of the peace, where the king is not entitled to a
fine, though they may not compound offences, or take
money for making agreements. A juftice hath a difcre-
tionary power of binding to the good behaviour, and may
require a recognizance, with a great penalty, of one, for
his keeping of the peace, where the party bound is a dan-
gerous perion, and likely to break the peace, and do muck
mifchief; and for default of fureties, he may be committed
to gaol. But a man giving fecurity for keeping the peace
in the king's bench or chancery, may have a fuperfedeas
to the juftices in the country not to take fecurity ; and alfo
by giving furety of the peace to any other juftice. If one
make an affault upon a juftice of peace, he may apprehend
the offender and commit him to gaol till he finds fureties for
the peace ; and a juftice may record a forcible entry on his
own poffeffion : in other cales he cannot judge in his own
caufe. Contempts againft juftices are punifhable by indift-
ment and fine at the fcffions. Juftices ftiall not be regularly
puniftied for any thing done by them in feffions as judges ;
and if a juftice be tried for any thing done in his office, he
may plead the general iflue, and give the Ipecial matter in
evidence : and if a verdift is given for him, or the plaintiff
be non-fuited, he ftiall have double cofts ; and fuch action
ftiall only be laid in the county where the offence was com-
mitted. (7 Jac. cap. J. 21 Jac. cap. 12.) But if they are
guilty of any mifdemeanor in office, information lies againit
them in the king's bench, where they ftiall be puniftied by
fine and imprifonment : and all perfons who recover a
verdici againft a juftice, for any wilful or malicious 'injury,
are entitled to double cofts. By 24 Geo. II. cap. 44. no
writ ftiall be fued out againft any juftice of peace, for any
thing done by him m the execution of his office, until notice
in writing fhall be delivered to him one month before the
fuing out of the fame, containing the caufe of aftion, &c.
within which month he may tender amends ; and if the
tender be found fufficicnt, he fliall have a verdift, &c. Nor
fliall any aftion be brought againft a juftice for any thing
done in the execution of his oflice, unlefs commenced within
fix months after the aft committed.

A juftice is to exercife his authority only Within, the
county where he is appointed by his commiffion, not "in any

city

JUS

ty whicli is a county of itfelf, or town corporate, having
leir proper juftices, &c. but in other towns and liberties
: may. The power and office of jurtices terminate in fix
lonths after the demifc of the crown ( i Ann. cap. 8.), by
1 exprefs writ of difcharge under the <rrcat fcal, by writ
o[ fuperfcJeas, by a new commiflion, by the acceflion of the
office lit (heriff or coroner.

If the fame jullice, whofe office ceafes on the demife of
tlie crown, be put in commiffion by tlie fucceffor, he fhall
not be obliged to fue out a new dedlmu!, or to fwear to his
qualiiication afrefli (ftat. i Geo. III. c. 13.) ; nor,byrea-
fon of any new commiffion, to take the oaths more than once
in the fame reign. In c^[e o( a/uj>erfte/eas, the power of the
juftices may be revived again by another writ, called a />n>«-
ilciiJo. Formerly it was thought, that if a man was named
in any commiffion of the peace, and had afterwards a new
dignity conferred upon him, that this determined his office ;
as he no longer anfwered the defcription of the commiffion ;
but now it is provided (Itat. i Edw. VI. c. 7.), that, not-
withftanding a new title of dignity, the juftice on whom it is
conferred, fhall ftill continue a jullice. For a further account
of the duty of juftices, fee Ovakter/^oiis.

The original of juftices of the peace is referred to the
fourth year of Edivard III. They were firft calhd confir-
•uators, or -wardens of the peace, elected by the county, upon
a writ direfted to the fhcriff ; but the power of appointing
them was transferred by ftatutcs from the people to the king;
and under this appellation appointed by i Edw. III. cap. 16.
Afterwards the ftatute of 34 Edw. III. cap. I. gave them
the power of trying felonies, and then they acquired the ap-
pellation of juftices. They are appointed by the king's fpe-
cial commiffion under the great feal, the form of which was
fettled by all the judges, A.D. 1590; this appoints them
all, jointly and feverally, to keep the peace, and any two
or more of them to inquire and determine felonies, and other
mifdemeanor.i ; and the king may appoint as njany as he (hall
think fit ill every county in England and Wales, though they
are generally made at the difcretion of the lord chancellor,
by the king's leave. At firft the number of juftices was
not above two or three in a county. ( iS Edw. III. cap. 2.)
Then it was provided by ^54 Edw. III. cap i. that one
lord, and three or four of the moft worthy men in the county,
with feme learned in the 1 iw, ffiould be made juftices in
every county. The number, which gradisally increafed
through the ambition of private perfons, was afterwards
reftrained firft to fix, and then to eight, in every county, by
12 Ric. II. cap. 10. and 14 Ric. II. cap. 11. But their
number ha.s greatly increafed fince their firft inttitution.
As to their quahfi.cations, the ftatutes juft cited dire£t
them to be of the beft reputation and moil worthy men in
the county; and the ftat. 13 Ric. II. cap. 7. orders them
to be of the moft fuffi.cient knights, efquires, and gentlemen
of the law ; and by 2 Hen. V. ftat. i. cap. 4. and ftat. 2.
cap. I., they muft be refident in their feveral counties. And
by 18 Hen. VI. cap. 11. no juftice was to be put in com-
miffion, if he had rot lands to the value of lol. per annum.
It is nowenafted by j Geo. II. cap. 11. that every juftice,
with fome exceptions, ftiall have lOo/. per annmn, clear of
all deductions ; of which he muft make oath by 18 Geo. II.
cap. 20. And if he afts without fuch qualification, he fiiall
forfeit ico/. It is alfo provided by j Geo II. that no
praftifing attorney, folicitor, or proctor, fhall be capable of
acting as a juftice of the peace.

JvsTlCE.^ of peace -wit/jin lil/cri'lei, are juftices of the peace
who have the fame authority in cities, or other corporate
to\vns, as the others have in counties ; and tlieir power is the
fame ; only tlA^thefe have the affife of ale and beer, wood

J u s

and viftuals, Sec. Juftices of cities and corporations are not
within the qualification aft, 5 Geo. II. tap. 18.
.TusTici -/2a/. See Justice of the Forejl.
JUSTICI A, in Botany, fo named by Houfton, in com-
pliment to his countryman James .luftice, efq. F. R. S. a
clerk of feffion, faid by Miller to have been a great lover
and encc.urager of gardcniiig and botany. He publiftied, in
1764, an 8vo. volume, called the Bntifti Gardeners Director,
but. if we are not miftaken, he derives more honour from
this fine and extenfive gonus, than he confers upon it. — Linn.
Gen. 12. Schreb. 17. Wiild. Sp. PI. v. i. 79. Mart.
Mill. DiiH. v. 2. Houft. Rel. t. i. Vahl. Enum. v. i. icS.
Ait. Hort. Kew. cd. 2. v. i. 35. Brown. Prodr. Nov.
Holl. v. I. 475'. JufT. 104. I>amarck. Illuftr. I. 12.
Gcertn t. 54. (Adhatoda ; Tourn. Inft. t. 79. Dian-
thera; Linn. Gen. 13. Schreb. 17. Mart. ?.lill. Diet.
V. 2. Juir. 104. Gxrtn. t. 51) — Clafs and order, D/'an-
dria Monogyiiia. Nat. Ord l'crfona'<z, Linn. Acanlh't,
Juffi

Gen. Ch. Cnl Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular, in
five deep, acute, erect, equal, narrow fcgments. Cor.
of one petal, ringent ; tube fwelling ; limb m two very un-
equal lips, the ujjper oblong, notched, the lower in three d:-
vifions. Stam. Filaments two, awl-ftiaped, hidden beneath
the upper lip ; anthers erect, of two cells, which are fome-
timcs more or lefs dlftant or unequal. P'tf. Germen fu-
perior, turbina'e ; ftvle thread-ftjaped, as long as the fta-
rnens, and parallel to them ; ftigma fimple. Perk. Capfule
oblong, obtufe, contracted at the bafe, of two cells and two
elaftic valves, the partition contrary to, ai;d fixed in the
middle of, each valve. Seeds two in each cell, roundifti,
each fubtended by a fpinous procofs.

Eft". Ch. Calyx in five deep equal fegments. Corolla
ringent ; its lower lip three cleft. Capfule of two elaftic
valves and two cells ; partition from the centre of each
valve. Seeds two in each cell, fubtended by fpines.

The 14th edition of Syft. Veg. contains but 30 fpecies
of JujJicia, and feven of D'uwthera, which latter genus,
differing only in having the two lobes of its anthers a little
diftant from each other, is now, by the agreement of all
botaiiifts, Hnited to the former. Vah), in his Eniimeratio,
ha,; 14S, including Andrews's /h;:;<Ai, v. 2. 400, Andr. Re-
pof. t. 313, but excluding five fpecies feparaled by Valil as
a genus by themfelves, called ^/y/rarw. Mr. Brown, who
has paid more critical attention to this tribe than any botarift
with whom we are acquainted, has feparated from JiiJ/ieia his
own Hypoejles (fee that article) ; as well as his Nclfjnia ;
keeping dillintt alfo the Linnxan Eranlhcmitm, characterized
by having a fidver-ftiaped, nearly equal, corolla, which ap-
pears a very fuffieietit cliarafter. He fuggefts that the re-
maining fuppofed JtrlicU ought to be further divided, by
modifications of charafter taken from their antl'.er<, corollj,
capfule, and even inilorefcence.

We are well aware that the generic characters above given
will not apply throughout to all the plants referred to ihif
genus by Linnse-.is and his followers, efpecially what concerns
tl'.e form or divifions of the corolla. In fome indeed the
calyx has but four fegments, inllcad of five, though even
that mark, according to Mr. Brown, is not liriftly without-
e.\cep;ion. Wilidei;o\v, thougli he includes Dhwtkra, has
but S9 JiijUda:. Thofe of this author, and of Vahl, which
are defcribed with a double cai)X, chiefly belong to /.'v-
pojles. — /. pulchenima, Lum. Suppl. S4. Vahl. n. 26.
Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 204; wilh J.feabra, Vahl. n. 27 ; and
cri/Jc/a, Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 3. 38. t. 320, Mr. Brown
unites into a new genus, jlphelandrj, char;iCtcri/,ed by an un-
equal calyx, in five deep legnieiits, and four ftamens, be.ir-

JUS

iiig anthers of one cell each. Thefe are very handfome
flirubs, \vi"h denf^ fpikes of long fcarlet flowers ; all natives
of South America.

Examples of what are at prefent confidered as Jujlicls

J.eocc'wea. Aublet. Guia". v. i. lo. t. 3. Sm. Ic.
Picl. t.8. Curt. Mag. t. 432.— Spikes terminal. Leaves
and brafteas elliptical, acute. Upper lip of the corolla lan-
ceolate, reflcxed. — Native of Cayenne. A tsX\fm-ub, which
flowers'in our floves in winter, but not unlefs it be of a con-
fidcrable fize. The lea-yes are a fpan long. Flonvers of a
rich frarlet, even more fplendid than thofe of the j^.phe-
landrx juft named, which at firft fight they greatly refemblc.
So do alfo thofe of J. lucida above-mentioned. See Curt.
Mag. t. 1014.

J.nh'tda. Jacq. Amer. j. Vahl. Enum. n. 45. Andr.
Repof. t. 570. — Clufters terminal, fomewhat brarched.
Flowers whorled. Calyx fmooth. Leaves ftalked, lanceo-
late, fomewhat elhptical, pointed at each end. — Native of
the Weft Indies. The leaves are fmooth and ftiijiing.
Floiuers white, the under lip dotted with pink.

J. nafuta. Linn. Sp. PI. 23. Curt. Mag. t. 325. —
Leaves elliptical, entire. Flower-llalks axillary, forked.
Upper lip of the corolla linear, very narrow. — Found in the
Eafl Indies. It thrives in our ftoves, flowering almoft all
the year through. The Jlowers are confpicuous for their
whitenefs, and for the great breadth of the lower lip, whofe
bafe is dotted with crimfon, while the upper is extremely
narrow.

J.fiircata. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 1.2. t. 3. Vahl.
Enur.i. n. 89. (J. peruviana ; Cavan. Ic. v. i. 17. t. 28.
Curt. Mag. t. 430. ) — Downy. Axillary flowers fefiile and
nearly fohtary ; terminal ones ternate. Leaves ovate, or
fomewhat lanceolate. — ^Native of Peru, from whence it was
brought to Spain, and from thence by the marchionefs of
Bute to England. It increafes plentifully by feed in the
ftovc, and is a flirubby plant, with copious not inelegant
purplii}ij?o«)cv-j, whofe palate is fpeckled with white.

J. Jdhatoda. Linn. Sp. PI. 20. Curt. Mag. t. 861. —
Spikes oppofite, axillary, ilalked. Brafteas ovate, acute,
ribbed. Corolla fomewhat clofed. — Native of Ceylon, an
old grcen-houfe plant in Europe, and Tournefort's original
fpecics. It is commonly called the Malabar nut, a name not
very appropriate. The (hrub is handfome and umbrageous,
with large ovate haves. ThQ fo-jjers are white, their palate
veined with purple, which is much concealed by their clofed
or ringent form. They are but rarely produced in Eng-
land.

J. orchloides. Linn. Suppl. 85. Vcnten. Malmais.
t. 51. — Leaves feffile, lanceolate. Stalks axillary, folitary,
one or two-flowered. Corolla fomewhat clofed. — Native
of the Cape of Good Hope. It is kept in the green-houfe
at Kew, flowering in autumn. This is a rigid .flirub, with
fmall crowded, hardi leaves. Thejlo-uiers, not very unlike
the lalt in form, are white with a reddifli tinge about the pa-
late, and grow, folitary or in pairs, on axillary ttalks, longer
than the leaves.

JusTFClA, in Gardening, comprizes plants of the flirubby
and herbaceous kinds, of which the fpecies moftly cultivated
are, chickweed-leaved jullicia (J. fexangularis) ; the fcor-
picn-tail Vera Cruz jufticia (J. fcorpioidcs) ; the long-
fpiked jufticia (J. ecbolium) ; the Malabar nut (J. adl-.a-
toda) ; and the fnap-tree (J. hyn"opifolia).

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be increafed,
fonf.e of them by feeds, and the others by layers and cuttings ;
but the latter modes are moftly praftifed, as the feeds are
obtained with difficulty.

JUS '

Where the feeds are capable of being procured, thev :
be fown in fmali pots filled with light frelh earth, in the i
fpring, being plunged in a hot-bed of bark, waterin.y
mould of the pots moderately, when it becomes dry.
they often remain long before the plants appear, the
ftiould not be difl;urbed, but be kept in the hot-bed. Whci; :.,;
plants appear, frefli air fnould be admitted in mild weatlier,
and flight waterings given ; and when they have attained a
few inches in growth, they fiiould be removed into feparate'
pots filled with fvefli earth, re-plunging them in the hot-
bed, watering and fliading them till they have taken frefli
root ; air being then freely admitted, and as the feafon grows
warm, due waterings being given. As they advance in
growth, they fliould be placed in larger pots, taking care
not to o.erpot them, keeping them conftantly in the hot-
bed.

Tlie layers fhould be laid down in the early fpring, ia
pots fi.led with light earth, a little water being given at
the tin.e.

The cuttings may be made from the young flioots, and
planted in pots filled with the fame fort of earth, in the later
fpring or fnmmer months, giving them a little water, and
plunging them in the hot-bed of bark in the ftove, due
fhade being given.

V.^hen the plants have become perfeftly rooted, they may
be taken off, or removed into feparate pots, keeping them
conftantly in the ftove or green-houfe, according as they
are more or let's hardy. The two firft f.^rts are the
moft hardy ; the others fucceeding beft in the hot-houfe
or ilove.

The two firft afford ornament and variety among the
other potted plants of the lefs tender forts, and the other
among thofe of the ilove kinds.

JUSTICIAR, in our Old Lnzvs, an ofiicer inftituted by
William the Conqueror, as the chief officer of ftate, and
who principally determined all pleas civil and criminal. He
was called in Latin capitalis jujllciarius totius ylnglie': See

Jt.STICE.

JUSTICIARII, in Church Hifiory, an appellation given
to heretics who boaft much of perfeft' righteoufnefs,
and dcfpife others ; fuch were the Pharifees amon^ the
•Tews, and the Novatians and Donatifts among the Chrif-
tians.

JUSTICIARIUS, Magister, a judge in the kingdom
of Naples, whe has fipreme jurifdiftion in all cafes of trca-
fon, and pleas of the crown, and finally determines all ap-
peals. He h.as four affeffors.

JUSTICIARY Court, in Scotland. The court of
jufticiary has fupreme jurifdiction in all criminal caufes. It
came in place of that oi jujlice-eyre, or jujlicc-gsneral, which
was laft in the perfon of the earl of Argyle, w ho tranfafted
for it with king Charles I. and was made jufticegeneral of
all the iflands ; which raifing great debates between him and
fome hereditary flieriffs there, the jurifdiftion was taken
away in 1672, and this court of jufticiary ereftcd inftead of
it, confifting of a juft ice-general, alterable at the king's
pleafure ; a juftice-clerk and five other judges, who are like-
wife lords of the feffion.

This court commonly fits on Mondays, and has an ordi- |
nary clerk, who has his commiflTion from the juftice-clerk.
They have four ordinary macers and a doomiler .ippointed
by the lords of fefliion.

The form of procefs is this ; the clerk raifes a libel or in-
diftment, by abillpaffed by any of the lords of that court,
at the inftance of the purfucr againft the defender or crimi-
nal, who is committed to prifon immediately after citation.
When the party, witnefles, and great aflife,i»r jury of forty-
7 five

J u s

Etc men, are cited, the day of appearance being come, fif-
teen of the givat affife are chofen to be the afTifc upon the
pannel, or prifoner at the bar. Tlie alTife fits with the
judges to hear the hbel read, witnefics examined, and the de-
bates on both fides, which is written verbatim in the adjour-
nal books. The king's advocate pleads for the purfuer,
being the king's caufe, and other advocates for the panel.
The debates being clofed, the judges find the libel or indid-
ment either not relevant ; in wbrch cafe they dcfcrt the diet,
and aflbil or abfolve the party accufed ; or elfe they find the
libel relevant ; in which cafe the aflife or jury of fifteen is
removed into a clofe room, none being allowed to be prcfent
with them ; where they choofe tlieir own chancellor and
clerk, and confidcr the lil .1, depofitions, and debates, and
bring in their verdift of the panel fealed, guilty or not
guilty. If not guilty, the lords abfolve ; if guilty they con-
demn, and order the fentence of condemnation to be pro-
nounced againll the criminal by the mouth of the doomfter.
It has been ftrenuoufly maintained by fome, and as ftrenuouf-
ly controverted by others, that an appeal lies from this
court to the houfe of lords. The lords of judiciary like-
wife go circuits twice a year, -viz. in May and Oftober, into
the country, which is divided into three circuits, the fouth-
wclt, ai^d north, where affifes are held, and criminals tried,
as mentioned above,

JUSTICIES, in Lati', a writ directed to the (heriff in
fome fpecial cafes, by virtue of which he may hold plea
of debt in his county-court for a large funi ; whereas other-
wife, by his ordinary power, he is limited to funis under
forty fliillings. The free'holders of ihe county are the
real judges in this court, and the ftierifF is the minifterial
officer.

JUSTIFIABLE Homicide. See Homicide.

JUSTIFICATION, ni La■u^, a fpecial pica in bar, which
figiiifies a maintaining or (hewing a fufScient reafon in court,
\vhy the defendant did what he is called to anfwer. Pleas in
juflification mud fct forth fome fpecial matter : thus, on
being fued for a trefpafs, a perfon may juftify it by proving
that the land is his own freehold ; that he entered a houfe
in order to apprehend a felon ; or by virtue of a warrant, to
levy a forfeiture, or in order to take a dillrefs ; in an aflault,
that he did it out of neceffity ; and, in an aftion of flander,
that the plaintiff ie really as bad a man as the defendant faid
he was.

Ju.sTlFIC.\TlON-, or Jiijlifylng, among Letter Founders.
See Letter Foi'NDERV.

Among Printers, it denotes the proper adjuftment of the
lines and pages.

Justification, in Theology, that aft of grace which ren-
ders a man juft or righteous ia the fight of God, and places
' him in a ftate of falvation.

The Romanifts and reformed are extremely divided about
the doftrine of juflification ; the latter contending for
iuflification by faith alone, and the former by good works.

In the 1 1 th article of the church of England it is declared
that " We are accounted righteous before God, only for

• the merit of our Lord and Saviour Jcfus Chrift, by faith,
&c.'' By the faith, which in feveral pafTages of fcripture

• is faid to juftify and fave, fays a commentator on the thirty-
nine articles ( lee Elem. of Chriftian Theology, by the lord
bilhop of Lincoln) we are to underilaud tliat lively " faith
which worketh by love;" which purifieth the lieart,and which
keepeth the commandments of God : But though by thefe
a6is of obedience we demonftrate that we truly and firmly
believe the divine authority of Chrill and his doflrines, yet
this faith is not fo meritorious in its own nature as to entitle us
to the reward of eternal life : it juHifies us only by being the

Vol. XIX.

JUS

condition upon which it has pleafed our Almighty Father to
offer u.s falvation. Our juftification is not to be attributed
to the inherent efficacy of faith, but to the mercy of God,
and merits of Chrift, from which that efficacy is derived.
On tiie contrary, the Papifts afTert, that men's inherent
rightcoufnefs is the meritorious caufe of their juftj-fitation,
and that good works " ad vitam ceternam confequendam vere
promereri." (Cave. Trid. de Bon. Op. c. 12.) Some
other divines maintain, that as, on the one hand, our fins
were imputed to Chrift, fo on the other, we are juftified by
the im])utation of Chrift's righteoufnefs to us ; i e. we,
though guilty, on complying with the gofpel, are finally
treated by God as righteous perfons \i. e. as if we had never
offended him at all, or had ourfelves fatisfied the demands of
his law for fuch offences), out of regard to wh&t Chrift has
done or fuffered, whereas we (hould not othcrwife have been
fo treated. Others again, who difapprove both the term im-
putation and the fentiment which it implies, reprefent faith
in Chrift and the gofpel as the principle or fpring of thofe
virtues or of that charaAer wliich renders men fit objeds of
mercy, and of thofe promifes of pardon, favour, and eter-
nal life, which flow originally from the grace of God, and
which are communicated to mankind by the mediation of
Jefus Chrift. For the manner in which the doftrines of St.
Paul and of St. James, with regard to juftification, are ren-
dered confiftent with each other, fee the artiele Faith.
Dr. Whitby reprefents faith as confifting merely in an aftent
to the gofpel as true ; and fays, that upon declaring that
affent, a man was juftified from all paft fins, without. good
works ; but that good works were necelfary in order to
continue in a juftified ilate. A notion^^hinch rcfembling thi;;
has been advaiiccd and largely illuitrated by Dr. Taylor, in
his •' Key to the Apoftolical Vvriting.'!," prefixed to his Com-
mentary on the epiftle to the Romans", and included in a
" Colledion of TraCt.s" publilhed by Dr. Watfon, bifliop
of Landaff, for the ufe of fludents in the univerfities, and
the younger clergy. (See Faith.) This learned divine
endeavours to eftabhtha " double juftification," or falvation,
for which, he thinks, we have the cleareft fcriptural evi-
dence. The Jiijl, or fundamental juftification, relates to the
heathen ftate of us gentile Chriftians, and confifts in the re-
miflion of fins, and in our being admitted, upon our faith,
into the kingdom and covenant of God ; wiien, with regard
to our gentile itate, we were obnoxious to wraih, and de-
ferving of condemnation. Tiiis is of " free grace, without
works." For how wicked foever any Heathen had been, or
now has been, upon profeffion of faith in Chrift, his former
wickednefs neither was, nor is, any bar to his admittance into
the kingdom of God, nor to anintereft in its privileges and
bleffings. Nay further, our prefent common falvation, or
juftification, is fo of grace, and reaches lb far, that in cafe
any profefled Chriftian has lived dilagrceably to the rules of
the gofpel ; yet, upon his repentance and return to God, his
interell in the divine grace and the ])ardun of fin itands
good, notwithftanding his former evil life. This our author
calls the " firft juftification," or falvation, by which we are
inveftcd in all the prefent privileges of the gofpel ; and in
reference to which we are faid in fcripture to be eletled, adopt-
ed, faved, jiijlified, •u.'ajhed,fanl!'ificd, born again, born of Go J,
&c. The firftjuflification, however, does not terminate ia
itfclf, but is in order to another, which we may call '^fnal
juftification,'' or falvation. This relates to, and fuppofes,
our Chriftian ftate ; and confifts in our being actually quali-
fied for, and being put in pofltfTion of, eternal life, after we
have duly improved our Jirjl juftification, or our Chriftian
privileges, by patient continuance in well-doing, to the end,
under all trials and temptation. By viorls, fays our author,
. . 4 0 excluded

J u s

excluded by St. Paul from juftification or falvation, lie doth
not mean any ceremonial works, or ritual obfervances of the
Mofaic conftitution (fee Titus, iii. 5.) ; but allatls of obe-
dience properly moral. Moreover, by luorhyOr-woris of latu,
exclud'd from ju'iilicat ion, the apoftle doth not always mean
only finlefs, perfeft obedience. The li'orhs excluded from
julUfication are any kind of obedience, perfeft or imperfecl,
which may be fuppofed a reafon foi* God's bellowing the pri-
vileges arid honours of the gofpel upon the heathen world,
'rhofe privileges and honours were beftowed out of pure
mercy and goodnefs, without regard to the foregoing good
or bad works of the heathen world. The luorhs, which are
excluded from juPtilication, refer to the prior (late of Chrif-
tia:is, and to i\.\e\r firjl juilitication ; when they were taken
into t!ie church or kingdom of God, and had x\\e'\r pajl fins
forgiven them. Thisjfty? juftification was not of works, it
was of mere grace, according to tiie coiinfel and purpofe of
God's own will, without regard to what the Heathen had
been before his converfion. But after converfion, when a
man is become a Chriftian, and with regard to fnal juftifi-
cation, works are exprefsly required. Neverthclefs, works
of righteoufnefs are fo inliifed upon in our Chriilian ftate,
now that we are taken into the kingdom of God, that if any
Clirillian fliould negleft the performance of them, there is
Hill room, in this life, for repentance. For our Lord and
his apolfles not only called men to repentance, in order to
their /f;_y? juftification ; but the apollles, and our lord after
his afcenfion, exhort wicked Chriftians, fuch as were mem-
bers of the gofpel church, to repentance, in order to their

■Jimil juftification. 2 Cor. xii. 21. Rev. ii. 5, 16. iii. 3,
19.
JUSTIFYING B.^iL, in Lazu. See Bail abovi.
JusTiFyiXG Grace. See Grace.

JUSTIN I., in Biography, emperor of the Eaft, a native
ofDacia, was born about the year 450, and was brought
lip to the mean occupation of keeping of cattle. Pofleffing
a ^rength and ftature which he thought were likely to re-
commend him, he left the bufinefs of a paftoral life, and
obtained a place among the guards of ihe emperor Leo.
He rofe by degrees in the fervice, till at length, in 518, he
poiTeiTed, at the death of Anaftafius, the important office of
praifeft-prsetorio ; and by the application of timely bribes,
he ftepped on to the vacant throne, and apparently with the
unanimous confent of the military, the clergy, and the

■people. The eunuch Amantius, who would gladly have
raifed one of his own friends to the high office, was, for a
real or pretended confpiracy, with fome of his afTociates,
puniflied with exile or death. The Gothic chief Vitahan,
■who had revolted againft Anaftafius, and remained at the
head of a powerful army, was decoyed into the palace, and
anViffinated at a royal banquet. Jnilin, to whom the epithet
ci elder is given, to dii'inguifli him from another emperor of
the fame name and family. Was fixty-eight years of age
■when he was inverted with the imperial purple ; and though
■without any advantages of education, he was preferved from
expollng his incapacity, by his good fenfe in following the
d.ireftion of able ftatefmen, whom he had the difcernment to
feleft, and the wifdom to confide in. At this time, fays
the hiftoiian, the world beheld two contemporary monarchs,
Theodoric and himfelf, who were even deftitute of the
knowledge of the alphabet: but the commanding genius of
the Godi rendered him rcfpcflable amidft all his ignorance ;
ai)4 Juftin, confcious of his deficiencies, relied on the dih-

"gence of his queftor Proclus, and the talents of his nephew
juftinian, whom the emperor had brought from the foHtudes
of Dacia, and educated as his fiiture heir. The chief events
ef this reij^n wo»c tlic perfccutiun of the Arians, advances

J US

towards a reconciliation with the Roman fee, and the com-
mencement of a war with the king of Perfia. He a(loci;uod
Juftinian as his colleague in the empire in 527, and oon
after died, in the ninth year of his reign. An earthqi;.ike^
which almoft ruined Antioch and fcveral other cities in the
Kaft, was a calamity which gvealy affefted the emperor.
He is faid to have laid afide the imperial robes, clothed
himfelf in fackcloth, and palled feveral days in fafting and
prayer, to avoid the divine judgments. His piety was not
furpaiTed by his humanity ; and he difplayed much bene-
volence in relieving thofe who had fuffercd by and furvivtd
the terrible difafter. Gibbon. Univer. Hift.

Justin II., emperor of the Eaft, nephew and fuccelTor
of Juftinian, afcended the throne in 565. The choice of
the fenate and people was fanctified by the benedidion of
the patriarch, who placed the diadem on his head, wliich
was the firft time the ceremony had been performed bv a
prieft. As his predecelTor had given great offence by
abolifliing the office of conful, the new emperor reflored it
in his own per.^on, almoft as foon as he came to the throne.
On this occafion, he dillributed large funis of money among
the people, and immediately difcharged the debts, and cor-
rected the .^bufes of his late uncle. The popularity ac-
qnired by this commencement of Juftin's reign was foon for-
feited by inftances of cruelty and avarice, which were im-
puted to the inftigation of the emprefs Sophia. He caufed
his relation Juftin, who had a military command on the
banks of the Danube, to be ftrangled ; and he put to death
fonie of his fenators, from a fufpicion of their being difaf-
fedted. He made war againft Perfia ; but being defeated
at the head of a numerous army, he was obliged to fi:e for
peace. SoOn after this, Juilin was feized with a diforder,
which affeded his intellefts, and rendered hin\ incapable of
government. Bv the advice of his emprefs, he railed to the
rank of C.efar, in the year 574, a Thracian named Tiberius,
who had obtained, by his abilities, tlie office of poft-captain
of the guards. The ceremony of his elevation was per-
formed in the portico of the palace, in the prefence of the
patriarch and the fenate. On this occafion Juftin made a
long fpeech, which his flatterers imputed to divine infpira-
tion, in wliich he recommended his fucceflbr to love his
people as himfelf; to cultivate the afFecfions, and maintain
the difcipline of the army ; to protect the fortunes of the
rich, and to relieve the neceifities of the poor : and he con-
cluded with a prayer, that th.e God of heaven and earth
would infnfe into his heart to do whatever he himfelf had
neglected or forgotten. The four laft years of his life were
fpent in retirement ; and his choice Was juftified by the filial
reverence and gratitude of Tiberius. Juilin died 0£lober
5th, 578.

Jusri.v, a Latin hiftorian, is fuppofed to have flouriflied
in the fecond century, under Antoninus Pius. His hiftory,.
which is ufed in our fchools as an elegant compendium for
young people, is an abridgment of that of Trogus Pom-
peius, in forty-four books, which has been long loft. The
narration of Juftin is clear, his refiedtions are fenfib'e,
though obvious, and his ilyle is fometimcs eloquirit. The
hillory compreh.ends what relates to the AfTyrian, Perfiap,
Grecian, Macedonian, and Roman empires. The beft edi-
tions are thole by Gronovius, Hearne, and Barbou. The
Delphin edition is much in uie.

Justin, St., in Geu^raphy, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Landes ; 27 miles W. of Condom.

JUSTINGEN, a town and capital of a lordfnip, pur-
chafed in I75'i by the duke of Wirlertiborg ; 16 miles
N.N.E. cf Bachau.

JUST IK IAN I., in Biography, emperor of the Eaft,.

J u s

«TOs torn o| an obfcnre race in Dacia, whence, as we bave
feen in the article Justin I., lie was brought, and educated
vith a view of fuccecding to tlie empire. Juftinian was,
during the life of his uncle, made partner in the imperial
throne ; and upon the death of Juftin, became its fole pof-
fdror, being at that period, A.D 527, in the forty-fifth
year of his age. Immediately upon his elevation, he foleranly
efpoufed Theodora, an adlrefs, who in early youth had fol-
lowed a courfe of prcftitution, and who gained fo complete
aa afcendancy over the mind of the emperor, as to be affo-
ciated with him on the throne. He began his reign by a
violent pcrfecution of lieretics and fedtaries, and he regarded
himfclf as a great theologian. His reign was, however, me-
morable for many important tranfaftions, mihtary and civil ;
and he carried his arms with fuccefs againft his enemies, for
■H'hJch he was chiefly indebted to Belifarius his great general,
viio alfo preferved him from a formidable confpiracy. (See
the article Belisauius.) The legiflative labours of Juftinian
arc what have conferred the chief celebrity on his name.
The refori'iation of the Roman jurifprudence occupied the
attention of the emperor from his firll pofFeffion of the fu-
prerne power. The perfon to whom he principally confided
this arduovis tafk was Tribonian, en eminent lawyer of va-
rious and exterfive attainments. By his cares, and thofe of
nine perfons affociated with him, the new code of Juftinian
was completed in the year 529. This publication was fol-
lowed in 533 by that of the Pandefts or Digeft, a compila-
tion of the decifions and opinions of former civihans ; and of
the Inftitutes, an elementary treatife of the Roman law for
the ufe of Itadcnts. A new edition of the Code, in 534,
made a coniiderable addition to the emperor's own laws ; and
Lis Edidls and Novels complete the vaft cdilice of jurifpru-
dence, reared by the legiflative fpirit which diftinguiftied his
reign. Another remarkable trait in this emperor's charac-
ter was his pafiion for building. His piety was difplajed in
numerous churches, and other buildings dedicated to reli-
gion, of which the celebrated church of Sanfta Sophia at
Conftantinople, now fubilfting as the principal mofque of
the Turkifn empire, attefts the magnificence of his defigns.
Bridges, aquedufts, high-roads, and hofpitals, were among
his works of public utility, by which every province of the
«mpire was benef ted. His works of perxe were frequently
interrupted by wars, which agitated the empire during aU
moft the whole of this reign ; but in J^S, a peace upon ho-
nourable terms put an end to the long conteils between the
Roman and Perfian empires. The rejoicings on this event
were difturbed by a dreadful earthquake, which overthrew
many ftately edifices, with a great lofs of lives. Juftinian,
broken down with cares and old age, died in November
^6^, in the thirty-ninth year of his reign, and the eighty-
third of his age. Among other diftinguiftied events of this
reign, the introduftion of the filk-worm into the Greek
empire, by means of two Perfian monks, who went as mif-
fionaries to China, ought not to be omitted. The increaf-
ing jealoufies, and the heavy burdens which Juftinian im-
pofcd upon his fubjeils, had, fome time before his death,
deftroyed ai! attachment to his perfon ; and he who, in many
refpeifis, deferved the title of the lall Roman emperor, left
the ftage unlamented and unhonoured. Gibbon. Univer.

Ju.STiNiAV II., emperor of the Eaft, fucceeded his father
Conftantine Pogonatus in 685, being then only fixteen years
of age. He was naturally of a violent temper ; and his love
of war induced him to break a treaty which he had made
with the Saracens, and renew hoftilities againft them. He
recovered feveral provinces from his enemies, and made an
extravagant peace with them ; but iii^ exadtions, cruelties,

JUS

and debaucheries, tarniflied the glory of his arm?, and ren-
dered him an objeft of hatred to all. He formed a deiigW
of deftroylng all the inhabitants of Conftantinople: blit'
I.eontius, a celebrated commander, attempted the deliver-
ance of his country. He was fuccefiful ; dethroned tlie'
emperor, and feizqd him and his minifters without refiltance.
Juftir.ian's life was fpared, but he was fL-u'cnccd to be ba-
iiilhed, and to fufier the amputation of hi-- nofc : herce he
was named by the Greeks « Rhinotmetus." In 704 lie,
by the afTiftance of the Bulgarians, regained his feat, wbVn
he revenged himfelf upon his enemies. The firft viGiins
were Leoiitins and Tiberius, who had fucccfiively Riled the'
throne during the interval of his baniihment Tiiefo were
dragged \-. trinmph tluough the city, and then placed in
chains beneath his throne, whence he beheld the fpeclaclesij
with a foot upon er.ch of their necks, whilll the inconfcant
people ftionted, " Thou fliait trample on tiie afp and ba-
fililk." They were then led to c.-circutioa. So many per-
fons were, on this occafion, the vifti.ris of his fury, that it
is faid wiiole provinces were almoft depopulated by ti-.e mul-
titude of his executions. Juflinian died by the hands of
aftaflins ia 7 1 1 ; and fuch wa.s the hatred which l:e had every
where infpired, that his young fon Tiberius, whom hh
grandmother had placed in a fancluary, was dragged from
the altar, and murdered before her eyes. Thus (he race of
Heraclius was estinguiftied, after a reign of one hundred
years. Univer. Hift. Gibbon.

JUSTIZA, a magiftrate of Arragon, %vhore office bore
fome refeniblance to tint of the ephori in ancient Sparta.
He acted as the guardian of the people, and the comptrpUcr
of the prince. His perfon was facred, and his jurifdiftioii
unbounded. He was the fupreme interpreter of the laws.
Not only inferior judges, but the kings themfelves, weri;
bound to confult him in every doubtful cafe, and to receive
his rcfponfes with imphcit deference. An appeal lay to him
from the royal judges, as well as from thofe appointed by
the barons within their refpeftive territories. Even when
no appeal was made to him, he could interpofe by his own
authority, prohibit the ordinary judge to proceed, take im-
mediate cognizance of the caufe himfelf, and remove the
party accufed to the " Manifeftation," or prifon of the
ftate, to which no perfon had accefs but by his permiffion.
His power was exerted with no lefs vigour and effedl in fu-
perintendmg the adminiilration of governinent, than in re-
gulating the courfe of juftice. It was his prerogative to
infpeft the conduct of the king, to review :dl the royal
proclamations and patents, and to declare whether or not
they were agreeable to the lav/, and fit to be executed.
He, by his fole authority, could exclude any of the king's
minifters from the condud of aft<urs, and call them to anfwer
for their mal-adminiftration. The juftiza himfelf was ac-
countable only to the Cortes for the execution of his high
office. By a law enacted in the Cortes, A.D. 1442, it was
ordained that the juftiza ftionld continue in office during
life, and ftiould not be removed from it, unlefs by the autho-
rity of the Cortes. This officer was appointed by the king ;
but to prevent his becoming a dependent and tool of the
crown, inftead of the guardian of the people, it was deter-
mined that he fliould retain his office during life. He was
feleded from perfons of the fecoiid clafs, or cavalleros, an-
fwering nearly to gentlemen or commoners in Great Britain,
and not from the ricoftiombres or noblemen, that he might
check the domineering and opprcflive fpirit of the nobles, as
well as fet bounds to the power of the monarch ; and that
he himfelf might be accountable for the manner in which he
executed his truft, and liable to rigorous puniftiment j
whertai the ricofliQmbres were not iubjed to capital piinilh-
4O 2 Fient,

JUT

ment For contraiSing his power, feventeen perfons were
chofcn by lot in each meeting of the Cortes ; and thcfe
formed a tribunal, called the court of inquifition into the
office of juftiza. This court met at three liated times in the
year; and to this court the juftiza and his deputies were
refponfible for their conduft. The members of the court
pafted fentence by ballot ; and they mi^ht punifh by de-
gradation, confifcation of goods, or even with death. The
law which erefled this court, and regulated the forms of
its precedence, was enadled A.D. 1461. Robertfon's Hift.
of Charles v., vol. i.

JUSTNESS, the exaftnefs or regularity of any thing.
Juftnefs is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of thought, language,
and fentinnents. The juftnefs of a thought confilb in a cer-
tain precifion or accuracy, by which every part of it is per-
feClly true, and pertinent to the fubjedl.

Juftnefs of language confifts in ufing proper and well
chofen terms ; in noi faying either too much, or too little.

M. De Mere, who has written on juftnefs of mind, dif-
tinguifhes two kinds of juftnefs ; the one arifing from tafte
and genius ; the other from good fenfe, or riglit reafon.
There are no certain rules to be laid down for the former,
viz. to (hew the beauty and exaftnefs in the turn, or choice
of a thought ; the latter confifts ia the juft relation which
things have to one another.

JUTE, in Manu/acfures, is a remarkably ftrong vege-
table fibre, -tiie prodiice of the Eatl Imlies, which Dr.
Wiliiam Roicburgh has fully defcribcd, and its ufes, in the
Tranfaflions of the Society of Arts, vol. xxii. p. 372.

JUrERBOCK, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the principality of Querfurt, with two fauxbourgs, fituatcd
on the Angeibach ; 16 miles N. E. of Wittenburg. N.
lat. 52^ E. long. 13" 2'.

JUTES, in Jnci.nt Bijory, a tribe of the Gets, the
conquerors of fo many countries, inhabited the extremity of
the Ciir.bric Cherfonefus, which from them is ftill called
J;:l!a!id; which fee.

JUTHIA, Od:.\, or Slam, in Geography, a town of Afia,
capital of the kingdom of Siam, and refidence of the king,
fituated on a large illand in the river Menan, at the diftance
of fome leagues from the fea. The royal palace is large
and beautiful, and the pagodas are numerous. The Dutch
have a factory here, and many merchants from different
countries come to trade. In 1766, this town was taken by
the Birmans. N. lat. 14 18'. E. long. 100 52'.

JUTLAND, a peninfula of Europe, in the kingdom -of
Denmark, formerly called " Cimbria," and the " Cher-
fonefus Cimbricus," bounded on the E. by the Scaggerak,
the Ljittle Belt, and the Baltic ; on the S. by the duchy of
Holftein, and on the W. and N. by the Northern fea ;
about 200 iniles long, and rjj broad. It is generally divided
into North Jutland, more cfpecially called Jutland, and
South Jutland, more generally called the " duchy of Slef-
wick ;" which fee.

Jutland, or North Jutland, is bounded on all fides by
the ft'a, except towards the fouth, where its boundary is the
duchy of Slefwick ; it is about i j'o miles long, and from
60 to 80 broad. Of all the territories belonging to Den-
mark, it is the l.'.rgeft and yields the greateft revenue. The
middle part confifts of heaths and moors, intermixed with
few fpots of arable land ; but thefe afford good pafture
for oxen, ftieep, and goats. The other parts, of greater
extent, arc very fertile, and yield a great quantity of grain,
which is annually exported to Sweden, Norway, and Hol-
land. The inhabitants derive alfo confiderable funis from
their oxen, horfes, and hogs. Hence Jutland is commonly
tailed '' the land of bacon and rye bread." This country

J U V

is alfo plentifully fupplicd with all kinds of freili u;i.
and fea fifll On the caft fide it has fine woods of fa'..
beech, fir, &c. but on the weft lide the inhabitants arc
obhgcd to ufe heath and turf for fuel. Jutland abounds
with game. The air is keen and cold, cfpecially towards
the North fea. The inhabitants are vigorous, robuft, and
refolute ; and feem to have gained a greater degree of free-
dom than the other inhabitants of Denmark. Many of the
Jullanders have freeholds, for which they pay a fmall ac-
knowledgment to the lord of the manor and the public
taxes. The Danifii language is fpoken in Jutland with a
particular accent, and with lefs purity than in the other pro-
vinces. The only place in which the exercife of any reli-
gion, befides Lutheranifm, is tolerated, is Fredericia. North
.Jutland is compofed of fsur- diocefes, or governments i
each of which has its biftiop and general-governor ; and
they derive their names from ihofe of their chief cities, vlx^
Aalborg, Wiborg, Arrhuus, and Ripen. The population
of thefe four diocefes is ftated by Mr. Coxe at 358,136
perfons. Jutland fupplies tripoly and fuller's earth, befides
fome alum and vitriol.

JUTRAM, a town of Hindooftan, in Giizerat, on the
gulf of Cambay ; 16 miles N.W. of Amood.

JUTTARA, a town of Hindooftan, in the eircar of
Cicacole ; 10 miles N. of Vifigapatam.
JUTTY Head. See Jetty Head.

JUTWAR, in Geography, a fmall eircar of Hindooftan,
in Guzerat, on the left bank of the Puddar, a little above
the gulf of Cuteh ; about 25 miles long, and 1 6 broad.

JUVANTIA, in Medicine, literally fignifying aiding
things, and generally contrafted with ladentia, or hurtful
things, is a term applicable to every agent or circumftance
which contributes to alleviate a difeafe, as the word l/zdentia
fignifies every thing which can increafe the fymptoms of a
diforder, or prevent its progrefs towards amendment ; but
the terms are principally ufed to denote thofe things, which
pofTefs a minor degree of influence on the animal economy^
and cannot be clafled among the adual remedies or caufes
of difeafe. Whence the common precept of medical
writers, to attend to the juvantla and /adcntla, at the fame
time that the active remedies for any diltafe are employed.

JUVELSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Tobolflt. N. lat. 63° 40'. E. long. 61° 14'.

JUVENAL, Dkcius Junius Juvexalis, in Biography,
a celebrated Roman poet, who was born at Aquinum,
in Italy. He came early to Rome, and pafTcd much of
his life in tlie piirfuits of tl;e bar, after which he applied
himfelf to write fatires, fixteen of which are ftill extant, and
very highly prized. Tiiey ftand pre-eminent in the clafs of
thofe which employ warm ferious inveftivc, and make vice
rather than folly their objeft. He wrote with acrimony
againft all his adverfaries : he is far more correft than his
contemporaries, which has been attributed to his judgment
and experier>ce, being far advanced in life when he wrote h s
fatires. He appears to have been a lover of virtue, though
his language and defcriptions are fometimes very grofs : many
of his maxims of morality are delivered with great force and
dignity ; as a poet he has more animation than tafte. He
has with reafon been called the laft of the Roman poets, for
after him poetry decayed, and nothing more claims attention
as a perfect poitcal ccmpofilion. The belt editions of this
poet are thofe by Cafanbcn, of Hawkey, and of Grwvius
cum notis variorum The Delphin edition is much ufed, as
are the Aldine and Glafgow editions.

JUVENALIA, or Juve.mai,t:,s ludi, games, exercifes of
body, and combats, inllJtuted by Ivlao the firft time his
beard was ftiaved.

They

I V Y

Tliey were celebrated in private lioufes, and exen the wo-
men had a fliare in them : probably they were the fame with
what were otlierwife called Neroniana.

JUVENCUS, Caius Vettiu.s Aquilixus, in Biogra-
phy, one of till- carlieft ChrilUan poets, was a prieft of a
noble family in Spain, and flovirifhcd in the fourth century.
He wrote a poem on the life of Chrill, taken from the gof-
pel of St. Matthew. It was compofcd about the year 3:9.
It has been frequently reprinted, and may be found in Mat-
taire's " Corpus Poetarum ;" and in the " Bibliotheque dee
Peres." Gen. Biog.

JUVENIEC, in Gergmphy. a town of Poland, in t!>e
palatinate of Wilna; ^o r, iles E. of L'.dn.

JU VENT AS, in Mythology, the goddefs who prefided
over youth among the Romans. This goddefs was long
honoured in the Capitol, where Servi's Tullius ereifted her
ftatue. Near the chapel of Minerva there was the altar of
Juventas, and upon this altar a picture of Proferpine. The
Greeks called the goddefs of yoith Hebe ; but it has been
generally fuppofed that this was not the fame with the Ro-
manJuventas.

JUVIGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Channel, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrid of Mortain ; four miles N. W. of Mortain. The
place contains 632, and the canton 5603 inhabitants, on a
territory of 100 kilionietres, in nine communes. Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Marne ; nine
miles N.W.of Clialons-fur-Maone. — Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Orne, and chief place of a canton,
in the dillricT: of Domfront. The place contains 1945, and
the canton 11,126 inhabitants, on a territory of 207^ kilio-
metres, in 13 communes.

IVY, in Botany, &c. (See Hedera.) The ivy is a
fmall well-known creeping or chmbing kind of plant.
From its property of fpreading rapidly over a furface, it
has been recommended as proper for protefting the faces of
earthen dikes, and other fimilar fences, as by this means
they are preferved from mouldering down and being de-
ftroyed.

Ivy, in the Materia Medka. The leaves of ivy are fel-
dom ufed inwardly, but outwardly they are applied to iffues,
to keep them cool, and free from inflammation, as alfo to
fcabs, fores, and fcald heads. Mr. Boyle, in his ufe of
Experimental Philofophy, commends a large dofe of the full
ripe berries as a revnedy agaiiift the plague ; and it is faid,
that in the London plague, the powder of them was given
in vinegar, or white wine, with fuccefs ; and they have
been recommended in fmall dofes, as alexipharmic and fu-
dorilic. Schroder fays, they purge upward and down-
ward. The gum of ivy is fomewhat cauftic, and com-
mended' to take away fpots and freckles out of the face.
Tliis refinous juice, exuding from the ftalks of ivy, has
been recommended as corroborant and refolvent, in ca-
chexies and uterine obllrutlions ; but has been rarely ufed,
except as an ingredient in plallcrs ; nor does it appear to
poflefs any virtues which common relin has not in an equal
degree.

l\\-rijn is brought from Pcrfia, and fome other of the
hot countries, where alone it is to be found in any confider-
able quantity. Mr. Ray, indeed, mentions fome of it hav-
ing been found on ivies in Worcefterfliire, and other authors
in other parts of Europe ; but thefe are only fmgular in-
llances of what may happen, our {hops being obliged to be
fupplied from the Eail.

The' ancient Greeks were acquainted with this refin,
which they called lachryma hedert, as fome alfo do to this
day. It is faid to be emollient and detergent, and to make

I X I

a noble balfam for freth wounds ; but is never ufed by us
with thefe intentions. The Perfians efteem it hiuch as an
ailringcnt.

Ivy, Ground, in Botany and the Ma.'eria Medka. See
Glechom.v.

IVYtree of jinurka. See K.\LMI.\.

Ivy, Petrified. See PETUiFACTroN-.

\v\, Virginian. See Moonsef.d.

JUXON, WiM.iAM, in Biography, was born at Chi-
chefter, but received his education at Merchant Taylors'
fchool, London, from whence he was removed to St. John's
college, Oxford, of whicli he was made a fellow in 1598,
and in 1621, he was eleftcd prefident. In 1627, he was
promoted to the deanery of Worcellcr, and in 1633, ap-
pointed clerk of the clofet to the king;, and in the following
year he obtained, through the interell of archbirtiop Laud,
the bifhopric of London ; and (hortly after he was ap-
pointed lord high treafurer. This laft promotion gave
general offence. His birth and character were de med too
obfcure for a man raifed to one of the higheil ofticos of the
crown ; neverthelefs, his conduft in that ftation was irre-
proachable. In the rebellion he fuffered the lofs, not only
of his eccleiiallical revenues, but of a great part of his
temporal eftate. In 1648, he attended the king upon the
fcaffold, after which he was taken into cuftody with a view
of forcing him to reveal any fecrets with vvhich his ma-
jefty had entrufted him ; but his prudence, integrity, and
honour, were fuperior to every art cxercifed upon him.
At the reftoration he was made archbifhop of Canterbury.
He died in 1663, at the age of 81, and was buried in St.
John's college-chapel, Oxford. He was a perfon of great
integrity, mlldnefs, and humanity, and endowed with an
excellent undeitlanding. Wood. Hume.

JUXTAPOSITION, is ufed by philofophers to de-
note that ipecies of growth, which is performed by the ap-
pofition of new matter to the furface, or outiide, of old.

In which fenfe, it ftandj oppofed to intuf-fufception ;
where the growth of a body is performed by tlie reception
of a juice within it, diffufed through its canals. See Nir-

TRFTIOX.

JUZCUR, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Fez, on the coall of the Mediterranean ; 15 miles
W. of Mezemha.

JUZENNECOURT, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Marne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrift of Chaumont ; fix miles N.W. of Chaumont
The place contains 243, and the canton 6435 inhabitants, on
a territory of 272^ kiliometres, in 24 communes.

IWAMI, or Skki.siu, a province of Japan.

IWANCZOWICZA, a town of Lithuania, in the pala-
tinate of Kovogrodek ; 52 miles S.S.'W. of Novogrodek. '

IWANGROD, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw ; 60 miles E.S.E of Bracl'aw.

IWATA, a town of Ja;tan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
100 miles W. of ,Iedo.

IWETPOUR, a town of Bengal ; 1; miles E. of Go-
ragot.

IWIE, a town of Lithuania, in tlie palatinate of Wilna ; .
24 miles E. of Lida.

IWNIC A, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Kiev;
60 miles W.S..W of Kiev.

IXIA, in Botany, .Jia, the Greek name of tlie MifTehoe,
or Fifcum album. It does not appear why Linnsus adopted
it for the prefent genus Linn. Gen. 26. Schrtb. ^^.

Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 195.

Vahl. En

2. 49. Thunb.

Dill", n. 8. Ait. Hort. Kcw. ed. 2. v. i, 86. Kcr. in Ann.
ef Bot. V. 1. 226. Curt. Mag. p. 1013. Mart.. Mill. Did.

I X I A.

T. 2. Ju(F. 58. Lamarck. lUuftr. t. 31. — Clafs and order,
Tr'nindr'la Alonogynia. Nat. Ord. £n/a/<?, Linn. Ir!des,in^.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Spatha inferior, fhorter than the corolla,
cjf two oblong permanent valves ; the outermoft enfolding
the inner one. Cor. of one petal, fiiperior ; tube tluead-
ihaped, flender, ereft, fcarcely dilated upw.irds ; limb regu-
lar, divided to its very bafe into fix, nearly equal, fpreading,
flattiih fegments. Stam. Filaments three, inferted into the
mouth of the tube, decurrent, much fhorter than the limb;
anthers oblong, fomewhat curved. Pljl. Germen roundift,
fomewhat triangular ; ftyle thread-fhaped, erect ; lligmas
three, linear, recurved, fpreading. Peric. Capfule roundilh-
ovate, membranous, tumid, of three cells and three valves,
Serds numerous, globofe.

Eff. Ch. Spatha of two valves. Corolla with a flender
tube, and regular limb. Stigmas three, narrow, recurved.
Capfule ovate, fomewhat globofe. Seeds globofe.

An extenfive genus of bulbous Cape plants in Linnxus,
Willdenow, and Vahl, from which Mr. Ker has, fjenerally
%ve think very happily, feparatcd feveral genera, all agree-
ing with it in the regular corolla, by which they are all in
common diitinguiHied from Gladiolus (fee that arUclc);
but differing from it, as well as among themfelves, in other
particulars. See Aristea, Geissorrhiza, and Hem'e-

jt.\KTHA As we have given a view of all the certain fpecies

of Gladiolus, we deem it neceffaiy to do the fame by I.xia,
of which Mr. Ker reckons up 15 fpecies. In its old ftate
the genus ftands in Willdenow with 47 fpecies, and m Vahl
^vith 56, befides fix reckoned by the latter doubtfiJ, adopted
from Bunnann.

Sedlion i. Ltmh hfs fpreading, tule JliorUr, fpatha larger;
as nvAl as more thin and membranous, thjn in the rejl.

r. I. pendula. Thunb. Diff. n. 16. Linn, Suppl. 91 —
Flowers fomewhat bell-fiiapcd, pendulous. Branches of
the panicle capillary, drooping. Spatha longer than the
tube. — Gathered at the Cape o£ Good Hope, in watery
places, in November, by Thunberg, who defcribes it as the
tallelt and mod ornamental of its genus, with large, pendu-
lous, flefu-coloured jlowers, the fegments of which, in his
fpecimen given to Linn^us, are above an inch long, while
the tube is not half fo much. We know no figure of tliis
fpecies, nor is it in the gardens.

I. I. capillaris. Thunb. n. I2.t. 2. f. 2. Linn. Suppl. 52.
Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 57^ i Flowers fomewhat bell-fhaped.
Spatha equal to the tube. Leaves linear.— Native, hke all
the reft, of the Cape of Good Hope, flowering in our
green-houfes chiefly in the fpring. Mr. Ker quotes under
this /. lancea, Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 281. If this be right,
it varies in the breadth of its leaves, as well as in having
fometimes only one flower on a ilalk, fonietiuies feveral.
They are of a pale rofe or fiefh colour. The bulb is cu-
riouily reticulated.

3. I. aulica. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. i. v. 1. 57. cd. ;.
-ff. I. 86. (1. capillaris y ; Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 1013.)
— Flowers nearly falver-fliaped, crowded. Spatha half as
Jong as the tube. Leaves oblong, many-ribbed. — Sent by
Mr Maffon to Kew garden in 1774. Mr. Ker cftecms it
a variety of the preceding, but the charadlers we have given
ieem to'diiUnguilh it. The floiuers are much more expanded,
and larger, of a full rofc-colour, and the leaves very much
broader.

SeAion 2 . Tube Jlender, conjiderahly longer than thefpatha ;
Ihnb tuidcly fpreading.

4. I. ariJLita. Thunb. Diff. n. jj. Ker in Curt. Mag.
t. ySg —Spike fomewhat level-topped. Spatha about one-
fourth the length of the tube, ih.irply toothed. Limb fal-
yer-(haped. Stamens nearly equal to the ftyk. — The Icavu

are broad and fword-diaped, with many ribj, and a cart ila-
ginous though narrow edge. Stem round, fometimes branchr
ed. Floiuers numerous, fomewhat coryniboie, rofe-colourixl
with a wliite orifice, inodorous, their Umb quite flat. The
fpaiha has much of the charafter of Mr. Kcr's genus Spa-
ra:!^is. This fpecies requires a conftant fupply of water,
efpecially when about flowering.

5. I. patens. Ait. Hort. Kew, ed. i. v. i. 59, ed. 2.
V. 1.86. Kerin Curt. Mag. t. 522. Redout. Liliac. t. 140.
(I. filiformis ; Venten. j'ard. de Cels, t. 4S. Redout,
l^iliac. t. 30. I. ariftata; Schneev. Ic. t. 32.-)- Spik^ cy-
lindrical. Tube very {lender ; limb widely fpix-ading, fome-
what reflexed. Filaments erect and clofe together. — The
leaves of this very handfome fpecies are fword-lhaped.
£tcm flender, eredl and rigid. Flowers more or Ufa nu-
merous, in a cylindrical fpike, rarely branched, their co-
lour a vivid crimfon or carmine, fometimes varying to 9
lighter vermilion hue. The fegments of the liinb are often
much reflexed, and they v.iry in length, but are ufually el-
liptical, and each near an inch long. The eye, or orifice of
the tube, is often green bordered with white.

6. \. pxuofa. Linn. Sp. PI. 51. Ker in Curt. Mag.
t. 624. (I. polyllachya ; Redout. Liliac. t. 126. L ca-
pitata, var. ftellata ; Andr. Repof. t. 232.)—^. I. flexu-
ofa; Cnrt. Mag. t. 1 27. — Stem branched, raccmofe. Ti'.be
flender, flightly dilated upward ; limb fomewhat coiit:-aae4,
its fegments elliptical, concave, fpreading. Filaments clofe
together. — The /faijfj are hnear, grafl'y. 5;^ffj flender, not
quite eie£t, branched for the mo!i part, each branch bear-
ing a fliortifli clufl;er of pale rofe-coloured, moflly ftriped,
frag-rant Jlowers, half the fize of the lail, their orifice moftjy
yellow, their fegments not expanded into a falver-fliapc, eacS
of them moreover being concave. Sometimes the flowers are
of a pale or dull violet-colour.

7. I. conica. Salif. Hort. 36. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 539.
Redout. Liliac. t. 138. (I- capitata, var. fl. auran-
tio ; Andr. Repof. t. 50. I. fufco-citriiia; Redout. Liliac.
t. 86.) -Stem ftmple. Clufter denfe. Limb fpr<-ading,
twice as long as the tube. Style longer than the filaments.
— Thc/MWj- are linear and graify. Floiuers in a thyrfts,
or denfe duller, as large as thofe of I. patens, byt lels ex-
panded, of a rich orange, fometimes a lemon-colour, with?
brown and yellow eye, inodorous. The JyJe continues un-
divided above the bafe of the anthers — This is one of the
moft fplendid of the genus.

8. I. nionadelpha. Ait. Hort. Kew. cd. 2. v. i. 87.
Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 607. (I. columnaris ; Andr. Repof-
t. 203. 211. 2M- 'S°- Gafaxiie ixi^flora ; Redout. Li-
liac. t. 41.) — Clutter corymbofe. Flowers falver-ftiaped.
Filaments united into a tube. Remarkable for its perfedly
monadelphous f.amens. The leaves are fword-ihaped.
Flowers fcentlefs, rather large, not nnm.crous, in a fliort
corymbofe clufter ; their ti:be about equal in length to tl»e
limb, which is fiat, ufually light blue or purple, rarely yel-
low, always diftinguiftied by a broad browuilh, or greeniih,
central ftain, or eye.

9. I. cohimellaris. Ait. Hnrt. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1 . "88.
Ker in Curt. Ma^'. t- C'S^- (!• columnaris, var. anguiti-
folia; Andr. Repof. t. 392.) Clufter corymbofe. 'Flowers
nearly falver-lhaped. Filaments united at their bafe. —
Differs from the lafl. mxheftamens being united at their bafe
only, the floiuers fccnted like woodruff or new hay, not quit«
fo horizontally expanded, opening in the morning and clofing
at noon, and produced in Anguft inftead of the fprmg.
Their colour is purplilh, the eye richly variegated witi*
broad circles of black and red. The Jcasia are graffy.

to. 'L

I X I A.

TO. T. TK-^nihta. ITiunb. T>]K. n. iq. Linn. Syft.Veg.
ed. 14. 85. Mant. Ji20. Ker in Curl. M;'g. t. J49. 7S9.
1285. Andr. Repof. t. ig6. Z^6. Redout. Liliac t. 137.
jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. i. rj. t. 19 — 23. Schiiecv. Ic.
t. 6. 25'. (I. capitata ; Andr. Repof. t. 23. 159. I. fpi-
■tata, var. viridi-nigra ; Andr. Ropof. t. 29.) — Flowers
"^jearly falver-fljaped ; tube capillary ; limb Itained at the
T)aft.-. Stigmas fcparate as lo«- as the tube. - This common
sfnd ornamental fpesries, figures of wliicli are neediefsly mul-
tiplied by a-.nhorf, is known by the broad dark itain in the
centre of ihejlozv^r, while it differs from the two la!l in
laving diftinCt filaments. The colour of the corolla fports in
every fhade of criin!o:i, pale purple, orange, yellow, even to
white ; t!u)uj:h, as ?ilr. Ker obfer\'es, fome other fpecies
may pofllbly be confounded under Jacquin's numerous va-
rieties. The moll remarkable variety is the green, in t. 23.
of that author. Curt. Mag. t. 549, Andr. t. 29, Schneev.
t. 6. The leaves are linear-fv.-ord-fliaped. Spike or cliijler
oblong, various in length, fimple and aimoft always fohtary.
Tlo-jiers about as large as thofe of our Jlh and 7th fpecies,
their tube very flcnder, fhorter than the limb, wiiich is a
little concave. Slyh cnclofed in the tube; iHgmas pro-
jefting.

II. l.ereSa.. Thunb. DifT. n. 18. Ker in Curt. Mag.
"t. 623. 1173. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. i. 9. t. 18. (I.
polyitachia; Lin:i. Sp. PI. 51. Andr. Repof. 1. 155. I.
dubia; Redout. Liliac. t. 64. Venten. Choix. t. 10.) —
Corolla widely fpreading ; tube capillary ; limb pale at the
bafe. Stigmas feparate as low as the tube. — Thejicm fome-
tiines bears many fpikes. The powers are fmaller than in
the lad, white or yellow, without any broad dark ftain.
They come late in the fiimmer, and are inodorous. It is
very difficult to find a good fpecific charafter between plants
fo variable, and yet fo much ahke.

Section "3. Sfyle extended above the anthers . Bnlh fame-
-vuhat tuberous and deformed.

I'2. I. crjteroides. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 594. Ait. Hort.
'Kew. ed. 2 V. 1.89. (L fpeciofa; Andr. Repof. t.i86.j —
Corymb of two or throe flowers. Limb of the corolla he-
mifpherical ; tube very fhort. Style longer than the fta-
mens.— Pound at the Cape by Mr. Nevin. The Jloiuers
■rarely fo many as three on a ftem, are large, concave, of a
rich crimfon within, paler externally. Their ilyle is fo long
as to extend nearly to the end of the anthers before the
'ftigmas .branch off.

Seftion 4. Anthers JI:ort. Stigmas cloven.

13. I. relufa. Salif. Hort. 3J. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2.
■v. I. 89. (L polyllachya ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 275. Ker
in Curt. Mag. t. 629. Andr. Repof. t. 128.)— T^ibe of
the flower twice as long as the fpatha ; fegments of the limb
elliptic-oblong. Stigmas cioven and gaping.— This, being
often branched, has been taken iof the pjjjlachia of Lin-
nius, a naT.e now laid afidt-, as caufmg only confulion.
That v.-e have retained is indeed not unexceptionable, the
fegmeTitf of the corolla not being always abrupt. It is a
tall flender fpecies. Flowers fmali, rofe-coloured, fmcUing
like lily of the valley.

14. l./cillaris. Linn. Sp. PI. 52. Ker in Curt. Mag.
t. 542. Redout, Lihac. t. 127. (I. pentandra ; Linn.
Suppl. 92. Thunb. Diff. n. 22. I. reflexa ; Andr. Re-
pof t. 14.) — Spatha as long as the tube. Segments of the
linfib fpatulate, concave. Stigmas funnel fhaped. Anthers
deflexed. — That this is the real I. fiillarls of Linnseus, not
"unaptly compared by him to Seilln amoena^ appears from hii
herbarium; tlioughThunberg induced Linn»us the younger

'to ciil it fenlnndra, becaufe tlie IVamens are fometimcs four
"Or five, and led him to adopt his own fch'laris, Diff. u. 14. — ■

It diflcrs from rttufa in the above ch«ra£lerE, and has nir

fcent. The leaves are broad, with many ribs. Fh-wert
rofe-colourcd, in a long fpike.

ij. I. erifpa. Linn. Suppl. 91. Thunb. Diff. n. 8. t. 2.
f. 3. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 599. - Leaves llrongly undu*
lated. Stigmas funnel-lhaped, deflexed. — A beautiful little
fpecies, on account of its curioully waved and cui^cA leaves.
The Jlowers are rofe-coloured, inodorous ; their fegments
obovate and concave. — Tiiunberg fays they vary at the
Cape to blue or white.

l.xiA, in Gardening, contains plants of the herbaceous,
bulbous, and tuberous-rooted perennial kinds ; of which
the fpecies principally cultivated are, the crocus-leaved ixia
(I. bnlbocodium) ; the Chinefe ixia ( I. chiiienlis) ; the rofe-
coloiired ixia (I. rofea) ; the bulb-bearing ixia (I. bulbi-
fera) ; the bearded ixia (I. ariilata); the bendir.g-dalked
ixia (I. flexuofa) ; the many-fpiked ixia (I. polyllacl.ia) ;
the fpotted ixia (I. maculata) ; and the crocus-flowered-
ixia (I. crocata.)

The iirfl of thefe fpecies varies with white and yellow
flowers ; with purplifh and yellow flowers ; with blue and
white flowers ; with white flowers ; and vvith variegateft

The third fort alfo varies with the three inner feg-
m.ents of the corolla yellow, and the three outer green ;.
with the three inner white yellow, and the three outer
grecnifh ; with the three ?hner blue white, and the three
outer greenifh ; with the three inner white, and the three-
outer green ; with corollas wholly yellow, or wholly blue,
or rofe-coloured, with a yellow bafe ; and in the fize of tht
flowers.

The fourth fort likewife varies with the corolla purple,
red and white, yellow ; with the fcape very fhort and fira-
ple, higher and branched, and bulbiferous.

The fifth fpecies varies with the fegments of the borders
of the corolla of a deep and elegant purple violet colour
within, three of them of the fame colour on the outfide, but
the three others alternately of a pale dirty violet ; one of
thefe, with two on the fide of it, has a double band in the
throat, meeting at one end ; and, according to Mr. Salif-
bury, vvith whitilh corollas, having a purple ftar, violet-
coloured and yellow. Alio in the figures of Miller, with
the corolla of a beautiful purple on the outfide, but white
within, and the ftem terminated by two or three flowers ;
with the ftalk terminated by two large flowers ; the outfide
of a violet colour, edged with white, and the itifide pale
blue ; and with one flower, and the corolla of a moft beau-
tifnl purple colour, both- within and without.

The fever.th kind varies with, the corollas yellow andi
violet, of one colour.

And the ninth fort varies^with a fliort, fimple, fivc-flowered
fcape, and a dark fpot above the windowed, or hyaline one ?
with a lofty, many-fpiked, many-flowered fcape ; and with
bright red flowers.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be increafod by-
feeds or off-fets from the roots.

The feeds of fuch forts as can be procured fnould- be
fown in pots filled with light earth in the fpring, plunging
them in a mild hot-bed. \Vlien the plants liave attained
fome growth, they fliould be removed into feparate pots of
the fame earth, being placed under the prote&ion of a fnime
till they have taken root. They lliotild be placed dui-iiig, ifee
winter in a hot-bed frame. They may afterwards be rc-
inovcd into warm borders, being protefted from frolls in
the winter, and a few fclaincd in pots under the fraine^
or in a dry ilovc.

' But!

I X o

But they are three or four years in flowering when raifed
from feeds. .

The common way is, therefore, to increafe them by plant-
ing ofT-fets from the roots, which are afforded in great
plenty ; the proper feafon for this is in the early fpring,
before the (liooting of the root, when the roots fliould be
removed, and the ,off-fets taken from them and planted
out.

The old roots (hould not be removed oftener than every
three years.

As foon as the ftems and leaves decay to the roots in the
borders in autumn, they fhoiild be covered over with tan a
few inches thick, to protect them from frott, and the depre-
dations of mice.

The hardy forts ferve to adorn the borders in the open
ground, and the other tender forts among other potted
green-houfe plants that require proteflion in winter.
IxiA, in Surgery, a dilated vein ; a vafix.
IXO, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of
Niphon ; '^j miles E N.E. of Meaco.

IXORA, in Botany, fo named from I.vora, a Malabar
idol, to whom its flowers are offered bv the Indians in their
folemn feftivals. Linn. Gen. 54 Schreb. 70. Willd. Sp.
PI. v. I. 609. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 2. Ait. Hort. Ke«'.
ed. 2. V. I. 244. Jiifl". 203. LamarckDia. v. 3. 343. II-
luftr. t. 66. Gaertn. t. 25, and t. 95. — Clafs and order, Te-
trandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Stellate, Linn. Riibiaceit,
JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, four-cleft, very fmall,
ereft, permanent. Cor. of one petal, funnel fhaped ; tube
cylindrical, flender, very long ; limb four-cleft, flat ; fetj-
nients various in fiiape. Stam. Filaments four, rifing above
the mouth of the corolla, very fhort, incurved ; anthers ob-
long. P'Jl- Germen inferior, n.undifli, flyle thread-fhaped,
the length of the tube ; iligma cloven. Perk. Berry round-
ifh, two-celled. Seeds folitary, convex on one fide, angu-
lated on the other.

Obf Gxrtner has remarked that the partition of the fruit
is perfor.Ued juft above the centre, and that the feeds are
never more than two in each berry, though the Hortus Ma-
labaricus defcrlbes three or four. Sufficient charafters are
wanting to diltinguifh this genus from Pavetla.

Ell. Ch. Calyx four-toothed, fuperior. Corolla of one
petal ; tube long, thread-Hiaped ; hmb four-cleft, widely
fpreading. Stamens rifing above tlie mouth. Stigma cloven.
Berry of two cells. Seeds folitary.

The fpecies of this fine Indian genus have not been in ge-
neral clearly underfl:ood. We Ihall attempt an explanation
of them, with an account of fome hitherto entirely nonde-
fcript.

I. l.coccinea. Linn. Sp. PI. ed. J. no. Lamarck Dift.
V. 3.342. (Schetti ; Rheede Hort. Mai. v. 2. 17.1. 13.
Jafminum flore tetrapetaUj, Ixora Linnasi ; Burm. Zeyl.
135. t. 57.) — Leaves elliptic -obovate, fomewhat heart-
ftaped at the bafe, not longer than the corymb. Segments
of the corolla ovate, acute, flat. Style but little extended
beyoiiJ the tube. Native of fandy and ftony places on the
coaft of Malabar, bearing flowers and fruit all the year. A
Jhrub the height of a man, with round, fmooth, greyilh,
leafy branches. Leaves oppofite, nearly feffile, two inches
or more in length, about one broad, more or lefs obovate,
or fomev/hat i Uiptical, obtufe, entire, fmooth, often point-
ed ; their bafe for the moll part heart-ftaped, but varying in
breadth ; their upper fide poliflied. Stipidas embracing the
ftem in pairs,, within the leaves, and alternate with them,
,awl-lhaped, longer than the footftalks, broad and triangular
at their bale. Corymb terminal, repeatedly forked, denie, of

I X o

from ten to thirty inodorous flowers ; the flalks fmooth and
Ihining, red, as well as the calyx, whofe fegments are ovate or
triangular, their points a little fpreading. Tube cf the
corolla an inch and half long, very flender ; fegments of the
limb each about half an inch long, horizontally fpreading,
ovate or elHptical, pointed. The hue of the limb, according
to Rheede, i& a flefh-colour, deeper on the inlide, at length
turning yellow and paler ; the tube of a coral red. Stamens
very fmall and red, with yellow anthers, burfting longitudi-
nally at their inner fide into two cells. Style very httle ex-
tended beyond the tube, with a thick red Jligma, of two el-
liptical lobes, cohering in the dried fpecimen. Berries the
fize of a fmall currant, reddifli-brown, fliining, fweet and
eatable. — We have never met with this fpecies in any gai--
den.

2. l.f.amnua. Salif. Hort. 62. (I. chinenfis ; Lamarck
Diet. 1-. 3. 344. I. cGccinea; Curt. Mag. t. 169. Schneev,
Ic. t. I. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. i. 244. Flamma fylva-
rum peregrina ; Rumph. Anib. v. 4. 107. t. 47.) — Leaves
elliptic -lanceolate, bluntifli, ftalked ; narrow at the bafe.
Segments of the corolla orbicular, obtufe, rather convex.
Style extended to half the length of the limb. — Native of
Java, according to Rumphius ; as well as of China, fro.Ti
whence we have a fpecimen. It is not rare in our (loves,
where the fplendour of its flame-coloured flowers caufes it to
be much admired. Lamarck has well dillinguilhed it from
the above, and Mr. Salifbury long ago made the fame re-
mark. The leaves are five or fix inches long, contrafted at
each end, Handing on (hort, thick footllalks. Corymb almoil
globofe, cnmpofed of 100 flowers, or more, whofe lube is
but half, or two-thirds, the length of the former, but rather
lefs (lender ; the fegments of the limb broad and round, very
obtufe, each not :|th of an inch long. Stamens fpreading.
Style rather longer than in the foregoing, with red fpreading
lobes of the fliigma, but thcfe cohere after drying.

3. I. longiffjia. (Flamma fylvarum ; Rumph. Amb. v. 4.
105. t. 46. ) — Leaves ovato-lanceolate, taper-pointed. Seg-
ments of the corolla elliptical, fliarpifli, reflexed.— Native
of moft iflands in the Eafl: Indies, according to Rum-
phius. We have a fpecimen from the late Mr. Chriftopher
Smith, gathered in Honimoa. Thofe who attend to Rum-
phius's defcription and figure of his Flanma Jylvcrum, and
confidcr that all his figures are diminiflied, mull he aware that
his plant can belong to neither of the foregoing fpecies, for
which it has been quoted indifferently. Our fpecimen exaft-
ly anfwers to his account, and is undoubtedly a new fpecies.
The leaves are feven or eight inches long, and two or three
broad, ovate at the bafe, tapering at the end to a very fine
point. Fooljlalks half an inch long, channelled. Stipulas
much Ihorter than in either of the former. Corymbs from
the bofoms of the t,vo upper leaves, as well as termmal, much
branched from their very bottom, repeatedly forked, confid-
ing of innumerable Jiozuers, whofe tube is as long and flen-
der as in the firft fpecies, and of a light red ; but the feg-
ments of the limb rather fmaller, elliptical, not ovate, fpread-
ing widely, and more or lefs reflexed. The Jlamens are very

'{hort. Style but little prominent. Rumphius fay.s the
flowers are of a vermihon hue on their infide, which becomes
a blood colour as they grow old, whence arifes their brilliant
fiery afpeft, the origin of the name. The berries turn firft
purple and finally black.

4. I. incarnaia. Roxb. MSS.— Leaves elliptical, feflfile.
Segments of the corolla roundilh, obtufe, fomewhat refle.xcd.
Corymb above half as long as the leaves. — Native of the
Ead Indies. Our fpecimen was communicated by lord vif-
count Valentia, who received it from Dr. Roxburgh with
the above name. The leaves are two inches long, and one

2 ■ ■ broad.

I X O R A.

5>road, nearly or quite reffile, elliptical, fliglitly pointed.
■Stipuhi with a very broad fliort bale, and fhort flender point.
Corymb about two-thirds the length of the leaves, denfe,
level-topped, many-flowered. Tub: of the flowers above an
inch long, very (lender ; limb fmall, its fegments fliaped
much like I._/?(;m;H.^, but rather lefs. Style projecting above
half their length. By the name we prefume the flowers are
flefh-coloured. In a dried ftate their tube looks reddifh, the
lihib pale.

5. I. arborca. Roxb. MSS. (I. Pavetta ; Andr. Repbf.
t. 78.) — Leaves eUiptic-oblong, on (hort flalks. Segments of
the corolla linear, obtufe, reflexed, one-third the length of
the tube. Corymb denfe, half as long as the leaves.— Native
of the Eaft Indies. It flowered in the dow.iger lady de
Clifford's Hove in the autumn of 1 799, as ^Ir. Andrews
raenlions, but his name is altogether founded in error. The
haves are three or four inches long, and above one broad,
coriaceous, widely fpreading, on ihort thick ftalks ; their
bafe flightly heart-rtiaped. Floivsrs innumerable, dirty-
white, fmall, fragrant, in very denfe corymbs, whoie ftalks
are a little downy ; their tube is fcarccly half an inch long,
fegments of the limb one-third as much, linear-oblong, re-
curved or reflexed, as are alfo the anthers. The Jlyle projefts
in fome degree ; ihejli^ma is large and green, cloven, but
not fpreading.

6. I. barbata. Roxb. MSS. — Leaves elliptic-oblong, point-
ed, ftalkcd. Segments of the ccr^lla obovate, obtufe, re-
flexed, denfely bearded at their bafe. Corymb fpreading,
equal to tiie leaves. — Brought by lord vifcount Valentia
from the Eaft Indies. The leaves are five or fix inches long,
two or more in breadth, with blunt points. Footjlalhs half an
inch long. Corymbs three at the end of the branch, equal,
many-flowered, loofe and fpreading, about as long as the
leaves, and ver^- broad. Tube of the flowers an inch and a
quarter in length, flender at the bafe, but rather fwelling up-
wards ; itwb reflexed, its fegment ^th of an inch long, obo-
vate, obtufe, twifted in tlie bud, revolute when dry, denfely
bearded at their bafe only, about the orifice of the tube,
with longiih trhite hairs. The colour of tXxe Jloiuers feems
to be reddilh.

7. I. vndulata. Roxb. MSS. — Leaves ovate, pointed,
ftalked. Segments of the corolla oblong, reflexed, fmooth,
half as long as the tube. Corymbs numerous, denfe, pani-
cled. — For this alfo we are obliged to lord Valentia, who
received it, with the two laft, from Dr. Roxburgh. The
lea-ves, about four or five inches long, are of a broad ovate
figure, tapering to a point ; their edges wavy. Footjlalh
above half an inch lo:ijT. P<in/ci-.f terminal, longer than the
leaves, repeatedly forked, fpreading, each branch ternfi-
nating in a denfe many-flowered corymb. The tube is about
half an inch long, not very flender, reddifh ; limb undjlumeits
half that length, reflexed. Style projecting to the extent of
the limb.

8. I. lax't/lora. — Leaves elliptic-oblong. Segments of the
corolla fpreading, convex, bearded on their upper furface.
Panicle corymbofe, lax, widely fpreading, longer than the
leaves. Gathered at Sierra Leone, by Dr. Adam Afze-
lius, to whom we are obliged for a fpecimen, and the pub-
lication of whofe rich difcoveries is much to be defired,
though he himfelf has hitherto been unable to attain that
object. We wifh to fccure his fame, not to encroach upon
it. The leaves of this fpecie.s are two or three inches long,
and rather above an inch wide, all fomewhat pointed j the
uppermoft rounded at the bafe, and quite feffile ; the reft
tapering down into a winged foot-ftalk. Si'ipulas with fliort
points. Panicles terminal, folitary, ftalkcd, nearly twice as
long as the leaves, many-flowered, repeatedly branched and

. Vol. XIX-

divaricated, (lender and las. Calyx tubular, with very fliort
rounded teeth. Tube of the corolla an inch long, very
flender, flightly fwelling upwards ; fegments ©f the limb
one-third as long, obovate with a fmall recurved point,
their edges reflexed, their dific hairy half way along the
middle from the bafe. Stamens very fliort. Style projecting
almoft the length of the limb, with long, nearly linear,
fligmas. Wcliave no account of the colour of the Jloivers.
In the dried fpecimen they are dark brown, with a purphfli
tinge.
_ g. I. parviflora. Vahl. Symb. v. 3. 1 1. 1. y2. Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed. 2. v. i. 244. — Leaves nearly fcfiile, lanceolate^
oblong. Corymbs d^nfe, panicled. Segments of the co-
rolla elliptical, reflexed, one-fourth the length of the tube

Native of the Eaft Indies. We have a fpecimen fent by
Koenig to Linnxus, which was sever defcribed, but we have
no doubt of its being Vahl'i plant. The leaves in our's ai-c
two or three inches long, or more, lanceolate inclining to
obovate, coriaceous, reticulated with veins. Footjlalh thick
and very fliort. Stipuhis broad and fhort, with a rigid
ftraight point. Panicle ratlier longer than the leaves, erect,
ftraight, branched from the bottom ; the br.nnches downy,
each bearing a denfe corymb of red Jlowers, whofe tube is
about half an inch long, not very flender, and whofe limb is
fcarcely one-fourth that length, its fegments elliptical, and
fmooth.

10. I. alba. Linn. Sp. PI. ed. i. 244. (Bem-fchetti ;
Rhecde Hort. Mai. v. 2. 19. t. 14.) — Leaves elliptic-lanceo-
late, pointed, ftalked. Panicle corymbofe, ftalkcd, of few
flowers. Segments of the corolla ovato-lanceolate, acute,
about half as long as the t\ibe. — Native of the Eaft Indies.
This fpecies ftands on the authority of the Hc/rt.is Malaba-
rictis, whence Linnxus adopted it, for there is no fpecimen
in his herbarium, and the fynonym of Plukenet, t. 109. f. 2,
furely belongs to our firft fpecies of all. Miller is faid iu
Hort. Kew. to have cultivated /. alba before 176S, but we
have never been able to fatisfy ourfelvcs concerning this
fpecies in any garden. A fpecimen in fruit from profeflbi-
David Van Royen, of what he had from Thunberg under
this name, agrees tolerably with Rheede's figure, though
the fruit being globofe, or rather depreffed, not elliptical,
is an exception, neither is our faid fruit didymous, like
Gartner's t. 95. Rheede contrails his plants with the true
/. coccinea, his Schetti, t. 15, juftly faying that the leaves arc
rather longer, more pointed at the end, and contradted at
the bafe. The fo'icers are white or yellowifh, with a reddifli
tube. Stamens longifh and flender. Styk promipicnt. Fruit
more oblong than round, pale green or yellowifh.

11. I. americana. Linn. Am. Acad. v. y. 393 ; exclud-
ing the fynonym of Plumier. Sp. PI. ed. 2. 160 ; exclud-
ing the fyn. of Browne. (Petefia, N" I ; Brown. Jam. 143.
t. 2. f. 3.) — Leaves elliptical, pointed at each end, on long
downy footftalks. Panicles axillary, downy ; their branches
cymofe. — Gathered by Dr. P. Browne near the waterfall is
Mammee river in Jamaica. His own fpecimen is before us,
fhewing how much Linnieus has confufed the hiftory of tliis
plant, by a mifquotation of fynonyms that belong to Ccfia
eccidenlalis, hence leading Lamarck to fuppofe thcfe two
very diftinft (hrubs might be one and the fame. We are not
however by any means of opinion that the prefent is a real
Ixora, but till its fruit be better known, the queftion cannot
be decided. Dr. Swartz appears not to have touched upon
it. The leavfs grow by threes, on ftalks about an inch and
half long, half their own length. 'Lliejlazfer/ are very fniall,
Ihort, thick, and downy, truly cymolc, at the ends of long
forked panicles.

12. I? muliifora. Swartz. Ind. Occ. v. 1. 240. Willd.

4? n. b.

J Y E

n. 6. — " Leaves lanceolate-ovate, cluderec. Flowcr-llalks
aggregate, tingle-flowered, verj- fliort. Berries with one
feed." — Native of Jamaica. A ilill more doubtful /i-ora
than the laft, or rather a Jhritb of a diftinct genus. Dr.
Wright, to whom we are obhgcd for a fpecimen, obferves
that " the Jlamcns are in the bottom of the corolla ; the k'rry
white, fmall, fweet, with a fingle comprefTed feed." — The
fmall box-like L-a-oes, and denfe tufts oi fowers from lateral
buds, are quite foreign to this gsnus, as is the fvveiiing tube
of the corolla.

\. fqfckulala, Sw. Prodr. 30, is now by that author
himfetfi-enioved to C!:o,ml:a, l"l. Ind. Occ. v. i. 2jS.

How far the Pavctta of authors, or any of the fpecics
ranged under it, may be referable to Ixora, we are not at
prefcnt competent to determine, but we are well allured that
their generi-J characters require inveftigation. S.

IxORA, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the (lirubby,
flowering, exotic kind-;, of which the fpecies moftly culti-
vated are, the fcarlet ixora (I. coccinea) ; and the white
ixora (1. alba\

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be increafed by
feeds, when they can be procured from the countries where
they grow naturally, as they do "not pcrfed them in this
cliniate. They fltould be fown in £mall pots as foon as they
an-ive, and be plunged into a hot-bed when they arrive in
the autumn or winter feafons, the pots being plunged in the
tan-bed in the Hove ; but when they come in the fpring, it
is bed to plunge them in a tan-bed under frames. The ieeds
fometimes come up in about fix weeks, if they are quite
frelh ; otherwife tlicy lie in the ground four or live months,^
or longer. The earth ibould therefore not be thrown out of
the pots till there are no hopes of their growing. When
the plants tome up, and are fit to remove, they Ihould be
each planted in a feparate imall pot, tilled with light earth,
being prcferved in the green-houfe or ttove.

They may ulfo be increafed by cuttings, which (hould be
planted during the fummer months, in fmall pots, and
plunged into a moderate hot-bed, covering them clofe either
with bell or hand glafl'es, to exclude the external air, (hading
them from the fun in the heat of the day, until they have
put out good root?, when they ihould be parted, and each
put into a feparate pot, treating them as the feedling plants.
Mr. Curtis thmks it probable, that thefe plants are lefs tender
than is fuppofed.

They afiord variety among other ftove or green-houfe
plants.

IX WORTH, in Geography, a town of England, in the
county of Suffolk, with a weekly market on Friday ; 78
miles N.N.E. of London.

lYAR, in Chronology, the fecond month of the ecclc-
fiHltical Jcvvilh year, a.jfwering to part of our April and
May.

JYENAGUR, or Joi.vACLR, called alio Jyepcur and
Jaepour, in Geography, a circar or province of Hindoollan,
fituatcd S. of the Mewat. The capital of this circar is
Jaepour or Jaynagur; 70 miles E.N. E. of Agimere. N.
lat. 26" 58'. E. long. 26 9'. The raja of Jaepour, called
Jefling, has erefted two oblervatories, one in his newly built
capital of Jaepour, which is about a league from Umbeer,
or Ambeer, the ancient capital, the other in one of the
luburbs of Delhi. At tlie former obfervatory father Claud

I Z T

Eoudier, at the raiah's requeft, made fome obfervations fit
1732 ; and probably, by the afllftance of the fame r^ah, at
Agra and Delhi.

JYEPOUR, a town of Hindoollan, in the circar of
Cattack ; i6 miles N.E. of Cattack.

JYTEPOUR, a town of Hindoottan, in Bundelcund ;
iS miles N.E. of Chatterpour.

JYVASKYLA, a town of Sweden, in the government
of Wafa ; 120 miles S.E. of Wafa.

IZENDICK, a town of France, in the department of
the Scheldt, and chief place of a canton, in the diftricl of
L'Eclufe. The place contains 1121, and the canton 5001
inhabitants, on a territory of ii2i kiliometres, in five com-
munes.

IZER, a town of x^frica, in the weftern part of the
country of Berdoa.

IZIGINSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of J
Irkutflc, on the river Izigin, about 15 miles from its mouth, i
It is defended by an enclofure of palifades, and wooden
baftions, erefted in piles at the four angles. Thefe baftions
are provided with cannon, and a Yariety of military (lores.
The governor's houfe is defended by a conftant guard. The
houfes are conftrufted of wood, low, and having a regular
front. The number of inhabitants is about 5 or 600, who
are either merchants, or in the fervice of government. The
commerce conlifts of furs, and the fldnsofrein deer. N. lat.
63 10'. E. long. i^() 14'.

IZI UK, a town of Rulfia, in the government of Tobolllc,
on the Irtit'ch ; 240 miles E.S.E. of Tobol(l<.

IZIUM, a town of Ruifia, in the government of Char-
kov, on the river Douetz ; 64 miles S.E. ofCharkov..

IZQUITENANGO, a town of Mexico, in the-province
of Chiapa.

IZTICHUILOTLI, in Natural Hiftory, the American
name of a Hone found in New Spain, and fome other places ;
it is very hard, of a beautiful black, and takes a fine pohdi.
The Americans are very fond of it as a gem, and wear it by
way of ornament.

De Laet mentions an American ftone in his poffedion,
which was cut by the Indians into a flat oval plate, and was
of a beautiful black, but with two round fpots of a filvery
white. He fuppofes this to have been the uterinus lapis,
and probably it was either that ftone, or of the fpecies here
mentioned.

IZTICPASO-QUERZALIZTLI, the name given
by the natives of fome parts ol America, to a flone famous
for ils virtues in curing colic, and many other difeafes, ex-
ternally applied. It isof a beautiful green colour, and is by
Ximenes fuppofed a coarfe fpecies of emerald ; but is more
properly a very fine kind of lapis nephriticus, of a pale green
colour, very hard, and more pellucid than the other fpecies
of that Hone, but yet always thewing that grcafy look on
being polifhed, which charafterizes all the nephritic tlones.
It is ufually found in large maffes, and the Indians cut it
into flat pieces, which they apply to the navel in the colic,
and in other difeafes to the part affeiSed, and fuppofe it has
great power in promoting a difcharge of the noxious hu-
mours.

IZTLI, the American name of a fpecies of flone, of
which the natives made their weapons of war, &c. before
they knew the ufe of iron. It is called by De Lut aad
other authors, lapis novacutarum.

K,

K

KA double confonant, and the tenth letter of the
9 alphabet.

This confonant has tlie found ,)f hard c, and is ufed before
e and /', where, according to the Enghfli analogy, c would
be foft ; as \n the words Lepi, ling : at the end of words it
is not much ufed, except after c, and chiefly in monofyllables,
as c/oci, bad, S^c. It is now properly omitted in many other
words, as muJiL, piibHc, S:c. It is alfo ufed between a vowel
and the filent e final, as cloke, brr,h, &c. It likewife ends a
word after a diphthong, as look, birak, Sec. In the prefent
pronunciation, i is filent before n, as inef, tnell. It is
nifvcr doubled ; but e is ufed before it, to Ihortcn the vowel
by a double confonant, as c'ichk, p'lekh.

K is borrowed from the Greek kappa, and was but little
ufed among the Latins. Prifcian looked on it as a fupcr-
fluous letter, and fays it was never to be ufed e.xcept in
words borrowed from the Greek. Daufquius, after Sallus,
obferves, that it v.-as unknown to the ancient Romans.
Indeed we feldom find it in any Latin authors, excepting
in the word kahndu, where it fometimes ftands in lieu of a
c. Carthage, however, is frequently fpelt on medals witli
a K : s.VLVis avc. et c-ae.s. fel. kaht. and fometimes
the letter K alone Hood for Carlhage. — M. Berger has
obferved, that a capital K, on the reverfe of the medals of
the emperors of Conftantinopie, fignified Konstantixus ;
and on the Greek medals he will have it to fignify KOIAH
IVPIA, Coelefyria.

Quintilian tells us, that in his time fome people had a
millaken notion, that wherever the letter c and a occurred
at the beginning of a word, k ought to be ufed inftead of
ther. SeeC.

Lipfius obferves, that K was a lligma, anciently marked
on the foreheads of criminals with a red-hot iron.

Tlie letter K has various fignifications in old charters and
diplomas ; for iuftance KR. Hood for chorus, K.R.C. for
cara civi'a.r, KRM. for airmen. KR. AM. N. carus am'uus
najler. KS chaos, K.T. cap'ile tonfus, &e.

The French never ufe the letter i, excepting in a few
terms of art, and proper names borrowed from other coun-
tries. Ahlancourt, in his dialogue of the letters, brings in k
complaining, that he has been often in a fair way to be
banifhed out of the French alphabet, and confined to the
countries of the North.

K is alfo a numeral letter, fignifying 250, according to
the verfe ;

" K fjuoque ducentos et quinquaginta tenebit."

When it had a ftroke at top, K, it Rood for 250,000.

K , on the French coinage, denotes money coined at Bour-
draux.

The letter K is the initial of no mufical term ; and as mod
t)i (tie mulical technicii iire derived from the Italian, in

K A A

which language K has no admiffion, the Greek lappa, and
the hard c being fupplied by die, this letter will chiefly
occur in German words, and proper names.

KAABA. See Caaba.

KAADE, in Geography, a town of Ar;.bia Felix, in
the province of Yemen ; i 2 miles N. of Taas.

KAALING, in Ornithology, the name of a fpecies of
ftarling, common in China, and not unfrcquent in the Phi-
lippine iflands. It is b'ack ; but its eyes, legs, and beak
are yellow. It is eafily kept tame, and may fee taught both
to fing and talk. It eats rice and infefts in its wild Hate ;
but when kept in a cage, will feed very heartily on bread,
and all kinds uf fruit.

K AARTA, in Geography, a confidcrable ftate of Africa,
bounded on the N. by Ludamar, on the E. bv Bambarra.
on the S, by Fooladoo and Handing, and on liie \V. by
Kalfon and Fooladoo ; about 200 miles long and 80 broad.
Its capital was formerly a large and populous town, called
Kemmoo ; which has been fince deftroyed. The fovereign
of Kaarta received Mr. Park with great kindnefs ; and
major Houghton was the only European whom he had ever
before feen. The language of the country feemed to Mr.
Park to be formed of a mixture of the Mandingo and Sera-
Woolli; hut the Mandingo was generally underllood. N. lal.
13^ loto ij^. W. long. ) 10' to 8' 20'.

KAAT'.s Kill, or Catskill, a fmall, but thriving
place in America, in Green county, and ilate of New York,
on a creek of the fame name, \V. of Hudfon's river ; j
miles S. of Hudfon city, and 125 N. of New York. In
its vicinity are Kaat's Kill mountains, which are the firit
part of a chain of mountains, called the Alleghany, .ir
Appalachian mountains. The townlhip of this name con-
tains 246S inhabitants.

KAAU-BOERHAAVE, Auraiia.m, in Biography.
See Boeiuiaave, Arraiiam Ivaau.

KAAWLin Geography, -dUiwn of Sweden, in the go-
vernment of Kuopio ; 22 miles E.N.E. of Kuopio.

KAB, in the Jcivijh Antiquity. Sec Cab.

KABALA, in Geography, a town of Perfla, in the pro-
vince of Schirvan ; 36 miles S.S.W. of Scamachie.

KABANI, in the Oriental Offices, a p.erfon who fupplies
the place of what we call the notary public. All obligations
that are valid are drawn by him ; and he is likewife the
public wcii;h -mailer, and every thing »f confequence ought
to be weighed before him.

KABANSKOI, in Geography, a town of RufTia, in the
government of Irkutfk ; 2vS miles W.N.W. of Verchnei-
Udinfk.

KAB.-\RDA, a town of Rnflia, in the governmen; cl'
Caucafus ; 32 miles E. of Ekaterinograd.

KABASSI, a town of Europi-an I'lirkey, in the pio-
vince of Albania ; 24 mile? N. of .\|.iiio.

^ f 2 KABAS.-.oy,

K A B

KABASSON, in Zoology. See Dasypvs UniclrSms.
KABBA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Bambarra, feated on the Niger ; lo miles N.E. of
Sesjo. It is fituated, fays Mr. Park, in the midft of a beau-
tiful and highly cultivated country, bearing a conliderable
refemblance to the central part of England, and abounding
with the " fhea" tree, the fruit of which produces the ftca-
toulou, or tree-butter. The tree very much refemblcs the
American oak, and the root, from the kernel of which the
b;:tter is prepared, bv boiling it in water, has fomewhat the
appearance of a Spanifh olive. The butter produced by
it, befidcs the advantage of its keeping without fait, is, in
Mr. Park's opinion, whiter, firmer, and of a richer flavour
than the beft butter he ever tailed made from cow's milk.
The giowth and preparation of this commodity fecm to
be among the firft objefts of African induftry, in this and
the neighbouring ftat'es, and it conftitutes a main article of
their inland commerce.

KABBADE, or C.ab.ade, the name of a military habit
«f the modern Greeks, which they wear under anollicr
garment.

KABB.\LA. See Cabb.vl.-v.

K ABBOS, in Ichthyology, the name of an Eaft Indian fifh
of the Muftela kind. It grows to about two feet long, has
i!o fcales, but feels fmooth and foft like the eel, and is of a
thrown colour ; the nofe or fnout much paler than the rell,
sndlpotted with black. The head is obtufe, and the eyes
placed very near the extremity of it.

. KABE RAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
viiicc of Kiiorafan ; 45 miles E. of Mefchid.

KABESQUI, or Caee.sqi'I, is the name of a piece of
money, equal in value to five deniers and a ma'tlle of French,
coined and current only in Perfia.

K.ABESTERA, in Geography, a diftridt of Africa, on
the Gold Coaft.

KABIKI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 25
miles S.W. of Nigata.

KABIN, Khabix, Kdin, or Kiibin, a temporary kind of
marriage, in ufe among the Mahometans.

The kabin is contrafted before the cadi, in whofe prcfence
the man efpoufes the woman for a certain time, upon condi-
tion that if he quits her at the end of that term, ihe fliall be
allowed a certain fum of money.

Some authors fay that the kabin is only permitted among
the Ferfians, and in the feft of Ali ; but others maintain that
it is praciifed among the Turks.

KABIS, CllABis, or Gabbis, in Geography, a town of
Perfia, in the province of Kerman. N. lat. ji'. E. long.

57' 5°'-

KABOJA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
90 miles W. of Meaco.

KABRA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Tom-
buftoo, on the N. fide of the Niger ; 8 miles S.E. of Tom-
buftoo.

KABREND, a town of Perfia, in Farfiftan ; 3S
leagues S. of Schiras.

KABROANG, one of the Silibabo iflands, in the Eaft
Indian fea, about 18 miles in circuit, N. lat. 3' 50'. E. long.
126= 30'.

KABRUA, a town of European Turkey, in Bulgaria ;
16 miles S. of Ternova.

KACH AN, a town of Perfia, in.thc province of Irac ; 35
leagues N. of Ifpahan.

KACHAO, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Kam-
bu, on the river San Uomingo, about jo miles from its
mouth ; furrounded with a i-ampart and palifades, and de-
fended by artillery and a Portugucfe garrifon. It has a

K A D

parifh church, and a com-ent of Capucliiiis. N, lat. 12° 6'.
W. long. 16^.

K.-\CHIRA, a diftrift of the government of Tula, in
Ruffia, on the Occa.

KACHTAN, a diftricl or territory of Arabia, in tlir
province of Yemen, It is of fniall extent, and lies among
the mountains, about three days' journey northward from
Nedsjeran. It is governed by a fchieck.

KACIAZYN, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wilna ; 36 miles N.E. of Wilna.

KACOVA, a town of Tranfylvania ; 12 milos S. of
Colofvar.

KACUNDY, a town of Africa, in the country of the
Foulahs, feated on the E. fide of the river Nunez ; not far
from its opening into the Atlantic.

KADAN, or C.A^.iDAN, a town of Bohemia,' in the circle
of Saatz ; 1 2 miles W, of Saatz. N. lat. 50- 20'. E. long.
if 16'.

KADAR, atown of Mingrelia ; 16 milts N.N,E. of
Anerghia. 1

KADANAKU, in Garth,:ing, the name of a plant. See ''
Aloe.

KADARI, or Kadarites. See CADAni.
KADELY, a town of Bengal ; 8 miles N.W. of Ram-
gur.

KADEN, in Geography, a town of Ruffian Lithuania^
in Polcfia ; 14 miles S. of Brzefc.

KADIi:N-K.A.N, a town of Afiatie Turkey, in Cara-
mania ; 28 miles W. of Cogr.i.

KADER, an ifland at the N.W. extremity of the Per-
fian gulf, formed between the ftreams of the Euphrates and
the Tigris.

KADESIA, a town in the Arabian Irak ; So mile*
S.W. of Bagdad.

KADJANG, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of
Celebes. S. lat. 6" 28'. E. long. 119 50'.

KADIEI.or Kadyi, atown and diltrift of RufTia, in the
government of Koftroma ; 68 miles E.N.E. of Koftroma.

KADITTE, a town of Pruflia, in the circle of Natan-
gen ; i}, miles S. of Brandenburg.

KADNIKOV, a town and diilrift of Ruflla, in the go-
vernmont of Vologda ; 10 miles N.N.E. of Vologda.

KADOM, a town and diftricl of RufTia, in the govern-
ment of Tambov, or Tambof, on the river Mokcha ; 10&
miles N.N.E. of Tambov.

KADRAGUTA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Singboom ; 40 miles S.E. of Doefa.

KADROS, a town of Afiatie Turkey, in Natolia ; 2S
miles E. of Anialieh.

KADSIND A, a town of Japan, in the illand of Niphon j
30 miles S.W. of Nambu.

KADZURIM, a town of Hir.dooftan, in Bahar ; 13
miles N.E. of Rotafgur.

K^ADAS, xaia-nx-, among the Lacedaemonians, a dun»
gcon for throwing their criminals into. It was of the fame
nature with the Athenian barathron, or orvgma.

KJiKURIAGHAKA, in Botany, a name nfed by
fome authors for the tree which affords the gi>m elemi of the
(hops.

K^MPFER, ExcELBERT, in Biography, a celebrated
German phyfician and naturalill, was born, in the year 165 1 ,
at Lippe, in Wellphalla. . It appears that he was educated ia
Sweden, where, for fome years, he cultivated with zeal and
fuccefs the feveral Ihidies of phyfic, natural philofophy, and
natural hiltoi-y. His great defire for travelling made him
feize with avidity an opportunity of accompanying the Sv.-c.
diih ambaflador Fabriciiis to Perfia ; whom he attended in

the

K JE M

o.-ipacity of fecretary. He departed from Stockholm
i'^^; fpent a fnort time at Mofcow, and then proceeded
' pahan, where he remained two years. His ardour in
purfuit of knowledge had fo nnieh increafcd during this
d, that ir.ikad of returning wiili Fabricius, he obtained
ppointment of chief furgeon to the Dutch Eafl India
v_vu.pany, in wliich capacity he had the full enjoyment of
his wifhes, for he penetrated as far as the kingdoms of Siam
and Japan. The geography of thefe parts had been but
very imperfectly known, till Kiempfer's genius and indullry
fupplied the deficiency, and the world is indebted to
him, for having full given a correft idea of the fituation of
different places, which had before been inacceffible to
ftrangers. On his return to Europe in 1694, he graduated
at Leyden, and fettled in his own country. Here he did
not remain idle, but was coHllantly employed iathe compo-
fition of feveral works, and in the praftice of phyfic. He
\va3 appointed phyfician to his fovereign, and terminated a
tifeful life in the year 17 16, aged 65. His inaugural dif-
fertation, pubhlTied at Leyden in 1694, is intitled " De-
cas obfervationum exoticarum." Of this a copy is prefcrvcd
in Dr. Smith's library, but we have never met with any
other. The fubjetts on which it treats are, i, the ylnrms
Scythicus, or Borometz : z, the bitternefs of the Cafpian lea:
3, of the native Mtwi'ui, or bitumen, of Perlia : 4, of the
Torpedo, or eleArical tifh of the Perfian gulf ; 5, of the
drug called dragon's blood, produced by the fruit of a
palm : 6, of the Dracunciilus of the Perfians, a fort of worm
proceeding from a tumour in the llcin : 7, on the /Indrum,
or endemic hydrocele of the Malabars : 8, on the Perical, or
ulcer of the feet among the fame people : 9, on the cure of the
colic amongftthe Japanefe by punfture witha needle: 10, on
the Mo.xa, or aftual cautery, of the fame people and the
Chinefe. Thefe fubjefts are, as Haller obfcrves, all of
them probably treated more fully in the great work of our
author, publifhed at Lemgow in 1712, entitled " Amoenitates
Exotics," and fo often quoted by Linnaeus for its botany, as
well as other authors for its authentic details, relating to the
hiftory and manners of Perfia, and other parts of the Eaft.
His hiftory of Japan is well krown by the Englifli tranllation
in folio, and is extremely valued for its accuracy and fidehty.
Kxmpfer was fkilled in the ufe of the pencil, as the plates of
his works teftify. Some botanical drawings of his, made in
Japan, are preferved in the Britilh Mufeum. Of thefe fir Jo-
feph Banks, in 1791, liberally prefented the learned world
with 59 folio engravings at his own expence. Many of the
plants are ftill undetermined by fyftematic botanifts. Hall.
Bibl. But. Kaempf. Opera.

KiEMPFERIA, in Botany, named by LInnxus in com-
memoration of K-EMPFEH, (fee that article,) was feleded
for that purpofe with the more propriety, becaufe of the
excellent original account and figure given of the plant by

this writer, in his \A\iMe jlmaenitaks Exoik<s, 901 Linn.

Gen. 4. Schreb ,-. WiUd. Sp. PI v i. 15. Mart. Mill.
Did. V. 3. Rofcoe Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 8. 350. t. 20.
f. 10. Dryandr. in Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. i. 7. Jufl". 64.
Lamarck lUuitr. t. i — Clafs and order, MonanJria Mo-
nogynia, Nat. Ord. Scitaininea, Linn. Rofcoe. Carinit,

juir.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, tubular,
Ihcathing, membranous, fplitting on one fide. Cor. of one
petal ; tube about as long as the calyx, cylindrical, ercd ;
outer limb in three equal, fpreading, linear, acute, involute
fegments ; inner two-lipped, the upper lip of two oblong
lobes, lower of one or two broader, rounded, fpreading
ones. Slam. Filament one, eieft, oblong, flat, much
Jhorter than the limb, extending much above the authcr,

K A'. M

and terminating iri two fpreading equal lobes; anther attached
by its back to the middle of the filament, of two oblong,
nearly marginal, rather diftant lobes, meeting round the
ftyle, burlling at their outer edge. Pi/}. Germcn inferior,
fmall, roundidi ; flyle thread-lhapcd, embraced by the an-
ther ; ftigma cup-fliapped, concave, fringed, projetting a
little beyond the anther. Peiic. Capfule roundilh, fome-
what triangulai-, of three cells and three valves. ScuU
feveral.

Elf. Ch. Anther two-lobed. Filament extending above
the anther, two-lobed at the top. Outer limb of the corolla
in three equal, linear, acute lobes ; inner two-lipped.

1. K. Galanga. Galangale. Linn. Sp. PI. 3. Hort. Cliff. 2.
t. 3. Redout. Liliac. t. 144. Sims in dirt. Mag. t. 850.

(Wanhoin ; Kxmpf. Amoen. Exot. 901.1.902 ) Uppii-

fegments of the inner limb of the corolla obtufe, flightly
thrce-lobcd ; lower ones deeply feparatcd, undulated. Leaves
deprelTed, broad-ovate, pale beneath.— Native of the Eall
Indies. Kacmpfer met with it in Japan in a cultivated Hate
only. With us it is rare ; kept in the ftove, and flowering
in July. The root is perennial, tuberous, throwing out
elliptical ftalked knobs, like the Peony. Thefe are lleiliy
and wiiite within, with a grateful and pungent aromatic fla-
vour, which remains long after they are dried. They ar-^
ilill ufcdin the Eaft for their ilomachic and tonic properties,
but are laid aflde in European pradtice. Stem none. Leaves
feveral, fheathing, fpreading in a depreffed pofition, three or
four inches long, and nearly as broad, many-ribbed; dark-
green, and fmooth above ; paler, glaucous and downy be-
neath. Floivers feveral, radical, feffile, in the centre of
the leaves, white, with two purple fpots at the bafe of the
lower or front lobes of the inner hmb. We cannot help re-
marking the fuperiority of Linnasus's fine engraved plate
over any col-ured one that has met our notice.

2. K. lotiiiie/.i. Round-rooted Kxmpferia. Linn. Sp. PI. 3.
Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 920. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 13^.
(K. ionga ; Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 3. 37. t. 317. Redout.
Lihac. t. 49. Malan-kua ; Rheede Hort. Mai. v. 11. 17.
t. 9.) — Upper fegments of the inner limb of the corolla
acute, entire ; lower ones deeply fcparated, obovate.
Leaves erec"t, elliptic-oblong, acute, coloured beneath. —
Native of the Ealt Indies. Mr. Miller is faid to have culti-
vated it in 1768, but the plants, now not unfrequent in the
ftoves of this country, all probably originated from what
fir George Yonge introduced in 1791. The knobs of the
ro'jts, rather lefs oblong than thofe of the former, are pun-
gent and aromatic. The haves grow upright, and are a foot
long, remarkable for the line purple colour of their under
tide. The Jio'-^'irs appear early in the fpring_ before the
leaves, with a few fheathing green brafteas that grow like-
wife from the root. They are fweet-fcented, white, ex-
cept the lower lip, which is of a light purple, prettily varie-
gated.

3. K. angujl'ifolia. Narrow-leaved Kxmpferia. Rofcoe
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 8. 351. — Upper fegments of the inner
limb of the corolla linear, obtufe ; lower one eniarginate.
Leaves lanceohite, pale beneath. — Native of the Eafl Indies,,
from whence it was introduced into tlie Kew garden in 1797
by fur Jofeph Banks. It flowers in the ftove, about Marcli
or April. Mr. Rofcoe examined it in the botanic garden at
Liverpool^ and ail our knowledge of this Ipecies is comprized
in the above definition.

4. V^. cvala. Ovate Kxmpferia. Rofcoe, ibid. (Manja-
kua; Rheede Hort. Mai. v. 11. 19. t. 10.) — Lower feg-
mcntof the inner limb of the' corolla lanceolate, undivided.
Leaves ovate. — All our knowledge of this plant is dfiived
from the Hortus Malnbaricue, from whence Mr. Rofcoe

ailoptcd

K A F

adopted it, there being no doubt of the genus. It is
there faid to be perennial, flowering in April and May,
Tlie root is a globofe tuber, an inch in diameter, yellow
iRterna'ly, with concentric red and orange lines ; of a
very ftrong tafte and fmell, refembling ginger and faftVon.
Leaves a foot long, elliptical, pointed, tapering down into
fheathing footilalks, of a pleafant fcent and bitterilh tal^e.
Flcd-'crs fix or feven from the centre among tlie leaves, fho<-t-
lived, white with a tinge of red, their tube much longer than
the limb. Rheede's figure difplays the generic charafter
fufficiently well, and llv.-ws the lip, or lower fegmcnt of the
inner limb to be undivided, ovate, acute, and wavy. Seeds
rarely perfected. The Cuirumi rotunda of Linnius fcenis
chiefly to depend on this fynonym of Rheede. His herba-
rium throws no light upon the matter.

K.EMPFERIA Rotunda, in the Materia Aledka. See
Zedoary.

KAEN, in Geography, a town of Africa, and capital of
a kingdom, on the banks of the river Gambia. N. lat. i :; \

KAFAR TuTHA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
province of Uiarbekir ; _:;2 miles S.W. of Nillbin.

KAFER, a town of Perfia, in the province of Far-
fillan ; 40 miles S. of Schiras.

KAFFABA, a town of Africa, and capital of a king-
dom of the fame name, in Soudan. N. lai. 11" 45'. W.
long, o' 12'.

KAFFERS, or rather Koussis, a tribe of people who
inhabit thofe parts of Africa that he to the north and eaft
of the colony of the Cape ot Good Hope. Mr. Barrow
lias not been able to afcertain how far the belt of country
extends in width acrofs the fouthern part of Africa, that
is inhabited by the KafFers ; but the points on each coall to
which they do not e.xtend are luflicientlv determined. To
the fouthward of the Portuguefe fettlement of Rio de la
Goa, the natives are Kaffers, but appear to be a degene-
rated race. They are, however, free ; nor has Portuguefe
avarice yet dared to attempt to make them Haves. This
IS not the cafe to the northward. At Mozambique and
Soffala, the black people are all negroes ; not indeed the
natives of the fea-coaft, but fuch as are brought down from
the interior as articles of trade. From Mozambique, they
have now a direct communication acrofs the continent with
their fettlements of Congo, Loango, and Benguela, on the
well coall, as appears from the information of a Portuguefe
flave merchant, between which negro merchants are eftablilhed
in different parts of the country. In the line of this route
there are thercf(ireno Kafferi:. It further appears that another
powerful tribe of the fame nation, called " Baroloos," in-
habit the country under the fouthern tropic, nor are thefe
the lall to the northward. According to the account given
of this people, they are of a kind and friendly difpofition ;
their town is fo e.xtenlive, that if a perfon fet out in a morn-
ing from one extremity and travelled to the other, he would
not be able to return before the following day ; and con-
tains many thoufand inhabitants ; the people are very >n-

geni.

of

nd have furnaces for fmelti:

both copper and iron they are very rich in cattle, and their
gardens and lands are better cultivated, and their dwellings
much fuperior to thofe of Ltctahooy which fee. The " Da-
maras" alfo, who poffefs the art of fmelting copper from
the ore, are inhabitants of the tropic ; and they are com-
plete KafFers, differing ra no refpeft from thofe on the
eallcrn coaft. Mr. Barrow, therefore, fuppofes, that a
line drawn from the 24th parallel of latitude on the E. coaft
to the 20th on the W., may nearly mark the boundary be-
tween the Kafters and the Negroes.

An open and manly deporlment, fays Mr. Barrow, free

K A F

from fufpicion, fear, or embarralTment, feems to charac-
terize the Kafl'er chiefs. Though extremely good-humoured,
benevolent, and hofpitable, tb.ey are neither fo pliant nor fo
pallive as the Hottentot. Tiiofe of the poorer clals fome-
tiines leek for fervice among the boors, and engage themfclvcs
for fo many moons in conlideration of fo many head of cat-
tle ; but they never fuffer thcmfelves to be duped out of
their hire like the eafy Hottentots. They are for the moft
part tall, upright, and well-niade men ; and in their ftature
and ftiength they exhibit fatisfactory evidence that animal
food is by no means ncceflary to promote the growth of the
human fpecies, or to add tlrength of fibre to the mufcular
parts of the body. Milk in a curdled ilate is the principal
food of the Kaffers. To this they fometimes add a few
gramineous roots, berries of various kinds, the feeds of
the " Strelitzia Reginae," and the pith of a large palm, to
which botanills have given the name of Zamia. They
rarely kill any of their cattle, unlcfs upon particular occa-
fions. I'hey poffefs no other domellic animals to yield them
food. In the whole KafFer country they have neither flieep
nor goats, pigs nor poultry. They cultivate no kind of
grain nor vegetables on this fide of the Great Fifh river, and
very little 0:1 the other fide ; but the Kafter tribes more to
the weftward, are very confiderable horticulturills. The
commifijoner.-i, fent out by the Britilli government in the
year jSoi, to endeavour to procure a fupply of draught
oxen, found extecfive fields of a fpecies of Holcus near the
city Leetakoo, the capital of a tribe of Kaffers, called
" Boolhooanas," liiuatc-d at the dillance of 16 days' journey
beyond the Orange river, in the direction of north-eait
from the Cape. The women here, as well as among the
eaftern Kaffers, and indeed in all nations jull emerged from
a favage ftate, went through all the hard labour and
drudgery that were required for the fupport of the family.
They not only performed the tafk of breaking up the ground
with a kind of hoe made of iron, and afterwards planted it ;
but they conilructed their habitations, and collefted the ma-
terials that were neceiFary. They reaped the grain, cleared
it from the hufl<, and laid it up in the granaries, which,
with other earthen pots and wooden veffels, were the work
of their hands. The men prepare the flcins and hides which
ferve for (hoes, and make them up into cloaks for them-
felves, their wives and children. They attend alio the cattle,
milk the cows, and hunt the antelopes and other game, with
a weapon called the Haffagai, which is ufed alfo in battle.

Mr. Barrow is of opinion, that the Kaffers were not
the aborigines of the fouthern angle of Africa ; but that
they might, perhaps, derive their origin from fome of thofe
wandering tribes of Arabs known by the name of Be-
domns. Their palloral habits and manners, their kind and
friendly reception of ftrangers, their tent-lhaped houfes,
the remains of Iflamifm difcoverable in one of its ftrongeft
features, the circumcifion of male children, univerfally prac-
tifed among the Kaffer hordes, feem to indicate their Arabic
origin and tlieir affinity to the Bedouin tribes. Their coun-
tenance alfo is Arabic ; the colour only differs, which in
fome tribes vanes from deep bronze to jet black, but the
latter is moft generally the prevailing colour. Nor is it
likely that they owe this colour to their conneftion with
thofe blacks that are ufually called negroes, as they have no
refemblance, in any part of the body, to the peculiar con-
formation of this race of human beings. To the Etljio-
pians or Abyffinians they have a much clofer refemblance.
Barrow's Travels in Southern Africa. See Caifra»<a
and Delaoo.\ Bay, under which latter article the reader
is requelled to fublUtute KafFers for Kuffers, a typographical
error.

KAIR,

r A J

KAFR EnHizt, a town of Egvpt, on the kfi Lank oi"
the Nile ; i8 miles S. of Cairo,

Kafk .'/ Ri/i, a town of Egypt, on tlie lift bank of
the Nile ; 3 miles N.E. of Atfieh.

KAGA, a town of Japan, on tlie N. W. coaft of
Niplion. N. Int. 57 15'. E. long. 1:57 4c'.

EAGAN, a town of RuOia," between Aftrachan and
the Cafpian fea ; 10 miles S. of Aftrachan.

KAGEROD, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Skone ; 12 miles S.E of Helllrgborg.

KAGNAS, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Bothnia. N.
ht. 64^48'. E. long. 21 7'.

KAGZEVAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the go-
vernment of Erzerum. N. lat. 39 35;'. E long. 45" 20'.
KAHAKAMAK, a fmall iiland in the Eaft Indian
fea, near the N. coait of Borneo. N. lat. 7' 21'. E. long.
H7; 3.?'-

KAHEC, a town of Perfia, ir> Sccreftan ; 37 miles
S.W. of Dergafp.

KAH.EDE, a town of Africa, on the N. fide of the
Senegal. N. lat. 16' 8'. W. long, ri' 47'.

KAHEM, or C.^^JEM, a town of Aliatic Turkey, on
the Euphrates ; 50 miles W.S.W. of Ana.

KAHGON, a town of Bengal; 20 miles S. of Moor-
fiiedabad.

KAHIASSCE, in the Turkifh court, an officer of
ftate, anfwering to our mailer of the ceremonies.

K.A.HIRIA, in Botany, Forlk. iEgypt. Arab. 153.
See Ethulia conyzotdes.

KAHL, in Geography, a town of Germany, on a
river of the fame name, near the Maine ; 4 miles S. of
Hanau.

KAHLA, a town of Saxony, in the principality of
Altenbur<r, on the Saal ; 36 miles W. of Altenburg. N.
lat. 50' 48'. E. long, n 27'.

KAHOKIA, a poft-town of America, and chief town
of St. Clair county, in the Indiana territory, containing
719 inhabitants.

K.^HONE, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Bur-
fali. N. lat. 13° 56'. W. long. 16 8'.

KAHUN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ker-
nian ; 36 miles S. W. of Sirgian.

KAHUNSILYA, or Kaonsali.*, in Hindoo Hijhry,
was the wife of Dafaratha, to whom (lie bore Rama, diilui-
guilhedby the epithet of Chandra, (meaning Lunarian,)
from other heroes of the fame name. See Ram.\.

KAI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Viatka, on the Kama ; 124 miles N.E. of Viatka.
KAJAAGA, or Gallam, as the French call it, a
fmall negro kingdom of Africa, which occupies the ex-
tremity of the naripablc courfe of the Senegal, terminated
in this place by the cataratt of F'low. Thi,? country is
bounded on the N. by the Senegal, on the S.E. by Bam-
boiik, and on the W. by Bondou and Foota Torra. The
refidence of the king is at Maana, within a fhort diilance
of '.he ruins of Fort St. Jofeph, where the French had for-
merly a fmall faftory. 'I'he air and climate are, according
to Mr. Park, more pure and falubrious than at any of the
fettlements towards the coalt ; the face of the country is
agreeably interfperfed with hills and vallies, and the wind-
ings of the Senegal, which defcends from the rocky hills of
the interior, render the fcenery on its banks pidturefque and
beautiful. The natives are called Sera- Woollies, and feem
to be pure negroes, without any Moorifh admixture, and
are naturally of a mild and docile difpofition. With re-
gard to their colour, which is a jet black, they are not to be
5

K A I

diRingiiilhed from the JalolFs. They are much addicted to
trade, and formerly carried on a coniiderable commerce v/ith
the French in gold and (laves : they are reckoned tolerably
fair and jull in their dealings, thcugh Mr. Park '.o[\ ainon^
them about one-half of his goods and apparel : th^-y are
much devoted to the acquifition of wealth, and they derive
confidcrable profit from the fale of fait and cotton cloth in
dillant countries. Their language abounds much in gut-
turals, and is Icfs harmonious than that of the Foulahs ;
it is, however, well worth acquiring by thofe v. ho have oc-
cafion to travel through this p:irt of the African conti-
nent ; as it is very generally underflood in the kingdoms
of KafTon, Kaarta, Ludamar, and the northern parts of
Banibarra. In all thefe countries the Sera-Woollies are the
chief traders.

KAIDA, in Botany, Rheede Hort. Mai. v. 2. t. 1—8.

See PASDANf.'C.

KAIDERM, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Se-
gcftar. ; 90 milts W. of Zareng — Alfo, a town of Perfia,
in the province of Khorafan ; 15 miles E. of Tcrlhiz.

KAI-FONG, orCAi-iONG, a city of the firll rank in
China, the capital of Ho-nan, fituated at the diilance of
two leagues from the river Hoang-ho. . As the river is
higher than the city, it is fubjecl to inundation.^, for the
prevention of which, flrong dykes have been raifcd wliicti
extend m^re than 30 leagues. On occafion of a fiege in
1642, by an army confiiling of 100,000 rebels, the com-
mander of the troops fent to relieve it determined to drown
the enemy by breaking down the large dyke of Floanr-ho ;
the llratflgem fucceeded, the city was overflonid, and
300,000 inhabitants perifhed. It has been rebuilt fince this
calamitous event, but in a ilyle far inferior to that of it^i
former magnificence. Its jurifdietion comprehends four
cities of the fecond clafs and 30 of the third.

KAIGOL, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kho-
rafan ; 225 miles N. of Herat.

KAIGUEZ, a town of Afiatic Turkey, on the S.
coail of Natolia; 18 miles S. of Mogla. N. lat. 36- jo',
E. long. 28 19'.

KAIGUM, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Au-
rungabad ; 30 miles S.W. of Aurungabad.

KAIHA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Ta-
vailland ; 60 miles N.N.E. of Jamfio.

KAJIPET, a town of Hindooitan, in the circar of
Cuddapa, on the Pennar ; 20 miles S.E. of Cuddapa.

KAILAFUETUEVSKOI, a town of Ruiiia, in the
government of Irkutlk, on the Argun; 160 miles S.S.E.
of Nenchinft.

KAIL.^.SA. Hindoo mythologiflshave affigned different
places of refort or habitation to their different deities : tlmt
of Siva is Kailafa, fometimcs written Cailas, which is do-
fcribed as one of the three peaks of the wonderful moun-
tain, Mem. (See Mehu.) Here the gods, with their con-
forts, animated with mufic, dancing, and ambrofia, called
by the Hindoos amrita (fee Kuii.mavatau.\), pafs their
hours in banquets and happy d.illiancc, reminding us ilrongly
of the tales of our own c.'affics ; and appearing indeed to
be the fame ftories under different names. This fimilarity
occurs in every page cf Moor's Hindoo Pantheon, although
the author in that work profelFes to avoid the difcuffion of
fuch fimilarilics. (See Kaliva.) The following inltance,
from page 47, will farther illuftrate this and the prefeiit ar-
ticle. " The comparifon between Siva and Jove runs paral-
lel in many inllances. In the rapacity of avenger and de-
ftroyer Jove overthrew the Titans and giants whom Typhon,
Briareus, &c. led againfl the god of Olympus, to whom aa
eagle brought /(j/i/m'nj and ;ii«n<Arie/// during the warfirc

la

K A I

In a fimilar conted between Siva and t1ie Daityss, or chil-
dren of Diti, wlio frequently rebelled againft heaven, Brah-
ma is faid to have prefented the god of deftruiElion with
fiery fiiafts. As the Olympian Jupiter fixed his court
and held his councils on a lofty aisd brilliant mountain,
fo the appropriated feat of Mahadeva, whom the Saivas
confider as the chief of the deities, is mount Kailafa, every
fplinter of whofe rocks is an incllimable gem." Kailafa is
therefore the Olvmpus of Siva or Mahadeva. See Siva.
KAIMACH AN, among the Turks. See Caimachan.
KAIMENI, in Geogrr.phy, a fmall ifland in the Grecian
Archipelago. N. lat. 36" 57'. E. long, if 26'.

KAIMOO, a town of Africa, in Bambarra, feated on'
the Niger. N. lat. 13- 56'. W. long. 3= 46'.

KAIMOW, a town of Hindoollan, in Bundelcund ;
12 miles N. of Chatterpour.

K AIN, a town of Perfia, in Coheftan ; 60 miles S.S.W.
of Herat.

KAINER, a town of Perfian Armenia; 24 miles S.E.
of Erivan.

KAINGERSKOI, a fmall ifland in the North Pacific
ocean, near the eaft coaft of Kamtfchatka, belonging to
RufTia. N. lat. 53"* 40'. E. long. 160".

KAINSK, a town of RuiTia, in the government of
Tobolflc, on the Om. N. lat. 56- 55'. E. long. 77" 54'.

KAIRA, a town of Hindoollan, in Guzerat ; 10 miles
S.S.W. of Mahmoodabad.

K.-\IRABAD, a town of Hindoollan, and capital of
a circar in Oude, to which it gives name. The circar is
bounded on the N. by Thibet, on the E. by Bahraitch, on
the S. by Lucknow, and on the W. by Rohilcund ; and
is about So miles long and from 50 to 76 broad. The
town is 86 miles N.W. from Fvzabad. N. lat. 27- 30'.
E. long. 81- 8'.

KA IS ART EH, mcKXwXj Mazaut 2.06. Ctfarea of C.ip-
padoc'ia, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Ca-
ramania, the capital of a Sangiakat, fituated at the foot of
a mountain^ always covered with inow, about five or fix
miles in circumference ; furrounded with walls and de-
fended by a caftle. This town is well peopL-d, and in each
of the J So diilrids to which it is divided, it has a mofq«e
or chapel. The Greeks have two churches, one of which
is a Metropolitan, and the Armenians have three. The arti-
cle which conllitutes its principal trade is Morocco leather;
250 mUes E.S.E. of Conftanlinople. N. lat. sS'^ 20'. E.
long. 35- iS.

KAISENI, a town of Walachia, on the Ardgis ; 25
miles N.W. of Buchareft.

KAISERBERG, a town of France, in the department
f f the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in the
diilrict of Cohr.ar, The place contains 2428, and the can-
ton 13,606 inhabitants, on a territory of 125 kiliometres, in
13 communes 'J miles N.W. of Colmar.
■ KAISERSBERG, a town of the duchy of Stiria,
liaving a caftle on a hill ; 5 miles SAV. of Leoben.

K.-\1SERSECH, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Rhine and Mofelle, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrift of Coblentz ; 12 miles W. of
Coblentz. N. lat. 30° i8'. E. long, f 2^. The place
contains 435, and the canton 2413 inhabitants, in 16 com-
munes.

K.AISERSLAUTERN, a town of France, and prin-
cipal place of a diftridl, in the department of Mont Ton-
jierre; 24 miles N.W. of Landau. N. lat. 49"^ 27'. E.
long. 7- 47'. This town was ceded to France by tiie elector
of Bavaria in 1802. The place contains 2363, and the
Aaoton 8640 inhabitants, in 21 communes. -

K A L I

KAI-TON-GI, a town of the ifland of Borneo; 6a
miles S.S.E. of Negara.

KAJUC, a town of Afia, in the country of Kharafm j
23 iniles N.W. of Samarcand.

KAKA-PAKSHA-DHARA, a name of Rama", in
Hindoo hiilory, and of other warriorsj who l:ad a habit of'
(liaving their heads, leaving only the hair projefling over
their ears, which was fancied to refemble the wings of S
crow. The name means beartng-crovj-ivhgi.

KAKA-TODDALI, in Botany, Rheede Hort. Mai.
V. J Si. t. 41, is PaulUnia afafira oi l^innxus, ditlinguiilied
as a new genus by Juffieu, under the uncouth name of
TodJaHa, and by Schreber under that of Crant-zia There
haviiig been another genus already given to piofeiTor Crantz,'
Dr. Smith has called that of which we are fpeaking ScopoUa^,
Plant. Ic. uader t. 34. See Scopolia.

K.AKATOES, in Ornithology. See Psittacus.
KAKBERG, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
Frifoh Nerung ; 18 miles E.N.E. of Vogelfang.

KAKEGAVA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ni-
phon ; 95 miles S.^^' . of Jedo.

KAKELIK, in Ornith-jhgy, a fpecies oiTetrao; which fee.
KAKHET, or Kakhetty, in Geography, the eallern
part of the principality of Georgia, comprehending a part
of tlie ancient Iberia, about 180 miles long and 90 broad.
This Hate, as well as Karduelia, borders northwards on tlie
Kabarda, eallwards on Dagheftan, fouthwards on the Per-
fian Armenia, and weflwards on Immeritia. This Hate and
Karduelia are under the fole fovereignty of a prince of the
Kakhetian dynaily. The refidence is Teflis. The air is
falubrious, but the country is thinly inhabited. The town
Kaket, in this province, is fituated near moimt Caucafus ;
45 miles N N.E. of Teflis. See Georgia.

KAKI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 70
miles N. of Meaco.

KAKIL.AN, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Segeftan ; 6j miles N. of Boil.

KAKILE, in Botany, Broter. Lnfit. v. i. 498. Sec
C.\KILF., and Bl'xias, Ip. 12.

KAKKABBAN, in Geography, an ifland in the Ead
Indian fea, being one of the group called " Mer; t iba ;" 40
miles from the E. coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 2' 8'. E. long.
116' 50'.

KAKKAWATA, one of the Friendly iflands.
KAKOPIT, in Ornithology. See Clkthia AmbolnenJIs.
KAKOULI, in Geography, a town of Turkifli Arme-
nia ; 23 miles E. of Baibourdi.

KAKURI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
85 miles N.E. of Meaco.

KAL, or Kala, in Hindoo Mythology, a name of Siva
in his charafter of the Dejlroyer, in wliich he agrees with
Saturn or Time, and is called alio Maha-kala, mnha being an
epithet equivalent X.<:i great. Kali, or Maha-kali, is a name of
his confort Parvati, in one of her avenging or terrific charac-
ters, as (he appears in feveral of tlie plates of Moor's Hindoo
Pantlieon, wherein one of Kal is defcribcd as " Eternity,
at the period of Maha-pra-laya, or grand confummation of
all things. In the original he, like his name, is black ; he
holds the roll of fate, and a fcymitar to execute its dc-
llruclive decrees. He devours man, his own offspring
towns, cities, "the great globe itfelf and all that it in-
herits"— the univerfe. The great perfonitied powers of the
Almighty, Brahma, Viflina, and Siva, " alike await th4
inevitable doom;' they alfo " fall into the jaws of non-cx-
illence." Kala will then, like Saturn, dellroy himfelf, and
nothing will remain but Brahm ; the eternal one," p. 30.
See K.\LJ, K.VLPA, and Maii.\-kai. \.

KALAAT-

K A L

KALAAT-EL-NEGUER, in Geogmph',; a town of
Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Diarbekir ; 2; railcs
S. of Bir.

KALADGIK, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ;
8 miles S.E. of Kiangari.

KAL-AGNI-RUDRA, in Hindoo Mythology, a name
of Siva, or rather three of his names combined. Kal is
kis name as Time, Agni as Fire, Rudra as Fate. See Kal,
Siva, and Rudra.

K ALANS HEE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in
the countr\' of Gonjah.

KALANTEKA, in Himho Mythology, is a name given
fo Yama, the judge of departed fouls. (See Yam a.) It
means the deftroyer of Kal, or of Time, and is a perfonifi-
cation of great boldnefs. See Kal.

KALATOE, in Geography, an idand in the Eatt Indian
fea, about 30 miles in circuit. S. lat. 7° 18'. E. long.
122° 15'.

KALATU Sefid, a town of Perfia, in Farfiftan ; 10
miles N. of Neubendjan.

KALBA, a town of Perfia, in the province of Mazan-
deran ; 60 mi'es E. of Fehrabad.

KALBRA, or Kelbra, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolftadt, on the Helm ;
*7 miles N. of Erfurt. N. lat. 51^ 28'. E. long. 11 4'.
KALCKREUTH, a town of Germany, in the terri-
tory of Nuremberg ; 7 miles N. of Nuremberg.

KALCOBO, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea. S.
lat. 5^ 20'. E. long. ,1 17 ' 39'.

KALDEKIRCHEN, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Roer; 8 miles N.N.E. of Ruremond.

KALDI, George, m Biography, a native of Hungary,
was born in Tirnav.' about the year 1572, and from his
connexions he might probably have attained to confiderable
preferment in the church, but he preferred enrolling himfelf
in the fociety of the Jefuits. He was received mto the
order at Rome, and returning to his own country, he was
banifhed into Tranfylvania, with the other members of the
fociety, during the commotions which, at that time, agi-
tated the kingdom. After this he difcharged the duty of
theological profefTor in the univerfity of Olmutz, and filled
fome other important polls in different places. His iall re-
treat was to a college which he built at Prefburg, where he
died, in the year 1634, at the age of fixty-two. He was
regarded as one of the muft eloquent preachers in Hungary.
He publiftied a volume of fermons at Pre/burg in 1631,
but he is chiefly celebrated, as an author, for having under-
taken and completed a tranflation of the bible from the
Vulgate into the Hungarian tongue, which was printed at
Vienna, in T626.

KALDUROSAN, in Geography, a town of Walachia ;
ao miles N.N.E. of Bucharelt.

KALE, William, in Biography, a painter of aUl life.
In the catalogue of the gallery of the Louvre, at Paris, he is
called Kalf, and there are two cxquifite works of his, unit-
ing the merits of Rembrandt and Tcniers. He was born at
Amilerdam in 1630, and was a difciple of Hendrick Pot,
a portrait and hili:orical painter ; of whom he learned the
practice of the art, but from whom he varied in tlie appli-
cation of it ; and apphed his talents, which were very con-
fiderable, in a clofe imitation of objeds in (till life ; which
he compofed with great beauty and effect. He poflefled
an eye luformcd with the power of Rembrandt's arrange-
ments and contrail of light and ftiade, and a hand, that
managed the pencil with the ncatnefs and corrcctnefs of
Tcniers : his piflures are therefore as agreeable perhaps as
Vol. XIX. ' .

KAL

it is poflible for the art to exhibit ; when the kind of fub-
jetts whicli he chofe are reprefented. He died in 1693.

Kai.h, in Botany, &c. Sec Bokecole, Bhassica, and
CK.AMn.:.

Kai.e, in ylgricultHre, the common name of a plant of
the brailica kind, which is occallonally cultivated in the
field for the ufe of live ftock. There are feveral varieties of
it in cultivation, which are all very hardy in their nature,
rife to a confiderable height in the Ilc-m, and afford a large
proportion of green food per acre. They are an excellent
Iheep feed in the early fpring months, as March and April,
throwing out frcfli fprouts as the old ones become removed.
The bite of flieep is not by any means injurious to them ;
and they are capable of being fed off without hurdling,
which is a very confiderable advantage in moll fituations.
See Borecole and Brassica.

Kale, in Gardening, the common name of a luirdy tall
growing plant of the cabbage kind ; of which there are fe-
veral varieties cultivated in gardens for winter and fpring
ufe, but the curled forts are probably tlie bed for the table.
They are capable of being had recourfe to for a confiderable
length of time, as they throw out fprouts in great abundance,
and are ready in th^jfe fevere parts of the winter fcafon when
but fev.' other greens can be procured, efpecially in the more
northern parts of the ifland. See Bhassica and Borecole.

KALENBERG, in Geography, a general name given to
a ridge of Auilrian mountains, extending from near tha
fource of the river Save, towards the Danube, about 9
Britifh miles on the well of Vienna, where it is called Leo-
poldfberg ; and fuppofed by Bufchinji; to be the ancient
Cetius. This ridge of Kalenberg was the wedern boundary
of Germany till about the year 1040, when it was removed
E. to the river Leitha.

KALENDAR. See Calendar.

KALENDERI, in Hindoo Mythology, a daughter of
Surya, or the Sun ; fpoken of alfo as a water nymph. She
is one of the eight wives of KriJIma, wliich fee.

KALENDS. See Calends.

KALF, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Weft; Goth-
land ; 45 miles S. E. ot Gotheborg.

KALFSKAR, a fmall ifland on the eaft fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 63' 34'. E. long. 20 53'.

KALFVEN, a fmall ifland on the well fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 61 3'. E. long. 17" 7'.

KALGAGICHA, a town of Ruflia, m the government
of Arcliangel ; 40 miles S.S.W. of Oneg.

KALGAPOL, a town of Hindootlan, in Dowlatabad,
on the Beemah ; 12 miles S.W. of Naldourouk,

KALGUEV, an ifland in the Frozen fea, about 140
miles in circuit ; 240 miles N.N.E. of Archangel. N lat.
08" 20' to 69^ 18'. E. long. 45- 30' to 47- 30'.

KALHAT, Calhat, or Cahjale, a town of Arabia, in
the province of Oman, at the mouth of a ver of the fame
name, which runs into the Arabian gulf; rfo miles S.E. of
Mafkat. N. lat. 23 10'. E. long. 58 25'.

Kalii.at, Cape, or Ras Kalhat, a cape on the E. coail
of Arabia. N kt. 23-18'. E. long. 58' 30'.

KALI, in Agriculture, the common name of a plant of
the fea kind, which affords a fahne matter by incineration,
which, in many forts of foil, is employed with great advan-
tage as a manure, in combination with other fubllances.
See QuEiicus Marina, and Sk.\-weed.

KALI, in Botany, Tourn. Inll. 247. t. 128, an Ar.-ibic
name. (See S.vlsola.) The fame appellation has been given
to various fucculent alkalefcent plants.

Kali, in Chemiftry. Sec Carboxat of Po'.afi, and Al-
kali.

4Q Kali,

K A L

Kali, in the Mat.-iia Medlca. Sec Salsola and Soda,
and alio Alkaline.

Kali, in Hindoo Mylholof^y, a name and form of the goj-
defs Parvati, confort of Siva, in his charader of Kal or
Time, which fee. Under this name and form fhe is of a ter-
rific appearance, and is thus defcribed in Moors Hindoo
Pantheon, p. 15 1. " Maha-kali, or the Great Kali, black
and dreadful, is encompaifed by fymbols of deftruftion :
two of her liands feem employed in the work of deatli : of
the other two, one appears pointing donnnvards, alluding
to the iiniyerfal havoc which furrounds her, while the other,
pointing upwards, feems to promife the refurreAion of na-
ture by a now creation. Siie is reprefentcd without a creicent
(the artificial meafurc of time), becaufc it is unnece(rary to her
charadcr as the hieroglyphic of eternity ; but the belief of the
Hindoos in fucccfiive deflruftions and renovations of the
univerfe (fee KAt.PA>, accounts for her wearing a mutid
w.ala, or necklace of ilvu'.ls, as emblems of thofe revolutions."
In th;it work ar.- many plates of this deity tinder various
names, incUiding Bhadrakali, as well as Maha-kali. Kali
is the Hindoo name of the Nde, in the vicinity of which the
Iccne of fonie of the Pur.mas is laid ; and they relate, in-
deed, that the river itfelf is but a transformation of Kali,
which, in Sanfcrit and other Indian languages, means hlacli ;
as does Nila, another of her names, or rather dctrk blue : the
following alfo arc names of this muhiform deity, and liave a
like meaning; Afita, Shyania, or Sliyamala, Mekara, An-
janabha, Krifhna. (Ibid. p. 15,.) Other plates in the lame
Avork, reprefenting the goddcfs, are thus defcribed :
"Plate 27. is taken from a brafs call depofited by the
author in the mufeum at the India-houfe : it is eighteen
inches high, including the pcdellal, which is about a foot
in diameter, fix inches deep and hollow, as if intended to
be fixed on fometliing ; and I was told fiich images are oc-
caflonally faflened on the top of the rat'h, a carriage dragged
about the ftreets on certain feftivals. Kali is laid to alfuine
this form to frighten finners into repentance and virtue :
her attitude feems a chacing one, affumed to caufe imme-
diate terror ; her limbs bend ; her liands are open, fingers
lengthened into points, ilretched out ; a ferpent forms her
girdle ; (he is naked, except a fcanty cloth, called p'tra,
round her middle ; her belly is empty, thin, and Ihrivelled ;
her brealls pendent, with long difgulling nipples ; a ferpent
convolves round her neck, and, twining on her bofom, pro-
jects its head to fupport lier protruded, long, rough tongue :
her chin is peaked ; immenfe teeth and tudcs are (i.^:ed in
her liplefs gums ; her noilrils and goggle eyes are diitendcd
and bloated ; fnakes form appropriate rings for her na!ly
cars, being knotted in the pendent lobes, with their heads
raifed, and their hoods expanded ; her hair is ilifr'ened out,
forming a frightful glory round her head, diverging to meet
a wider glory that rifes from a flower on each ilde, forming
a fupport to the figure. The call is of brafs ; and, how-
ever difgulling to the eye, is far from being devoid of merit :
our engraving is taken from an exaft portrait, and exhibits
confiderable exprefTiun." P. IJ9.

" Plate 28. is from a very fine bronze image, about
a foot high, caft, I was informed, in the Carnatic. It was
prcfented to me by a Brahman, and is, I think, on the
whole, the moll elegant and bell finillied figure in my pof-
feffion. She is, in this form, called Bhadra-kali, Maha-
kah, and by other names; alfo, being eight-handed, Afhla-
buja. Two of her hands are empty, pointing upward and
dovvnward, in the poiition before noticed : one of her right
hands holds fometliing not unlike a caduceus, which, in the
eaft, it referables more nearly than in the plate ; its corrc-
fpoadi.ig left hand the Patra (fee Patiia) or cup: the.

KAL

next right and left hands, a fingular crooked fword, and a
fhield with an embofTed flower or fruit v tlio fuperior rigl t
hand has an agricultural implement, called nar^^o ; the left
the cordj!>i;j, or paflj (fee Pasji), to catch or ilrangle fin-
ners with. Her fine perfon is fuU dreffed, with a profufion
of ornaments ; between her full brealls a frve-hcaded ferpent
uprears itfelf ; flie has a necklace of human heads ; her ear-
drops arc elephants ; and a row of fnakes' heads peep over
her coronet. Her forehead is marked cither with Siva's
third eye ,fee Virvp.^ksha), or her own hieroglyphic ; and
her open mouth fhews her teeth and tufks, giving her a;
fierce and threatening afpeft." P. 160.

KALININA, in Geography, a tovm of Ruflia, in the
government of Tobolllt, on the Tunguflca. N. lat. 6a~ 56'.
E. long. 106' 26'.

KALIPH. See Caliph.

KALISCH, or Kalitz, in Geography, a city in the duchy
of Warfaw, late the capital of a pal.itinate of the fame name in
Great Poland, or Wellern Pruffia, iiiuated on the Profna,
and furrounded with walls, towers, and morafifes. This pala-
tinate was Mo called the " palatinate of Gnefen," from the
city of that name ; 57 miles N.E. of Breflau. N. lat. 51 -50V
E. long. 18 . See Gxesen.

KALITV.\, a town and diflrict of RsfTia, in the go-
vernment of Voronetz, fit'iated on tlie rivulet Kahtva y.
which falls into the Don ; 60 miles S S.E. of Voronetz.

KALITVENSKAIA, a town of Ruffia, in th; country
of the CofTacks, feated on the Donctz.

KALIYA, or Kalan'AGA, in Hindoo Mythology, a fer-
pent (lain by Krifhna, who, being the Sun, correfponds in
this, and many other inftances, with Apollo, the flayer of
Python, both of whom, according to Clemens, were adored
at Delphi ; and in like manner both Kriflina and Kaliya find
adorers in India, where, in honour of Krillina's triumph,
games and iports are annually held, as the Pvthic games
were at ftated times in Greece. I.,ike the Pythian ferpent
in the temples of Apollo, Kaliya-nag'a enjoys alfo his apo>
theofis in thofe dedicated to Kriflina ; nor, fays mr.ior Moor,
in his Hindoo Pantheon, whence we have taken this article,
" are arguments wanting toward identifying Serpentarius
on our fphere with his formidable foe, and the theatre of
the conflict, the river Yamuna, or Jumna, with the via
laftea. So the vai-iety of demons fent to annoy Kriflina, are,
perhaps, the allegorical monilers of the fky, attempting in
vain to obllruft his apparent progrefs through the heavens,
where other conflellations are fabled as fo many beautiful
nymphs ready to receive him, and have given rife to allegories
of his inconllancy." (See Krishxa.) Other names of this
mighty mythological ferpent are, Kaga, Sejlia, and Vqfoly,
which fee.

KALIYANA-RAYA, a name of Vifhnu among the
Hindoos, of whom there is, under this name, a llatue at
Barra, on the banks of the Euphrates, which is faid to be
carefully concealed from the fight of tlie Mahometans.

KALKAj or KalK-V-pir.\, in Geography, a river of
Chinefe Tartary, which, though one of the fmallell, gives
name to the KJhas. It rifes in a famous mountain, called
Suelki, or Siolki, which name may be applied to the ridge
that feparates the Kalkas from Chinefe Daouria, and which is .
1 30 miles W. dillant from Tcitcicar. This river empties it-
felf into the lake Coulan.

KALKALLY, a town of Ilindoollan, in Dowlatabad j
20 miles E. of Nandcr.

KALKAS, a tribe of Tartars, confiding formerly of

more than fix hundred thoufand families, which inhabit the

country that lies N. of the Mogul Taitars. Their country,

8 wLi^h

K A L

Trlijch ftretclies as far as the kingdom of the " Eljiithcs,"
K near 300 leagues in extent from call to wefl. In this re-
gion tt-as anciently fitiiated, tewards the 45th degree of N.
latitude, the city of « Karakan ;" the Rat of the empire
of Tfchinghis-kan, and of that of his fucce(rors. The Kul-
kas live in tents along the banks of the rivers which water
their country ; of which the principal, tlioiigh they take
their name from Kalka-pira, are the Kerlon, Toula, Touy,
and Salinguc. The banks of thefe rivers are well inhabited,
and they flow through extenfive plains, which are covered
with rich paftures : their waters are very wholefome, and
abound with excellent filh, efpecially trout. The vaft defert,
called "Gobi," (which fee,) occupies almoft the whole
fouthem part of the country of the Kalkas. The war
which the king of the " Eleuthes" (fee Kalmuks) carried
on in 1688 againft the Kalkas almoft deftroyed the whole
nation. To avoid the purfuit of a fuperior enemy, they
fupplicated the affiftance of the Chinefe arms, and offered to
fubmit to the empire. Kang-hi undertook their defence,
conquered the king of the Eleuthes, and kept the Kalka Tar-
tars under his dominion, after having conferred upon their
princes different titles of honour.

KALKA-TARGAR, a country of Chinefe Tartary,
which contains one clafs of Mongul Tartars. N. lat. 41''
50'. E. long, no- 33'.

KALKE, one of the Prince's idands, in the fea of Mar-
mora; anciently called " Chalcitis," on account of its mines
of copper, which have been long neglected. On this ifland
are three large Greek monafteries.

KALKI, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name given to an
expefted a-oatara, or manifeftation of the god Vifhnu. ( See
VisHSU.) The incarnations of this deity are numerous;
but ten of them are of more importance than the others,
and arc, for diilinftion, called the ten incarnations, dasavn-
tara. Of thefe nine are paft ; in the tenth, or Kalki, Vifhnu
is to appear mounted on a white horfe, with a drawn fcy.mitar,
blazing like a comet, to end the kali-yu^r, that is, the pre-
fent, or iron age, preparatory to a renovation of the w orld
with an era of purity, or fatya-yuij. (See YuG.) In pic-
tures, tiiis avatara is reprefented by a man leading a white-
winged horfe. It is alio called kalenki and afwah ; likewife
faid to mean a horfe ; but as kal is time, and in foveral dia-
leds means both j'efterday and to-morrow ; or, more exten-
fively, the paft and future, it is furniifed by the author of
the Hindoo Pantheon, p. 18S. that the name of kalki, ap-
plied to this ender and renovator of ages, may hare fome
allufion to that idea, rather than be confined to the form in
which he is to be manifefted. See Kal and Kali'A.

■ K.A.LKISSEE, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Ceylon ; 19 miles S. of Coiumbo.

KALKOON, or Turkey Islaxd.s, a clufter of fmall
iflands in the Eaft Indian lea. N. lat. 6 15'. E. long.

1 15' 45'-

' K.ALL, ato.'.-n of Sweden, in Jamtland ; 42 miles N.W.
ofOl^erfund.

K.ALLA, a fmall ifland on the caft fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 64" 20'. E. long. 33" 26'.

■ KALLATM.A, a town of Egypt ; 15 miles N. of
CofTeir.

' KALLERY, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 28 miles S.S.W. ef Jonkioping,

KALLODRA, a town of Hindoollan, in Guzerat ; 16
miles N. of Sural.

' KALLSK.AR, a fmall ifland in the N. part of the gulf
nf Bothnia. N. lat. 6f 43'. E. long. 23 3r)'._Alfo, a
fmall iilaud on the E. fide of the fan-.e gulf. N. lat. 63 ' 5'>'.
E. long.' 22^ 43'. — Alio, nnolhcr fniall ilbiid on the r:i:ne

KAL

fide of the gulf. N. lat. 63' 50'. E. long. 22°33'.— .\Ifo,
another fmall ifland on the fame fide of the gult. N. lat.
63 26'. E long. 21" 28'.

KA LEVI KEN, a fmall ifland in tTie N. part of the
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 64" 18'. E. long. 21 7'.

KALM, Peter, in Biography, a very celebrated na-
tur.-ilift, and pupil of Linnxus, the account of whofe tra-
vels, from having been tranflated into Englifh, is well
known in this country. He was a native of Finland, and
was borji in the year 17 1 J. Having imbibed a tafle for
the ftudy of natural hiftory, it appears that he pnrfued his
inclination with much zeal and induftry. His fu-ft re-
fearclies were rewarded by the difcovcryof many new plants
in Sweden, of which he gave fome account to the botanical
world between the years 1743 and 1746. He was parti-
cularly anxious to explore the virtues of plants, both with
refpect to their ufes in medicine, and in the ufeful arts, fo-
that planting and agriculture occupied fome portion of his
attention. His reputation as a natura'ift caufed him to be
appointed profeflbr at Abo, and in Odlobcr 1747, he fet
out upon his travels, failing from Gottenburg for America ;
but on account of a violent hurricane was obliged to take
Ihelter in a port of Norway, whence he could not depsrt till
the ciifuing February, when he proceeded immediately fof
London. From hence he went to North America, a.« we
learn from his book ; and having fpent two or '.hrce
years in exploriijg whatever was worthy of obfervatio.n in
that country, he returned to his profcfibrfhip at Abo in 1 75 1 .
The expences of this undertaking appear to Jiaye exceeded
what was allowed him by the Academy of Sciences, fo that
our author was obliged to live rather per.urioufly upon his
return. Yet we are informed that he found means to culti-
vate, in a imall garden of his own, fever:;l hundred plants,
for the ufe of the univerfity, as there was no public botanical
garden at Abo. " His difcoveries in botany very materially
enriched the Species Plantarum of his great matter, and the
Linnsean Herbarium abounds with fpccimens brought home
by him, dillinguifhed by the letter K." Haller enutncniles
a long hll cf tracts puLliflied by Ka'm, and his inaugural
differtation appeared in tiie Amanitates Academics of Einnaeus.
He was originally intended for the eccleliafh'cal profelTion,
but was drawn aiide from this purfuit by attending the
leiSlures of Linnxus on natural hiftory, given in the uni-
verfity of Upfal. Indeed, it was through the recommenda-
tion of Linnaeus that profeffor K.dm was fixed upon to un-
dertake the voyage to North America. He afterwards
made, at his own expence, a very extenfive tour into Rufiia,
the hiftory of which never appeared in print, but whicli is
fiippofed to have furniflicd confiderable matter for the work
ofaSwedifli writer, who pvblilhcd a book of travels in. that
kingdom. Kalm was a member of the Royal Swedifh .Aca-
demy of Sciences, and departed this life in the year 1779,
aged 64, His collection of dried plants, made in his various
journies, and doubllcfs valuable for the purpofes of botanical
inform.ation, is faid to remain in the hands of his family in a
itate of negled. Hall. Bibl. Bot. Aikin. Gen. Biogr.

KALM I A, in Botany, a genus named by Linnsus in
honour of his friend and pupil Peter Kalm, D.D. profeffor
of Economy at the univerlitv of .Abo. (See Kalm.) Linn.
Gen. 2 17. Schrcb. 293. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 600. Mart.
Mill. Diet. V. 3. Alt. Hort. Kew. v. 2- 64. JuT. 158.
Lamarck Didl. v. 3. 34J. lUuftr. t. 363. Gxrtn. t. 63.
— Clafs and order, Decandria Mamgyr.ia. Nat. Ord. ISi-
eorncs, Linn. Rhododendra, Jiifl.

Gen. Ch. Cnl. Perianth inferior, fmall, permanent, divided

in'o fii'e, fubovate, acute, roundifh fegirents. Cor. of one

petal, falver or fu;inc!-(haped ; tube cylindrical. Ioniser than

4 Q 2 the

K A L

the calys ; limb with a flat diflc, the margin upright, five-
cleft half way down ; ten little horn-like cells projccling out-
wardly from the corolla, and finrounding it where the bor-
der is upright. Stam. Filaments ten, aVi-{hapfd, flightly
fpreading, a little fliortcr than the corolla, at whofe bafe they
are inicrtcd ; anthers with two pores. P'l/l. Germen fu-
perior, rourdifii, furrowed, ftyle thread-fhaped, longer than
the corolla, declining ; ftigmaobtufe. Pfric. Capfule fome-
what globofe, deprelTed, five-celled and five-valved. Seeds
numerous.

EfT. Cli. Calyx in five deep fegments. Corolla cup-lhaped,
with ten prorainKnces. Anthers with two pores. Capfule
with fivo cells.

T. K. lalifolia. Broad-leaved Kalmia. Linn. Sp. PL 560.
Curt. Mag. t. 17J. Sm. Inf. of Georgia, t. 37. — " Leaves
ovate-elliptical, ternate and fcattered. Corymbs terminal."
— Profeflor Kalm relates that he found this fpecies in various
parts of North America, and efpecially in the province of
Pennfylvania, on the fides of hills, and occafionally in woods,
which were enhvened by its foliage when mod other trees had
loll their verdure. It was covered with a profufion of beau-
tifnl blolfoms in the month ofMay.— i'/fm 10 or 12 feet
high, branched. Leaves rigid, bright green above, pale
beneath, on (hort footftalks. F/o-wtrs in a round bunch,
fitting very clofe to the branch, of a pale blufh-colour, va-
riegated beautifully with crimfon.

2. K. angujltfulia. Narrow-leaved Kalmia. Linn. Sp.
PI. 561. Curt. Mag. t. 331.— " Leaves lanceolate. Co-
rymbs lateral." — A native alfo of North America, flowering
from May to July — Stem from three to fix feet high, divided
into fmall woody branches, covered with a dark grey bark.
Leaves of a fhining green colour above, paler beneath, ob-
tufe, on Ihort footitalks, placed without order, varying in
breadth. Floivers in loofe, lateral bunches, of a bright red
colour when they fird open, but afterwards fading to a bluflt
, or peach-colour. — There are two varieties of this fpecies
mentioned in the Horlus Keivenjis, one with red, the other
with pale flowers.

l- K. glauca. Glaucous Kalmia. Willd. n. 3. Curt.

Mag. t. 177. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 64. t. 8 " Leaves

oppofite, oblong, fmoothifh, glaucous underneath, rcvolute
at the margin. Corymbs terminal. The little branches
two-edged. "—Difcovered by fir .Tofeph Banks at New-
foundland, and introduced into this country in 1767. It
flowers in April and May. — This_/7jrui is about two feet in
height. Stems branched, round, reddifli-brown. Leaves
embracing the ftem, each furniflicd with a broad, longitu-
dinal, yellowifli rib. Fkivers on very long ftalks, about
five or fix in a bunch, of a beautiful pink or rofe-colour. —
It much refembles lalifolia in habit, but is confiderably
fmaller, and of more hum.ble growth.

4^ K. hirfula. Hairy Kalmia. Willd. n. 4. Curt. Mag.
t; 138 — "Leaves oppofite and alternate, elliptical, hairy.
Flower-ftalks axillary, fingle flowered. "^-A native of South
Carolina, in a fwampy foil. ■ It flowers in the autumn. —
Stem upright, flendcr, about three feet in height, branched.
Leaves fnuiU, bright-green, numerous. Floivers purphfli,
axillary, each grov/ing on a fingle Italk, though inaccurately
defcribed by Curtis and Martyn as being racemofc. The
general appearance of this fpecies is fomewhat fimilar to that
of ^iidromeila Dcboecii.

■ This whole genus is remarkable for its elegant flowers and
foliage. It thrives well in a boggy foil, and is a general fa-
vourite in all gardens.

Kalmia, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the hardy
evergreen flu-ubby kinds ; of which the fpecies moflly cul-
tiv;ited are, the broad-lcavcd kalmia (K. latifolial ; the nar.
7

K A L

row-leaved kalmia (K. angufliifolia) ; the glaucous kalmia
(K. gkuca) ; and the hairy kalmia (K. hirfuta).

The value of the firft fort, which is an elegant flirubby
plant, is much leflened by its noxious properties.

In the fecond kind, there are varieties, with pale and
deep red flowers, differing in their habit ; the latter, the moll
humble of the two, not only produces the moll bnUiant
flowers, but in greater abundance. This is faid to be poi-
fonous to fheep and cattle in its native fituation, America.

Method of Culture. — Thefe different plants are capable of
being increafed by feeds, layers, and fuckers from the roots.
But the firft fort is moft commonly raifed from the feeds,
which are procured from America, and fown in pots or
boxes filled with light fandy mould, in the fpring feafon, and
plunged in an eaftcrly border, or in beds of light mould, in
the fame afpect. However, when placed in a gentle hot-bed
they fuccecd much better. They mull, notwithilanding,
be inured to the full air of the atmofphere during the fummer
feafon, having flieltcr in the winter from froll. As foon as
the plants have had two years growth, they may^ be removed
into feparate pots, in order to be continued two years longer
or more ; when they may be planted out where they are to
remain, in warm fituations in the open ground.

The fecond fpecies is mollly increafed by layers, which
fliould be made from the young flioots, and laid down in the
early autumn. In a year or two, when they arc become
well rooted, they may be taken oft", and planted feparately
in pots filled with bog earth, or in a v.-arm bord-'r formed of
the fame fort of foil. This is a more hardy kind than the
former.

The third kind is mollly increafed in the fame manner as
the firll, and demands a fimilar method of treatment.

The fourth is capable of being raifed from layers,
but the plants are preferved with difficulty in this cli-
mate.

Almofl all the plants are likewife capable of being in-
creafed by fuckers ; which fhould be taken off, and planted
out in the fpring, in nurfery rows, for two or tluxe
years, after which they may be removed to the places where
they are to grow.

In the more hardy forts, thefe plants afford ornament and
variety, when properly placed in the fronts of clumps and
flirubbery borders ; and in thofe which are tender, in mix-
ture with other potted, green-houfe, and other fimilar plants.

KALMOUA, in Geography, a town of Prutlia, in the
circle of Natangen ; 12 miles S.S.E. of Marggrabowa.

KALMUCKS, Oeloets, or Eleuthes, a tribe of Tar-
tars, who affirm their home to have been between the Koko-
nor or Blue lake, and Thibet. Long before Tfchingis-khan,
according to the old reports of thefe people, the greatefl
andmightieft part of the Oeloets made a military expedition
weflward as far as the Lefler Afia, and there loft themfelves
among the mountains of Caucafus ; but the relt, who had
ftaid behind in Great Tartary, received from their Tartarian
neighbours, the name Khaiimak (tlie feparated). In fadt
they call themfelves alio Khalmik, though Oeloet is always
their peculiar denomination, which word likewife denotes a
feparated, disjoined, or diilinft nation. The Oeloets divide
themfelves, at leaft fince the deftruftion of the Mongolian
monarchy, into four main flioots, who denominate them-
felves Khofchot, Derbet, Soongarr, and Torgot ; and from
the time of their feparation from the Mongoles or Monguls,
they have been uniformly fubjedled to various princely
families. The major part of the " Kolchotan" Kalmucks
are faid to have remained in and about Thibet and on the .
Kokonor, and after the downfal of the Soongarian power
they have been under the prcteftion of ti;e Chinefc. Tiic

fmalliir

KALMUCKS.

fmaller part of this (lock Imd lonjr before withdrawn to the
1 links of the Irtifh, and at length fell iiruler the dominion
' the Soongarian horde, with which it took part in tiie
sagainll China, and was alfo difpcrfed at t!ie fame time
I i) the Soongarians. Thofe under the Chinele fovcreignty,
Hll uiitod horde of the Khofchotcs, arc eftimated at
,000 heads. They are reported to have had their name,
! ;h implies warrior or hero, from the courage they dif-
! I \\cd under Tfcliingis ; and from tliis circumtlance, as well
as their deriving their princely race in uninterrupted fuc-
ceflion from the brother of the great Tfchinijis, they main-
tain a fuperiority of rank above the other Kalmuck hordes.
The number of Khofchotes fubjccl to Ruilia is but fmall.
In the year 1675 there came 1500, and in 1759 an additional
300 families to the fhores of the Volga, wliere they fettled
and voluntarily fubmitted to the Ruffian fovereignty. The
"■Soongares," at the feparation of the Mongolian monarchy,
formed but one ftock with the Derbetans, who afterwards
parted, under two difcordant branches of their princely fa-
mily. This horde, ia the 17th and beginning of the 18th
century, reduced to their fubjeftion a great part of the other
Kalmuck races, particularly the Khofchot, Derbet, and
Kho-it, and waged bloody wars with the Mongoles as well
is with the Chinefe empire itfelf, but which ended in their
total fubjugation and dil'perfion. Previoudy to this unhappy
period, tlicy, together with the Derbets, reckoned upwards
of 50,000 fighting men, and were deemed the bravell,
richett, and raoft powerful horde. They relided formerly
about the Balkhadi lake and its rivers Tfchuy and Ily ; and
their mod flouriihing pv?riod was between the years 1696
and 1746. The towns of the eaftern Bucharia and the
Great Kirghife horde were about this time tributary to
tliem. Many of the Soongarians difpcrfed thenifelves in the
interior parts of ACa and quite into the Ulbeck towns ; fome
thoufands of them fled into Siberia ; and moll of them ac-
commodated themfelves to the Chinefe fovereignty, and,
from their own ilatements, it appears, that fcarcely 20,000
families of them and the Derbetan nation are now remaining.
The number of the Soongares, who at that time (1758) took
refuge in RufTia, amounted to about 20,000 heads ; they
were united with the Volgaic Kalmucks, but for the moll
part returned with them again in the year 1770 into the
Soongarey. The " Derbetans," who at firil had their
pafturages in the region of the Kcko-noor, removed thence,
on account of the Mongolian dillurbances, towards the
Irtidi, and, on that occafion, fplit into two parties.
One of them united with the Soongares, in whofe for-
tunes and final diiTolution it was involved ; and the other
proceeded wellward with the Torgots towards the Yaik
(now Ural) as far as the Volga and the Don, where it com-
pletely fettled. In 1723 they removed to the parts beyond
the Don ; and afterwards joined the Torgots on the Volga.
The " Torgots" feem to have formed themfelves into a
particular horde much later than the other Kalmuck
branches. Removing from the re.'Uefs Soongares, they
marched weftward to the Steppes on the Volga, and there
fettled, receiving from the RulTians the appellation of the
Vol<Taic Kalmucks. In the year 1761 the RufTinn govern-
ment came to an agreerr.ent with this rich and powerful
horde, which rcflricled the authority of the khan to narrower
bounds, and excited fuch difcontents, that they returned in
great numbers in 1770 and 1771, over the ice of the river
Ural, acrofs the Kirghilian Steppe, into the Soongarey.
The whole amount of the Kalmucks that remained in RufTia
was eftimated, fome few years ago, at fomewh.at more than
20,000 tents. Thefe are the remains of all the four hordes ; (
but the Khofchotes, the Soongares, and Torgots, wliQje-

mained and are didributed among the Derbetf, have, be-
fides feveral petty princes, a kiian prefiding over them.
I'hey wander, with their flocks and herds, in the fteppcs
between the Don and the Volv-a, from the line of Tzaritzin
as far as Caucafus ; and between the Volga and the river
Ural, from the Irghis quite to the Cafpian ; that is, in the
governments of Saratof and Ailrachan, and in the feats of
the Coffacks of the Don. In audition to their there is fliU
a numerous colony of "baptized Kalmucks." Towards
the clofe of the 17th century, many, among the diftin-
guiflied and noble, profefhd ihemfeivcs of the Chrillian
faith. In the year 1737 the government eflablifhed them in
a fruitful region about the rivers Samara, Sok, and Tok (in
the prcfent government of Simbirfc and in the Orenburg
dillrift of the government of Uf;i)> and granted them alto
the city of Stavropol, which is n w a chief town of the
government of Simbirfk. The increafe of this colonv
was fo conliderable, that in the year 1771 they could
reckon nearly 14,000 heads, whereas in 1754 they were
only 8695'. There is yet fubfilling in the government of
Ufa a fmall colony of "Mohammedan Kalmucks," which
originated from individual profclytes made by the Kirg-
hifes and adopted by that body.

The Chinefe empire has been lately extended in Tartary^
by the celebrated conqueil of the kingdom of the Ehuthes,
made in 1759 ^7 ^^^ "'"'"^ "^ '■'"^ emperor " Kien-Long,"
who had been 46 years on the throne of China. The whole
nation of the Eleuthes, known in Europe and Ruiha by the
name of Kalmucks, may be divided (fays Grolier) into three
branches, which have all proceeded from the fame llcm. The
moll weilerly ^now the moll numerous and powerful) occupy
the country contained between the Cafpiau fea, Mufcovy,
Samarcand, and Cafligar, and which extends towards the ealt
as far as a vafl chain of ir.ountains, fuppofed to be a conti-
nuation of Caucafus. Every year diu-ing winter thefe Tar-
tars encamp on the fhoreof the Cafpi.m lea, near AflKichan,
where they carry on a great trade. The fecond divifion of
the Eleuthes inhabit to the eall, from the chain of mountains
now mentioned, as far as another chain of lofty mountains,
the mofl confiderable of which are called " Altai," in
which are the fources of the Oby and Irtiih. The country
which thefe people inhabit is very exteiifive ; fine e it bor-
ders on the north with Mufcovy, and on the fouth with the
territories cf the Ufbeck Tartars ; tliefc are the people whom
Kien-Longhas conllrained to fubmit to the Chinefe govern-
ment. The third branch of the Eleuthes inhabit to the
well of China ; they are the Tartar.s of Kokonor, who have
been for a long time fubjefts of the empire. They are fepa-
rated from the province of Chen-li by lofty mountains.
They take their name from a lake in this country, called in
their language " Kokonor," and which is one cf the Inrgeft
in Tartary. They are fuhjedl to eight priiitei-, who are in-
dependent of each other, and who are all of the race of the
khan of the Eleuthes Tartars. Thefe people derive their
principal riches from the gold which is found mixed with the
fand of their rivers, and above all with that of " Altang-
kol," or the Golden river. The gold-dull which it furnifhes
is the principal revenue of the princes of Koko;ior, who
employ their vafTals during fumrr.er in collecting it. One of
the principal articles of the trade of Kokonor is a kind of
napped woollen fluff, called " pou-lou ;" it is manufactured
by thefe Tartars, who have the art of dyeing it in different
colours ; long drelfes are made of it in the country, and it is
generally ufed at Pe-king for covering feats. The famous
Hoang-ho, or the Yellow river, has its fource ii} this corner
of Tartary.

The Kalmucks of Afiatic RufCa arc divided into three

ranks ; ■.

K A L

ranks ; the nobility, wliom they call white bones ; the com-
mon people, who are bondmen, and denominated black
bones ; and the clergy, defcending from both, who are
free. In like manner, the noble ladies are called white
fiefh ; and the common women black Ikfli ; but pedigrees
are only reckoned by the bones. The power of the
" Taidliia," or chief prince, confifts folely in the number
and opu'ence of his fubjecis ; territory being of no ellima-
tion in fo wide a region. Thefe fubjeds form an " Olufs,"
divided into " Imaks," from 150 to 300 families; each
Imak being commanded by a " SailTan," or noble. If
there be a great khan, or emperor, the princes are only
guided by him in affairs of general importance. The tribute
is about a tenth part of the cattle, and other property ; but
on the Ihil fummons every man muft appear on horfeback
before the prince, who difmiffes thofe who ave unfit for the
fatigues of war. The weapons are bows, lances, and fabres,
and fom.etimcs ure-anns ; and the rich warriors are clothed in
mail of interwoven rings, like that ufed in Europe till the
I Jth century. But they cannot oppofe regular armies, and
are apt evt-ii to diforder that of their allies. Tooke's View
of the Rudlan Empire, vol. i. Groficr's China, vol. i.

K^LMUNZ, a lonn of Bavaria, in the principahty of
Neuburg, at the conflux of the Vilz and the Nab ; 1 2 miles
N.N.W". of Ratiibon.

KALNICK, a town of Ruffian Poland, in the palati-
nate of Braclavv ; 16 miles E.N.E. of Braclaw.

KALO, a town of Hungary, fortified with a moat and
ballicns; 2 i miles S.E. of Tokay.

KALOMBA, a town on the N. coafl:of the ifland Cum-
bava. S.lat. S'9'. E. long. 118'.

KALOUKE, a town on the \V. coaft of the ifland Ce-
lebes. S. lat. 2^ 11'. E. long. 119" 15'.

KALPA, in Hiniloo Chronology, an imaginary period, at
the end of which all things are abforbed in the Deity ; it
feems to mean a creation or formation. " The Hindoos
fay that it has been revealed, that from the beginning to the
end of things, when the whole creation will be annihilated
and abforbed into the Supreme Bein.;, there v> ill be five great
kalpas, or periods. We are now in the middle of the fourth
kalpa, fifty years of Brahma being elapfed, and of the re-
mainder the firft kalpa is begun. Thefe five great kalpas
include five hundred years of Brahma, at the end of which
nothing will remain but Bralim, or the Self-exi!ling. Every
kalpa, except the firit, is preceded by a renovation of the
world, and a general flood, Thefe five kalpas have five
deities, who rule by turns ; and from whom the kalpas are
denominated. Thefe five deities are Devi (or Parvati),
Surya or the Sun, Gancfa, Vilhim, and Ifwara or Siva.
Brahma has no particular kalpa : he is intimate to them all.
Each deity, in his own period, is called Kalfva-rupi, meaning;
with the countenance of Kal, or Time ; or Ch.ronus, as wel-
tern mythologilb would fay ; they having feveral ruling
deities of that name. We are now under the reign of the
fourth, Chronus, or in the kalpa of Viflinu ; who to create,
thought on Brahma to preferve ; he folters the whole crea-
tion in his own charader, and he will ultimately dejiroy it
through the intervention of Rridra, or Siva. It is declared
in the Puranas, that all animals and plants are the linga or
phallus of the prefiding Kalfva-rupi deity, and that at the
end of his own kalpa, he is deprived of his ling by his fuc-
ceflbr, who attradts the whole creation to himfelf, to fwal-
low it up, or devour it, according to wellern mythologifls ;
and at the end of his kalpa lie difgorges the whole creation.
Such is the origin of Chronus devouring his own offspring ;
of Jupiter difgorging it, through a potion adminiflercd to
him bv Metis, and of Chronus callratri- lus ov.-n father "

K A M

Moor's Hindoo Pantheon, (See K-AL.) We {hall extrad
no farther on this abilrufe point of Hindoo metaphyfics, in
the confideration of which great diiEculties are neceffarily
interooied.

KALPA-DRUMA, the name given by Hindoo fabu-
lifts to a tree, fituated in the garden of Indra, called Nan-
dana, which, as well as others, yield all that is defired of
it. See lNDr,.\.

KALSCHARPOVI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia,
in tlie government of Ufa ; 2S miles S.E. of Burgurullanfk.

KALSOE, one of the Faroer iflands.

KALTENBERG, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 20 miles N.W. of Gitfchin.

KALTENBRUNN, a town of the duchy of Cour-
land ; 24 miles E. of Seelburg. — Alfo, a town of Bavaria,
in the principality of Sulzbach ; 12 miles N.E. of Sulz-
bach.

KALTENSTEIN, a town of the bifliopric of Paffau ;
10 miles N. of Paffau.

KALTHOF, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Smaland, near Konigfoerg.

KALUA, a town of Pruffia, in Pomeielia ; 8 miles E.
of Marienburg,

KALUA DA, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the
Tigris ; 10 miles S.E. of Bagdad.

KALUBBLUB, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
near the S.W. coaft of Mindanao. N. lat. 6 46'. E. long.
121 " J 2'.

KALUGA, a city of Ruffia, and cnpifal of a govern-
ment, called " KaLilikoe," or "government of Kaluga,"'
lituated on the Occa ; a place of confiderable trade, and one
of the moft populous between Cherfon and Mofcow. N.
lat. ,4'= 28'. E. long. 36 2'.

K ALVOL A, a town of Sweden, in the province of Ta-
vaftland ; 12 miles N.W. of Tavafthus.

KALUOT, a fmall ifland on the E, fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 21'. E. long. 21 ' 39.

KALUTSKOE, or Government of Kaluga, vl government
of Ruffia, bounded on theN. bv that of Molcow, E. by tliofc
of Mofcow and Tula, S. by Orlov&oe, and W. by Sir.o-
lenlkoe, about 140 miles long, and from 30 to 90 broad,
divided into 12 diilriits. See Kallga.

K.AMA. See Ka.mma.

Kama, a fmall ifland in the N. fea, near the coaft of
Lapland ; 10 miles N. of Suroe,

Kama, in Hindoo Mythology, is the god of love. " The
Hindoo ged,'' fays fir W. Jones, " appears evidently the
fame with the Grecian Eros, and the Roman Cupid : but
the Indian defcription of his perfon and arms, his family,
attendants, and attributes, has new and peculiar beauties.
According to the mythslogy of Hindoollan, he was the fon
of Maya, or the general altrading power, (fee Maya,) and
married to Reii, or Affeclion ; and his bofom friend is f-''a-
fanta, or Spring. (See thefe articles.) He is reprefented
as a beautiful youth, fomelimes converfing with his mother
and confort in the mid'l of his gardens and temples, fome-
times riding by moonlight on a parrot, or Imi, and attcnd.'d
by dancing girls or nymphs, the former of whom bear his
colours, which are a Jljh on a red ground. His favourite
place of refort is a trad of cou;itry round Agra, and prin-
cipally the plains of Matra ; where Krilhna alio and the nine
Gopca(fee Khishna), wiio are clearlythe Apollo and Mules
of the Greeks, ufually fpend the night, in mufic and dancing.
His bow of fugar-eane or flowers, with a ftring formed of
bees, and his five arrows, each pointed with an Indian blof-
fom of a heating quality, are equa'ly new and beautiful.
Ke has more than twenty names ; that of Kam. or Kama,

flgliiiJcS

K A i\r

:ies defire, a fenfe whicli it alfo bears in ancient and
■rn Perlian." Kimdeo is a more popuhar way of ex-
tigf his name. He is alio called Makara-ketu. at-

K A M'

i? Jo ftrong, that bee? a;-e faid not to extrafl honey from it ; a

i-iicumftancc that cciikl not efcape the keen eye nt the llwi-

doo poets, and they accordingly imagine the champa to be

;; to the filh ii; his banner, which i? faid to be the name iadly mortified at tiie negleCl. They have, however, con-

horned (hark : Makara i? alio the zodiacal fign Ca^
c jrn. Kandarpa, meaning love, is another of liis niimes ;
n-.d Puflipa-danva, or with a ioiv ofjfo'uvrs, Mara is an-
other. Anansra means the incorporeal, derived from a very
popular fable of Kama having been reduced to a mental ef-
Cence bv Siva ; thus related in the Ranuiyana, b. i. feit. 22,

Kandarpa, the wily

!idin;r Sl'hanu, the lord of tranflated from the Saufcrit :

foled it by dedicating it to Kriihna, the black deity ; as
thej-, contrary to the notion of fome European naturahds,
coiifider the \mion of yellow and black as peculiarly beauti-
ful. The champa is farther confo'ed by the preference it has
obtained in bedecking the gloify locks of black-haired dam-
fels, asjuft noticed; and nj the following llanza, hterally

the crods, while, with uplifted arra, he was engaged in facred

hou art not honoured by the ill-difpofed be?.

ifterities, met the defert of his crime from the eye of the why, O Champaka ! doll thou fo heavily lament. The

great Rudra — all his members, being fcorchcd with fire, fell locks of lotas-eyed damfels, refembling the frelh dark clouds

from his body ; he was thence called Ananga (bodilelV) and adorning the flcy : let thefe cmbellirti thee."
the place where it happened Kama (dehre). ' His name of The A mer, mentioned in the extradf from the hymn, is

Smara, the ideal, may refer to his mother Maya, meaning alfo called amra, and am/a, and is faid by fome to be the

ilulion. Madan, Madamat, aiid Makadamat, major Moor, man^o flower. Dry Nakefer is a handfome flower with

from whofe Hindoo Pantheon this article is taken, deems white and yellow petals. The Bela is a beautiful fpecies of

derived from a root fignifying f'weetnefs and mtox'icat'ion, or jafmine.

pleafurable merriment, but not approaching to drunkennefs. Among a refined people, advantageoudy fituated in a low.

Kama is faid to have been the Ion of Kriflva and Ruk- latitude, we naturally cxpeft to find love, in all its vail va--

Kama is

meni, that is, incarnated in a fon of theirs, and then named

Pradyamna, the adventures of whofe fon Anirudha

riety of relations, no inconfidcrable proportion of their oc-
cupation and amufement. Books and tales on amatory to-

the beautiful Ulha are the fubjeA of a pretty tale, and a very pics are very abundant in India, and in common lif;.'allufion

interefting drama.

The banner of Kama, a filh
w/5ifl«, or vehicle, the parrot,

are conftantly occurring to Kama and his excitations. The

red ground, and his ode, tranflated fiom the Sanfcrit, with which we fhall con-

lurl, have doubtlefs their elude this article, is a popular canticle on a fellival held at

allufions ; the former pofTibly, as major M. conceives, to the the full moon of the month Chaitra, in honour of Kama-

ftimulatincr nature of that fpecies of food ftirring the blood deva, attended by mufic, bathing, and feftive jollity. It

to aid Kamdeo's ends ; and perhaps the enfanguined colour- mull be recoUefted that Kama was incarnated as a fon of

ing, and extreme beauty of the hir't, and, like the fifh (and Kriflina, who being Vifhnu is called by one of his names,

the dove of weftern mythologifts) its fuppofed w/^Wy/^a^ Madhav • - -^ ■ ■■ "-

the fecond llanza. The three firil llanzas

tendency as food, may have had a Ihare in guiding a feleciion confiil chiefly of compound words forming names of Kama,
of attributes for the ardent deity. Tlie foft affedtion and for inftance, Pufhpa-danva, with a flowery -bow ; Makara-
fabled conftancyof the dove may have weighed with the keta, fi(h-bannered, &c.

Greeks ; although conftancy may not, perhaps, in ftriilnefs,
be a charaAeriilic of love.

Hail, god of the flowery bow .' Hail, warrior, with
a fifh on thy banner ! Hail, powerful divinity, who caufeth

Sir WiUiam .Tones has addrefled a fpirited hym.n to this the finnnefs of the fagc to forfakc him, and fubdueft the

guardian deities of the eiglit regions !

2. " O Kandarpa ! thou fon of Madhava. O Mara!
thou foe of Sambara. Glory be to thee who loveil the god-
defs Reti : who fpringeft from the heart.

3. " Glory be to Madana ; to Kama ; to lu'm who is
formed as the god of gods ; to him, by whom Brahma,
Vilhnu, Siva, Indra, are filled with emotions of rapture !

4. " May all my mental cares be removed ! all my cor-
poreal fuilerings terminate ! May the object of my foul be
attained, and my felicity continue for ever." Hin. Pan.

KAMA-DHOK, } names of 5W/.i; which fee.
KAMAK, in Geography, a town of Turkifli Armenia, -
on the Euphrates ; 10 miles S.S.W. of Arzingen.

KAMAKURA, a town of the ifland of Niphon, in the ■
The Champa or Chumpa, ormore correftly Champaka, is gulf of Jedo. N. lat. 3,-^ 10'. E. long. 139° 40'. — Alfo,
a polyandrian polygynian flower, the micheha of European an ifland of Japan, near the S. coaft of Niphon, about three
botanills ; it is of two forts, white and yellow ; fmall, and miles in circuit, having its coafts fo precipitous, that a crane
in its foliage like an expanded rofe-bud. Gardeners make is ufed to raife the freight firom the boats. This is ufed as
and expofe for fale, chaplets and long fir

deity. The following flanza defcribes Vafanta preparing the
bow and fliafts for his mifchievous friend. The flowers with
which the five arrows are tipped are of a heating infiarr.in;
quaUty, denoting that it is through the fenles that love'
ftafts are felt,

" He bends the lufcious cane, and twifts the firing
With bees ; how fweet ! but ah ! how keen their fling
He with five flow'rets tips thy ruthlefs darts,
\\niich through five fenles pierce enraptured hearts :
Strong Champa, rich in odo'rous gold ;
Warm Amer, nurs'd in heavenly mould ;
Dry Nakefer, in filver fmiling ;
Hot Kitticum our fenfe beguiling ;
And lail, to kindle fierce the fcorching flame,
Lovefliaft, which gods brigl-~. Bela name."

1 of the blolTc
vhich'loofe women, on the fuppofition that its fragrance ex

a Hate prifon.
KAMAL,

or Kamal.a, the Sanfcrit name of the

favourable fenfations in the votaries of Kama, decorate lotus, a plant efteemed by the Hindoos, as well as by the

their hair with, and

id their necks

fragrance is, a.icient Egyptians, as very facred and mylle

however, fo potent, that nerves unaccuflomed to it can LoTUS, or NyMPH.*:A, or whatever word under which

fcarcely bear it within doors

Another flower, called ma^ry, Egyptian fuperftition, connefted with the lotus, may be

iiofthefamedefcription, and may, perhaps, be one of thn'fe noticed. We ftiall give a (hort article under LoTfs.
cUnkallynamed in thehymn. The odour of the champa An cxtenfive clafs of Hindoo plulofopher*, being Nep-

tumlh,

K A M

tunifts, look on this aquatic plant with profound reverence ;
being more efpecially the fymbul of humidity ; and Vifhnu
being a perfomfication of water, his worfhippers deem it his
emblem alfo. It is farther the name of his confort Lakfhmi,
who, in her character of Venus, generally holds in her hand
the lotus, the emblem alfo of beauty, and denoting her
aquatic origin. (See Lakshmi, and Lotus.) Thure is no
end of mvllical fym.bolifm connefted with allufions to the
lotus among Hindoo mythologills. Of thefe many occur
in Moor's Hindoo Pantheon. See the index under Kamal
and Lotus. Many engravings are likewife there given of
this fubjeft in various combinations.

KAMALADAN, in Geography, a bay on the S. coal
of the iflar.d of Mindanao. N. lat. 7' 21'. E. long. 121.
KAMALAVA, a town of Perfia, in Chufiftan ; 2J
miles W. of Toftar.

KAMALA-YONL in Hindoo Mythology, a name of
Brahma, derived, it would appear, from the fymbols of
Lakflimi and Devi, or Parvati, the conforts refpeftively of
Vifhnu and Siva. The kamal is the lotus, an emblem of
female beauty, and a name of Lakihmi ; and the Yoni, the
pudendum muUebre, moll myfterioufly contemplated by the
votaries of Devi, as the myftical matrix of nature, and as
her fymbol. It docs not, however, clearly appear why
thefe terms or things fliould be conjointly applied to Brahma,
the deities creative power. On the fubjetts of tliis article
fee Kamai,, Lakshmi, Lotus, Lixga, and Yoxi, in
this work, which are amply difcufled in the Hindoo Pan-
theon.

KAMALIA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Man-
dintr, the inhabitants of wliich are partly Pagans and partly
Mahometans. Mr. Park, in his return home, was taken ill
of a fever in this town. This fevere and dangerous llcknefs
was owing to e.xcefs of fatigue, to viciflitudes of weather,
and to the various hardfhips which he encountered, being
fometimes plunged to the neck in rivers and fwamps, and
fometimes loll in woods and deferts, without (hclter, cloath-
ing, or food. In this dillrefied condition, and whilft he was
waiting fur a caravan with which he might purfue his jour-
ney tow.irds the Gambia, he was hofpitably entertained by
a worthv- negro, whofe name was Karfa Taura, who not
only undertook, for the value of one flave, to be paid on
his fafe arrival at tlie Gambia, not only to conduft him fafe
to Pifania, but to accommodate him in his houfe until the
time of the caravan's departure. During the long interval
of fix months, not a murmur efcaped the lips of Karfa, or
of any of his wives, at the trouble and expence which their
inmate, who was confined more than a month to his mat (his
only bed', brought upon them. To the kind attention, the
tender ioliciuide, tlie cheerful afliduity, and unwearied hofpi-
tality of thefe poor pagans, Mr. Park declared that he was
indebted, not only for his fafe return to Great Britain, but
alfo for the prefervation of his hfe ; and he gratefully
acknowledges, that he made his friend Karfa but an inade-
quate return (though tlie bed in his power), by piefenting
him, on their arrival at the Gambia, with double the fum
which he had originally promifed. Kamalia is dillant
about 40 geographical miles S W. of Sibidoolco, and lies
nearly midway between the Joliba and Senegal rivers. N.
lat. 12 ' 46'. W. long. 6^ 25'. — Alfo, a town of Africa,
in the kingdom of Barabarra, on the Niger ; 1 8 miles S.W.
of Sego.

KAMAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ;

27 miles N.W. of Kaifarieh Alfo, an ifland in the Red

fea. N. lat. 27" 35' Alfo, a town of Walachia ; <6

miles S.W. of Rufei. — Alfo, the name given by Taver-
jiier to the Qombam, or Commum, oi others, which is the

K A M

frontier town of the Carnatic, towards Golconda, near the
fource of the river Gondegama, or Gandlecomma.

Kaman, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by many
authors to a ftone found about the burning mountains, and
at fome times ufed to engrave feals on. It is defcribed as a
white ftone, variegated with feveral colours.

KAMARIS, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Natoiia ; 22 miles W. of Artaki.

KAMBALA, mountains of Thibet, between lake Jam-
doo and the Sam poo river.

KAMBAMBA. See Cambamba.
KAMBELE, a town of Perfia, in the province of Mc-
cran, on the fea-coaft ; 120 miles S. of Kidge.

KAMBERG, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of K;. . -
zim ; 12 miles S. of Benefchov.

KAMCHADALS. See ICwi.stchatka.
KAMEH, a province of Candahar, lying W. of Cabul,
N. of Cabul river, nearly oppofite to Jalalabad. — Alfo,
a river of ACa, called Cabul ; which fee. It is formed
of various ftreams that iffue from the northern mountains, ,
and join in the dillrjil of Kameh, whence the confluent
river receives its name, and which it communicates to the
Cabul river during tlie remainder of its courfe.

KAMEINOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government c:'
Pfl<ov ; 12 m.iies S.E. of Opogka.

KAMEL, Geokge Jo.?eph, in Biography, ajefuit mif-
fionar)-, who lived at the end of the 17th century, and fent
various plants from the Philippine ifiaads to tlie botaiiifts of
Europe. See Camellia.

KAMELEY, in Geography, z town of Africa, in Sen-
nar.r ; 60 miles S. of Gern.

KAMEN, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 12 ri:I:'i
S.E. of Gncfna.

KAMENI. See Kammeni.

KAMENITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle .
Bechin ; 24 miles E. of Bechiii. N. lat. 49 21'. E. long.
14- 56'. — Alfo, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Iglau;
13 miles E. of Iglau.

KAMENIZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chru-
dim ; 10 miles S. of Chrudim.

KAMEN K A, a town of Ruflia, in the government
of Tobolfl'C ; 1 20 miles E. of Enifeiflc-

KAMENOI, a town of Ruflia, in the gcvernment of
Ocliotik, at the northern part of the Penzinlkaia gulf, con-
taining about 400 inhabitants ; 16 miles S. of OklaKflc.

KAMENSKAIA, a town of Ruffian Tartary, in the
country of the Coffacks, on the Dcnetz ; 122 miles N. of
Azof.

KAMENSKOT, a town of Ruffia, in the govcrnmert
of Archangel; 124 miles S.E. of Kola. — Alfo, a town
of Ruffia, in the province of Ekaterinburg, on the Ifet ;
40 miles S.E. of Ekaterinburg.

KAMERAN, an ifland in the Red fea, near the coall
of Arabia, governed by a Dola, fubordinate to the Dola of
Loheia : the foil is fertile, and it has a good harbour, which
affords refrefhment to v_-ifcls that touch at it in their voy-
age from the Indies to Jidda. N. lat. 1 j^ 6'. E. long.
42" 2 J".

KAMERIE, a town of Arabia, in the province of Ye-
men : 48 miles S. of Sacde.

KAMERINA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Kiev ; 12 miles S.E. of Czyrkafy.

KAMERITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Bechin ; 16 miles N. of Fillritz.

KAM-HI, in Biography, emperor of China, was the
grandfon of a Tartar prince, who conquered that country
in 1644, and afcendcd the throne in 1661. He had a great

attachment

K A M

attachniient to tlie arts and fciences of the Europeans, anil
liberally patronized the milTionaries. He was a good geo-
grapher, and direfted the conitruclion of many maps and
charts, yet fo vain was he of the country over which he
governed, that he would never fuffer a map of tlie world to
be laid before him unlefs China was reprefcnted therein as
the centre. He died at the age of 71, in the year 1722.

KAMI, in Gengriphy, a town of Japan, in the ifland of
Niphon ; 20 miles E.N.E. of Jedo.

KAMIABA, a town of Africa, in Manding. N. lat.
12 32. W. long. 6° I j'.

KAMIAMACONDA, a town of Africa, in the coun-
try of .Ie;narrow. N. lat. 12" 48'.

KAMI EN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Vol-
hynia ; 34 miles N. of Lncho. — Alfo, a town of Lithu-
ania, in the palatinate of Wilna ; 64 miles E. of Lida.

KAMIENEC, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Brzefc ; 16 miles N.N.E. of Brzefc.

KAMIENTSCHIK, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ;
36 miles E N.E. of Warfaw.

KAMIFSHELER, a town of Circaffia, on the coad
of the Black fea ; eight miles E.S.E. of Mamak.

KAMINIEC, a town of Ruffian Poland, and capital of
the palatinate of Podolia, having a caftle built on a rock,
and one of the bed fortified places in Poland. Be-low it
runs the river xSmetricz, which falls into the Dnieller. It
has a Popi(h and Armenian bi!hop refident in the city ; a;:d
here are alfo held a court of juftice and provincial diet.
The epifcopal fee was founded in 1375. Its college for-
merly belonged to the Jefuits. The whole province is
fometimes called " Kaminiec :" ico miles W. of Braclaw.
N. lat. 4.R" ;3'. E. hni'^. 26 4J'.

KAMIONKA, a to.vn of Poland, in Volhynia ; 48
miles N.NE. of Zytomiers.

KAMIR, a town ot Perlia, in the province of Lariilan ;
60 miles E.S.E of Lar.

KAMISCHIN, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Saratof, on th.e Volga ; 80 miles S. of Saratof.

KAMITNICZ.A, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Br.iclaw, near the Dnieiler ; ^4 miles S. of Braclaw.

. KAMITSKI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ximo ;
28 miles E S. E. of Kokara.

KAMMA; a river of Rnffia, which is the largert; of all
thofe that unite their (Ireams with the Volga. It rifes in
the government of Perme, from the weftcrn projections of
tlie Ural chain, waters a fmall part of the government of
Viatka, flows through a large traft of the government of
Perme, form's the border between the governments of Vi-
atka and Ufa, and at Laiflieva, 60 verfts below Kazan,
falls into the Volga ; having terminated a courle of 1000
verlls. By the Tartars it is called " Tfliolman-Idel." Eor
the tranfport of fait and iron, it is one of the moll import-
ant rivers of the empire. This is chiefly efTe&ed by the
TchuITovaiya and the Belaiya, two rivers of confiderable
magnitude, flowing into it on the left. Befide thefe, the
Kamma takes up a great number of other rivers, fuch as,
on the left, the KoUa, the Yaiva, the Kofva, and the Ik ;
on the right, the Obva, the Okhau, and the Umyak. l^he
Kamma, above the mouth of the Belaiya (which is of a
whitifh water), lias a blackifli wholefume wat^jr. It is
moflly attended by a ridge of mountains, confiding of
fand, gypfum, and marie, with forcfts of firs and oaks.
It is toleriibiy well ftored with filh ; and they are reckoned
better tafted thnn thole of the Volga.

KAMMAGOJAH, a town of Africa, is the country
of Quoja.

■ KAMM.\H, a town of AGa, and capital of a difljia
Vol. XIX.

K A IM

in the kingdom of Birmah, on the Irawaddy ; which car.
ries on a large trade in teak timber, conveyed from hence
to Rangoon ; 15 miles N. of Prome.

KAMMENl, GiiLAT and Little, two iflands of the
Grecian Archipelago, fo called on account of the nature of
the calcined fubftaHces of which they are formed ; the name
denoting "burnt;" whence they have obtained the appcl-
lation of Burnt iflands. The firll of ihefe rofe above tiiC-
fea in a furprifing manner, whilil the waters boiled up, and
on account of its origin, which bordered on a prodigy, and
which occafioncd it to be confecraled by tlie ancients la
the god of hell, it was denominated " liiera." In the
year 1743, during fubterraneous commotions and convul-
fions, and various other terrifying phenomena, another iflai'd
fnddenly appeared above ttie fiirface of the waters. In
order to diitinguifli it from the former, which is the brger,
the Greeks have called it " Mikri Kammeni/' or the Littl*
Burnt ifland. Thefe iflands are wiihin about three niilei
W. of Santorin. N. lat. 36 30'. E. long. 25- 24'. The
Great Kamineni, which is the more ancient, is covered wit!»
a thin (Iratum of dull, which allows a few herb^ to gi-ow
upon it. The Little Kammcni, in which are vifible fis
craters, by which the volcano vov.iitcd forth the fnbllances
that compofe it, is naked and barren. At the hegnmir.g
of the lall ccnti'.ry a new illet appeared between the Great
and Little Kammeni, about a league from Santorin. It«
formation, accompanied with fhocks of earthquakes, which
were felt at Santorin, was gradual ; .ind various circum-
ftances attended it, which are minutely defcribed by Sonnini
in liis " Travels in G'cece and Turkey."

KAMI^JIG, a town of Siletia, in the principality of
Neilfe : 8 miles N N E. of Palfchtau.

K AMNITZ, or Chf.mnitz, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Leitmeritz : the principal article of trade is the
mannfa«uie of ftockings ; 30 miles S.E. of Drefden.
N. lat. 50' 47'. E. long. 14 32'.

KAMO, a town of Japan, on the fouth coafl of the
iflard of Jedo.

KAMOEPER, a fmall iflnnd in the Eait Indian fea.
S. lat. (■)' so'. E.lonir. 13 j= f .

KAMOURASKAS, a town of Canada, on the right
bank of the St. Lawrence. N. la:. 47 33'. W. loog.
69-40'.

K.-\MRAJE. See C.\shmeke.

KAMSCHEVSKA, .-. town of Rufiia, in the province
of Ekaterinburg, on the Ifct, ; 52 miles S.E. ot Ekaterin-
burg.

KAMSCHLOV, a town of Ruffia, in the province of
Ekaterinburg ; j6 miles E. of Ekaterinburg.

KAMSIN, hot foutherly winds of Egypt, where they
are known under the general name of '• winds of fifty days."
(See Egypt.) Thefe winds have been mentioned by travel-
lers under the denomination of " poifonoui*' winds, or,
more correftly, " hot winds of the defert." By the Arabs
of the defert they are called " Semoum," or poifon ; and by
the Turks " Shamyela," or wind of Syria, from which is
formed the " Samiel" wind. The heat of thefe winds is
fometimes fo e.xcefiive, that it may be compared to the heat
of a large oven at the moment of drawing out the bread.
When they be.si'" '" blow, the almofphereatfumes an alarm-
ing afpect. i'he iky, which at other times is clear in this
climate, becomes dark and heavy ; the fun lofcs its fplen-
dour, and appear.^ of a violet colour. The air is grey and
thick, and filled with an extremely fubtle dull, which is nni-
vcrfally penetrating. This wind increafes gradually in h'.at,
in proportion to its continuance ; and its efi'cCts arc fell by
all aiVma<ed being's. The lungs stre cont-radled and biHvjmi*
4 R paiii'ui,

K A M

painful. Refpiration is (hort and difficult, the flfin bccome$
parched and dry, and the body is confumed by an internal
heat. Large draughts of water afford no reUef, nor can
any thing reftore perfpiration. Marble, iron, water, though
the fun no lonj^cr appears, are hot. The ftreets are deferted,
and tile dead fileiicc of night prevails every where. The
inhabitauts of towns and villaj^es iliut themfelves up in
their houie,-;, and thofc of the defert in their tents, or in pits
dug in the earth, waiting the tcnnination of this deftruftive
heat. It iifuiiHy lalU three days, but if it exceeds tliat time,
it becomes infupportabW. The danger is moll imminent
when it blows in fquails, for then the heat is fo much in-
treafed, as to canfe fuddeu death by fuffocation. This wind
is peculiarly fatal to perfons of a plethoric habit, and to thofe
that are exhauiled by fatigue. The corpfe manifefts figns
of that putrid fermentation, which takes place in animal bo-
dies when the humours become itagnant. Thefe accidents
are to be avoided by flopping the nofe and mouth with
handkerchiefs ; ami the camels bury their nofes in the fand,
and keep them there till the fquall is over. Another quality
cf this wind is its extreme aridity ; which is fuch, that water
fprinkled on the floor is evaporated in a few minutes : it wi-
thers and ilrips all the plants, and exhales too f;;ddenly the
emanations from animal bodies, and produces that feverilh
heat which refuits from fuppreffed perfpiratioi;.

Thefe hot winds, are not peculiar to Egypt, they blow
likewife in Syria ;'. more frequently, however, near the fea,
and in the delert, than in the mountains. M. Niebuhr met
with them in Arabia, at Bombay, and in the Diarbekir :
tiiey are alfo known in Perlia, and in the call of Africa, and
even in Spain, and though their direction m.ay vary, their
elfecls are finiilar. In Egypt, the moll violent proi eed from
the S.S.W. ; at Mecca, from the E. ; at Siirat, from tlie
N. ; at Baffora, from the N.W. ; from the W. at Bagdad ;
and in Syria from the S.E- They always proceed, fays
Volney, from defert continents; and he adds, it is natural that
the air which covers the inimenfe plains of Lybia and Ara-
bia, meeting there with neither rivulets nor lakes, nor forcfts,
but fcorche^ by the rays of a burning fun, increafed in in-
tenfity by the refleclion of the fand, (hould acquire a prodi-
gious degree of heat and aridity ; hence he infers that thefe
qualijies are owing to the heat of the fun upon the fands.
Volney's Travels in' Egypt, &c. vol. i.

K AMTSCH ATK A, a river of Ruffia, in the peninfula
of that name. See below.

K.'MTSCH ATKA, a peninfula of Rufiia, in the government
of Irkuti'k, d'.nvinp its name from the river Kamtfchatka,
-.vliich is fijppoicd to have been fo called from fome brave war-
ri.>r naiied Konfata. It is hounded on the N. by the pro-
vince of Ochotflt, on the E. and S. by the Northern Paci-
irc ocean, and on the W. by the fea of Ochotll<, and the
Privniinfivoe gulf. On the fouthern promontory, the Ku-
nily islands are included in it, ar.d towards the well it iscoii-
Tieded with North America by the Aleutan illands. This
country confills of a chain of mountains,' forming one train
■MuU tile very mountainous and rocky iflands of Kurilly and
.(apan, and thcfeagain feem to be conneiSlcd with the mountains
that reach from Thibet through China. All tliefe countries
and iilands feem to have arifen by fubtcrrancous fires, which llill
.roiitiuuc to a6i, much more lately than Siberia. The penin-
J.ulaof Kamtfchatka. according to the account given of it
by captain King, who vifitcd it in October 1779, lies on the
♦•aflern coall of Afia, running nearly N. andS from52'
to 61 N. lat. : the longitnd* of its fouthern extremity being
\0 45'. E. TheilHimus which joins it to the continent on
ttie N, lies between the gulf of OlutO'-flv, and the gulf of
l?enUiinj]i. its. fouthern c:^U;ejnity^ is ca^e Legaika, a

K A M

word fignifying the blade-bone of a man, and fo called from
its fuppofed rcfcmblance to it. The (hape of the whole pe-
ninfula is not unlike that of a flioe, widening from the toe,
tliat is cape Lopatka, towards the middle, and again n:irrow.
ir.g towards the heel, tlie neck of land above-mentioned con-
nefting it with the contir.ent. Its grciitell breadth is from
the mouth of the river Tigil to that of Kamtfchalka, and is
compiled to be 2 56 miles, from whence it narrows very
gradually towards each extremity. It is bounded on the N.
by tlic country of the Koriaks, from which it is Icparattd,
according to tl'.e Ruffian geographers, by Olutorfkoi-nofs,
which is the fouthern boundary of the Koriaki country. A
chain of high mountains ttretches through the whole length
of the country from N. to S.; dividing it nearly into tv.'o
equal parts, from which a great number of rivers take their
rife, and empty themfelves, on each fide, into the Pacific
ocean, and the fea of Ochotili. There are tliree rivers of
much greater magnitude than the reil ; tlie " Bolchoireka,"
or great river, the " Kamtfchatka," and the '• Awatfka."
The firil difcharges itfelf into the fea of Ochotdc, and is
navigable for the Ruffian galliots, upwards of five leagues
from its mouth, or within nine miles of Bolcheretlk, a town
fituated at the conflux of the Goltfoifka and the Biftraia,
which here lofe themfelves in the Bolchoireka. The Billraia,
which is no inconfiderable river, has its fource in the fame
mountain with the Kamtfchatka, and, by taking a direct
contrary courfe, affords the Kamtfchadales the means of
tranfporting their goods by water, in fmall canoes, almolt
acrofs the whole peninfida. The river Ka.mtfehatka, after
purfuing a courfe of nearly 300 miles from S. to N., winds
round to the eallward, in which direftion it empties itfelf
into the ocL-an, a little to (he fouthward of Kamtfchatkoi-
riofs. Near the mouth of tlie KaiPtfchatka, to the N.W.
lies the great lake, called Nerpitfch, from " uerpi," a
Kamtfchadale word, fignifying a leal, with which this lake
abounds. About 20 miles up the river, reckoning from the
mouth of the lake, is a fort called Nifhnei Kamtfchatka
Ollrog, where the Ruffians have built an hofpital and bar-
racks, and which is faid to have become the principal mart
in this country. The river Awatfka rifes from the moun-
tains fituated between the Bolchoireka and the Biftraia, anj
running, from N.W. to S.E., a courfe of 100 miles, falls into
the bay of Awatflo. The Tigil is likewife a river of confi-
dcrablefize, rifing amidft fome very high mountains, which
lie under the fame parallel with Kamtfcliatkoi-nofs, and run-
ning in an even courfe from S.E. to N.W. fails icito the fea
of Ochot(l<. The foil of this jienir.fula is cxricinely barren,
and feems to be incapable of prclltable cultivation, either
in the way of pafturage, or in any other mode.

The face of tlie country, in general, is thinly covered with
flunred trees, having a bottom of mofs, ini\ed with low
weak heath, and bears a' more llriking refemblance to New-,
foundland than to any other part of the world which Capt.
King had ever feen. He was informed, however, by major
Behm, the late governor, that many parts of the peninfula,
particularly the banks of the river Kamtfcliatka and the-
Biftraia, produce giafs of great height and ftrength, which
they cut twice in tiie fu:nmer ; and that the hay is of a fuc-
culcnt quality, and particularly well adapted to the fijtton-
ing of cattle. From other accounts it appears that there is
no part of the counrry equal in ferti ity to that which bor-
ders on the river Kamtlchatka; and that to the N. and
S.it is much inferior both in point of foil and cHmate.
Repeated experiments have been made in the culture of oats,
barley, and rye, in difterent quarters near this river, which
have generally fucceeded ; and it is not doubted, that wheat,
in many parts, particularly near tiie fource of the Bi'lraia

and

KAMTSCI-IATKA.

and Kamtfchatka, would grow as well as in the generality
of countries (kuated in the fame latitude. The fertility of
this part of the country may probably be owing to its being
the widell interval of the peninfula, and confeqwently moll
remote, on each fide, from the fea : whereas the chilling
fogs and dri/./.ling weather, which prevail almoft perpetually
along the coa!l, miift neccffarjly render the parts adjacent
very unfit for all llie purpofes of agriculture. Thefcvcrity
of the climate, we may naturally conclude, mud correfpond
to the ilerility of the foil, of which it is probably thecaufe.
The lirft time, fays Capt. King, we faw this country, was in
the beginning of May 1779, when the whoie face of it was
covered with fnow, from llx to eight feet deep. On the 8th
of May, at noon, the thermometer Hood at 32 ; and the fnow
lay fo deep on the ground, that all attempts to cut wood
were fruitlefs. On tlie 12th the thaw began to advance
gradually ; and in the beginning of June, the fnow was ge-
nerally melted from the lowlands. On the fifteenth of this
month, the thermometer had never rilen higher than 5S ',
nor the barometer than 30 4'. The S. E. wind was
tii,e moll prevalent On the 24th cf Augull, the foliage
of the trees and all forts of vegetation ftcmcd to be in
tlie higheil Hate of perfeftion. During this month and
September, the weather vi-as very changeable, but in no re-
fpedl fi-T.-re. The winds veered towards the well. The
greaieft height of the thermometer was 6j^, the loweft 40 .
The baroH'.eter's greateil height 30" ; i's lowed 29 3'. So
that, upon the whole, during this month, an equal and mo-
derate degree of temperature prevailed. But at the be-
ginning of October, the tops of the hills were again covered
witli new-falkn fnow, the wind contiiming weflerly. In
computing the feafons, the fpring fhould not betaken into
the account. The interval from the middle of June to the
middle of September may properly be faid to conflitute the
fummer. Oclober may be conlldered as an autumnal month;
and from thence, to the middle of June, it is perfecl winter.
It is faid that the climate, in the country adjoining to tlie
river Kamtfchatka, is not lefs fereiie and temperate than in
many parts of Siberia that are under the fa.me latitude.
This variation, fays Capt. King, is probably owing to the
fame caufes, to which the fupcrior fertility of the foil in
tliofe parts has been attributed.

The ingenious Mr. Kirwan, in his " Eftimate of the Tem-
perature of different Latitudes," Hates the dillance of Kamt-
fchatka from the Atlantic to be fuch, that its temperature is
not in any refpecl influenced by it, but rather by that of the
North Pacific, to which it adjoins. Accordingly the northern
parts of this peninfula enjoy the molt moderate weather, be-
ing chiefly influenced by the North lea, the temperature of
which, even in winter, is milder than that of the fea belo»r
the ilraits that feparate Afia from» America. Speaking of
the temperature of the North Pacific ocean, the fame judi-
cious author obfervcs, that this part of it is contracted in
latitude 66 to the narrow fpace of 40 miles ; and in lati-
tude 52% it occupies the fpace of only 30'' in breadth from
eall to we.1, that is, about 1300 miles: whereas the At-
lantic in latitude 52' is about 1700 miles in breadth, and is
no where contracted to a lefs fpace than joo miles. To
which we may add, that the coalls of Afia on one fide, and
th.fe of America on the other, are bordered with high
mountains, covered with fnow for a great pait of the year;
and numerous high i.lands lie fcattered between botli con-
tinents. From thele circumllanccs we have fufficient reafon
for concluding a priori, that this fea (houlJ be much colder
than that portion of the Atlantic contained between the fame
parallels: for, during tlie winter, the mountains that line
-Jr- r-oafls are 'jool-.d to a much greater degree than the flat

coads of the Atlantic ; and the fea, where it is narrow, is
entirely frozen : in fummer, heaps cf ice, being long fhel-
tcred from the fun by the iflands, are carried dt>wn into
lower latitudes, and the fnow remains long unmelt> d on t!ie
mountains ; fo that Mr. Kirwan is inclined to think, that
the annual tempeiaturcof it is at lead 4 degrees below that
of the llandard in correfponding I uitudes. But firthfi-
obfei vations are necclfary for determining with prccific-, th,-
mean temperature of any of thcfo parts. But it is !iOt 11;
the dciility of the ground al-)ne that the Kamtfcliadales feel
the unfavourable temperature of their climate ; the nncer-
tainty of the fummer fealon fometimes prevents their layii^g
up a fullicicnt dock of dried filh for their winter's proviiioj;,
and tlie moidure of the air caufes worms to breed in then ,
whicli not unfrequently dedroy the greatef: part. The in-
habitaiits of this country are very ieldom troubled witii
dorms of thunder and lightning ; and never but in a fligli'.
d-greo. The general feverily of the winter, as well as tlio '
dieadhil hurricanes of wind and Inow which that feafo;-
brings aloiig with it, cannot fee qiiei'ioiied, from the fub-
terraiioous habitations to which the natives are under a necef-
fity of reforting for warmth and fecurity. Mpjor Behm
informed captain King and his companions, that the coid
and inclemency of the winter of 1779 were fuch, that, for
feveral weeks, all intercourfe between the inhabitants was
entirely obdruitcd, every one being afraid to dir even from
one houfe to another, for fear of being frolt-bitten. This
extraordinary rigour of climate in fo low a latitf.de naay bs
accounted for, from its being tituated to the call of an in:-
menfe uncultivated traft of country, and from the prevalence
of the weP.eily winds, blowing o\cr fo e.steniive and cold a
continent. The extraordinary violence and i:r.petuofity of
the ttiiids are attributed to tiie fubterraneous fires, the ful-
phureous cihalations, and t!.e general volcai.ic difpolition
of the country. This peninfula abounds in volcanos, of
which only three have been, for for.-.e time pad, fubjeft to
eruptions. One of thefe is fitnated in the neighbourhood of
A watlka. The volcano of Tolbatchick is fitii.ited on a neck
of land between the river of Kaintfchatka and Tolbatchick.
The mountain, from the fumniit of which the eruptions pro-
ceed, is of a conJiderable height, and terminates in pointed
rocks. The third vo'cano is on the top oi the mountain of
Kamtfchatka, which is mentioned as the highei: in the penin-
fula. A thick fmoke never ceales to afcend from its furc-
ir.it, and it has frequent eruptions of the mod violent and
dreadful kind ; iome of which were much talked of when
captain King vilited the idand, ard fecmed to be fredi m
the memories of the Kaintfchadales. This country contain.;
minierous fprings of hot water, and extraordinary pits or
wells, at the bottom of which the water feems to boil as in
a cauldron with prodigious impctuofity, accompankrd with^
dreadful noife, and dilcharging a thick vapour.

Near the village Milkova a merchant ot Irkutfli, ia 176P,
difcovered iron ore, and erected fmelting houfes on the fpot.
Silver ore, though not very rich, is alio faid to have been
found in Kamtfchatka. Of the trees which fell under the
notice of captain King and his adociatcs, the principal were
the birch, the poplar, the alder, (witli the bark of which
they dain their leather,) many fpocies of the v.-iUoM-, and
two forts of dwarfidi pines or cedars, of one of whieli they
made their eifcnce for beer, and it was found excelleiit for
the purpofe. The birch tree was t!ie moll common ; ai;d
of this there were three forts, two of which are fit for tim-
ber, and the third, which is of a dwarfifli kind, js applied
to a variety of ufes. The liquor, yielded by it upon being
tapped, is drank witliout any previous preparation; the
bark i»"convcrted into veflVlsfor doT.edlt: i-iarofei; r.nd cf
4 II 3 tbe

K A M T S C H A T K A.

the. wood tliey make their fledges and canoes. Befides the
trt-es above mentioned, there are the larch, and alio firs,
the fervice-tree, and two Ipecies of the white-thorn. Of
the ftirub kind, as junipers, the iiKjuntain-arti, rofe-trees,
and raipberry hndus, tiie country produces great abun-
dance ; together with a variety of berries, which are col-
lected at the proper feafon, and prefcrved by boiling them
into a thick jam, witliout fugar. Thefe are ufed as fauce
to their dried and fall fiih ; and are eaten by themfelves, in
puddings, and various otiier ways ; and decoctions are a!fo
made of them for their ordinary liquor. The country fur-
niflies many wholefome vegetables in a m\d ftate, fuch as
wild celery, angelica, chervil, garlic, ai;d onions ; and upon
fome fpots of ground in the vallies there are excellent tur-
nips and turnip-radiflles. They have alfo more recently
■eultivated potatoes. Major Behm exerted himfelf very
laudably in endeavouring to promote agriculture and graz-
ing, and not altogether witliout effeft ; and his fucceffbr,
Mr. AflefTur Reinikiii, continued thefe endeavours, info-
much that, in 1782, fron 68i pood of winter-rye 3416
flieaves, and from 594. pood of barley 24,840 flieiwes, were
reaped. Oats, wheat, and buck-wheat, were much injured
by the early frofls ; but hsrnp fucceeds very well. Tiiere
are two plants in this country that deferve particular notice,
on account of the extenfive ufe to which they are applied :
one, called by the natives " Sarana," is the Lilium Kum-
Ikatienfe flore atro rubente, of which Steller enmierates five
different fpecies. The roots are collected in the beginning
of Auguft, dried in the fun, and laid up for ufe. When
roailed in embers, it fupp'ies tlie place of bread ; and baked
in the oven and pounded, it becomes an excellent fubliitute
for flour and meal of every fort, and in this ftate is mixed
in all their foups, and molt of their other difhes. It is
eileemed very nourifiiing. The roots of this plant are alfo
applied to fimilar purpofes at Oonalaihka. The other
plant is called the " Sweet grafs," the Heracleum Siberi-
cum foliis pinuatis, Sic. Hort. Upfal. 6^. This plant was
formerly a principal ingredient in The cookery of moft of the
Kamtfchadale dillies ; but fince ttie RufGans have obtained
pofTeffion of the country, it is entirely appropriated to the
purpoles of dillillation. The hquor obtained from it is of
the ftrength of brandy, and is called by the natives " raka "
Two pood (72 pounds) of the plant yield generally one
vedro (2, pints) of raka. There are feveral other plants,
which we cannot enumerate. It is faid, that the Kanitfcha-
dales (before their acquaintance with fire-arms) poifoned
their fpears and arrows with the juice of the root of the
" zgate" (anemonoides et ranunculus) ; and that wounds
inflicted by them are equally deftrudtive to land and marine
animals. The Tfehuliki are reported to ufe the fame drug
for this purpofe at prefent. Of the draw of the " triticiim
radice pereimi fpiculis binis lanuginofis," which grows
;ibundamly along the coaft, they make a ftrong matting,
which they ufe not only for their floors, but for lacks, bed-
clothes, curtains, and a variety of other domeflic purpofes.
Qf the plant called " bolotnaia," growing in the marihe.=,
anS refembling cypcroides, vvliich is carded hke wool, with
3 comb made of the bones of the fea-f wallow, they make
various garments, which tht-y ufe inftead of linen and wool-
len cloths. The nettle fupplics the place of hemp and flax,
and ferves in the manufafture of their fidiing-nets.

The animals of this peninfula are the common fox, the
ftoat or ermine, the zibelline or fable, the ifatis or arftic
fox, the varying bare, the mountain rat or carlefs marmot,
the weafel, the glutton or wolverene, the argali or wild
(heep, rein-deer, bears, wolves, and dogs. The dogs are very
JWrnerous j aod ijbey are very ufeful in drawing the fledgis,

which are the common vehicles of the country. The. coaJt
and bays of this country are frequented by a'moft every fort
of northern fea-fowl ; the rivers are ftored with numerous
flocks of wild ducks of various fpecies. In the woods are
eagles of a very large fize ; and of the hawk, falcon, and
bullard kind, there are great numbers. This co-,intry like-
wife aff"ords wood-cocks, fnipes, and two forts of groufe, or
moor-ganic. Swans are alfo very plentiful, and generally,
in their entertainments, make a part of their repaft. The
fea-coatt furnifhcs no amphibious animals, except feals, which
fwarm in the bay of AwatUca, where they purfue the falmon,
that are collected there in flioalsin order to afcend the rivers.
They are alfo found in moft of the lakes, which communi-
cate with the fea. The fea otters refemble thofe of Nootka
found; but fince the Ruffians have opened a trade for their
Ikins to China, where they are fold at a price above that of
any other kind of fur, they have been hunted almoll entirely
out of the country. Thofe of the Kurile iflands are of a
fuperior quality to thofe of Kamtfchatka, or the American
coall. Fidi may be confidered as the ftaple article of food,
with which providence hath fupplied the inhabitants of this
peninfula. Whales are frequently feen, both in the fea of
Ochotflc, and on the fide of the eaftern ocean, and when
caught, are converted to various ufes. Of the fli;in they make
the foles of their flioes, and ftrops and thongs for various
other purpofes. The flefli they eat, and the fat is ftored
up, both for kitchen ufe and for their lamps. The whif-
kers are ufed for fewing together the feams of their canoes,
and for making nets ; and with the under jaw-bones their
fledges are fnod. They work the bones into knives ; the
inteftines are cleaned, and blown like bladders, for containing
their oil and greafe ; and of the nerves and veins, they make
excellent fnares. Flat-fifli, trout, and herrings are abun-
dant ; the feafon for the latter begins in May, and they do
not remain long on the coaft ; they are fine and large. They
have alfo cod of a large fize ; but their principal dependence
is on falmon, which they lay up in flore for their winter
provifions. The feafon of filhing, for this fpecies, lalts
from the middle of May till the end of June.

The prefent inhabitants of Kamtfchatka are of three
forts ; the natives, or Kamtfchadales ; the Ruffians and
Colfacks ; and a mixture of thofe two by marriage. The
true Kamtfchadales, are, according to Steller, a people of
very great antiquity, aad have for many ages inhabited this
peninfula ; and he fays, that they are originally defcended
from the Mungalians, and not either from the Tuiigufian
Tartars, as fome, or the Japanefe, as others have imagined.
Many words, he fays, in their language have terminations
fimilar to thofe of the Mungalian Ciiincfe, and the fame
principle of inflexion or derivation obtains in both languages.
They arc, in general, under-iiztd, as are the Mungalians ;
their complexion, like thtirs, is fwarthy ; they have black
hair, httle beard, the face broad, the nofe fliort and flat,
the eyes fmall and lunk, the eye-brows thin, the belly pen-
dant, the legs fmall ; all which are pecuharitics that are to
be found among the Mungalians. As the refult of the
whole he infers, that they fled for fafety to this peninfula,
from the rapid advances of the eaftern conquerors ; as the
Laplanders, Samoieds, &c. were compelled to retreat to
the extremities of the north by the Europeans. The
Ruffians, iiavipg extended their conquefts, and eilabliflied
ports and colonies along that immenfe extent cf coaft of the
Frozen fea, from the Jenefei to the Anadyr, appointed com-
miflarips for the purpofe of exploring anU fubjeiSling the
countries ftill farther eaftward. They foon became ac-
quainted with the wandering Koriaks inhabiting the N. and
N.E. coaft of the fea of Ochotflt, and without difficulty
5 made-

KAMTSCH ATKA.

ir.adi: tliem tributary. Tiiei« bein? tlie immediate r.cigli-
bours of the- Kanitichadalcs, and likewife in the )iabit^ of
bartering witli them, a knowledge of Kaintfchalka followed
of courfe. The honour of the firil difcovery is afcribed to
Feodot Alexeieff, u merchant, who is faid to have failed
from the river Kovyma, round the peninfulaof the Tfchutflci,
in company with fcven other vefiels, about the year 164S.
Being feparated from the reil by a ilorm, near the Tfchii-
kotflcoi-nofs, he was driven upon the coad of Kamtfchatka,
where he wintered ; and in the fummer following coaftcd
round the promontory of Lopatka, into the fea ofOchotIk,
and entered the mouth of the Tigil ; but he and his com-
panions were cut off by the Kodaks, in endeavouring to pafs
by land from thence to the Anadirik. But as thefc dif-
coverers did not live to report what they had done, Volo-
dimir AtlalToff, a CofTack, is reputed the firil difcoverer of
Kamtfchatka. This perfon, under the quality of com-
midary, penetrated, in t' 99, with about 60 Rufiian foldiers,
and the fame number of Coflacks, into the heart of the
peninfula, gained the Tigil, and levying a tribute of furs,
proceeded to crofs over to the river Kamtfchatka, on which
he built the higher Kamtfchatka Ollrog, called Verchnei,
where he left a garrifon of Coflacks, and returned to
Jakutflc in 1 700, with an immenfe quantity of rare and
valuable trfoutary furs. Upon his arrival at Alofcow, he was
appointed commander of the fort of Jakutlk, with farther
orders to repair again to Kamtfchatka. But as he advanced
tfvwards the Anadirllc, he fell in with a bark on the river
Tungu<l<a, laden with Chinefe merchandize, which he pil-
laged ; but in confequence of a remonftrsnce from the
fuifcrers to the Ruffian court, he was feized at Jakutfk, and
thrown into prifon. During the difgrace and trial of
Atlaflbff, feveral fucceffive commilTaries were fent into
Kamtfchatka ; but at length AilafToft" v.-as reinftated in his
command, and appointed to conduct a fecond expedition
into Kamtfchatka ; however, in this fervice he was guilty of
oppreffion and cruelty, wliich occafioned a mutiny among
the Coflacks, and they fucceeded in getting him difplaccd,
and feized upon his elfetls. Accuftomed to plunder, they
were reduced to military difcipline and fubjection with great
difficulty. The hillory of this country, from that period
till the grand revolt of the Kamtfchadales in 1 73 1, prefents
one unvaried detail of maffdcres, revolts, and favage fau-
guinary rencounters between I'mall parties, from one end of
the peninfula to another. When peace was ellabhihed, the
couiitrj' remained tranquil till the year 1740, when a few
Ruffians loll their lives in atiinuilt ; and except an infurrec-
tion which occurred at Bolcheretik in 1770, there has been
no diilurbance lince.

After the rt-bcllion of 17^1 was quelled, the country
recovered itfelf, and became more populous than ever ;
when, in the year 1767, the Imall-pox, brought by a foldier
from Ocho'ik, threatened the total extirpation of its inhabit-
ants. It has been computed that near 20,oco died of this
diforder in Kamtfchatka, the Koreki country, and the
Kurile iilands. The inhabitants of whole villages were fwept
away, and their habitations left defolate. In the diminillied
ftate of the natives, with frcfli fupplies of Ruffians and Cof-
facks perpetually pouring into the country, and intermixing
with them by marriage, it is probable, that in Icfs than half a
century there will be very few of them left. According to
Major Bchm's account, there were not, in 1779, mote than
3C00 who paid tribute, tiie Kurile itlanders included. Capt.
King underftood that in the year above-mentioned, there
were in the five forts of Nichnel, Verchnei, Tigil, Bulthc-
r--t(k, and St. Peter and St. Paul, about 400 Ruffians and
Coflacks, and near the fame number at. lng.iga, which,

though to the N. of ilie peninfula, was then under the con:,
mander of Kamtfclialka ; to thefe may be added the Ruifian
traders and emigrants, whofo number is not very coiilider-
able.

The Ruffian government, eftablithed over this country,
though military, is in a high degree mild and equitable.
The natives are permitted to clioofe their own magillratci
among thenifeKes, in the way and with the fame powers
to which they had ever been accullomed. One of thefe,
under the title of " Toion," prefidcs over each " ollrog,"
who refers merely cafes of diiBculty, or crimes of peculiar
malignity, to the decifion of the governor of Kamtfchatka.
The Toion has likewife the appointment of a civil officer,
called a corporal, who afitlls liiin in the execution of his
office, and in his abfence ads as his deputy. By an edift
of the late emprefs, no crime whatever can be punifticd
with death ; but it is faid, that, in cafes of murder, the
punifliment of the " knout" is adminiflcred with fuch fe-
verity, that the offender generally dies under it. The only
tribute exaded, as an acknowledgment of the Ruffian do-
minion, conlills, in fome dillrifts, of a fox's Il;in, in otliers
of a fable's, and in the Kurile ifies of a fea-ottcr"s. The
tributes are colletled by the Toioiis in their feveral diflriifts.
The Ruffians, it is faid, have taken great pains in converting.
the Kamtfchadales to Chriftiaruty, and they have fo far
fucceeded, that there remain few idolaters among them.
The religion taught and profeffed is, of courfe, that of the
Greek church. Schools are likewife ellablilhed in' many of
the ollrogs, where the children of both the natives^and the
Coflacks are gratuitoiifly inllrutted in the Ruffian language..

The commerce of this country, as far as concerns tlie ex-
ports, is entirely confined to furs, and carried on principally
by a company of merchants, inftituted by the late emprefs.
Befides thefe, there are many inferior traders (particularly
of the Coffacks) fcatlered through the country. The prin-
cipal merchants, during their Hay in the country, relide at
Bolclierefli, or the Nilhnei ollrog, in which two places the-
trade almoll wholly centres. I'he articles of importation
are principally European, but not rellricled to Ruffian
manufaclures ; many are Englifh and Dutch ; feveral like-
wife come from Siberia, Bucharia, the Kalmucks, and China.
They confift of coarfe woollen and linen clothes, yarn
ftockings, bonnets, and gloves ; thin Perfian filks ; cottons,
and pieces of nankeen, filk and cotton handkerchiefs ; brafs
coppers and pans, iron iloves, files, guns, powder, and Ibot j
hardware, fuch as hatchets, bills, knives, fcillors, needles,
looking-glaffes ; flour, fugar ; tanned hides, boots, &c. It.
has been obferved, that thefe articles in general are fold for
treble the price they might have been purchafed for in Eng-
land ; and though the merchants have fo large a protit
upon thefe imported goods, they have a itill larger upon
the furs at Kiachta, upon the frontiers of Cliina, which is
the great market for them. The beil fea-otter fiiins felL
generally in Kamtfchatka for about 30 roubles a-piece ; at
Kiachta the Chinefe merchant buys them at double that
price, and fells them again at Pekin at a conl;der;;ble ad-
vance, where a profitable trade is made with fome of them to
Japan. All furs exported from Kamtfchatka acrofs the
fea of Ochotfl<, pay a duty of 10 /rr cent, and fables a duty
of 12 ; and all forts of merchandize imported from Ochotfk
pay half a rouble for every pood (-^6 pounds Englifh). The
duty on exports and imports is paid at Ochotik ; and the
tribute, which amounted, in 1779, to 10,000 roubles annually,
is collefted at Bolchcretfl<. Six vcflcls, from 40 to 50 toiia
burtiien, were employed by the late emprefs between-
Ochotfkand Bolcheretik; five for the tranfportalion of ilores
and provilious from the former to the latter place, at.d one.

KAN

as a packet boat for conveying difpatches. B*fidcs there,
there are about 14 veffels fmployed by the merchants in
the fur trade, among the iflands to the ealhvard. The
moil confiderable ;fnd vahiable part of the fur trade is
carried on with the iflands that He between Kamtfchatka and
America.

The houfes in Kamtfchatka are of three forts, mz.jourts,
balagans, and hg-houfa, called there ijbas. The firll ai-e
thtir winter, and the fecond their fummer habitations ; the
third arc altogether of Ruffian introduftion, and inhabited
only by the better and wealthier fort. A town of Kamtf-
ciiatka is called an " oftrog," and confifts of feveral of
the three forts of houfcs above-mentioned ; but the balagans
are the mod numerous. St. Peter and St. Paul conlllls of
feven log-houfes, 19 balagans, and three jourts. Paratonnca
is of about the fame fize. Karatchin and Natchekin con-
tain fewer iog-lioufes, but full as many jourts and balagans
as the former. The outermcll garment of the men is of the
fhape of a carter's frock. Tliofe worn in fummer are of
nankeen ; in winter they are made of (!<ins, mod commonly
of the deer or dog, tanned on one fide, the hair being left on
the other, which is worn innermoll. Under this is a clofe
jacket of nankeen, or other cotton ftuff ; and beneath that
a ftiirt of thin Pernan iilk, of a blue, red, or yellow colour.
The remaining part of their drefs confills of a pair of tight
trowfers, or long breeches, of leather, reaching down to
the calf of the leg ; of a pair of dog or deer-flcin boots,
-ivith the hair innernioft ; and of a fur cap, with two flaps,
which are generally tied up clofe to the head, but in bad
weather are let to fall round the (boulders. On ceremonious
occaiions the Toions wear a fur drefs. The drefs of the
women confifts of a full loofe robe of white nankeen, ga-
thered clofe round the neck, and fattened with a collar
of coloured filk. Over this they wear a ihort jacket with-
out (lecves, made- of differently coloured nankeens, and
petticoats of a flight Cliinefe filk. Their (hifts, which
have fleeves down to the wrifts, are alfo of filk ; and
coloured filk handkerchiefs are bound round their heads,
conceahng entirely the hair of the married women, whillt
thofe who are unmarried, bring the handkerchief under the
hair, and fiilfer it to flow loofe behind.

The Kamtfchadales amufe themfelves with finging and
dancing. Their dancinsj thev fcem to have learned from
the bears, which is intended to reprefent the awkward and
clumfy gcftures of thia animal. The body was always
bowed and the hams bent, whiUl the arms were ufed in
imitating the tricks and attitudes of that animal. Cook's
Third Voyage, vol. iii. Took's Ruffian Empire, vol. i.
Cox's Ruffian Difcoveries.

KAMTSCHATKOI Noss, the fouthern cape of
Kamtfchatka. N lat jo i^' . E. long. 163' 20'.

Kamtschatskoi, Ni'z.nei or Lower, a town or oftrog
of Rufiia, on the E. fide of the peninfula of Kamt-
fchatka, about 20 miles from the river Kamtfchatka ; con-
taining two <;luirches and about i ^o houfes, and having a
citadel with magazines, an arfenal, guard-houfe, and bar-
racks. It is the feat -of two tribunals, one for matters of
government, and another for thofe of commerce ; 142 miles
E.S.E. of Ochotik. x\M.t. 5640'. E. long. 160' 14'.

Kamtsciiatkoi, Verclmci or Upjytr, a town or oftrog of
Ruffia, ill the peninfula of Kamtfchatka, governed by a
ferjeaiit, and containing about 6oohoules ; 60 miles N N.E.
of Bolcheretdcoi. N. lat. (^3 50'- E. long. 157° ^9'.

KAN, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Enifei, near
B ilciuitzko, in the government of Kolivan. — Alfo, a river
of China, which rifes in the S. part of Kiang-fi, and ruasT
into the lake Po-yang ; 20 miles N. of Tchang.

KAN

Kas-, or Kha«. See Khan.

KAN A, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the province
of Hed-^jaz ; 40 miles E.S.E. of Hajar.

KAN A A P, a town of Hindoollan, in Bahar ; 47 miles
S.S.W. ofPatna.

KANADEI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Simbirlls ; 72 miles S.S.W. of Simbirllv.

KANAtlA, one of the Andreanoflkie iflands, between
Kamtfchatka and America, which has a high fmoking
mountain.

KANAHOODY, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Coheilan ; 100 miles W.S.W. of Nifabiir.

KAN A KI, a fmail ifland in the gulf of Engia, near the
W. coait <>t Coluri.

KANAMBADDY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
8 miles W. of Senngapatam.

KANAN, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Cwo-.
near the Atlantic. N. lat. 16° 40'. W. lon>r. 1 - 5-.

KANANIKOLSKOI, a town of Rnffia, m the go-
vernment of Upha ; J2 milesS.W. of Sterlitamat/.k.

KANAR, a large lake, formed by an espanfion of the
river Dewah, in the country of Keinaoon.

KAN-AREDMERD, a town of Perfia, in Farfiftan :
90 miles S. of Sthiras.

K ANARNA, a town ef European Turkey, in Bulgaria ;'
22 miles N.E. of Varna.

KANARY, a fmail ifland in the Eail Indian fea, fur-
rounded by a number of iflets, called by this name. S. lat. '
I 44'. E. long 129 54'.

KaNAS, or KangAs, a town of Turkifli Armenia ; Go
miles S.E. of Erzerum.

KANASTER, is a name given in America to bafiiets of
ruiaes or cane, in which they put the tobacco which thev
fend into Europe : hence anfes the name of kanaller to-
bacco, the belt of which comes from Makaribou.

K.'\NAZAVA, in Geography, a town of Japail, in the
ifland of Niphon ; 130 miles N.E. of Meaco.

K ANCA BA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Man-
dingo, feated on the Niger, a mart for flavcs ; 16 miles S.E.
of Kamalia.

KaNDA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Congo ;
30 miles N.E. of St. Salvador. — Alfo, a town of Japan,
in the ifland of Xicoco ; 16 miles S.E. of Ovutfi.

KANDABAGA, mountains that form part of the
boundary between Rufila and Chinefe Tartary, a part of
the great chain \V. of the river Oka. See S.avaNE Moun-
tains.

KANDABIL, a town of Perfia in the province of
Mtcran, 2S5 miles S. of Candahar. N.lat. 28" 28'. E. long.
67' 20'.

KANDAL, a town o,. the N. coaft of the ifland of

Java. S. lat. 6 48'. E. long, iio^ 18' Alfo, a town

of Abyffinia, near the coaft of the Red fea. S. lat. 14 3c'.
E. long. 41 15'.

KANDALAKS, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Archangel, on tiie N. coaft of the White fea ; T40 miles
vS.S.E of I.'ola.

KANDARPA, a name of Kama, the Hindoo god of
love. See Kama.

KANDEGHERI, in Cecgraply, a town of Hin-
doollan, in the Carnatii,, formerly the capital of a kingdom,
called T^arlinga, and the refidence of a Hindoo king, whole'
dominions extended over Tanjore and Madura. In 1O40, a
defcendant of the i-eigning prince permitted the Engliih
to form a fettlement at Madras. It is diftant 70 miles N. W.
from Madras. N. lat. 13° 46'* E. long. 79 24.
. KANDEii.R-'VO, or KaKDOBA, in UirJoo MythUogy,

KAN

an avatara or incarnation of Siva ; liis confort, Parvati,
having been alfo incarnated, under the name of Malfara, to
accompany her lord in this manifeftation, which is faid by
fome to have occurred in the Carnatic, for the puipofe of
dertroying a giant named Manimal. A magnificent temple
is dedicated to the wordiip of Siva, in this incarnation, at
Jejur)'. It is defcribed under that article ; and by fome it is
faid, the incarnation happened there. The incarnated pair
are generally reprefented together on horfeback, with a
dog, he being four armed. Images and pidures of them are
very common in the Mahratta country, where Kandeh Rao is
a popular deity, and is very exto! fively propitiated. Several
engravings of the fubjeA of this article are given in Moor's
Hindoo Pantheon.

KANDEK, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the province of Natolia; 48 miles E. of Ifmid.

KAKDEL, in Botany. See Rhizophoha.

KAN'DEllI, in Geography, a town of Aliatic Turkey,
in Natolia ; 24 miles N.E. i-f Ifmid.

KANEKING, a town of the Arabian Irak; 23 miles
N.N.E. of Shehrban.

KANEM, a city of Africa, in the way from Fezzan to
the capital of Bornou. The ii. habitants of the adjacent
country are compofcd of Muifulmen and Pagans, and are
employed in breeding cattle, and raifing innumerable horfes
for the fervic;: of the king ; 125 miles N. of Bornou. N. lat.
32°. E. long. 21" 40'. — Alio, the name given by the
geographer Edrifi to the kingdom of Bornou ; which fee.

KANG, or Chin.'fi Slovi, is a kind of Hove that is
heated by means of a furnace, which calls all its heat into
it. The furnace is adapted to the fire of the flove which it
is intended to heat ; and it may be placed either in a room
that is uied, or an adjoining room, or on the outfide of the
hoiife. T!)e lieat of this furnace, impelled by the outward
air, ruflies th-.-ough a flit into a tube or conduClor ; and pa(T-
ing through this into another pipe. or channel at right angles
to it, lying under the middle of the floor of the ftove, fprcads
through the ftove by vent-holes in thislaft pipe, and is com-
municated to the bricks which form the pavement of the
ftove, and from them through the whole room. The fmoke
is carried off by funnels at both ends of the (loves. See a
drawing and defcription of this kind of ftove in Phil. Tranf.
Vul. Ixi. p. i. art. 7.

Any kind of fuel is ufed in the heating furnaces, but fca-
£Oai is gericraliy ufed : it is obferved, that in order to draw
off the noifome vapours of the air conllanlly heated by the
coal fue, the Chinefc always keep bowls of water in the
rooms, and occafionally renew them ; and the emperor's
apartments in the palace are decorated with flower-pots, and
little orange-trees, 3cc. which, as the Chinefe philofophers
allege, is the bell way of fweetening the air, and abforbing
the fiery particles difpcrfed in it.

KANG A, in Geography, a fea-port of Africa, in the-
kingdom of Loango, fitualed in a fandy bay of the Atlantic,
where vefills may ride at anchor within mulket-(hot of the
Ihore, in fo.ir or five fathoms water-

KANGAANPAA, a town ot Sweden, in the govern-
ment of .Abo ; 27 miles N.E. of Biorneborg.

KANG.VNI, a town of Hindooibn, in Myfore ; 25
miles W. of Tademeri.

KANGASAK, a town of Weft Greenland. N. lat.
62 . W. long. 4,3.'.

KANGx\S.-\LA, a town of Sweden, in the province of
TavalUand; 30 miles N.N.W. of Tavafthus.

KANG--\SNIEMS, a town of Sweden, in the province
cf Tayailland ; §5 miles. N.E_. of Tavailhus,

KAN

KANG-CHAN, a town of Corea; 16 miles B.'VT. of
Kang-tcheou.

KANGEE, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Kaf-
fon ; 5 ^ miles S.E. of Kooniakary.

KANGEI.ANG. an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
about 25 miles from eail to weft, indented on the foulh
coaft with two or three conliderablc bays. S. lat. 6 37'.
E. long, iiy 44'.

KANGIS, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia; 80
miles N. of Tornea.

KANG-TCHEOU, a town of Corei, in Kinchan ;
170 miles S.E. cf Peking. N. lat. 35 46 . E. Lng. 128'
49'-,

K.\XG-T(HF.oi-, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the
province of Kiang-il ; lituatcd on a river of the fame name.
Its river, port, riches, and popidation, fcrve to attrafl
ftrangers. Near the walls of the city is a very long bridge,
compofed of 130 boats, joined togetl-.cr by ftrong iron
chains. The cuilom-houfe is upon this bridge, where a re-
ceiver conftantly refides, to vilit all barks, and exawine if
they have paid the neceffary duties. Two or three move-
able boats are fo placed, that by their means the bridge can
be opened or fliMt, to give or ftop a paflage ; and no barks
are fuffcred to pafs that have not been examined. In the
territory belonging to this city, a great number of lliole
valuable trees grow, from wliich varniih dillils. Its dillrict
is exlenfive, and contains twelve cities of the third clafs.
N. lat. 25 32'. E. long. 114' 30'.

KANG-'"rCHlN, a town of Corea; 4S miles S.S.W.
of Koang-tcheou.

KANGUROO, in Zoology, an animal on the coaft of
New Holland, which, when full grovvn, is as big as a flieep»
aiid in form refembling the jerboa. Tlie head, neck, and
flioulder, are very fmall in proportion to the other parts of
the body ; the tail is nearly as long as the bi;dy, thick neai-
the rump, and tapering towards the end : the fore-legs of
one of them mealured only eight inches in length, and the
hind-legs twenty-two : the progrefs is by fuccelTive l.-aps or
hops of a great length, m an erect poiture : the fore-legs are
kept bent dole to the brea'.l, and ieem to be of ufe only for
digging. The fl<in is covered with a fhort fur, of a dark
moufe or grey colour, excepting the head and ears, which
bear a (light relemblance to thofe of a hare. Hawkcf-
worth's Voyages, S:c. vol. iii. p. 1 74.

KANHAWA, in Geography, a large mountainous
county of America, on the weltern line of Virginia, havuig
the Ohio river on the north-well, and Kentucky on the wtil.
The population confilts of 3C08 free inhabitants, and 231.
(laves. About fcven miles from the mouth of Elk river, in
this county, is a burning fpring, fufficientlv capacious to
hold forty gallons A bituminous vapour conlldntly idue*
from it ; and on prefenting a torcli within eighteen 6t twenty
inches of its mouth, a column of flame afcends to the height
of three or four feet, and about eighteen inches in diameter,
which burns fometimes for ten minutes, and at other times
continues three days.

KANHAW AY, Giu:.\T, a river of Virginia, the
head waters of which are ni the wciltrn part of North Caro-
lina, in the moll cafterly ridge of the Alleghany or Ap-
palachian mountains, and louth of the thirty-lixth degree of
latitude. Thefe head branches encircle thofe of tJie Hoi-
fton, from which they are fcparalcd by the iron mountain,
through which it pafles ten miles above the lead mines.
About fixty miles from Little river it receives Green Briar
river. About forty miles below the mouth of Green Briar
river in Virginia, in the Kanhaway, is a remarkable catarai^t,
2 the

KAN

the water fiilliiig over a rock that traverres tlie bed of the
river about fifty feel perpendicularly. T!ie obltack-s te the
navigation of this river are the Great Falls, ninety miles
above its mouth ; and from thefc falls to the month of Green
Briar is a diftance of loo miles. Its mouth, where it falls
into the Ohio, in the north-welt part of Virginia, (N. lat.
38^ 55'. W. long. 82" 15') is 280 yards wide.

Kaniiaway, Little, a fmall navigable river of Virginia,
1-50 yards wide at its mouth in the Ohio, (N. lat. 39' 6'.
W. lonu;. Si-* 5_^') and navigable only ten miles.

KANJA, Yansiia, or Tatija, a town of Perfian Ar-
menia, on a fmall river which runs into the Kur ; 150 miles
E.N.E. of Erivan.

KAN.IEE, a town of HinJoollan, in Berar ; 20 miles
N. of Notchagong.

KANIKA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Bam-'
barra, feared on the Niger ; 100 miles S.W. of Sego.

KANIOW, a town of Iluliiau Poland, in the palatinate
of Kiev, on the Dnieper ; ^6 miles E. of Bielacerkiev/,

KANISS, a town of Africa, in Nirbia, on the weft
fide of the Nile ; 25 miles E. of Dongala.

KANITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Brunn ;
I-o miles S.W, of Brunn. N. lat. 49 ' 4'. E. long. 16'
21'.

KANKANAN, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore ; 12
miles S.E. of Lahore.

KANKARU, a town of Africa, in Mandingo. N. lat.
12 20'. W. long. 5' 45'.

KANKERARA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Kottah ; ^2 miles W. of Kottah.

KANKY'-LABY, a town of Africa, in the country of
Foota. N.lat. 10' 55'. W. long. 16 '5'.

KANNAKA, a town of Hindooltan, in the country of
Kattack, at the mouth of the river Bramnee ; 15 miles
NAV. of Point Palmiras.

KANNCOONGAN Point, a cape on the eaft coaft of
Borneo. N.lat. 13'. E. long;. 119'.

KANNE.AH, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Sumbul ; 15 miles N. of Nidjebabad.

KANNYA, a town of Hindooftan, in Rohilcund ; ^5
miles S. of Bereillv.

KANOOERAH, a town of Hmdooftan, in Goond-
wanah ; 75 miles N.N.E. of Nagpour.

KANOON, a town and fortrefs of Hindooftan, in the
country of Mewat ; 70 miles S.W. of Delhi. N. lat. 2S-'
3'. E. lone;. 76 30'.

K.ANOUNG, LiTTi.E, or Kanoungley, a town of
the Birnian empire, on the L-rawaddy, in the vicinity of
■which are plantations of various fruit trees, and fields well
fenced and regularly laid down ; with every afpcdl of in-
duftry and plenty.

Kaxouno, Great, or Kanourtgghe, a long town, fituated
like the preceding, with a good quay, and well conftrufted
wooden ftairs, confilling of 100 lleps, defcending to the
,pater'ii^ edge. The population in the neighbourhood of
this and tiic forementioned town is confiderable.

KANOWLY, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Vifiapour; 22 miles E.S.E. of Poonah.

KANSA, in HinHrto mjlory, the unrle of Kriftina,
whom, as liis predeiliiied dellroyer, Kanfa made many vam
attempts to put to death. After feveral fruillcfs efforts,
Kanfu ordered all male infants to be (lain ; in a manner that
reminds us of the cruelty of Herod on a fimilar occafion.
See KillsifNA.

• KANSAKL ill Gecgraphy, a town of Japan, in the
inind of Niphon ; 2S miles' S;W. of Meaco.— Alio, a

KAN

town of Japan, in the ifland of Ximo ; ij miles S.W. of
Ikna.

KANSEZ, a river of Louifiana, which runs into the
Miftburi, N. lat. 38- 45'. W. long. 95 i$' .

Kan.sez, Little, a river of Louifiana, which nnis into the
Miftburi, N. lat. 38= 17'. W. long. 94 53'.

K.'VN.SEZ, a town of Louifiana, (eated on the river Kan.
fez; 240 miles W. of Genevieve. N. lat. 38 5'. W. long.

95 54'-

KANSKOL a town of Ruflia, in tiie government of
Kolivan, on the Kan, in which is carried on a confiderable
trade in furs ; 140 miles E. of Kraf-noiarfl<.

KANSON, an ifland in (he Red fea, about twenty
miles long, and from two to five broad. N. lat. 16 44'.
E. long. 42' 40'.

KANSZILL a tovi-n of European Turkey, in BL-fi.;-
rabia ; 28 miles S. of Bender.

KANT, in Biojrraphy. See Kantism.

K.'^NTAMATI, a name of Radha, the wife or miftui^
of Kriftina. See Radha.

KANTERA, El, in Geography, a town of Africa, i-.
the kingdom of Turns ; 14 miles N. of Tunis.

KANTI5M, or philofophy of Emanuel Kant, in the
Hi/lory of Literature, is the denomination of a fyftem of meta-
pliylical icience, invented and propagated with great avidity
on the continent, towards the clofe of the eighteenth century.
It is now, even in its birth-place, much neglected ; and will
probably, in another half century, fall into utter obhvioi;.
The celebrity, however, to which it attained, requires that
a pretty full account ftiould be given of it, in a work de'-
vo-ed to the illuftration of the principles efpoufed and vin-
dicated by men endowed with fuperior talents and ardent
tempers. We ftiall, accordingly, firft give a biograpiucal
flcetch of the philofopher, and then endeavour to unravel and
develope the fecrets of his fyftem.

Emanuel Kant was born April 2 2d, 1724, in the fuburbs
of Konigfiierg, in Pruflla. His father, John George Kant,
was a fadler, born at Mcmel, but originally defcended from
a Scotch family, who fpelt their name with a C ; but tlie
philofopher, the fubjeft of this article, in early life, con-
verted the C into a K, as being inore conformable to Ger-
man orthography. Emanuel, the fecond of fix children,
was indebted to his father fur an example of the ftrideft in-
tegrity, and the greateft induilry ; but he had neither time
nor talent to be his inftruAor. From his mother, a woman'
of found fenfe and ardent piety, he imbibed fcntiments of
warm and animated devotion, which left, to the lateft pe-
riods of his life, the ftrongeft and mott reverential imprefTions
of her memory on his mind. He received his firlt inllruc-.
tions in reading and writing at the cliarity fchool in his
parifti ; but foon gave fuch indications of ability and inclina-
tion to learn, as induced his uncle, a wealthy ftioe-maker, to
defray the expence of his farther education and ftudies.
From fchool he proceeded to the college of Fridericiaiium.
This was in the year 1 740 ; and his firft teacher was Martin
Kautzen, to whom Kant was ftrongly attached, and who
devoted himfelf with no lefs zeal to the inllruftion of his
pupil, and contributed very greatly to the unfolding of his
talents. His favourite ftudy at the univerfity was tiiat of
mathematics, and the branches of natural philofopliy con-
nected with theiri. On the completion of his ftudies, he
accepted a fituation as tutor in a clergyman's family. In
this, and in two otiier fimilar fituations, he was not able to
fatisfy his mind that he did his duty fo well as he ought : he
was,- according to his own' account, too much occupied with
acquiring knowledge to be able to communicate the rudi-
ments

K A N T I S M.

tnents of it to others. «' I always," faid he, « vahicd the
b'jfincfs of inftrufting of young people ; but I could never
level myfelf to their infant capacities." Having aftcd in the
capacity of a tutor for nine years, he returned to Konigfterg,
Tind maintamcd himfelf by private inllruftion, tiiat lie niiglit
'he ready to embrace the firft opportunity that offered of
'being introduced to a higher fphcre of aftion in the uni-
verfity. In 1746, at the age of twenty-two, he began his
literary career with a fmall work, intitlod, " Tlioughts on
"the Ellimation of the Animal Powers, with Striftnres on
■the Proofs advanced by Leibnitz and other Mathematicians
on this Point ; to which are annexed, various Refle£tions on
'the Powers of Bodies in general." In 1754, he publiflied
"" An Examination of the Pri/e Qucflion of the Berlin So-
ciety,— Whether the Earth, in turning round iti Axis, by
which the Succefiion of Day and Night was produced, had
undergone any Change fince its Origin ? What could be
the Caiifes of it; and how we could be alTiired of it?"
This work acquired him great reputation as a philofophcr,
and paved the way to liis long-defired promotion to a degree
in the univerfity. In the year 17JJ, he was chofen maiccr
of arts, and entered immediately upon the talk of lecturing,
Xvhich he performed to his own fatisfaftion, and the enthu-
fiaftic approbation of a very crowded audience. During the
fpace of (iiteen years, which he continued in this office, lie
publilhed a variety of trafts on the abftrufe branches of
■fcience. Among thefe may be mentioned, i. "An uni-
Verfal Natural Hillary and Theory of the Heavens, or an
"Effay on the Conllitution and mechanical Struc'ture of the
v.'hole Globe, according to the Newtonian Syflcm." On
this fubjedl his biographer fays, " that the juftncfs of Kant's
"theory was, thirty years afterwards, evinced by the prnc-
"tical inveftigation of Herfchel." 2. " Princi;norum pri-
morum Cognitionis Metaphyfic32 r.-iva Dihicidatio." 3. In
1758, he gave the world " New Principles of Motion and
Rell, and tlse Refults conneOAed with them in the Funda-
mentaU of Natural Philofophy." This work excited very
much notice, and was after^vards iufsrted more at large in
his later writings. 4. In 1759, he publifhcd " Confidera-
tions on Optimifm." And, 5. In 1763, " The only pof.
fibie Grounds for a Demonflration of the Deity." In the
lad mentioned work, the author wiflied to (licw that with-
out prefuppofmg the independent exiiiciicc of ourlelves, or
that of other fpirits, fomething is pofiible ; and on that
proof alone refts the grounds by wliich to dcmonflrate tlie
exifteiice of a Deity. This piece contributed very much to
eftablilh his literary charader. The lirlt traces of that
metaphyfical fyftcm, which ha? given fuch celebrity to t!ie
name of Kant, aie to be found in his inaugural differtation,
" De Mundi fenfibilis alqiie inteiligibilis Fornia ct Prin-
cipiis," which was written in tlie year 1770, when he was
appointed to a profefforial chair in the univerfity of Ko-
nigfberg. He had, previouily to this, had offers of prefer-
ment, which he declined. His reputation and literary cha-
rafter had been long known to the PruiTian monarch, who
Tiad made him repeated offers of a profeflorlhip in the nni-
vcrfities of Jena, Eriangen, Mitau, ar.d Halle; and alfo to
have invefled him with tlic character of privy counfcllor.
He declined all thefc honours, from an attachment to his
native place. He wiflied to labour and to be' ufcful ou the
fpot where lie liad received his phyfical and mental exiftence ;
and it was not till March 1770 th.it the. metaphyfical de-
partment at Konigfbcrg became varant, which was immedi-
ately bellowed upon hisn. The fituation required his whole
attention to metaphyfical fubjefls, and his Succeeding pub-
lications were almoit entirely of this nature. He purfued
^his lludv with the moll unr; mittin,-j ardour, and entered
Vol. XIX,

into all the depths of metaphyfical ftihtlety, in order to nti«
fold the rational powers of man, and deduce from thence hi»
moral duties. It was not till the year -1781, that the full
developement of the principles of lits fyftcm appeared in hi»
" Review of pure Reafon."- The German title of this
work is " Critik der reinen vernunft ;" and the fyftem it
contains is commonly known under th.e name of the " Cri-
tical Philofopliy," This celebrated work, on which we
fnall Ihortly enlarge, was nearly fix years pubhflied before its
importance was at all underllood ; and it is perhaps one of
the mod linking inllances of the revcrfes of literary fortune,
that the bookfeller was about to deftroy the coiiies for
wallc paper, when a fudden demand required and cxhauftcd
rapidly three new editions. The doftrine was foon pre-
fented, under innumerable forms, by a multitude of com-
mentators; among the earlieft and moft diftinguiflied of
whom were Rcihold, the fon-in-law of Wieland, and the
mathematician Scliultz. For a confiderable time the fyllem
of Kant had, in almoft every philofophcr of Germany,
either an avowed partifan or determinrd antagonift. In his
" Criticifm of pure Reafon," he maintained thrit the doc-
trine of materialifm was limited by external objcfts ; and
that any pretended perception of things in thc;nl'elvcs, and
independent of a fciifual reprcfentation, was utterly impof-
fihle. This publication, which fukjcifled him to much mif-
reprefentation, occafionc-d a fecond part in 17SJ, intitlcd,
" Prolegom.ena for future Metaphyfics, which arc to be
confidered as a Science." In this he illuflrated his former
doArine, and entirely abllrafted from the definition of meta-
phyfics any tiling fupernatural. In 17S6, he was appointed
reftor of the univerfity, an office to which he was called a
fecond time in 17SS; and in a few months after, he was
advanced lo be fenior of the philofophical faculty. .About
the year 179S, he took leave of the public as an author, and
foon after gave up all his official lituations ; and, in confe-
quence of increafing infirmities, he retired into an almoft
perfect folitude, having been a writer fixty years, and hav.
ing written more than fixty works. During the laft ten
years of his hfe, his corporeal and mental decay wai'ilrik-
ingly and painfully vifible to his friends : but in nothing did
the decay of nature difcover itfclf fo clearly as in his pcrfeft
loU of memory. An intimate friend, who had been a be-
loved fcliolar alfo, and who had for many years enjoyed the
pleafurc of his I'ociety, entered his room a few nioiilHs be-
fore his deceafe, and with die freedom of a friend, going
up to him, embraced him with a fort of filial rcvereiice.
Kant, however, declared that he had not the pleafure of
knowing him. He ufcd every means in his power to bring
the idea of himfelf frefii in his mind ; but it was all in vain :
" the full of his genius was fet ; the vapour which over-
fprcad the horizon of his foul, darkened every objtfft pad
and preient." He died on the 12th of February 1S04.
The character of M. Kant called for uiiivcrfal refpeit and
admiration ; and during his life he received from the leariiei
throughout Germany, and from others in dillant countries,
marks of ede'em bordering upon adoration. His principles
were made the fubjeft of univeri'al invefiigatioVi, and ob-
tained him a multitude of 7ealous ndlierentsl In the unl-
vf riiiies of Jena, Halle, Goltingcn, Eriangen, &c. Iei1«rc.<:
Mere delivered on his fyllem ; and books were written bv
hi'^ advocates, to illnllrate and defend his doflrincs. Pro-
feffors were even fent, at the reque.1 tind expfnce of princes
and crowned heads, t- learn more migutely, by a perfon'al
confei-ence with him, \\hat had not been fuffic'iently eluci-
dated in his books. His leftnres were conflantly crowdfH
by young perfou.^ ; and, not uufrequcntly, perfons far ad.^
vartced in vcarJ and knowledge rarac tof fit, as difcipiei!. ftt

K A N T I S M.

the feet of the German Gamahcl. Tnith was the objeiJl of
his fearch, and liberality was the refulc. He wiihed to
eftablifh all human knowledge on the firm bafis of reafon ;
and j-ejecled all principles as vifionary, which did not admit
of a fiindamental explication. He conceived, however, of
religion as an inherent quality of the foul, which panted
after fome higher objeA than this tranfitory exiftcnce. It
demanded no proof from without : it flowed of itfelf from
within ourfelves. Hence he was accufed by fome of myf-
ticifm, and by others of infidelity : but it fecms certain from
the tcilimony of his bed friends, and from the whole tenor
of his works, that, he was a firm believer in the exiitence of
a great Firll Caufe, in a future Hate of rewards and puniih-
ments, and in Chriilianity. In his political opinions, he
held that all men were originally born free ; but, though a
citizen of the world, he was, at the fame time, a friend to
peace and good order, and deprecated every violent effort
which was made to acquire that freedom to which all men
are by nature entitled ; and in his own pnvatj conduct, he
always teilified due refpeft and fubmiffion to cltablillied
authorities. By one of his biographers, M. Charles Villers,
Kant is reprefented as hiving never withdrawn, in a life of
eighty years, from his native city ; contenting himfelf, in
the true fimplicity of a fagc, with the occupr-.tions of fludy,
and the fociety of a few favoured friends. It is not merely
as a metaphyfician that he claims to be confidired ; for
there is fcar_ely a fcience which he has not endeavoured to
jlluftrate. He is a mathematician, an aftronomer, a chemilt ;
in natural hillory, in phyfies, in phyfiology, in hiftory, in
languages, and literature, and the arts ; in all the details of
geography, as they relate to the exaft fituation of the parts
of the globe, their inhabitants, and produftions, every thing
is famihar to him. The prominent feature in Kant's in
telleftual charatter was the accuracy with which he analyfed
the moft complex ideas. Nothing efcaped the fcrutiny of
his intelledual eye. Whatever was barely perceivable to
others in the moral and phylical world, became manifeft to
him. He difcovered, therefore, very eafily the congruities
of other men's fentiraents, and traced with perfect precilion
their errors to theii- true fource. He had likewife the fa-
culty of unfolding the moil abflrufe principles, and digelling
fingle and individual fentiments into a fyllematic order.
Herein confifted the originality of his mind. He vie-.vcd
the world through the medium of his own happy temper,
and found every thing around him agreeable and alluring.
He is faid to have united in the happieil degree two qualities
fo rarely combined in one perfon, - the greated acutenefs of
reafoniug, with the polifh of a gentleman. He poiTeflcd the
enviable - talent of making every thing intereding upon
■which he fpoke, and of ben^g able to fpeak upon every fub-
jeft. Such was profeffor Kant. We (hall now touch upon
his theory as a metaphyfician.

Befides employing a vaft number of words of his own in-
vention, chiefly derived from the Greek language, Kant
ufes exprefTions, which have long been familiar to metaphy-
fjcians, in a fenfe diff'ercnt from that in which they are gene-
rally received : and hence a large portion of time is requifite
to enable the moft fagacious mind to afcertain with prccifion
the import of his phrafeology. He divides a'l our know-
ledge into that which is " a priori," and that which is " a
pollerinri." Knowledge " a priori" is conferred upon us
by our nature; and knowledge "a pofteriori" is derived
from our fenfations, or from experience ; and it is, in this
fydem, denominated " tmpyric." Kant does not, as this
divifion would fccm to imply, intend to revive the dodlsiae
■of innate ideas. He coniiders all knowledge as acquired :
^.Qiaiatains that experience ia theproduAricc of all know-

ledge, and that without it we could not have had a fingle
idea. Our ideas " a priori," he fays, are produced 'u.'itb
experience, bat not ty it, or do not proceed from it. Tliey
exift in, and are forms of the mind. They are didingui(hej
from other ideas by two marks, which are eafily difccrned :
they are univcrfal and neceffary ; they admit of no excep-
tion, and their converfe is impoffible. Ideas which we de-
rive from experience have no fuch charafters. We can ima-
gine that what we have feen, or felt, or heard once, we may
fee, or feel, or hear again ; but we do not perceive any im-
pofTibility in its being otherwife. Thus, if I fee a building
on fire, I am certain of this individual faft ; but it affords
no general knowledge. But if I take twice two fniall balls,
and learn to call twice two four, I fliall immediately be con-
vinced that any two bodies whatever, when added to any
other two bodies, will conftantly make the fum of bodies
four. Experience affords the opportunity of acquiring this
kno«'ledge ; but it has not given it : fur how could experi-
ence prove that this truth ftiould never vary ? Experience
mull be limited, and cannot teach what is univerfal and ne-
ceffary. It is not experience which difcovers to us, that v.e
(hall always have the furface of a whole pyramid, by multi-
plying its bafe by the third part of its height ; or, that two
parallel lines extended " in infinitum" flia'l never meet.

All mathematical truths, according to Kant, are " a
priori :" thus, that a ftraight hne is the diortell of all pof-
fible lines between two given points; that the three angle?
in any plane triangle are always equal to two right angles,
are propofitions which are true " a priori." Pure know-
ledge " a priori," is that which is without any mixture of
experience. Two and two make four, is a truth of which
the knowledge is " a priori ;" but it is not pure know-
ledge, becaufe the truth is particular. The ideas of fub-
llance, and of caufe and effedl, are " a priori ;" and when
they are feparated from the objefts to which they refer, they
form, according to this fydem, " void ideas." It is our
knowledge " a priori," that is, the knowledge which pre-
cedes experience, as to its origin, which renders experience
poflible. Our faculty of knowledge has an efl"t;ft on our
ideas of fenfatiou, analogous to tliat of a veffel which gives
its own form to the liquor with which it is filled. Thus, in
all knowledge " a poileriori," there is fomething " a
priori," derived from our faculty of knowledge. All the
operations of our minds, all the imprelTions which our fenfes
receive and retain, are brought into cfFeft by the conditions',
the forms, which exid in us by the pure ideas " a priori,"
which alone render all our other knowledge certain. Time
and fpace are the two effential forms of the mind : the firft,
for impreffious received by the internal fenfe ; the fecond, for
thofe received by our external fenfes. It is by means of the
form fpJCf, that we are enabled, " a priori," to attribute
to external obicfts impenetrability, divifibility, &c. ; and it
is by means of the form time, that we attribute to any thing
duration, fucceflio;), ike. Arithmetic is derived from the
inttrnal fenfe, and geometry from that of our external.
Our underdanding collefts the ideas received by the impref-
fions made on our organs of fenfe, confers on thofe ideas
unity by a particular energy " a priori," and thereby forms
the reprefeutation of each cbjeCl. Thus a perfon is fuccef-
fively flruck witli the impreflions of all the parts which form
a particular garden. His underdanding unites thefe impref-
fious, or the ideas refulting from them ; and in the unity
produced by the aft, it acquires the idea of tlx; whole gar-
den. If the objefts which produce the impreffions, aflord
alfo the matter of the ideas, then the ideas are " empyric ;"
but if the objcfts only unfold the forms of the tliought, the
ideas are "a priori."

i Judgment

K A N T I S M.

Judgments are divided into two fpccics; analytic and
fvnlkitc. An analylic judgment is that in which the attri-
bute is the mere developomcnt of the fubjecl, and is found
liy the finiple analyfis of the perception,— as, a triangle has
three fides. A fynlktical ]nAgmf:nx. is tliat in wliich the at-
tribute is connected with the fubjett by a caufe or bafis
t.ikcn from the faculty of knowledge, which renders this
c >;inedion neceffary, — as, iron is heavy; wood is com-
buiHble ; the three angles of a plane triangle are equal to
tuo right angles.

'I'he forms of the underflanding are, in this fyftem, quan-
tity, quality, relation, modality. Quantity is dillinguifticd
into general, particular, and individual ; quality, into af-
firmation, negation, infinite; relation, into categoric, hy-
pothetic, and riisjunclive ; and modality, into problematic,
certain, and neceflary. M. Kant adds likewife to the pro-
perties of the four principal forms of the underilanding a
table of categories, or fundamental ideas, " a priori."

Pure reafon is the faculty of tracing our knowledge " a
priori," to fubjeft it to principles, to trace it from its ne-
ccfTary conditions, till it be entirely without condition, and
in complete unity. The g^reat work of Kant is divided into
feveral parts, under the titles, " Of yEllhetic tianfccn-
dental j" " Of tranfcendental Loj^ic ;" " Of the pure
Ideas of the Underflanding ;" " Of the tranfcendental
Judgment; ' " Of the Paralogifm «f pure Reafon," &c.
We cannot, from the nature of our work, difcufs all the
parts of the fyllem ; but may obferve, th.at the author con-
tends that we know objecfs only by the manner in which
they afieCl us ; and as the impreilions which they make up-
on us are only certain apparitions or phenomena, it is impof-
fibie for us to know what an objecl iS in itfelf. Hence the
fyllem of Kant has been compared with that of Berkeley,
u hch maintains that ienfations are only appearances, and
that there is no truth, only in our reafon. But Kant does
not go to this length. According to his theory, the under-
flanding-, when it confiders the apparitions or phenomena,
acknowledges the exiftence of the ob'ieCls thcmfelves, iiaf-
much as they ferve for the bafcs of thofe apparitions ;
though we know nothing of their reality, and though we
can have no certainty but in experience.

Trurh, according to our author, confifts in the agreement
of our notions with the objects, in fuch a manner as that all
men are obliged to form the fame judgment : belief confiils
in holding a tiling to be true, in confequence of a perfuafion
wliich is entirely perfonal, and has not its bafis in an object
fubmitted to experience. There is a belief of doctrine ; as,
that " there are inhabitants in the planets," which is not
the fame as- moral belief; becaufe in moral belief there is
fomething neceflary-. The ordinary mode of teaching the
e-xiflence of God belongs to the belief ot dottrine ; and it is
the fame with regard to the imniortidity of the foul : ncvcr-
thelcfs, the author was a firm believer in the exiftence of
God, and a future Hate ; becaufe, faid he, " this perfua-
fion renders immoveable my moral principles, — principles
which I cannot reject, without rendering myielf con-
temptible in my own eyes. I widi for happinefs, but I do
not with for it without morality ; and as it depends on na-
ture, [ cannot uifli it with this condition, except by be-
lieving that nature depends on a Being who caufes this con-
nect ion between morality and happinefs. This fuppofition
is founded on the want or neceflity of my reafon, and not on
my duty. We have, however," fays Kant, " no certainty
in our knowledge of God ; becaufe certainty cannot exilt,
except when it is founded on an object of experience. The
p.hilofopher acknowledges that pure reafon is too weak to
prove the exiftence of a being beyond thu reach of our fenfcs.

The neceflity of believing in God-is, thwjforf, only fubjec-
tive, although neceflary and general for all thofe beings
who conform to their duty. The proofs of natural theo-
logy, taken from the order and beauty of the univei-fe, arc-
proofs only in appearance. They refolvc thcmfelves into a
bias of our reafon to fuppofe an infinite Intelligence, the
author of all that is polTiblc ; but from this bias it docs not
follow that there really is fuch an author. To fay, that
whatever exifls muft have a caufe, is a maxim "' a priori';"
but it is a maxim applicable only to experience : for we
know not how to fubjoCt to the laws of our perceptions that
which is abfolutely independent of them. It' is impoflible
to know that God exifls ; but we can comprehend how it is
pofllble to aft morally on the fuppofition of the exiftence of
an intelligent Creator, — an exiftence which practical reafon
forces theoretical reafon to adopt. This proof not only
pcrfuadcs, but even acts on the conviftion, in proportion as
the motives of our actions are confonnable to the law of mo-
rality. Religion ought to be the means of virtue, and not
its objcft. Man has not in himfelf the idea of religion, as he
has that of virtue. The latter has its principle in the mind :
it exitls in itfelf, and not as the means of happinefs ; and it
may be taught without the idea of God, for the pure law of
morality is " a priuri." He who does good by inclination,
does not a<S morally. There are compaflionate minds, which
feel an internal pleafnre in communicating ioy around them,
and who thus enjoy the fatisfaCtion of others ; but their ac-
tions, however jull, however good, have no moral merit, and
may be compared to other inclination,-; ; — to that of honour,
for example, which, while it meets with that which is jult
and ufeful, is worthy of praife and encouragement, but not
of any high degree of eileem. According to Kant, we
ought not even to do good, either foi the pleafure which we
feel in doing it, or in order t» be happy, or to render others
happy ; for any one of thefe motives would be empiric, and
injure the purity of our moral-'. We ought to aft after the
maxims derived " a priori," from the faculty of knowledge,
wliich carry with them the idea of neceflity, and arc inde-
pendent of all experience ; after the maxims which, it is to
be wiflied, could be erected intt) general iaivs for ail beings
endowed with reafon.

SlcIi feem to be the leading-principles of the philofophy
of Kant. It is not our bufincis to enter into a critical ex-
amination of them ; but the reader will find this very ably
done in the firft volume of the Edinburgh Review, faid ta
have been written by Mr., now fir, James Mackintolh.

Kant, there is no doubt, was very fincere in all the
opinions which he maintained. He was- a moft decided
ciiemy to falfehood of every kind. He never could endure
to hear an untruth even in jeft ; and in his own language, be
was fcrupulous to avoid every thii g that could convey a
falfe idea of himfelf. • Nothing could draw him into a tem-
porary renur.ciatimi or qualification of his fcntinrtents ; but
wherever a free declaration of his opinions was not found
agreeable, he was careful never to appear. He wiibed, in
all his aftions, to flicw himfelf to the- world Cmply as lie
wa.-, unvarnilficd by any falfe art whatever ; and he even
condemned the attempt to conceal one's merit under a for-
bidding appearance. He had a high fenfe of his own dig-
nity, as an individual in the fcale of exiftence; and he had
no Icfs refpeft for every man, as an independent and thinking
being, and evinced thefe fcntin;entt by a rcfpcftful deport-
ment towards all. For merit uuder every form, and in
every perfon, whether of his own or contrary fcntiments, he
tcftified the moft unequivocal clieem.

After the death of Mr. Kant, a beautiful medal wa's exr-

cuted by M. Abraiufon of Beilin, as a memorial of hi? great

4 -S 2 taletit«.

K A O

talents. On one fide is a ilrikiiig likeiiefs of the pl.iliv
fopher, with the iafcription " Immanuel Kant nat. 1724."
On the rcverfe, the artift has ^.ttemptcd tu-tAprcfs the for-.
yiccswhichKanthasrcnderedtofpcci.il'. ''v, by

afligning limits to its emparc, and to ;T, linic,

the madncfs of attempting to pafs thoU : :,chas.

rcprcfented by a Mmcrva feated, and hokung n:i iwl in her
right hand, which fhe prevents from flying, with the in-
fcription, ." AUius volantem arcuit." Mcntlily Magazine,
1805. Edinburgh Review, vol. i. Supp. to Kncy. Brit.

KANTO, in Gtcgntphy, a town of japan, in tiie ifland
of Niphoji ; i.^o miles W. of Meaco.

KAN'rOR, a country of Africa, en the fouth fide of
the Gambia, with a capital of the fame name.

KANTREEF, or K.^NTtiiiv^ See Caktued.

Iv.-iNTURK, in Gfo^-r.phy, a market and pcll-town of
the county of Cork, province of Miniftcr, Ireland, fituated
on the river Dalua; 125 miles 5.W. from Dublin, and 4
iii;lcs,S.E. from Nev.-market. .

KAN\VARR.'-\H, a toun of Hindooflan, in the circar
ofGurrah; 30 miles S. cf Maluir. -

KAO, one of the Frier.dly ilhnds, in the South Pacific
ncean, called a'.fo Agluio or Oghao, and Kaybay. S. lat.
19' 12'. E. lung.. 184'' cR'.

• KAO-CHAN, a fmall ifiand in the Chincfc fea, and the
moil weilerly of thofe called Mi-a-tau ; 18 miles N.W. of
Tcng-teheou.

KAQLIN, tlie name of one of llio two fubftances which
are ttie ingredients of china-ware. The other, which is
called pcttintje, is eafily vitrifiable, and this kaolin is fcarce at
all fo : whence the fire compofes from a mixture of them
both a femi-vitrification, which is china-ware. See Force-

The kaolin, ufed in the compofition of porcelain, requires
lefs labour than the peti-mtfe. There are large mines of. it
in -the bofoms of certain mountains, the exterior ilrata of
which confift of a kind of red earth. Thefe mines are very
deep, and the kaolin is found in fmall lumps, that are
formed into bricks, after having undergone the fame pro-
cefs with the pduntfi ; which fee. Father d'EntrecolIes
thinks that the earth called terre de Multe, or St. Paul's
e.irth, has much affinity to the kaolin, although it has not
thofe fmall fhining particles which arc intcrfperfed in the
latter.

M. Reaumur had an opportunity of examining this fub-
ftance, not in its native ftate, but only in form of fmall
bricks, made out of the pafte of the powder of the native
kaolin and water. He found it of a white colour, and
fprinkled all over with fine glittering particles ; but thefe he
did not judge to be fragments of a different fubftance mixed
aaiong the mafs, as are the fmall flakes of talc in our clays
and lands ; but that the whole mafs was compofed of fome
ilor.e reduced to powder, and made into a palle with water,
and that thefe larger fpangles were only eoarfer particles of
the pov/der; tiie examination of which he promil'ed himfelf
would difcover whit the ftone was of which they were
formed. And this was the more wortjiy of a diligent in-
qiiiry, fince the pctiintfe might eafily be fupplied by many
cf cur own earths and fands ; nothing being required of
that but a fubftance eafily running into a white glafs. But
tlie difficulty of vitrifying this other ingredient renders it a
thing much more difficult to be fupplied by one cf the fame
nature among ourfelve=. The comparifon of thefe, with
other mineral fubflances, foon proved that they were of the
nature of talc ; or, in other words, that kaolin, was talc
powdered, and made up into a pafte with water. And to
bo alf.ired whether the whole mafs was talc powdered, or
6

KAO

any thing elie with a mixture of talc, he feparated therr,'
tides of the kaolin by water, and found the fmall or
wholly the fame with the larger ; and that the larger, v.1: :.
reduced to powder alone, made witli water a paiie who'
the fame with tlie kaolin. It is well known, that the fr,,; -
ments of talc have a great refemblance to the pearlv p-.rt 1 r
fome fhell fiilics : and hence unqucftionably has srilen tiic
opinion of porcelain being made of fea ihells ; ignoiai.t ;rr-
fons having feen the talc of kaolin, and taken it fcr u ihelly
matter. Talc has not yet been fuccefsfully ufed in any of
our European manufaAures of porcelain ; but it is eaiy to
fee, from many unanfwerable reafons, that fince China
porcelain is made of a mixture of vitrifiable and unvitrifiable
matter, nothing is fo likely to fucceed with us in the place of
the laft of thefe as talc.

1. We know no fubftance in the foffile world fo difEcuK
to reduce to glafs as talc, which, if put into the ftrongell
of our fires, in a crucible, is not to be vitrified, nor even-
calcined. 2. Vve know no fubftance which kee]^s fo much
brightnefs after having paffed the fire as talc, or that is of
fo pure. a white ; whence we may alfo learn that it is not to
the petuntfe alone, that the china-ware owes its whitcnefs,
but that the kaolin. is inftrumental to the giving it that colour.
3. Talc is tranfparent, nay, and in fome degree keeps its
tranfparence after the adiion of the mod violent fire. If
we are to make porcelain of a vitrifiable and unvitrifiable
matter mixed together, yet it is neceflary that the unvitri-
fiable one ftiould retain its tranfparence, otherwife it would
obfcure the mafs ; and talc is therefore the only knoun fub-
ftance qualified for this purpo-^e. Perfons who have been at
the china, works, fay, that the porcelain is made of equal
quantities of petuntfe and kaolin, and it is therefore a jull
and exacSl femi-vitrilicaticn. 4. Talc is well known to have
a great flexibdity or toughnefs, and as it is found to preferve
this even after it has pafiTed the fire ; it is very probable, that
it is. owing to this property of the kaolin that the china-
ware is fo much lefs brittle than glafs. Mem. Acad. Par,
1727.

It has been before obferved, that we may eafily, in Europe,
be provided with different fubftances, which will, in our
porcelain manufactures, fupply the place of the petuntfe of
China, and talc appears equally quahfied to ferve inftead of
the kaolin. For this purpofe we may ufe the common Muf-
covy talc, or iiinglafs, ufed by our miniature-painters to
cover their piftures inftead of glafs, and, by the curious,
to preferve objefts for the microfcope ; or perhaps the Vc--
netian talc of the druggifts would fucceed even better : at
leaft the procefs is fo rational, as to be extremely well worth
trying.

But this kaolin is more jsrobably an argillaceous earth,
from its forming with water a mafs tenacious enough to be
made into the loaves into which it is brought over. M. Eo-
mare fays, that by analyfing fome Chinefe kaolin, he found
it was a compound eanli, confifting of clay, to which it
owed its tenacity ; of calcareous earth, which gave it a
mealy appean-nce ; of fparkling particles of mica, and of
finall gravel or particles of quartz cryftals. He fays, that
he has found a fimilar earth upon a llratr.m of granite, and
conje£lured that it may be deco.T.pofed gi-anite.. This
conjedure is the more probable, as kaolins are frequently
found ill the neighbourhood of granites. See Clay, Hoacuk,
and PoltCEl-AiN Earth.

KAO-TCHEOU, in Geography, a city of China, of
the firll rank, in the province o! Quang-tong, fituated in a
delightful and fertile country, on a river, about 36 miles
from the fea. The tide ebbs and flows as far as this town,
und fcrvjs for bringing up to it the Chinefe barks. It has in

K A P

iv^diilriiJl one city of the focond clafs, and five cities of
the third. On one fide tliis diftrirt is fiirroiindtd by the
fea, ar.d on ths other by niountaius ; and it nboimds with
peacocks, and feveral forts of birds of prey. In the vicinity
of die town is a kind of ftone, rcfcinbling marble, and re-
p:-i?feiiting, naturally, rivers, mountains, trees, and landfcapes ;
this ftone is cut into (labs, and formed into tables and other
.curious pieces of furniture. Crabs are alfo found on the
co.^lls, fimilar to tliufe of Europe ; but when they are taken
cut of the water, they become petrified, without any change
of their natural figure. The Chinefe phyficians iife them
as a remedy ffgainft levers. N. lat. 2i'-'' 40'. E. long, no'- 4'.

K AO-TCHUEN, a town of Corea ; 104 miles N.E.
of- King-ki-tao.

KAPAR, a town of Pruffia, in the circle of Smaland,
10 miles W. of Konigflierg.

, K.APAW, a town of the ifland of Borneo, near the E.
coaft ; ICO miles E.S.E. of Nagara.

KAPI, a term in the eaftern countries for ^f^.V.

Thus the chief gale of the palace of the emperor of Per-
fai is called ofej Lapl, the Gate of God. Hence alfo, the
ofricer who haS the command of the grand fcignior's palace
gates, i= called cap'r^hl inch:.

■ KAPILA, in Bio^raphj. a very eminent literary charac-
ter among the Hindoos, and founder of one of their philo-
fophical fchoois, hav;i;g many tenets in common witli the
theories introduced to Europe by Pythagoras, efpecially that
of the unlawfulnefs of flaying animals to eat, under pre-
tence of a facrifice ; as feemed to have been very cxtenfively
practifed in India. Thia benevolent doflrine became fo ap-
proved, that the grateful Hindoos have deified Kapila ;
affirming that he was an incarnation of the god Vifhnu, un-
der the name of Vafudeva, as Kapila is called in their facred
romances, the Puranas. His theory is named Sankya, which
feems a modification of that called Mimanfa, which corre-
fponds with the Platonic. Thefe points are flightly touched
on in Moor's Hindoo Pantheon, and the fame writer, in a
pofterior work, (Hindoo Infanticide,) fays that" Kapila ex-
pounded to the Hindoos the fame tenet (the immortality of
things) modified, to give it the attraftion of variety and
novelty. He, as- Epicurus did after him, tricked out his
theoi-y in fo meretricious a ftile, as to have provoked, from
more lober reafoners, the opprobrium of atheifm." See
Ml.MAX.SA and S.\NKyA.

KAPLANIK, in Geography, a town of European Tur-
key, in Macedonia; 60 miles N.E of Akrida.

> KAPLITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bechin ;
pmilesS.E. of Crumau.

KAPOS, a town of Hungary. — Alfo, a river which
ru:!S into the Danube, fix miles from Mohacs.

KAPOSVAR, a town and caftie of Hungary, formerly
very lirong, but now much reduced; 12 miles W. of Al-
tenburg. N. lat. 46° 30'. E. long. 17' 51'.

KAPPAS, a tribe of Illinois Indians, in Louifiana, for-
merly very numerous. Their countr\- has gooa pallurage.
— Alfo, a town of Louifiana, on the MiffifTippi ? 130 miles
S.S.W. of New Madrid. N. hi. 34° 36. W. long. 91 '.

Kapi>as Old Fort, fituatcd in JLouiliami, at the mouth of
the river St, Francis, and built by the French, principally
for a magazine of llores and provifions during their wars
with the Chickafaws, by whom their lUinois convoys -.vcre
attacked and deilroyed.

K \PRIAN, a town of European Turkey, in Moldavia ;
60 mil-s E. of Jafii.

K.APSBERGER, Joiiaknes HiEROxiMrs, in Biogra-
fhy, a German of noble birth, celebrated by Kircher (Mu-
fiirgia), and by many others, was not more famed fur the

K A R

number and variety of iiis compofitions, than for his cxfjui-
fite flvill in performing upon almoft every fpocics of inllru-
ment ; but more particularly on the theorbo lute, which
feems to have been a new invention in the 17th century. The
author's name has not been recorded ; but it is faid to have
been of Neapolitan conftruftion. The diflerence between
the common lute and theorbo, was in the latter having two
necks, and thence called in Latin Cilhara bijuga.

Kapfberger, who afiiftcd Kircher in compiling many
parts of his Mufurgia, is highly prail'ed by that laborious,
but often credulous and vifionary author ; but, according to
Bapt. Doni, Kapfberger was loquacious and prefumptuou?.
The truth is, that the praftical mufician and the dilettante
theorift were rivals in the favour of cardinal Barbcrini, af-
terwards Urban VIII., a lover and pam-n of mufic. Both
tiie difputants were reformers, but with different views :
Doni, a credulous believer in the miraculous powers of the
mufic of the ancients, without underlianding the modern ;
and Kaprtierger, an innovator, wl;o wilhcd to have the compo-
fitions of Paleflrina bauifiied the church, in order to make
way for his own. The feuds of muficians and their pnrti-
zans are feldom worth recording ; as it (*ftcn happens that'
they are untible to explain to the public the caufe of their
difterence.

KAPSDORF, in Geography, a town of Hungary;.
26milesN.N.W. of Caffovia.

KAPTliRO, anifiandin the gulf of Bothnia, near the
E coalt, about eight miles long and two broad ; z miles W.
of Wafa.

KAPTSCHAK, a large and wcll-compaaed ftate,
which Banty, the kinfman of the groat Tchingis or Zingif-
khan, founded, about the year 1240, fell, in the year 1441,
into four khanates, -viz. Kazan, Allrachan, Kaptfchak, and
the Krim. The fitil of thefe were, fomewhat more than
100 years afterwards, conquered by the Ruffians ; but the
fourth of thefe ftates preferved its independency above 230
years longer.' At prefent, however they altogether form a
part of the Ruffian empire. The khanate of Kaptfch.ik.
which, from the time of its feparation in 14.fl, hr.s had its
principal feat in the plain, which is now called the Ailra-
clian-ileppe, fell firlh So long ago as the year I Jc6, it loll
its lull khan, and was divided among the fovereigns of Ka-
-zan, Allrachan, and the Krim, on which at length it came
to Ruffia by the conquelt of the two former ftates. Thefere-
peated lubjugations had reduced the Kaptfchak Tartars to
an infignificant refidue, which, now removed fiora its ancient
homellead, dwells among Bafchkirs and Kirghifes, though
lUU retaining its appellation, and the m.emory of its origin.
Tooke.

KAR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ; 156
miles N. of llpahan.

KARA, a river of Rufiia, which runs into the Karfkoi
fea, at Karfkoi. - Alfo, ato/.nof Hindoodan, in Gu-/.erat ;
(o miles S.'W. of Gogo. — Alfo, a town of Hmdoollan, in
Berar; 8 -niles N. of Cha-.,da.

KARA-AC-ATZ, .a town of European Turkey, in Ro-
mania ; 6 miles S. of Adrianople.

KAR.fi BAG/vN, a town of A fiatlc Turkey, in Nato-
lia ; 24 mil's S. of Milets.

KARABAGH, or the Blaeh Garden, a mountainous
province of the principality of Georgia, fouth of the river
Aras.

K.-iRAB.\S, a mountain of Grand Bucharia ; jo miles
N.W. of Samai-caiid- Alfo, a tov/n of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Irak ; 76 miks S.S.W. of Hamadan.

K.-^RA.BASAR, a town of Ruffia, in the gavernmcnt
of Taiuis ; 3? mil«s N.E. of Baraferay.

KARA-

K A R

KAR.ABAZARI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Na-
tolia ; 20 miles W. of Kiangari.

KARABE. See Carabe.

KARAI3EI-SHEH, in Ga>^rjp/iy, a town of Perfia, in
the province of Mazanderaii, on the coall of the Cafpian
fea ; 60 miles E. of Fehrabad.

KARA-BIGNAR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Ca-
ramania ; 20 miles S. of Akferai.

KARABIOW, a town of P»land, in Podolia ; 12 miles
N. of Kaminiec.

KARABOA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natoha ;
24 miles W. of Artaki.

KARABOGAS, a bay on the E. fide of the Cafpian
fea, 40 miles long and 3 j broad, the water of which is very
bitter. N. lat. 41 45'. E. long. 54 44'. _

KARABOULAKI, a town ot Georgia, in the province
of Carduel : 4J miles S. of Gori.

KARABUNAR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Cara-
mania ; 40 miles E. of Cogni.

KARAC, a town of Arabia Petrsa, on the river Safia ;
90 miles S. of Jerufalem. N. lat. 30 44'. E. long. 35^

K.AR.ACAL, or C.VRACALL.\, a town of Walachia ;
60 miles S.W. of Buch.irell.

KiARACUZ, a town of Perfian Armenia; 22 niiles
E.S.E. of Erivan.

KARADER.A. a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Diar-
bekir ; 10 miles S.S.E. of Merdin.

KARAD.IEHLAR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Na-
tolia ; ^6 miles S.W. of Calhimena.

KARADJUK, a town of Natolia ; 20 miles S.E. of
Degnizlu.

KARADRO, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Carama-
nia ; 50 miles W.S.W. of Selefkc.

KARADSHELAR, a town of Natolia; 40 miles N.
of Angui-a.

KAR AEVI AN, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Perm ; 64 miles S.S.W.' of Ekaterinograd.

KARAGANSKOI, Cai'e, a cape on the E. coaft of
the Cafpian fea. N. lat. 44' 20'.

■ KARAGINSKOI, an ifiand in the N. Pacifie ocean,
near the N.E. coall of Kamtfchatka, about So miles in cir-
cumference. N. lat. 59'. E. long. 162' 14'.

KARAGODE, a town of the iflund of Ceylon; S6
miles S. of Candy.

KARAGOL, a town of Grand Buchaiia, feated on a
lake ; 24 miles S.W. of Bucharia.

KARAH, a town of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed ;
300 mi!e5 E. of Mecca.

KARAHAUM, a town of Bengal ; 13 miles N.W. of
Toree.

KARAHISSAR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Cara-
mania ; 38 miles S. of Yurcup. See Aphio.m, S:c.

KARA-HOTUN, a town of Tartary, in the country
of the Monguls ; 120 miles N.W. of Peking. N. lat. 41 =
16'. E. long. 121 53'.

KARAJIN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw, near the Bog ; 50 miles S.E. of Braclaw.

K ARAIS, a town of Sweden, in the province of Save-
h«; ^j miles N.N.W. of NylJut.
KARAITES. Sec Cahaites.

KARAKA.Il, in Geognydy . a town of Georgia, in the
province of Kaket ; Sonnies S.E. of Teilis.

KARAKAKOOA Bay, a bay on theW. fide of the
idaud of Owhyhce, one of the Sandwich iflands, fituated in
a diltrid called Akona. It is about a mile in depth, and
bounded by two low points of land, at the diftai^ce of half

KAR

a league, and bearing S.S.E. and N.N.\V. from each other.
On the N. point, which is flat and barren, (lands the village
of Kowrowa ; and in the bottom of the bay, near a grove
of tall cocoa-nut trees, there is another village of a more
confiderable fize, called Kakooa ; between theip runs a high
rocky cliff, inacceffible from the fca-fhore. On the S. fide,
the coaft, for about a mile inland, has a rugged appearance ;
beyond which the country rifes with a gradual afcent, and is
overfpread with cultivated inclofures, and groves of cocci-
nut-trees, where the habitations of the natives are fcattered in
great numbers. The fiiore, all round the bay, is covered with
a black coral rock, which makes the landing very dangerous
in rough weather, except at the village of Kakooa, where
is a fine fandy beach, with a " morai," or biirying-place, at
one extremity, and a fmall well of frelh .vattr at the other.
This bay, appearing to Capt. Cook a proper place to reSt
the fliips, and lay in a freih fupply of water and provifions,
he caufed them to move on the N. fide, about i of a mile
from the fiiore, Kowrowa bearing N.\V. This was in Ja-
nuary 1779 The natives came from the fiiore in ailoiiifliing
numbers, and exprefl'ed their joy b) finging and (houting,
and exhibiting a variety of wild and extravagant geftures.
Capt. Cook was received by the chiefs of the ifiand with a
refpeit, approaching to adoration ; and the natives, though
they inanifefted a propenllty to pilfering, treated him and
his companions witli a great degree of hofpitallty. On the
4th cf February, the ftiips unmoored and failed out of the
bay, being followed on their departure by a great number
of canoes. It was the defign of Capt. Cook to finiih the
furvey of this ifiand before he vifited the other iflands, in
hope>i of finding a road better flickered than the bay which
was now left. But the weather becoming fqually and tem-
pelluous, it was found necefiuiry to return to this bay ;
where the natives manifefted a very different difpofition from
that which they had difcovered on the firft vifit. They nowr
appeared hollilc, and adverfe to every exercife of hofpitality.
Several circnmftances occurred, which ferved to widen the
breach between the illanders and Capt. Cook ; and it was
found neceflary to recur to the ufe of arms. For fubfequent
particulars, and an account of the unfortunate death of the
commander, fee his biographical article.

KARAKALPAKS, a tribe of Tartars Uttled in Ruf-
fia, who called themfelves Kara-Kiptfchaks, and inhabit
the diftrifts on the Syr Darya, a confiderable river fpring-
ing from the lake Aral. They divide themfelves, according
to their poiition, into the upper and the nether horde. Pre-
vious to the origin of the Kazanian khanate (fee Kaz.vn),
they removed to the Volga ; where, prefied by the Nogays,
they marched like the Chivinfes, not as other nations did to
the weft, but back towards the eaft, into their prelent feats.
About the year 1742 the nether horde, then conliiUng of
30,000 kibitkas, implored the Ruflian protection ; but
the Kirghifes, againll whom ihey were dcfirous of fecuring
themfelves, took fuch fangiiinary vengeance, that the greater
part of them was exterminated, and tliofe who remained
were obliged to return to the upper horde. As they feldom
have the courage to fice from the Kirghifian captivity,
their number in Ruflia is very fmall. Tookc's Ruif. Emp.
vol. i.

KARAKAN, a town of Curdifian; 10 miles S.W. of
Beths.

KARAKECHIS, a town of P.-rfian Armenia; 48
miles N.E. of Erivan.

KARAKERMAN, a town of Earopearj Turkey, in
Bulgaria ; 36 miles S.S.E. of Ifmail. N. lat. 44 45'. E,
l.ng. 29 ' 58'.

KARAKITA, a fmall iilaud in the Eail Indian fea, be-

lunging

K A R

longing to the king of Ternate. N. lat. ^'6'. E. long.
125 24'.

KARAKUM, or tlie B/aci Siimi, the name of a groat
defert, which forms the northern boundary of Khorafan
and modern Perfia.

KARAKURODY, a town of Perfia, in the province
ef Schirvan ; 20 miles S.of Scamachie.

KARALANSKA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutik, on the Tungulka ; 72 miles N.W. of
Ilimlk.

KARALEIJANGO, a town of Africa, in Kaarta.
N. lat. 14- 20'. \V. long, ft 20'.

KARALUKALA, a town of Turkifli Armenia, in
the government of Erzerum ; 30 milos E. of Erzeruni.

KARAMAN, a town of European Turkey, in Bul-
garia ; 35 miles E.S.E. of Nicopoli.

KAliAMEISCHEVO.atown of Rullia, in the govern-
ir.ent of Tver ; 72 miles N. of Tver.

K\RAMIT,' a town of Natolia ; 30 miles EiS.E of
Maori.

KARAMUSAH, a town of Natolia, on a bay of the
fea of Marmora ; 36 mile.<: N.N.E . of Burfa.

KARAN, a town of Africa, in Benin, in which is a
manufacture of fine cloth.

KARANKALLA, a town of Africa, in Kaarta ; 10
miles W. of Kemmoo.

KARANSEBES, a town of Hungary, on the Temis ;
38 miles E.S.E. of Temifwar.

KARASBAG, a town of Perfian .Armenia ; 174 miles
E.S.E. of Erivan.

KARASM, or CiiARASM, a country of Afia, bounded
on the N. by Turkellan, oa the E. by Grand Bucharia,
on the S. by Khorafan, and on the \V. by the Cafpian fea ;
about 32c miles from N. to S. and about as much from E.
to W. The country is in general fertile, and is di\ided
among feveral Tartarian princes, one of whom takes the
title of khan, alTn.ming pre-eminence over the reft. The
capital is Urkonje, which is the ufual refidence of the
khan in winter ; but in fumnier he ufually encamps on
the fides of the river Amol ; his camp being called Khiva.
He is faid to be able to raife forty or fifty thoufand horfemen.
This country was formerly full of cities, towns, and caf-
tles, ftrong and populous : it was then a province of the
Perfian and Arabian empires ; but it was probably mod
fljurifliing, when it fubfi'.led as an independent kingdom,
under the family of the Kharafm khans, who by conquelt
annexed to it the whole of Iran, or Perfia at large, and
Turaa, or the countries N. of the Gihon or Amu, thus
forming a great empire, of which Urkonje was the capital.
At prefent its ciiies are few, and much reduced by the defo-
lating power of tlie Uibecks, who have introduced poverty
and dillrefs wherever they have fettled.

KARASU, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ;
JOG miles S.E. of Yurcup. — .Alfo, a river of Perfia, called
Karanjh, which rifes in the N.W. part of the province of
Irak, and runs into the Tigris, near BafTorah, anciently
called Eulaus and Chon/pifs.—AUo, a river of Afiatic
Turkey, called Koremox, which rifea near Kaifarieh in
Caramania, and runs into the Euphrates near Ilija.

K.ARAT, a town of Arabia, in the province of Oman ;
J90 miles S. W. of Mafcat.

Kah.\t. See Cakat.

KAR.ATA, by fome called caraguata maca, a kind of
aloe growing in America ; whofe leaves, when boiled, are
made into a thread, of good ufe for making cloth, fifhing
acts, &c. Its roots or leaves, thrown into the water, ftupify
the fifhes to that degree, that they are cafily taken with the

K A R

hard; its ftalk, when dried aud burnt, fcrves for tinder ;
and when brilkly rubbed on a harder wood, it takes fire, and
confumes itfclf.

KAR.ATAS, in Botany, Plum. Gen. 10. t. 33, the Weft
Indian name of a fine plant referred by Linnsus to BromeLa ;
fee that article, fp. a.

KARATCHIN, in Geosmphy, a Ruffian o<lrog, vi
the peninfula of Kamtfchatka ; lifty miles from Bolcheret-
Ikoi. It is pleafantly filuated by the fide of the river
Awatflva, and confills of three log-lioufes, threejourts, or
h;)ufes made under ground, and nineteen balagaiis, or fum-
nier habitations. The inhabitants are a fingularly hofpitable
people.

KAR.ATOPE, a town of Rami, in Chijiefe Tartary ;
3omiles W.of Hami.

KARAT-SIRIM, a town of Curdiltan ; 40 miles S.E.
of Kerkuk.

KAR.ATUIN, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irak ; 40 miles N.E. of Neiuivend.

KARAULi^'Ol, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Kolivan, on the Genifei ; 60 miles S. of Krafnoiarfiv.

KAR.AVUN, a town of Hindooftan, in Dooab ; 40
miles W. of Pattiarv.

KARBENING,'atown of Sweden, in Weilmannlar.d ;
^o miles N. of Stroemfliohn.

KARBY, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia; 20
miles N. of Lulca.

KARCARA, a town of Perfia, in Segeftar. ; 70 miles
N.W. of Zareng.

KARCOJA, a town of Perfia, in Segeftan ; 21 mile*
N.W. of Zareng.

KARCZOW, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 16
miles S.W. of Czerlk.

KARDAMA, in Hindoo Mythology, 2l being fometimes
faid to have been an avatara or incarnation of the god Siva,
and to have been produced by Brahma's fhadow ; fome-
times he is faid to be one of the Riihis. See Risiii.

KARDANAH, \x^ Geography. See Bell's.

KARDGHA, the name of a Ihort fword held in the
hand of Hindoo deities of avenging character ; the facrifical
weapon.

KARDUH, in Geography, a town of Ptrfia, in the pro-
vince of Kerman ; 56 miles N. of Maftih.

KAREDJUK, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia;
20 miles S.S.W. of Degni/,lu.

K.AREK, a town of Perfia, in Segeftan; 30 miles S.
of Fuiheng,

Kahek, a town of Perfia, in the province of Lariftan ;
42 miles S. of Lar.

Karek, or Garak, an ifland fftuated on the E.
coaft of the Perfian gulf, between Abu Scheehr and Bender
Rigk, containing only a fingle village ; but appearing, from
its aqueduAs cut in the rocks, to have been formerly
more populous in proportion to its extent, which is about
five leagues in circumference. The Dutch, who once had a
fettlement here, made the ifland famous, by carrying on a
great trade from ht nee to Balfura, under the direflion of ba-
ron Knipluufen. But Mir .Vlahenua, priucc of Beusler Rigk,
having made an unfuccefsful attempt upon the ifland, at
length concluded a peace with the Dutch governor, who was
the fecund in fucceffion to Kr.iphauftn, and the Dutch trade
for fome time met with no interruption. At a fubfequent
period Mir Mahenna made a defcent upon Karek, and
befieired the town. The Arab, having outwitted Van Hom-
ing, \he Dutch governor, entered the fort with a fmall re-
tinue, in order to fettle terms of accommodation ; and bav-
in j^ made the Dutch garrifon prifouers, fent them to Bat a..

IC A R

via. This event happcaed in tlie end of December iy6^.
VeiTcls failing to Bafforah generally touch at this ifland for a
pilot. N. lat. -9- J 5'. E. long. 50''' 26'.

KAREMPI, Cape, Karcmpiluzran, or Cape Pifello, a
cape on the coaft of Natolia, in the Black fea*. N. lat. 42^
:o'. E. long-, ty lo'.

KA.RENDAK, a town of Ferfia, in the province of
Shorafan ; 210 railcs N. of Herat.

KARbPOS, a town of RuITm, in the government of
Archangel ; 60 miles N.E. of Archangel.

KAREVON, a town of Penia, in Farftilan ; Ss miles
K.E. of Pafa.

KAREZIN, a town of Pcrfn, in Farfiltan ; 60 miles
S.E.of BesderRigk.

KARFE, a kind of cinnamon.

KARGALDZIN, in Geography, a lake of Ruf-
fian Tartar)-, 60 miles in circuit ; 340 miles S. of Oren-
burg.

KARGAPOL, a town of Rnffia, on the N. fide of the
lake Latcha. N. lat. 61^ 30'. E. long. 38 50'.

KARGHERD, a town of Perfia, ia the province of
Khofafan ; 16 miles N.W. of Fufheng.

KARGHERON, a town of Perfia, in the province of
- Ghflan ; 60 miles N.N.W. of Relhd.

KARGHI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; 27
miles N.E. o^ Kiangari.

KARGINIGI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Olonetz ; 32 miles W. of Vitegra.

KARGO, a province of Africa, in the kingdom of
L&ango, famous for its mines of excellent copper. ^

KARIADEH, a town of Natolia, in the gulf of Smyrna;
■iS miles W. of Smyrna.

IvARJALA, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Abo ; 23 miles N. of Abo.

KARLA.TAIN, a town of Arabia, in tke province of
Nedsjed, anciently Kirjathjearim ; 1500 miles E. of Medina.

KARIATEIN, a town of the defert of Syria; 60
miles S. W. of Palmyra.
_ KARIBAZARI,' a town of Natolia ; 18 miles W. of
Kiangari.

KARIKAL, or Carical, a town of Hindooftan, on
the coaft of the kingdom of Tanjorc, fituated on one of the
branches of the Cauvery ; ceded 1)y the king of Tanjore to
the French. It contains five mofques, 14 pagodas, and aboiit
.500 mliabitants. It was taken by the Enghfh in 1760, and
retaken in 1779; fix miles S. of Tranquebar. i

KARINAIS, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Abo ; 20 miles N.E. of Abo.

KARINKULA, atown of Africa, inBambouk. N.lat.
JJ 3^'- W. long. 9' 50'. •

KARIS, a town of Sweden, in the province of Nyland ;
10 miles N. N.E. of Eknas.

KARISTOJO, a town of Sweden, in Nvland ; 16 miles
N.N.E. of Eknas.

KA RK, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the Tigris ; 80
miles N.N.W. of Bagdad.

KARKA, a tov.-n of .Afiatic Turkey, in the government
of Sivas ; 30 miles S. of Tocat.

KARKARLANG, a fmall n1and in the Pacific ocean,
belonging to a duller called Meanges. N. lat. 4 45'. E.
long. 126" 59'.

K.ARKI, an ifland in the Mediterranean; fix milesW. of
Rhode-s. N. ht. 37" 25'. E. long. 27- 19'.

KARKOLA, a town of Sweden, iu TavalUand ; 27
Tnilos E. of Tavafthus.

KARKRONY, a building where the royal manufac-
tures of Perfia are carried ok.

K A R.

Here are made their tapeftries, cloth of gold, fi!k, wool,
and brocades, velvets, tafleties, coats of mail, lr.bre«, bows,
arrows, and other arms. There" are alfo in it pai:itcrs in
miniature, goldfmiths, lapidaries, &c.

KARKU, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in North ,
Finland; 3ymiles S.E.of Biorncborg.

KARLANDA, a town of Sweden, in VVarroeland ; 418
miles W.N.W. of Carlftail.

KARLE-, a Saxon word, iifod in our laws, fprnetimes
fimply for a man, and fometimes for a fervajit or clt-ivTi.

Hence the Saxons call a feaman a bj-Jlytrle, and a.domeftic
fervant a hufcark.

Kari.e Hemp, a term ufed by our country people for the
latter green hemp.

KARLEBY, Ga.mla, in Grography, a feaport town of
Sweden, in Eail Bothnia, with a gond harbour. It tradrs
principally in hemp, fait, and fliip building ; 60 miles S.W.
of Cajana. N. l.nt. 63' jo'. E. long. 23 i'.

KAnLF.r.Y, Ny, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Bothnia,
feated on the river Lappojock, about five miles from the
fea, built in 1620 by Gultavus A<iolphus ; 70 miles S.W.
of Cajana. N. lat. 63' 3 2'. E. long. 22 26'.

KARLUTZKA, a town of Rufiia, in the government
of Irkutik ; eight miles E. of Niinei Udinfic.

KARLY, a village fittiatcd on the road between Bon>-
bay and Poona, having in its vicinity a lofty hill, in which
are fome excavations that have not, until withisi thefo few-
years, come under the notice of Europeans. The hill is
named Ekvera, and is two or three miles to the N.E. of
Karly, but the excavations are gcrcrally called by the name
of the village. The late Mr. Wales, a very refpedable ar-
till, was the firft European who explored this magnificent
cavern-temple, of which he made feveral accurate fketches,
and copied feveral infcriptions. The flvetches have not been
publilhed, nor have, we believe, the infcriptions been hithert«>
explained. I.,ord Valentia has more recently vifited Karly,
and in his " Travels" defcribes the cave, of which a beau-
tiful view and a ground plan are given ; and Mr. Salt, who
accompanied his lordfhip, has, in his elegant feries of oriental
views, given two of this beautiful temple. Major Moo.-,
who has alfo frequently viiited it, has given a plate of fome
of its fculptures m his Hindoo Pantheon. There are many
apartments fcoopeJ out of the reck in an elevated fituation,
having flat tops, as ufuai in moll of the Indian excavations ;
but the grand apartment of Ekvera is arched, and of a molt
ilriking and magnificent defcription. " Its fize, and the pe-
culiarity of its form," fays lord Vale tia, " Itruck me with
the greatcll ailonifhment. It confills of a vedibule of an
oblong fquare (hape, divided from the temple itfelf, which is
arched and fupported by pillars. The length of the whole
is one hundred and twenty-fix feet, the breadth forty-fix
feet. No figures of any deities are to be found within the
pagoda, but the walls of the veftibule are covered with
carvings, in alto-relievo, of elephants, of human figuresof
both fexes, and of Budha, who is reprefonted in fome places
as fitting crofs-leg^ed, in others he is ereft, and in all at-
tended by figures in the adl of adoration ; and in one place,
two figures Ibnding on the lotus are fanning him, while
others hold a rich crown over his head. I think, therefore,
that it is bevond dilpute, that the whole was dedicated to
Budha." travels, 'vol. li. p. 163. (See BooDH.) Tlie
farther end of the cave is round, the fides ilraight ; a row of
pillars, ten feet from the fides, fupport kneeling elephairts,
on which are feated hum n figures, all beautifully fculp-
tured. From a cornice, running the whole I'engthofthe
temple over the heads of the figures, fpring ciba of wood
forming an arch, and touching .in its whole concavity the

ro«f

K A R

i-oof which they fcem to fupport. This is' a fingularity not
known to exill elfewhere. The wooden ribs aVe not more
than three feet apart, and about two in depth, and nine
inches thick, and have fomething the appearance of a fliip's
bottom, inverted. They run parallel to each other, forming
a fine arch, from fide to fide of the apartment. The pillars
are fixteen in number on each fide, with a fpace between
equal to the diameter of their ball, ws. about four feet.
The pedeftals are fquare, the fhafts polygonal. Seven
plainer columns continue the hue at the end : on them rells an
architrave, whence an arch fprings inwards, forming a roof
over the altar, as it may be called, which in the Hindoo Pan-
theon is faid to " confift of a vail hemifphere of ftone, reding
on a round pedeflal of greater diameter, and having its con-
vexity furmounted by a fort of canopy or umbrella of pecuhar
conftruftion. The principal arched temple of Kenera is
exailly on the fame plan of that here defcribed, and the altar
is alilie in both. That at Elora, defcribed by fir Charles
Malet, in vol. vi. of the Afiatic Refearches, is alfo exadly
Cmilar in refpeft to ground plan, but the principal objecl
is different, being Badha himfelf, with the femi globe on
the round pedeflal behind him. In neither of thefe three
arched caves will, I think, be found any fculptures re-
ferring to the gods of the Brahmans ; and thefe three arc
the only caves that I ever faw or heard of conftrucled with
an arched roof. And I prefume to hazard an opinion that
they are of modern origin, relatively with other excavations
at Ellora and on Elephanta, containing, with and without
Budha, many of the deities now vvorfhipped by the Brah-
mans.

" What I would hence infer is, that in the older fculp-
tures we find Budha mixed with the other Hindoo gods :
Elephanta and the flat-roofed Pantheiftic temples at Ellora,
I reckon among the oldeft. In fculptures more modern,
Budha, as a deity, is often feen exclulively pourtrayed ;
the arched caves of Ellora, Karly, and Kenera, I judge to
be of later date ; and as to form and proportion, of more
refined and elegant conftruAion. May we not be allowed,
from thefe premifes, to deduce a farther confirmation of the
idea that the Budha incarnation of Vifhnu, and the feiiarial
deity of that name, exclufively worfhipped by fo many dif-
ferent nations under fo many different forms and defignations,
are one and the fame perfon ? and that fuch exclufive wor-
fhip, and its accompanying ceremonies and privations, is a
herefy or reformation, or whatever it may be termed, of the
more ancient Brahminical religion ? Among European as
well as Indian enquirers, this opinion will find the moft
numerous, but, like other majorities, not the moft zealous
fupporters.

" Sir Charles Malet's plate of Ellora gives exaftly a re-
prefentation of the temples of Karly and Kenerah as far as
regard ground plan and general defign ; and they muit cer-
tainly have originated in the fame perfon, as one has been
taken from the other. The capitals of the interior pillars,
from which the arched roofs fpring, are different : at Ellora
they appear to be men in the aft of adoration ; at Karly the
entablatures are elegantly formed of figures of men and wo-
men feated on kneeling elephants, whofe probofci, joining at
the angles, form, in graceful curves, the volutes of the
capitals." P. 24J.

In Mr. Daniel's publications of oriental fcenery, unri.
vailed in elegance by any production of the Britiili prefs,
are a ft-ries of views of EDora, finifiied from the Iketches of
Mr. Wales. To thefe we refer fuch as defire a faithful pic-
ture of thefe truly wonderful excavations, of which fome ac-
count occurs in an earher volume, under the article Ellora.
See alfo Elephaxta, (in which article we will here no.

Vol. XIX.

K- A R

tice an error in the .nncicnt and native name of this cu-
rious and intereiling ifland, which is Ghari-puri, or Gari-
pouri, and not, as mifprinted, Gari-pouli,) and Kkneka
for fome farther particulars of the caveni-temples of India.

KARM, an ifland in the North fea, about 12 miles long,
and two wide, near the coall of Norway. N. lat. co" 17^

E. long. 5^3,'. • ^^ ^•

KARMALA, m Hindoo Mythology, a fervant or miniller
of Yama, the judge of departed fpirits. See Yama.

KARMELIS, in Orography, a town of Curdillan ; 12
miles E. of Moful.

KARMATIANS, an Eaftcr.i feet which bore an in-
veterate malice againll the Mahometans, and began to raifc
dillurbances in the year of the Hegira 27S. It is faid to
have originated with a ])oor perfon, called Karmata, who
came from Chufiftan, in Perfia, to ihe villages near Cufa.
and there feigned great itrictnefs and fandity ; al'eging that
God had enjoined him to pray fifty times a day, and pre-
tending to invite people to the obedience of a certain Imam
of the family of Mahomet. This courfe he purfued till he
had formed a great party, out of which he chofe twtlve as
his apoftlcs, to govern tfie reft, and to propagate his doc-
trines. But as his dcftriiics promoted idlenefs, particularly
among the hufbandmen and peafaius, he was feizcd by the
governor of the province, imprifoned, and menaced witli
death. But this menace having been overheard by a girl,
who was one of the governor's domeiUcs, Ihe took the kev
of the dungeon from under her mailer's pillow whilft he wa,-,
afleep, releafed the prifoner, and returned l!ie key to the
place where fhe had found it. On the following morning,
when the faft was known, his adherents announced that
God had taken him into heaven. He .iftervvards appeared
in another province, declaring to his followers, that it was
not in the power of any one to hurt him : at length, hov/-
ever, his refolution failed him, and he retired into Syria,
and was not heard of any more. His fcft continued, atul
it was pretended that he was a true prophet, and that he
had left them a new law, which changed the ceremonies and
form of prayer ufed by the Moflems, having introduced a
new faft, having allowed them to drink wine, and having
difpenfed with the obligation of feveral precepts of the
Koran. The precepts of this facred book they interpreted
allegorically. From the year above-mentioned, the Karma-
tians, under feveral leaders, gave almoft contiimal diftur.
bance to the Cahphs and their Mahometan fubjects for fe-
veral years, committing great outrages in Chaldea, Arabia,
Syria, and Mcfopotamia ; and at length eftablilhing a con-
fiderabie principality, which attained its height of eminence
and power in the reign of Abu Dhaher, famous for the cap-
ture of Mecca, and the indignirics offered by him 10 itj
temple ; but it foon after declined and came to nothin"-.
The Ifmaelians of Afia refembled the Karmatians, if they
were not a branch of them. Thefe Ifmaehans, in 4S3, pcf-
fefted themfelves of Al Jebal, in the Perfian Irak, under
theconduft of Hafan Sabah ; and this prince, with his de-
fcendants, enjoyed the fame for 171 years, till the whole
race of them was deftroyed by Holagu the Tarlar. D'Her.
belot. Sale's Koran.

KARMIN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Segeftan \
■25 miles N.E. of Zareng.

KARMOE, a fmall ifiand in the Nortli fca, near the
coaft of Norway. N. lat. 59 10'.

K.ARMSUND, a Itrait in the North fea, between tlw
ifland of Carmen and the coaft of Norway.

KARMUK, atownofCurdiftan, on the tide of the lakt
Van; 22 miles N.N. E. of Betlis.

KARNAC. SeeCA«NAr.

^^ KAi<\-i:,

K A R

KARNE, a town of Africn, in the kiii^rJom of Bomoii.

KARNICAR, a town of Grand Bucharia ; 20 miles
N. E. of Termed.

KARNKOWSKI, Stanislaus, in BUgmphy, celo-
brated as a Polifh writer and ftatefman, was born in 1525.
He was educated for the church, and obtained a bi(hopric
about the year I563, and upon the death of Sigifmund
Augailus, king of Poland, in 1572, he promoted tlie elec-
tion of Henry of Valuis, and, on his reception, made an
eloquent harangue to him in the name of the ftates. After
the abdication of this prince, Karnkowdvi nominated Anne,
the filler of the late Sigifmund, queen of Poland, and
crowned her hulband, Stephen Battori, upon the refufal of
the primate to perform this oflice. After this he placed the
crown on the head of Sigifmund III. prince of Sweden,
w!io was acknowledged by the kingdom. He had already
fiiccecded to the primacy, andj in IJ90, he joined a party
who were in oppofiiion to the great chancellor, Zamoifliy,
and convoked an extraordinnry aflembly at Kiow, in which
he endeavoured to cancel the ordinances of the laft diet.
This ftep rendering him unpopular, he was obliged to feek a
reconciliation with the chancellor. He died in 1603,31 the
sgc of ievL-nty-eight, and was interred in the Jefuits' college
?.t Kalidi, which he had founded. As an inllruftor of youth
he did much to reform the fyftems of education : but as an
a\ithor he is known by " Hiftoria Interrcgni Polonici,"
being a relation of the affairs of the interrf gnum fucceed-
ing the abdication of Henry of Valois : " De Jure Provin-
ciarum, Terrarum, Civitatumque Pruffia; :" " Epiftoli II-
I'lllrium Virorum, lib. iii."' This colleftion of letters is very
rare, and is faid to contain many important particulars re-
lative to the hiilory of Poland, from 1564 to 1^77.

KARNOWL, in Geography, ■s.X.own of HindoDftan, in
Bahar; 3 S miles N.N.W. of Hajypour. N. lat. 26" 17'.
E. long.Sj' 11'.

KAROLI, jAspr.n, in Biography, a Hungarian divine,
who flouritlicd towards the clofe of the fifteenth century,
wa.^ held in high eflimation for his talents as a philofopher,
theologian, and philologill, and much admired as a preacher.
Jlis memory is greatly revered on account of his having
trar.flated the bible from the original Hebrew into his native
language. This work was publilhed at Hanover, in 410., in
the year 1608, and another imprefTion of it was given to the
public from the prcfs at Frankfort, in Svo., by Albert
Molnar. The v/ork has been reprinted very frequently, in
different countries, and is ibil held in high cftimation.

K AROLOU-KAL.-^, in Geography, a town of Turkilh
Armenia ; 42 miles E. of Erzerum.

KAROP, a town of Rufiid, in the government of Nov-
gorod Sieverfkoi ; 28 miles S. of Novgorod Sieverfkoi.

KAROo, an illand in the Grecian Archipelago, fix
miles in circumference ; 6 miles S.E. vif Na.xia. N. lat.
36 J3'. E. long. 25 39'.

K.-\ROTTA,afmall illand in the Pacific ocean, belonging
to the chiller called M:anges. N. lat. 5' . E. long. 126 50'.

KAROULI, a to.vn of European Turkey, lu BefTara-
bia ; 68 miles S.W. of Bender.

KARPILAX, a town of Sweden, in Tavaftland ; 14
jTile^ N.E. of Jamfio.

KARPILOWKA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
ef Kiev : 8 miles N.N.W. of Kiev.

K.\RRL\RPOUR, a town of the circar of Gohud ;
16 miles N. of Gohud.

KARRIETEN, a town of Arabia, in Yomen ; 20
miles S.S.E. of Chamir.

KARROO, a Hottentot name given, in the colony of
i!be Cape of Good Hope, to vaft p ains, wliich are inter-

K A R

pofed between the great chains of mountains. Out of the J"
impenetrable furfaces of clay, gliftening with fmall cryftah
of quartz, and condemned to perpetual drought and aridity^
not a blade of grafs, and fcarcely a verd:iiit twig, occurs tO
break the barren uniformity. The hills, by which thefe fur-
faces are fometimes broken, are chiefly compofed of fragments
of blue (late, or maffes of feltfpar, and argillaceous iron-
done; and the furfaces of thefe are equally denuded of plants
as thofe of the plains. Yet, Mr. Barrow obferves, that
wherever the Karroo plains are tinged with iron, and water
can be brouglit upon them, tlie foil is found to be extremely-
productive. Barrow's Africa, vol. ii, p. 32.

KARS, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Aladulia ; 2^
miles N N.E. of Adana. — Alfo, a town of Perfia, in tl^
province of Kerman ; 23 miles N. of Sirjian. This is tlie
extreme town on the frontiers of Perlia, and though an in^
conliderable place, is tolerably fortified.

KARSABOO, a town of Africa, in Bambarra. N\
lat. 13- 10'. \\' . long. 5' 35'.

KARSAMAKI, a town of Sweden, in the govern--
mcnt of lUen ; 65- miles S. of Ulea.

KARSEK, an illand near the weft coaft of Eaft Green-
land. N. iat. 60" 3y'- \V. long. 4,- 20'.

KARSHAGNI, a fiery expiation among the Hindoos,
of which the following account is taken from Moor's
Hindoo Pantheon. " Cow-dung is a great purifier on
feveral occauons. It is related in the Agr.i-purana, that a
meft wicked perfon, named Chanyaka, had exceeded every
known poffibilky of falvation. At the court of Indra were
afTembled gods and holy men ; and as they were difcourfing
on fuch enormities, Indra, in anfwer to a pointed queilion,
faid that nothing certainly could expiate them except the
karfcigni. It happened that a crow, named, from her
friendly difpofitiop, Mitra-kaka, was prefent ; and fhe imme-
diately flew and imparted the welcome news to the defpair-
ing linner, wiio immediately performed the karfhagni, and
went to heaven. This expiation conlifts in the viftim cover-
ing his whole body with a thick coat of cow-dung, which,
when dry, is fct on fire, and confumes both fin and finner.
Until revealed by the crow, this potent expiation was un-
known ; and it has fince been occafionally reforttd to, par-
ticularly by the famous Sankara-Charya. The friendly
crow was punilhed for her indifcretiou ; and forbidden, and
all her tribe, afcenfion to heaven, and was doomed on earth
to live on carrion.'' P. 143. See S.\nk.\k.4.-chaky.\.

KARSKOI, in Geography, a fettlement of Ruffia, in
the government of Archangel, at the mouth of the Kara ;
600 miles E N.E. of Archangel. N. lat. 68' 35'. E.
long. 64 14'.

K.\RSKOi Sea, that part of the Frozen ocean which lies,
between the continent of Rufiia and NovaZembla, extending
from N. lat. 70- to 75 , and from E. long. 61' to 6S .

K.\RsKol Gulf, is a large bay of the Frozen ocean, lying
to the iouth of the KarlkoLfea. N. lat. 68' to 70 . E".
long. 62 to 69 .

KARSTORP, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 48 miles S.E. of Jonkioping.

K.ARSTULA, a town of Sweden, in the government
of Wafa ; S5 miles E. of Wsla..

KARSUN, a town of Ruflia, in the government cf
Simbirfk ; 60 miles W.S.W. of Simbir.O:.

KARSURUSK, a town, of Eaft G,i-eenlai.d. N. lat.
61 10'. W. long. 45".

KARSYTSIAK, a towiv of Eaft Greenland. N. kt.
60 ' 16 . W. long 43.

KARTAL, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, oa
the soail of the fea of Marmora ; 40 miles V/. of Ifmid;

KAR.TAN,

K A S

K ART AN, or ^fARTA^■, four fmall iflaTuls m the Ara-
%ian lea, at the entrance of the gulf of Curia Muria,
bounding it on the S.W. N. lat. 17^ 30'. E. long. 54'
50'.

KARTASCHEN, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Tobolflc, on the Irtifch ; 48 miles S. of Tara.

KARTBIRT, a town «f Afiatic Turkey, in Diarbekir;
48 miles W.N.W. of Diarbekir.

KARTERON, a town of Syria, on the Euphrates;
10 miles S. of Ofara.

KARTES, a town of Africa, in the country of Whi-
daii ; 12 miles E.of Sabi.

KARTIKYA, in Hindoo Mythology, the offspring of
Siva, whofe feed failing through the hands of Agni, the
god of fire, into the Ganges, has given rife to other names
allufive to his birth, of a very extravagant nature if taken
literally, but which are mod likely ailronomical allegories;
he is hence called Agni-bhuva, and Ganga-putra. Kumara,
Srimana, and Skanda are others of his names. He arofe,
fay the Puranic legends, on the banks of the Ganges, as
briglit as the fun, and beautiful as the moon ; and it hap-
pening that fi.K daughters of as many rajas going ta bathe,
faw the boy ; and each calling him her fon, and offering the
breaft, the child affumed fix mouths, and received nurture
from all, whence he was called Sefhti-matriya, that is,
having^i- mothers. Other legends relate, that on the birth
of the child he was dehvered to the Pleiads to be nurfed.
The Hindoos reckon but fix bright ftars in that conftella-
tion, which is named Kritika. Thcfe fix offering their
breads, " the fix-headed was nurtured, and named Kartikya,
the defcendant of the Kritikas.'' See Kritika.

He is, however, generally efteemed the fecond fon of
Siva and Parvati, the god of war, and commander of the
celeftial armies, and fir William Jones, who fpells his name
tarticeya, deems him to be clearly the Orus of Egypt and
the Mars of Italy ; and was convinced that the name Skan-
da, by which he is called in the Puranas, ha? fome connec-
tion with the old Sekander of Perfia, whom the poets ridi-
culoufly confound with the Macedonian. He is ufually re-
prefented with fix heads and fix arms, and fometimes
mounted on a peacock. Several plates of him are given in
Moor's Hindoo Pantheon; where, and in Af. Rel. vol. i.
and Maurice's An. Hill, are many particulars of this warhke
deity, from Puranic legends and other authorities. His
fakti, or confort, is always called Kaumari, after his name
of Kuriiara.

KARTUNSAI, in Geography, a fmall ifland m the gulf
of Finland N. lat. 60' 30'. E. long. 2'/°.

KARTUSH, a town of Turkifh Armenia, in the go-
vernment of Cars ; 52 miles N.E. of Ardanoudji.

KARTUTA, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Kuopio ; 20 miles W. of Kuopio.

KARVL\, a town of Sweden; in the government of
Abo ; 47 miles N.N.E. of Biorneborg.

KARUN, a town of Perlia, in the province of Chu-
fiftan ; 73 miles S. of Sufteri

KARUN A, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Abo; 13 miles S.S.E. of Abo.

KARUP, a town of Denmark, in North .Jutland ; 14
miles N.W. of Aalborg. — Alfo, a town of Sweden, in tlie
province of Hailand ; 15 miles S. of Halmftadt.

KARZALA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Saratov, on the Choper ; «3 miles N.W. of Saratov.

KAS, or Gli>s, called alfo Kytn and (luejche, a low
fertile ifland in the gulf of Perfia, feparatcd from the con-
tinent of Perfia bv a good channel about 12 miles broad.
N. lat. 26- 34'i 1. long; 54- 4';

KAS

K.\s, El, or Kas Kafaron, a mountainous cape of Egvpt,
on the coail of the Mediterranean ; 3 miles N. of Calieh.'
N. lat. 30 58'. E. long. 33 ' 22'.

KASABI, a town of Syria, on the Euphrates ; -•«:
miles E. cf El Der.

KASAKURA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ximo;
22 miles E.S.E. of Taifcro;

KAS AN.. See Kazan.

KASB.\ITE, or Ga.sbaite, a town of Algiers, an-
ciently called Sa'.afa ; 50 miles S.W. of Conllantina.

KASCHAN. See CASI!.^.s•.

K \ SHG A R. See Casiigau.

KASCHIL, a town of Africa, in the Lingdom of
Benguela.

KASCHIN, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tver; 60 miles N.E. of Tver.

KASCHIRA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tula ; 56 miles N. of Tula.

KASCHKARANTZI, a town of Ruffia, in the go.
vernment of Archangel, on the White fea ; 140 miles N.W.
of Archangel.

KASHAKLU, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Carama-
nia; ^^ miles S.W: of Cogni.

KASHAN. See Cashan.

KASHEKA, in the hiltoric legends of the HlmJoos, h
the father of a very renowned afcetic and fage named Vijha-
vlira ; which fee.

KASHMIR, in Geography. See Casiimiiie.

KASI, or Kassi, fometimes written KnJlA ; a Sanfcrit
name of the revered city of Benares ; the latter popular
name being probably a corruption of its clalTical appellation
Vara-nari, fo called from two rivers that form a junftion of
waters and name near its fcite. See Bi:>;aiies.

Kasi, a term in the Ealt, applied to the fourth pontiff
of Perfia, who is alfo the fecend lieutenant civil, and judges
of temporal as well as fpintual affairs.

He has two deputies, who determine matters of lefs con-
fequence ; particularly quarrels arifing in cofTee-houfes, which
make a great part of their bufinefs.

KASILAX, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in tki
province of Savolax ; 29 miles E. of Kyflot.

KASIMON', a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Riazan, on the Oka, formerly the rcfidence of a Tartar
prince ; 76 miles E.N.E. of Riazan.

K,\SKAREL Mei.ik, a town of the Arabian Irak ;
36 miles N. of Bagdad.

KASKASK I.'\S, a poll -town of America, and the chief
of Randolpii county, on the S.W. bank of a river of ihe fame
name, 12 miles from the mouth of the river; containing
about ICO houfes, many of which are well built with ilone j
and 467 inhabitants, of whom 47 are flaves. — .Alio, an
Indian nation near the river of this name in the Indiana ter-
ritory. In 1774 they could furnifh 250 warriors. Three
miles northerly of Kafkafkias is a village of Illinois Indians,
of the Kafkaflcias tribe, containing, in 1774, about 210 jici-
lons and 60 warriors. They were formerly brave and war-
like, but arc now degenerated and debauched. In Auguit
l<Sc3, governor Hamilton concluded a treaty witli the Kaf-
kafkias Indians, by which they ceded to the United States in
full right the iminenfe traft of country extending from tlie
mouth of the Illinois rnvr to the mouth of the Ohio ; from
thence to the mouth of the S.ilinc creek, below the Wabafli ;
thence bounded by the liighlandB, dividing the waters wliich
run into tlie Wabaih from tliofe which run into the Saline
creek ; thence by the highlands dividing the waters whicU
run into the Wabafh from thofc which run into the Midlfippi,
until it reaches the river Kalkaflcia ; thence, bv the high-
4T. 3 ■ hndii.

K A S

lands, which divide the waters that fall into the Kafl{a(kia
river from thofe which fall into the river Illinois, and from
thence in a direft courfe to the mouth of the Illinois again ;
fv.ppofed to contain from lo to 12 millions of acres. The
whole was ceded in confideration of the annual addition of
^o dollars to a hke fiim, which by the treaty of Green-
ville, the Kafkallcia tribe receives every year from the United
States, together with the refervation of 1580 acres near the
village of KatkafKia, for cultivation and domeftic purpofes;
Morfe. — Alfo, a river of the north-weft territory, wliich is
navigable for boats 130 miles. Its courfe is S.S.W., and
near its mouth it turns to the S.S.E. and falls into the Mifli-
iippi river, 84 miles from the Illinois. It runs through
a rich country, abounding in extenfive natural meadows,
and numberlefs herds of buffaloes, deer, &c. Along the
eafl fide of the river lie high grounds, the banks being
compofed of lime-ftone and free-ftonc, and from 100 to 130
feet high, divided in many places by deep cavities, through
which many fmall rivulets pafs before they fall into the Miiti-
fippi. The lides of thefe hills fronting the river are in
many places perpendicuhir, and appear hke folid pieces of
raafonry, of various colours, figures, and fizes. Morfe.

KASKASKUNK, a town of tlie Delawares, between
Great Beaver creek and Alleghany river, in Pennfylvania ;
4c miles N. of Pittlburg.

KASKEIRA, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irak ; 25 milea N. of Sava.

KASKINOMPA, a fmall river which runs W. into the
MilTifippi from TenefTee, in N. lat. 36' 28'. On the north
f;de of its mouth is an iron mine.

KASKIS, a town of Sweden, in Tavaftland ; 30 miles
E. of Tavatthus.

KASKO, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Bothnia, near
the coall of Finland. N. lat. 63^ 16'. E. long. 90' lo'.

KASKOYAR, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Bothnia.
N. lat. 63 16'. E. long. 90' 10'.

K-^iSNICH, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Khorafan ; 12 mi'es S. of Zauzan.

KASR, a town of Egypt; 6 miles N.NW. of Afii-
mounein.

Kasr Ahmed, a town of Tripoli, on the coaft ; 100
miles E. of Tripoli. N. lat. 32' 4'. E. long. 15' 20'.

Kasr Kiafera, a town of Egypt, built on the ruins of
the ancient NicopoHs, on the coalt of the Mediterranean ;
-, miles N.E. of Alexandria.

K ASS AN, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Yani,
on the N. fide of the Gambia ; 36 miles N.W. of Pifimia.

KASSAR, an ifland of the Baltic, to the fouthw.rd of
Dago, with a chapel, about 11 vcrfts long and between
four and feven writs broad.

KASSERAMANGALUM, a town of Hindooftan, in
Baramaul ; 17 miles S. of Coveriporum.

KASSGU'',;pE, a town of Hindooftan, in the Dooab;
24 miles N.W. of Pattiary.

KASSINA, or Ca.si!na, a kingdom of Africa, fituated
N. of the river Nigi-r, between Bornou and Tombuctoo.
Tl-.e two empires of 13ornou and Kaflina extend northwards
towards Nubia, and comprehend a very confiderable fpace.
In both thefe empire:^, the fovereigns are Mahometans ; but
their fubjefts are faid more generally to adhere to the ancient
worfhip ; that is to fay, the lower orders arc, almoft uni-
verfally, Negroes. - Kaifma, till of late, was cfteeraed the
firll in power ; but though a thoufand villages and towns are
ilill included in its vaft domains, this empire is now confidered
much inferior to Bornou. The circumftances of foil and
climate, and thofe alfo which conftitute political charatter,
arc nearly the fame in both ; their prevailing winds arc the
7

K A S

fame ; their rains, which are periodical in each, though much
more profufe in Bornou, begin at the fame feafon ; the fame
grains are cultivated; the fame fruits (generally fpeaking),
are produced ; and except that no camels are bred to the
weft ward of the city of Kaffma, the capital of the empire, the
fame animals are reared. In both, the complexion of the
inhabitants is black ; their mode of building too is fimilar,
and their manners, though in fome refpefts more civihzed in
Bornou, have a general refemblance. Ea-^h cir the two
empires is formed by the fubjection of diflerent tribes or
nations to the dominion of one ruling people. The nature
of the government, and the laws which regulate its fuccef-
fion, are the fame in both. In both, the ruling people arc
Mahom.etans ; in both, the dependent nations are compofed
of converts to the Muffulman faith, and of adiserents to the
ancient worlliip ; and though at prcfent their languages are
different, the conquerors in both had probably the fame
original. The word Soudan, cxprelTing the land of the
Blacks, is by the Arabian geographers applied to the Ni-
gritia of European geographers ; but fome Africans reftriS
it to the empire of Calhna, which is N. of the Niger, and
others extend it to the Negro ilatcs on the S. of the river;
and wifiiing to exprefs the tranfcendent power and extended
rule of the emperor of Cafhna, they call him, with extrava-
gant compliment, the fultan of all Soudan. His real fove-
reignty is bounded on the N. by the n-.ountains of Eyre,
and by one of thofe diftrifts of the great Sahara, that furnifh
no means of ufeful property or available dominion ; on the
S. by the Niger; and on the E. by the kingdom of Zam-
phara, and the empire of Bornou. Its weftern limit is not
afccrtaiiied. There are fome circumftances of difference,
whicli, notwithftanding the general refemblance between
Bornou and Cafhna, diicriminate between them. The rains
are lefs violent in the latter than in the former. Cafhna ex-
clufively furnifhes the Bifhnah, a fpecies of Indian corn, tliat
differs from the gamphdly in the blended colours of red and
white which diftinguifh its grain. Its monkies and parrots
(animals feldom feen in Bornou) are numerous, and of
various fpecies. Tlie meridian of its capital is confidered as
a weftern limit, in that parallel of latitude, to the vegetation
of grapes and breeds of camels ; for between Calhna and the
Atlantic few camels are bred, and no grapes will grow.
The manners of the common people are leis courteous in
Cafhna than in Bornou ; and their games are leis exprefhve
of refleftion ; for their favourite play confills in tofhag up
four fmall flicks, and counting th.ofe that crois each otherj
as fo many points of the number that conftitutes the game.
But the circumftances of chief difcrimination between the
two empires, are thofe of language, currency, and certain
articles of commerce. Many words occur in one language
vfhich are not found in the other. The currency of Calhna,
like that of the Negro ftates S. of the N'ger, is compofed
of thofe fn all fhclls called cowries. Of thefe (hells, 2500
are ellimated as equal in value to a miktal of Fezzan, which
is worth about 75 piaftres of Tripoli, or \0s. i^d. fterling.
Among the few circumftances which charaifterize the trade
of Calhna, as diftniguiftied from that of Bornou, the mo ft
remarkable is, that the merchants of the former kingdom are
the fole carriers to other nations, of a fcarce and moft valu-
able commodity, which is only to be obtained from the inha-
bitants of the latter. For though the fa't of Bornou fupplies
the confumption of Caflina, and of the Negro kingdoms to
the fouth, yet its owners have abandoned lo the commercial
ailivity of the merchants of Agadez the v,hole of that pro-
fitable trade. The lakes, on the dreary fhores of which this
fcarce article of African luxury is found, are feparated from
Agadez by a march of 4^ days, and arc cncompaflfed on all

fides

K A S

i.Jcs by the fands of the vaft defart of Bilm^, where the
ardent her. of a fiaming (l<y is returned with double fierce-
ncfs by the fin-face of the burning foil. A thoufand camels,
bred and maintained for the puqjofe, are faid to compofe the
caravans wh ch annually explore, in the favage wildernefs,
the long h,ie of this adventurous journey. Perilous however,
and full of hardftips as their labour is, the merchants find an
ample recompence in the profits of their commerce ; for
while the .vrefched viilagers who inhabit the neighbourhood
of the lakes, and colledl the fait that congeals upon the
fliOres, arc contented to receive, or obUged to accept a
fcanty price, the value which the merchants obtain in the
various markets of Cafhna, Tombuftoo, and of the countries
S. of the Niger, is fuited to the high cUimation in which
the article k held. The people of Agadez are equally
anxious to avail themfelves of the produftions of their own
country. Accordingly, being well apprifcd of the fupcrior
quality of the fenna, which grows upon thefe mountains,
they demand and receive from the merchants of Fezzan a
proportionable price. From Tripoli this fenna is conveyed
to Turkey, Leghorn, and Marfeilles. Of the other articles
of fale which the extenfive empire of Kaflina affords, the
principal arc goldduft, flaves, cotton cloths, which are the
general maniifaaure of Caflina, Bornou, and the Negro
ftates S. of the Niger, goat-fl<ins of the red and yellow dyes,
ox and bufFalo hides, and civet ; and in return for thefe, the
inhabitants of KafTina receive cowries, horfes, and mares,
red woollen caps, check linens, lisjht coarfe woollen cloths,
baize, barakans or alhaiks, fmall Turkey carpets, plain
Mefurata carpets, filk, wrought and un\<rought, tilTues and
brocades, fabre blades, Dutch knives, fciflbrs, coral, beads,
fmall looking-glaffes, tiches, or a parte prepared in Fezzan,
from dates and the meal of Indian corn, and which, when-
ever they travel, is in great reqnell among the people of
Fezzan ; and Gooroo nuts, which are brought from the
Negro Hates on the S. of the Niger, and which impart a
pleafant bitter to any liquid in which they are infufed.

The Fezzaners, equally connected by their conimerc;
with Cafhna and Bornou, difpatch to the former as well as
to the latter, and always at the fame feafon, an annual cara-
van. From Mourzouk, their capital, which they leave at the
clofe of October, they take their courfe to the S.S.W. and
proceed to the province of Hiatts, the moil barren, and the
word inhabited diftrict of their ccuntrv. From Hiatts they
crofs the low mountains of Eyre, which feparate the king-
dom of Fezzan from the empire of Cafhna, and next arrive
at the town of Ganatt, where they repofe for two days.
From thence, by a march of 19 days, during fix of which
they are expofed to the fcorching heats of a thirfty defart,
they pafs on to the town of Aflbuda. On leaving AfTouda,
they traverfe a delightful country, fruitful, and populous ;
and while the exhilarating fight of Indian com, and of fre-
quent herds of cattle accompanies and cheers their palTage.
the eighth day introduces them to the large and populous
city of Agadcz, the capital of an extenfive province. Diftin-
guifhed as the mod commercial of all the towns of Cafhna,
and, like AfTouda and Ganatt, inhabited by Mahometans
alone, Agadez naturally attrafts the peculiar attention of
the merchants of Fezzan. Many proceed no farther ; but
the greateft part, copimitting to their agents the care of the
flaves, cotton, and ftnna, which they purchafe in the courfe
of a 10 days' refideuce, continue their journey to the fouth.
In this manner, if the camels are completely loaded, 4.7
days, excKifive of thofe which are allotted to refrelhment
and neceffary reit, arc employed in travelling from Mour-
zouk to Agadez. At the end of three days more, amidll
fields that are enriched with the luxuriant growth of Indian

K A S

corn, and pallures that are covered with multitudes of cowj;
and with fiucks of (lieep and goats, the traveller reaches the
fmall town of Begzam ; from which, through a country of
hcrdfmen, whofe dwellings are in tents of hides ; the fecond
day condufts him to the town of Tegomah. There, as he
furveys the ftony, uninhabited, defolate hills that form the
chceriefs profpcft before him, he calls a regretful oyc on
thofe verdant fcenes that furrouudcd him the day before.
Employed for two days in the paflage of thefe dreary
heights, he defcends on the third to a deep and fcorching
fand, from which he emerges at the approach ( f the fifth
evening, and entering a beautiful country, as pleafingly
diverfified with the natural beauties of hills and vales and
woods, as with the rich rewards of the hufbandman's and
the fliepherd's toil, he arrives in feven days more at the
city of Caflina, the capital of the empire of which it bears
the name, and the ufual refidence of its powerful fultan.

The river Niger traverfes the empire of Caflina With fuch
rapidity, that no vcffel can afcend its (Iream ; and fuch is
the want of lltill, and fuch the abfence of commercial in-
ducements among the inhabitants of its borders, thai even
luil/j the current, neither veCels nor boats are feen to navi-
gate. In one place, indeed, the traveller finds a paffage for
hiiiifelf and his goods ; but even there, though the ferrymen,
by the indulgence of the fultan of Caflina, are exempted
froiTi all taxes, the boat which conveys the merchandize
is nothing more than an ill-con II rufted raft; for the
planks are fallencd to the timbers with ropes, and the feams
are clofed, both within and without, by a plailler of tough
clay. The depth of the river, at the place of paffage, which
is more than 100 miles to the fouth of the city of Cafhna,
is ellimated at 23 or 24 feet Engtifii. (Proceedings of the
African Alfociation.) Tiie city of C,ifhna, or Kaffina, is
dillatit 650 miles W.S.W. from Bornou, and 690 miles
E.S.E. from Tombuftoo. N. lat. 16 30'. E. long. 11'^
34'-

KASSON, a ftrong hilly country of Africa, of fmall ex-
tent, bounded on the N. by the Moors of Jaifnoo, on the
E. and S.E. by Kaarta, on the S. by the Senegal, and on the
W. by Kajaaga ; about 50 miles from N. to S., and nearly
the fame from E. to W. N. lat. 14- to 15-'. W. long. 8'
to g\

KASSUTO, an African mufical inflrument, compofcd
of a hollow piece cf wood, about an ell long, covered with
a plate cut into a kind of fcale, upon which the negroes beat
with a flick. See Mu/lc cf the Negroes.

KAST, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Segeflan ; 40
miles S.W. of Arokhage.

KASTANOVITZ, a town of Croatia, fituatcd on an
ifland in the river Unna ; 50 miles S.E. of Carllladt.

KASTHOLM, a town of Sweden, on the S.E. coaft of
the ifland of Aland.

K.ASTRIC.AUR, C.\PE, a cape on the N.E. coaft of
the Company's ifland, in the North Pac.J ocean. N. lat.
46 30'. E. long iji 40'.

KASTRIL, m Zoology. See Kestril.

K.'\SYA, in H'w.doo Mythological Hijhry, was the Guru,
or fpiritual preceptor of Kriflina, of whofe wife the follow-
ing legend occurs in the Pedma Purana, and in the Sri
Bhagavat among the llrange miracles recorded of this in-
carnate deity. She complained to Krifhna that the ocean had
fv.allowed up her children on the coall of Gurjura, or Guze-
rat, and fupphcated their relhiration. Krifiina, proceediug
to the coall, was alTured by Varuna, the regent of the ocean,
that not he, but the fea-monller, Sankafura, had ilolen the
children. Krifhna fought, and after a violent conflitt, flew
the demon, aiid tore him from his Ihell^ named Par.chajanya,

which

K A T

•wTiicli lie tore away in memorial of lii; Tidory, anJ uFed
■afterwards in battle by way of trumpet. -(See Sanka-
TiCRA.) Not finding the children in the dominions of Va-
runa, he defcended to the infernal city, Yama-puri, and
founding his tremendous fliank, or (hell, (fee Shank,) ftruck
fuch terror into Yama, that he ran forth to make his prof,
trations, and reilored the children of Kafya, with whom
Krithna returned to their delighted mother.

KASYAP A, an importantcharafter, who, in different theo-
gonies, alTumes diflerent lines of parentage aad character. In
theSiva-puranahe is nude the great-grandfonof Brahma, Ma-
richi and Bhrigu being his immediate anccllors : and he is there
feigned to have married thirteen of Dakfha's fixty daughters,
an aftronomical allegory that has not yet been explained ;
tut alluding, we apprehend, to a cycle of fixty years in all
among the Hindoos. Sn- Wiliam Jones fufpected, and Mr.
Wilford has proved the whole fable of Kafyapa to be allro-
nomical, and the fame with the Cafliopeia of the Greeks. Ka-
fvapa, in fome points, correfponds in charadler with Uranus ;
Marichi, the offspring of Bralima, being a pcrfonification
of Light. Surya, or the Sun, is fometimes found men-
tioned as the fun or offspring of Kafyapa, and fometimes
he is included in the lift of the feven Rilliis ; in other re-
lations lie is the hufband of Diti, and the parentrof Indra,
Aruna, Garuda, and many of the minor deities. In Vifhnu's
avatara of Vamana, or the dwarf, he became incarnate in
tlie perfon of Kafyapa's fon, by Aditi ; and the Naklhatras,
or lunar manfions, (fee Nakshatha,) are, in the Inllitutes
of Menu, attributed to " Kafyapa, the firft produftion of
Brahma's head."

KATABA, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the
province of Yemen, fituated in a fertile country, near a
river that runs into the fea at Aden, governed by a dola,
■and defended by a citadel ; 75 miles N. of Aden. N. lat.
13= 54'. E. long. 44' 39':

KATAL. a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the government
«f Sivas ; 18 miles S. of Sivas.

KATAPANG, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
■near the N. coail of Java. S. lat. 7' 39'. E. long. 113"
22'.

KATAREN, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen ; 60 miles S. of Saade.

KATENIA, a town of Bengal; 80 miles N. of
Dacca.

KATEREVI, a town of the principality of Georgia ;
18 miles W.S.W. of Teflis.

KATERINENSCHSTAT, a town of Ruffia. in the
j^ovcrnment of Saratov, on the Volga ; 32 miles N.E. of
Saratov.

KATHTIPPACAMUNCK, an Indian village in Ame-
rica, on the N. fide of Wabafti river, at the mouth of Rip-
pacanoe creek, and about 20 miles above the Lower Weau
towns. In 1 79 1, before its dcftruftion by generals Scott
and Wilkinfon, it contained 120 houfes, the beft of wliich
belonged to the French traders. N. lat. 4.0' 20'. \V.
long. 87 2'.

KATIF, a town of Arabia, in the province of Lachfa,
•of fome magnitude, fituated upon the coaft, at the diftance
•of about five German miles from the ide of Bahhrein. The
inhabitants earn their fubiiftence by the pearl fiihery ; the
feafon for fiihing is in the hotter months of the year, when
the air is deemed to be very inlalnbrious.

K.ATIMBEVOLE, atown of the ifland of Ceylon ; 36
miles S. of Candy.

KATIMTUMU, a town of Ruffia, in the government
«f Irlcutlk, on the Lena ; 60 miles E. of Oiekmindv.

JiATIRLI, a town of Natolia ; 28 miles N. of Burfa.

K A T

I'ATISTI, a tovm of Natolia, on the coall of the Tea of
Marmora; 36 miles S. of Conftautinople.

K AT KIN. See Catkin-.

KATMANDU, or Catmandu, in Geography, the
capital of Napaul or Nepal, in a province of the fame
name ; called alfo Jingbu by the people of Thibet. It
is placed by Rennell 105 geographical miles nearly N.
from MaifFy, that is, in latitude 28' 6'. It is 536 Britifh
nn'les from Lafla, or in iiorizontal diftance 346 geogra-
pliical miles. According to Giufeppe, it contains about
iS,ooo houfes, probably yielding a population of 70 or
80 thoufand. (See Nepaul.1 According to colonel Kirk-
patricks account it is feated on the eaftern bank of the Biih-
mutty, along which it runs for a mde, with a breadth not ex-
ceeding half a mile. The moft ftriking objidls which it pre-
fents to the eye are its v>-ooden temples, wliicb are fcattered
over its environs, and particularly along the fides of a quad-
rangular tank or refervoir. The colonel fays, " there are
nearly as many temples as houfes, and as many idols as in-
habitants." The number of idols, according to his ftate-
ment, amounts to 2733. Bcfides thefe wooden temples,
Katmandu contains feveral others on a large fcale, conftruded
of brick, with two or three (loping roofs, diminilhing as they
afcend, and terminating in pinnacles, which, as well as fome
of the fuperior roofs, are fplendidly gilt, and produce a very
picfurefque and agreeable effeft. The houfes are of brick
and tile, with pitched roofs towards the ftreet, frequently
fm-rounded by wooden balconies, of open carved-work, and
of a fingular fa(hion. They are of two, three, or four
ftories, and generally of a mean appearance. The ftreets
are narrow and filthy. Katmandu, with its dependent towns
and villages, according to Kirkpatrick, may contain about
22,000 houfes; but the town itfclf, if ten people be al-
lowed to each hotife, which lie thinks to be a low computa-
tion, does not contain more than 50,000 perfons. The next
moft confiderable towns of Nepaul are Patn, Bhetgong, and
Khirtipoor. Afiatic Ref. vol. ii. p. 307.

KATN.A, a town of Sweden, in Sudermanland ; 30 miles
S.W. of Stockholm.

KATNEBLOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Kiev ; ^6 miles S. of Bialacerkiew.

KATNIA-STANITZ, atown of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutllv ; 64 miles N.E. of Vitimfiioi.

KATOENE, a town of the ifland of Ceylon ; 64 miles
S. of Candy.

KATOU-CARVA, in Botany, the name by which fome
authors have called the tree, wliofe leaves are the tamala-
patra, or Indian leaf of the (hops. See Malabathrl-m.

KATOVINDEL, the name given by the authors of
the Hortus Malabaricus, to a genus of plants, called by fome
eJale, and by Linnxus^Arvz/.f.

KATOUN-SERAI, in Geography, a town of Afiatid
Turkey, in Caramania ; i 2 miles S. of Cogni.

KATSCHER, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Pre-
rau, with a lordfhip in Silefia, to which it once belonged ;
1 2 miles W. of Ratibor. N. lat. 49* 59'. E. long. 1 7 ^

KATTA, a town of Bootan ; 15 miles S. of Bifnee. —
Alfo, a town of Perfia, in Farfiltan ; 30 miles W.S.W. of
Yezd.

K.ATTAH, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedf-
jas ; 160 miles E.S.E. of Madian.

KATTAYANI, in Hindoo Mythology, a name of Par-
vati, confort of Siva.

KATTRON, in Geography. See Gatron-.

K.^TUADI, a town of the Arabian Irak ; 12 miles S.
of Bagdad.

4 KATUN.

K A U

KATUNSKAIA, a town of Ruflia, in the government
of Kolivan ; 12 miles S. of Bulk.

K A'l'ZA, a town of Germany, in the county of Hen-
ncbcr^ ; feven miles W.N.W. of Memungen.

KATZEMAUGE, in Mineralogy. See Cat's Eye.

KAU, ill Geography, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Loancro.

KAUADI, an ifland of Egypt, in lake Derelos ; 13
miles N. of Fdoue.

KAVARNA, a town of European Turkey, in Bulgaria,
in the orulf of Varna ; 22 miles N.E. of Varna. N. lat. 43-
2i'. E. loner. 28' 17'.

KAUBUL, a town of European Turkey, in BcflTarabia ;
34 miles W. of Akcrman.

KAUDER, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore ; 40 miles
S..S.W. of Lahore.

K.vuDEn, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedf-
jas ; 60 miles N.W. of Mecca.

KAVERZINA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tobollk, on 'he Tchiuna ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Enifeiil<.

KAUFFHEUREN, a town of Germany, fituated on
the Wuttach, and till the year 1803, when it was given to
the elector of Bavaria, imperial. The burghers are partly
Lutherans, and partly Roman Catholics ; but its magillracy
contifts of eight Lutherans and four Roman Catholics. In
the town-court and great coinitil are aifo two Roman Ca-
tholic members, but the red are all Lutherans ; 62 miles
E.N.E of Conftance. N. lat. 47- 42'. E. long. 10 3;'.

KAUFFMAN, Marv Angelica, in Biography, a lady
who poftefled the talents and tafte of a painter in a degree very
unufual among her fex. She was a native of Coire, the capital
of the Grifons, and born in 1 740. Her father was an artill,
who, perceiving the extraordinary capacity of his daughter,
and how worthy it was of the bell cultivation, conducted
her, at the age of fourteen, to Milan, and afterwards to
Rome ; where her talents and accomphfhments foon acquired
her the moft dillinguillied attention. It was the happy lot
of lady Wentwordi, the wife of the Britifli relident at
Venice, to be the inllrument of conveying Angelica to
England in the year 1764. Here (he was received in a
very flattering manner ; her works eagerly fought for ; and
Tier company folicitcd by the learned, the great, and the
polite. She was honoured with royal attentions, and was
eileemed and courted by artills. She was very indultrious,
and painted the lighter fcenes of poetry with a grace and talle
entirely her own ; and happily formed to meet that of aw
engraver whofe labours highly contributed to the growth
and perpetuity of her fame. Bartolozzi was the man, who,
enjoying at the fame time youth, health, and ingenuity,
almoll entirely devoted his talents between Angehca and
Cipriani. The thiee were ei.dowed with congenial feelings
ill arts ; which, if not of the higheft clafs, were certainly
entitled to r^nk among the moil agreeable.

After fome years reiidence here, Ihe was unhappily de-
ceived by a ujotmaa of a German count, who, coming to
England, perfonated his mailer, contrived to be prefented
at court, and, perfuaded Angelica to marry him. Tlie cheat
uas foon difcovered, and the rafcal had not the humanity
to endeavour to footh her difappointment by kindnef'*,. but
treated her very ill. At lail, hov.ever, by a payment made
to him of 3S0/., he was. irrfiuced to return to Germany, and
promifed never to molcft her any more. He kept his er^
gagement ; and the lady not liearing of him for feven years,
and concluding him dead, th.en married an Italian painter
ef the name of Zucchi, and having fpent feventeen years in
England, returned with him to her native country, and thence
ifi RoKu: } wiwrc hoc boufc became the refoii of genius and

KAU

tafte ; all artifls and cognofcenti taking pleafure in beinj
admitted to herconvcrfazioni ; while amateurs endowed with
rank and wealth were happy in finding employment for her
agreeable talents, and in the podefilon of her works. She
lived to the age of 67, and then fell by a gradual decay,
under that power which pays regard alilie to tlie great, the
learned, the virtuous, and the prolligate. She died in 1807,
univerfally regretted, and was honoured by fplendid public
obfequies.

The talents of Angelica were of a pleafing rather than of a
fplendid kind. She excelled moll, as was mod juilly to be
expected, in the reprefentalion of female chara;iers. Her
figures of men want form and energy, and their faces and
charafters are all of the fame mould. Grace, eafe, and fua-
vity of expredion, generally mark her women ; and to fingle
figures, fuch as " Calypfo watching thcDeparture of Uly ffes,""
or " Penelope weeping oves his Bow,'' [he imparted the
true interell of the llory.

KAUGA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in a kingdom
of the fame name, S. of I'ornou, traverfed by the Niger.
The town is fituated on a lake, called by Ptolemy " Nubia
Palus," in which fome h»ve fuppofed tliat the Niger lofes it-
felf; 22,- miles S.S.E, of Bornou.. N. lat. 16 lo'. E.
Ions;. 24 40'.

KAUGASNIEMI, a town of Sweden,, in the pro-
vince of Savolax ; 3 J miles N. of Chriftiua.

KAUHAJOKI, a town of Sweden, in the government
of Wafa ; 24 miles E.K.E. of Cliriftineaadt.

KAUH.WA, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Wafa; 37 miles E. of Wafa.

KAUHAUT, \n Biography, an excellent performer on
the lute, and perhaps the lall eminent mufician who highly
cultivated that inltrument. Signor Colini was the lail good
performer on the lute in England. We believe that Kau-
liaut was a German ; but he is enumerated by M. Laborde
among French compolers j he was in the fervice of the
prince of Conti, and compofed between 1760 and 1764.
leveral comic operas for the Theatre Italien at Paris. But
in 1772 we found him at Vienna, in high reputation as a
lutenill.

KAUI, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Adirbeitzan ; 48 miles N.W. of Tabris.

KAU KE BAN, a fmall unfortified town of Ai-abia, in
Yemen, but fituated on the fummit of an almoll inaccefiible
mountain. A caufeway has been formed, by which loaded
camels can now advance up to the city ; It! miks W. of
Sana« The country bearing this name is furrounded almofl
on all fides by the dominion of the Imam of Sana ; only, on
one fide, it meets the territory of the confederated Scheicha .
of Hafchid-u-bekil. The reigning family are defcendants
from M-ahomet,.by Hadi, Imam of Saade-. Although they
have lolt the title of Imam, they ftill retain. fov-creign autho-
rity over a confiderable territory.

KAUKENEN, a town of Prnffian Lithuania, on the
Kauke, which runs into the Curifch Haff;. 12 miles
W.N.W. of Tilfit.

KAUMARI, in HIhcIob Mythnlngy, is the fakti or con-
fort of Kumara, or Kartikya, and is reprefentcd tiding on a
peacock,, with., a lance, in iierhand. See Kautikv.v and.
Sakti.

KAUMBGLI, in Geography, a. town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Ellorc ; 12 miles S.S.W. of EUore.

KAUNITZ, WicszEL Antoxy, \n Biography, princeof
the holy Roman empire, count of Rielberg, knight of the
golden rieece, &c. was born at Vienna in 171 1. Being a
younger child pf a large familv he was brought up to tha
ciiurdLi but pn, ihc dcalU of his cldtr brotlit-jrs he quiued.

K A U

the ecclefiaflical profeflion to enter into the fervice of the
ftate, in which his anceftors had made a confiderable figure.
He laid the foundation of his ftudies at Vienna, and in 1 737,
was made a counfellor of ftate, and, two years after, impe-
rial commiffioner at the diet of Ratiibon. In the year
1742, he v.'as appointed minifter plenipotentiary to the court
of Sardinia, which had entered into a new alliance with
Aullria. A treaty was brought to aconclufion by Kaunitz,
which induced the court to confer on him offices of more
importance. In 1744, he went to BrufTels, to undertake the
chief management of pubhc affairs, which, at that time,
required a man of talents, as the king of France had already
declared war, and the Netherlands were the firft part of (he
emperor's dominions expofed to the attack of the French
army. In February 174J, he was appointed minifter pleni-
potentiary, and in 1748, he took a part in the figning of the
preliminaries of peace at Aix-la-Chapelle. On this occa-
liou he acquired, by his great talents for negociation, and the
noble conduct which he difplayed, the refpeft of all the
minifters then prefent. When peace was concluded, the
emprefs Mary Thercfa conferred upon him the order of
the Golden Fleece, and appointed him envoy to Paris.
I>uring his refidence in that city, he laid the foundation of
an alliance between France and Auftria, which took place
fome time after. On the refignation of count Uhlfeld, as
chancellor of ftate, Kaunitz was appointed his fuccefTor,
and recalled from Paris about the end of the year 1752,
but at the fame time was ordered to return to Bruflcls, to
bring to an end the negociations in regard to the barriers,
which had been carried on a whole year without fuccefs.
"When he had completed this objeA he returned to Vienna
in 1753, and entered upon the official duties of the chan-
cellorihip of the ftate, in addition to thofe belonging to the
fupreme diftatorfhip of the affairs of the Netherlands and
of Lombardy, with the rank of miniiler of ftate, which he
retained till his death. In 1764, he was raifed to the dig-
nity of prince of the empire, with defcent to his heirs
male. He concluded the tr.'aty of alliance between France
and Auftria in 1766, which put an end to that hoilility
which had prevailed for feveral centuries between the two
countries. After this he had the fole management of all
foreign affairs, and enjoyed the unlimited confidence of the
emprefs Mary Therefa, and afterwards of Jofeph II., Leo-
pold II., and Francis II. He died in June 1794, in the
84th year of his age, leaving behind him a very high repu-
tation. Gen. Bio^f.

Kaunitz, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the circle
of Brunn ; eight miles S.W. of Brunn. — Alfo, a town of
Moravia, in the circle of Znaym ; 11 miles N.N.W. of
Znavm.

KAUNPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Mouhan ;
15 miles N.E. of Moultan.

KAUNUDON, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore; 20
miles E.N.E. of Calhnore.

KAVO, one of the fmaller Molucca iflands, five miles
S.ofMachian. N. lat. cT ^'. E. long. 127" 24'.

KAUOS, a town of Grand Bucharia ; 6j miles N. of
San-.arcand.

KAUR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ; fix
miles E. of Natens.

KAURABANG, a town of Candahar ; 8omilesS.W.
Gf Cabul.

KAURESTAN, a town of Perfia, in Lariftan ; 65
miles E.S.E. of Lar.

KAURYSAOUL, a body of foldiers who form the
laft of the five corps of the king of Pcrlia's^sards.

They are in number two thoufandj and are ?,ll horfc, com-

KAY

manded by the conltable, and in his abfence by the captain
of the watch. They keep watch in the night around the
palace, fcrve to keep off the crowd when the fophi goes on
horfeback, keep filence at the audience of ambafl'adors, feize
the khans and other officers when difgraced, and cut off
their heads when the fophi commands it.

KAURZIM, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, and
capital of a circle of the fame name, on a river which runs
into the Elbe ; the circle fupplies Prague and other places
with timber ; 24 miles E.S.E. of Prague. N. lat. 49'
56'. E. long, if 5'.

KAUSZAN, a town of Beffarabia, inhabited by Bud-
ziack Tartars ; 12 miles S.S.E. of Bender.

KAUTEE, a town of Bengal ; 14 miles E. of Toree.
KAUVERI, or Kaveri, in Hindoo Mythology, tlie
fakti or confort of Kuvera, the deformed god of richeJ,
The river in Myfore, in which is the ifland of Sri-ranga-
patan, or Seringapatam, ufually written Caveri, is named
after this goddefs. See Kuveka, and Cavery.

KAWAK, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan ; in the
circar of EUichpour ; 20 miles E. of Omrautty.

KAWAR, or KuAR. a country of Africa, lying to the
northward of Kuku and Boniou, and extending eaftward
to Al W'ehat. It is bounded on the N. by that extenfive
defert which feparates Egypt from Fezzan, and which is t);e
proper defert of I^ibya ; on the E. by Egypt, and 011 the
W. by the defert of Bilmah.

KAWOMURAH, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ni-
phon ; icom.iles N W. of Meaco.

KAVv^TAH, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Singboom ; 4J miles E. of Doefa.

KAWUCK, or KiiAWicK, the furtheft, ormoft eaftcrn,
of the paffes leading through Hindco-Kho into the province
of Cabul.

KAWUTZA, a town of Sweden, in the govemment of
Abo; 25 miles S.E. of Biorneborg.

KAXHERTA, a town of Sweden, in the government
of Abo, on an illand in the gulf of Finland ; five miles S.
of Abo.

KAY, Key, or Quay, a wharf or place by the water-
fide, in a fea-port, for the loading and unloading of mer-
chandize.

The verb cajon, in old writers, according to Scaliger, fig-
nifies to keep in or rejlratn ; and hence came our term tay ;
the ground where keys are made being bound in with planks
and pofts.

The lawful keys and wharfs for the lading or landing of
goods, belonging to the port of London are the following :
■y/z. Chefter's Key, Brewers Key, Galley Key, Wool
Dock, Cuftom-houfe Key, Bear Key, Porter's Key, Sab's
Key, Wiggan's Key, Young's Key, Ralph's Key, Dice
Key, Smart's Key, Somer's Key, Hammond's Key, Lyon's
Key, Botolph Wharf, Graunt's Key, Cock's Key, and
Frcfli Wharf; befides Billingfgate, for landing fil'h and
fruit ; and Bridgehoufe in Southwark, for corn and other
provifions ; but for no other goods or merchandize. Deal-
boards, mafts, arid timber, may be landed at any place
between Limehoufe and Weftminfter ; the owner firft paying
or compounding for the cuftonis, and declaring at what
plate he will land them.

KAYA, in Geography, a town of Cacongo. S. lat. 5'
20'. E. long. 12^^ 10'.

KAYADERE, a town of Afiatic Turkey, near the W.
coaft of Natoiia ; five miles E.N.E. of Vourla.

KAY.AGE, the money, or toil, paid for loading or un-
loading wares at kays.

KAYANG, m-Gctgraphy, a river of the ifland of Celebes,

KAY

■vliicJi runs into Bonl bay. S. lat. 4'' 59'. E. long, izo"*
40'.

KAYCOON Point, a cape on the W. coaft of iheifland
of Ce'ebes. S. lat. 3- 22'. E. long. 129 50'.

KAYDANOW, a town of Litlui-'nia, in the palatinate
.of Minflc ; 16 miles S.S.W. of MMk.

K.A YE, a to>vn of Africa, in the kingdom of Loango ;
10 miles N.W. of Loango.

K-AYe's IJland, an ifland in the N. Pacific occaif, near the
W. coaft of North America, difcovered by Capt. Cook in
his third voyage, May 1778, and thus named in honour of
Dr. Kaye, late dean of Lincoln. It is n or 12 leagues in
length, in the direction of N.E. and S.W. ; but its breadth
is not above a league, or a league and a half, in any part of
it. The S.W. point, which lies in lat. J9 49', and long.
2t6' jS', is a naked rock, confiderably elevated above the
land within it. Towards the fea, the ifland terminates in
bare Hoping cliffs, with a beach, a few paces wide, of lar^e
pebble itones, intermixed here and there with a browniih
clayey fand. Parts of the (hore are interrupted by fmall
valhes and gullies ; in each of which a torrent ruflies down
with violence, which is furnilhed by the melted fnow. Thel'c
vallies are tilled with pine-trees, extending from the en-
trance toabont tlie middle part of the illand. This ifland
is covered with a broad girdle of wood, fprcad upon its
iiJ.e, included between the top of the cliffy fhore, and the
higher parts in the ceatre. The trees are of diminutive fixe.
Aiiout the wood were obferved a crow, and white headed and
■white brealted eagles ; and fowls of various kinds were feeii
apon the water and near the (hore. No animals were feen
except a fox ; nor were perceived any iigus of inhabitants
ever having been upon the ifland. Cooke's Third Voyage,
vol. ii.

KAYEE, a town of Africa, in Kajaaga, on the Sene-
gal. N. lat. 14 30'. W long. 9° 35'.

KAY KI YA, in Hlmioo Mytbuhjgical Hijlory, is one of the
three wives of Dafarat'ha, the father of Rama-chandra.
About the period of the birth of the latter hero, Kaykiya,
or Kahikeya, produced Lucins, his half brother, to afli(l
liim in the wars of Lanka or Ceylon, as detailed at great
length in R^mnyjna, which fee.

KA YMEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffm, in the pro-
wnce of Samland ; 12 miles E.N.E. of Konigiberg.

KAYMOUR.A, a town of Africa, in Bondou ; 15 miles
B.S.W. of Fdtteconda.

KA.YN3, a race of mountaineers in the Birman empire,
perfectly diiHndl; from the Carianers, and fpeaking a language
differing radically both from theirs and that of the Birmans.
They were originally inhabitants of the Arracan mountains,
whom the Birmans, fiuce their conqueft of that kingdom,
have prevailed on, partly by force, and partly by mild treat-
ment, to abandon their native hills, and fettle on the plain.
There are feveral fmall focieties of thefe people ellablifhed
near the foot of the mountains further north. The Ca-
fianers are not to be found higher up than the city of
Prune.

KAYOO, a town of Africa, in Bambarra, on the Niger.
N. lat. 13 . W. long. Y SO'

KAYOR, or Cavor, a kingdom of Africa, near the
fn-coaW, between the r:ver< Gambia and Senegal,

KAYSERSWERT, a tov.n of Germany, on the E.
fide of the Rhine, once fortiF.--d, bat now wit.'iout walls ;
for a long time annexed to the bilhopric of Cologne, but in
the year 1 762, rellored to the eleitor palatine ; 24 miles N.
of.Iuliers, N.kit. 51 )6'. E. long. 6 ^7'.

KAYUWAH, a town of Pegu, on the left bank of
theAva; 15 miles S. of Prome.
Vol. XIX.

K A Z

+ K.\YZEVAN, a town of Turkilh Armenia ; 60 n-.iloi
S.W. of Envan. -

KAZAKOV.%, a town of RufTui, in the govcriinrcnt of
Irkutik ; \ 2 miles W. of Nertchinfk.

KAZi^N, 'a city of Ruffia, and capital of a'govei'nmcnt
of the fame name, 'lltuated on the Volga. In the Turkilli
and Tartarian languages, ka/.an fignificd a catildron large
enongh to contain viduals for many perfons ; and hence the
name has been given by the Crim and Bud/iak Murfes tothc
families of their fubjeds or valfals, reckoning about 10 men
to a kazan. This city confifls of a Itrong fort, built with
ftone ; the wooden town, as it is called ; andfe\eral adjoining
flobodes, or fuburbs ; and amon^ tiiem is one inhabited by
Tartars, in which are four metlheds. Here are alfo feveral
churches biiik with ftone, and 1 1 convents in and le-.ir the
town. The governor of the fort has the command of ike
garrit'ons and regiments ; the garrilon of the city confiils of
three regiments, for which a good hofpital is provided.
Kazan is alfo an archbifhop's fee. Here are alfo a manu-
fafture of cloth, and a fchool, in which are taught the
Rufiisnand Latin languages, the principles of the Chriftiau
religion, and the elements of philolophy, in order to qualify
preachers for the converfion of the nations to which they
belong. This city was totally dettroyed by lire in the years
1749 and 1752. Kazan was oiicc the capital of a principal
part of Tartary, and the feat of government, where the
royal family refided. The RulTians firtl made tiiemfelves
mailers of this important place on the 3d of October IJJ2 ;
400 miles E. of Mofcow. N. lat. '53- 45'. E. long.
49 i'-

This khanate (fee Kaptsciiak) fubfifted as a peculiar
ftate till the year above-mentioned, I Jj2, when it was con-
quered by czar Ivan II., and incorporated f»r ever with
the Ruffian empire. The city of Kazan had been built 111
the year 12J7 by a fon of Banty, nephew of Tfcliingis-khan ;
and this khajiate afferted its independency about the fame tin^c
( 1441) when the Krim disjoined ilfelf from Kaptfchak. The
prelent Kazan Tartars are b'lt a feeble remnant of what they
were, partly confilling of thufe who remained in their old
feats, and partly fuch as fettled as fi:gitives, in other dif-
tricts of RulTia.' They principally dwell at prefent in the
governments of Kazan, Simbirik, Riefan, V'iatk.i, Pern.e
and Ufa (particularly in the Orenburg diftnit of that
government) ; their number is upon the whole conlidorable,
but in no degree proportionate to the idea we form of their
ancient population, from liillorical accounts ; for, as far as
we are able to conclude from particular ftatcments, they
cannot amount to much above ico,ooo. Thefe Tartars form
the root of the native of Ruffia ; being not only unmingled,
but alfo of a fupcrior civilization to moll of the remaining
branches of their brethren. Tooke.

KAZANOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Sandomirz ; 40 miles N.N.W. of Sandomirz.

KAZANSKAIA, a town of RufTw, in the country of
the CofTacks, on the Don ; loo miles S.S.E. of Veronetz.

KAZANSKOE, or Government of Kaz.\n, a govern-,
ment of Ruffia, bounded on the N. and N.E. by Viatfkoe,
on the E. by Uphimllioe, on the S. by Simbirikoe, and oij
the W. by Niznei-Gorodfkoe ; about 100 miles in length,
and from 100 to no broad ; tlie capital is Ka?an,

KAZARON, a town of Perfia, in the province of par-
fiftan ; 55 miles W.S.W. of Schiras. N. lat. 29 44'. E.
long. ; 1-28'.

KAZIKIRAN, a town of Perfia. in the province of
Adirbeit7an; 45inilc»S.K. of Urmia.

ILAZIMIERS. SceCAMMiR.

4U

KEA,

K E A

KF,A, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Bambarra ;
65 miles N.E. of Scgo.

KEADUE, a poll-town of the county of Rofcommon,
province of Connaiitrht, Irehind ; 85' miles from Dublin.

KEADY, a market and pod-town of the county of
Armagh, province of Uliler, Irchnd, fituated on the
xiver Callai), along the banks of which, from Armagh to
•this place, are many confiderable bleach greens, the linen
■ inanufaAure being carried on here very extenfively. Keady
is 5Q miles N. 'from Dublin ; and, fix S. from Armagh.

KEAJA, or KiAHiA, is the name of the lieutenant of
the chief officers of tlie Porte, or the fuperinteudant of their
particular <aaurt.

KEALE, fmall fragments refembUiig chips o? broken
pieces of llone of various kinds ; fome of lime-llone, others
of free-ilone, a:id others of ragrftane, found mixed among
the eartli, of the upper flratum in many parts of tbis king-
dom, and giving that foil the name. of kealy.; hence, .fome
.of thefe pieces of keaie are thin and flat like bits, of flatc.

KEALY Soil, in y^«rkulture, is ufed by the hufband-
jnen for a fort of land, plentifully Ilrewed with kealc or

KEANPAN Head, in Geography, a cape on the E.
<;oail of the ifland of Lewis, forming the N.E. point of tlie
peninfula of Aird. N. lat. 58 ' I j'. W.long. 6' 5'.

KEANGON, a town of Grand Bucharia; 75 miles
N.AV. of Anderab.

-KEARAH, a town of Hindooftan, in"Bahar; 30 miles
S.S.W. of Patnn.

KEATE, Geo'.ice, in Biography, an entertaining and
iriifcellaneous writer, was born at Trowbridge, in Wiltlhire,
in the year 1729. Plaving been educated at Kingllon, he
repaired to Geneva, where he refided fome years, and con-
traAed an intimacy with Voltaire. He made the tour of
-Europe, and returning to his native country, entered him-
felf as itudent in the Inner Temple, and was in due time
called to the bar, and fometimes attended the. courts in
Weltmmller Hall, though he did not praftife, either on
account- of his want of encouragement, or for want of a
den-ree of application fufficient to make himfelf mailer of
his profefiion. His firll literary performance was entitled,
" Ant-ient and Modern Rome,", a poem written at Rome
in the year 17JJ. It was publidied in 1760, and was very
well received by the public : he next produced " A fhort
Account of the Ancient Hillory, prefcnt Goveroment, and
Laws of the Republic of Geneva." In 1768 or 69, he
publifhed " Ferney," an epiiUe to Voltaire, in which he
introduced a fine eulogium on Shakfpeare, which procured
for him. the compliment, from the mayor and burgeffes of
■Stratford, of a ilandifh mounted with filver, made out of the
roulberry-tree planted by that illullrious bard. In 1 7 79, he
publiOied " Sketches from Nature, taken aud coloured in a
Journey to Margate," iu two vols, l2mo. This, though an
iavowed imitation of Sterne's " Sentimental Journey," con-
tains fo many juft ftriftures on life and manners, enlivened
by ilrokes of genuine humour and delicacy of fentiment, as
to have been extremely popular, and it was thought that
Sterne never had-fo happy an imitator as Keate. In 1781,
he eoUefted his poetical works, and publifhed them in two
volumes, which he dcdicaled to Dr. Heberden. The lull,
•and his belt produclion, and tbat- which did mod credit to
his genius and liberality, was the "Account of thePelew
Iflands," which, he- diiiw up and publilhed in 1788. This
work is written with great elegance, and compiled with nnich
care : it had a confiderable fale, but the author drew it up
from the moft difinteieflcd motives,, and received no advan-
. tage from it whatever. .He died in.tjie year 17.9;, leaving

K E B

behind him feveral other publications befides thole ah'eady
noticed. Gentleman's and Monthly Magazines.

KEATING, Geoffrey, an Iiifh hiftorian, was a
native of Tipperary, and flouriihed in the earlier _ part
of the feventeenth century. He was educated with a
view to the duties of the Roman Catholic church, and having
received at a foreign univer.'ity the degree of atxSlor of
divinity, he returned to his native country, and becnme a
celebrated preacher. Being well vcrfed in the ancient Irifh
language, he collcfted the remains of the early hillory, and
antiquities of the illand, aud formed them into a regular nar-
rative. This work he fmiflied about the tin.e cf the'accelTiorf
pf Charles I. to the tlirone : it comniencLS from the firit
planting of Ireland, after the dehige, and goes on to" ths
17th year of king Henry II., giving an account of the lives
.and reigns of one hundred and feventy-four kings of the
Milelian race. From the above circumilances, our readers
will readily fuppofe that this work is little better than fitlion.
Indeed the adrocates of the author allege iu his defence,
that he has given his extraordinary relations merely as fables,
and not as true hillory. It remained in MS. in the original
language, till it was tranflated into Englilh by Dei-mot
O'Connor, and publillied in London in 1723. A new edi-
tion was publilhed in 1738, with plates of the arms of the
principal Irifli families. Keating died about the middle of
the fevcnteeuth century.

KEBAN, in Geo^i:aphy, a town of A fiat ic Turkey, in
the province of Diarbekir ; .70 miles N. of Diarbekir.

KEEER, the name of a feet among the Perfians, who,
in general, are rich merchants. See Gabr^^S..

KEBET, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea. S. lat. 7- 10'. E. long, i^o''^ 40'.

KEBLA, or Keblah, called alfo KMeh, Kibhh, and
Alhclla, am.ong the Muifulmen, denotes that point, or
quarter, to winch they turn themfelvcs when they fay their
prayers.

Mahomet, at firft, duril not propofe any other kebla to
his followers but the temple of Jerufalera, which was the
kebla of the Jews and Chrillians. In the courfe of time,
however, being willing to bring them off from any commu-
nication iu matters of religion, with the Jevvs and Chrilliaos,
he appointed them, in the Koran, to turn themfelves, at
prayer, towards the temple of Mecca: from which time they
called thofe two temples the kcllaum, or tw;o keblas.

Ricaut adds, that it is not the temple of Mecca, properly
fpeaking, that the Turks call kebla, but rather the large
fquare tower in the middle of the amphitheatre of that
temple. , ......

The kebla of the Jews was the temple at Jernfalem;.lhat
of the Sabiaus, the meridian ; and that of the Magians, the
rifmg fun. To this the prophet EzekieL refers. diap. viii.
16.

Kebla is alfo ufed for an altar ; or rather a.r.ick^, as
Ricaut calls ij, which the. Mahpsjietans hjjve in all tjicir
mpfques, and which is placed. very, exaftly on that .fide to-
wards the temple of Mecca.

Hence alfo kebla comes to be ufed, metaphorically, for
the objeft, or end propofed, in doing any .thing.

Thus, the keisla of kings,, is their, crown and authority ;
that of men of bufinefs,,b money.; that of gluttons, good
cheer, &c, ... c- . .

KEBLA^NOM A, or Kebleu^noma, a name whicli the
Turks and Perfians give to a little pocket-compafe, which
they always carry with them V. in order to place them.fclv.cs
the more exailly when they, go tpj>jrayej-s.

KEBLE, .losEPH, in Bk^niphj, fon of Richard KeJDle,
cfq. a lawyer of reputation ivt Ipfwich, was bpriiia l^qndon

K E D

iri 16^2, and ftudied at Jefiis and All-Souls colIc^M in Ox-
ford. -He was admitted a barriller at Gray's Inn. and at-
tended with the iitmoil aflidiiity at tlie king's bench for fifty
years, though it is bt-lioved lie never had ac'aufe put into his
hands; oi^ was called to make a ii.otion. Htf died fuddenly
ini/io, as he was ftepping into a coach at Holborn-gate,
b^fng in his ySth year. His publications were numerous,'
and "chiefly on legal fubjefts!. He publiihed, however, an
«fl"ay on " Human Nature ;" and another on " Human Ac-
tions." At his death, it is faid, his manufcripts amounted
to one hundred folios, and more than fifty quartos, all in hi»
own hand-writing. Biog. Brit

Kzble's IJIanii, in Geography, an ifland in the Mergui
Ai'chipelago, about five miles long, and l\ broad. N. lat. 8^
59'.

"KEBUCK He.id, a cape on the E. coaft of the ifland
of Lewis. N. lat. ,8^ 2'. W. long. 6' 19'.

KECKERMAN, Bartholomew, in Biography, a
Pruflian divine, was born at Dantzic in the year 157 1 :
here he received the elements of a learned education, and at
the age of eighteen he was fcnt to the uuiverfity of Wittem-
berg, and O.udied philofophyand divinity two years. From
this feminary he went to the univerfity of Leipfic, where he
fpcnt fome time, and then removed to Heidelberg. At this
place he took his degrees, and at length became a tutor in
feveral branches of knowledge. The fame which he acquired,
as profefTor of Hebrew, induced the fenate of Dantzic, in
the year 1597, to invite him to become co-reftor of the cele-
brated academical in llitution in that city, an office which he
thought proper to decline. Four years afterwards theinyi-
tation was re^^ewed, and he accepted it. The profelTorihip
to which he devoted his talents was tliat of philofophy, and
he propofed to lead Undents to its inmoil receiles by a
more compendious method than had been before adopted.
According to his plan, they were to complete their courfe
of (Indies in three years. In the execution of his method
he drew up a great number of treatifes on almofl all fubjefts
that could claim the attention of tlie young ; but by ftudy-
ing, v\Titing, and teaching, he ruined his health, and fell a
facrifice to his induilry .in the thirty-eighth year of his age.
His works have been pubhflied in two volumes, folio.

KECKLE, on Board a Ship. "When the cables gall in
the hawfc, or the bolt-rcpes do fo againft the (hip's quarter,
the feamen wind fome fmall ropes about tliera ; and this is
called kechUng.

KEI'JAS, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 15 miles
S.E. of Midnapour. — Alfo, a town of Syria, on the river
Jermuk, anciently called Cadera ; 56 miles N. of Jerufalem.

KEDE', or Qlade, a town of Africa, in the country
of the Foulahs; 40 miles W. of Kayor.

KEDE-FARAH, a town of Afiatia-Turkey, in the
government of Sivas, on the Kizilermack ; 30 miles W. of
Samfoun.

KEDGE, or KiDGE. Sec GrnP-osiA and M.^cra.v.

KEDGER, or Y.r.oGHL-anchor, in a Ship. See ANciion.

KEDGING, a (^.-a-term ufed wlicn a v&fi'el is brought up
or down a narrow river by the wind, though the tide be
contrary to it. '

To do this, the feamen fet their fore-fail, foretop faily
and mizen-fail, and let her drive witli the tide, that they
may flat her about. If flic come too near the fliore, they
have a littk anchor readv, called the kedger, or ieJge-anchtr,
with a hawfer faftened'to it from the fhlp ; and this they
drop in the midft of the current, by which means they wind
her head about ; and this done, take up the anchor again.

KEDGOORA, in Geography, a town of HiudooHan, in
Buhdelcund ; 30 miles N.N.E. of C:Jlingar.

K E E

KEDGREE, a toivn of Hindooftan ; 34 miles N.E.iof
Benares.

KEDHAM, a town of Upper Guinea, fituated on Uw
river Scherbro ; 2co miles- from its mouth.

KEDOUS, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 32.
miles \V. of Kintaja. . -

KEDRELjEON, Ckdkex.wom, in the Matirta M.-diea
of the JrxiesU, an oil' taken from the pLv cedri, or pitch of
the cedar-tree. ...

KEDKO'ii, in Geography. See Cedron.

KEEBLE, John, in Biography, an eminent organid and
harpfiehoid-madtr, who, in 1737, on Rofcingrave beiiig_
fuperfcded at St. George's, Hanover-fquare, on account of
the derangement of his intellefts, w^is appointed olnciating
organift of that church, upon half the falary, durrng the
life of his predeceffor. See Rcscingravk.

Mr. Keeblo was the firll performer on the organ at the
opening of Ranelagli, and at the fubfcriplion concert efta-
blifhed by Hickford at his room in Brewer's-ftrect. (See
HiCKFOKD.) He had Irkewife, to the end of his life, the
bc(t range of teaching of any mafter in London ; and wa»
fo fure of pupils of rank and fafhion, in the immediate vici-:
nity of his own refidencc, in Prince'3-ftreet, Hanover-fquare,
that he declined the attendar.ce of any others.

This able and experienced ma(ler, befides his praflical
abilities, had a paiTion for theoretical iludies, and ("pent his
leifure hours, during many years, in the inveftigation of the
mufic of the ancients, and the Harmonica, which fee. Ho
was fuppofed to die worth 30,000/. in 1786.

KEEFA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Algiers;
fix miles N.E. of Tipfa.

KEEL, in Botany. See Carina.

Keel, the lowed piece of timber in a fliip, placed in
the bottom of her hull ; one end thereof being let into the
ftern-poft, and the other into the Item.

If we compare the carcafe of a (liip to the (l^eleton of the'
human body, the keel may be confidered as thc_ back-bone,
and the timbers as the ribi. It, therefore, fiipports and
unites the whole fabric, Cnce the Rem and ftcrnpott, whith
arc elevated on its ends, are, in fome mcafure, a continuation
of the keel, and fcrve to conned and indole the extremities
of the fides by trsnloms ; as the keel forms and unites the
bottom by timbers. The keel is generally compofed of
feveral ihick pieces, placed lengthways, which, after being
fcarfed together, are bolted and clinched upon the upper
fide. When thefe pieces cannot be procured long enough
to afford a luificient depth to the keel, there is a (Irongthick
piece of timber bolted to the bottom thereof, called ihefi/fe
keel.

"When a fhip has a deep keel, fhe is faid to have a rani
keel ; and this ferves to keep her from rolling.

Keel is alfo a name given to a low flat-bottomed vefTel,
ufed in the river Tyne, to bring the coals down from New-
caille, and the adjacent parts, in order to load the colliers
for tranfportation.

Keel, upon an even, in Sea Language, denotes the pofition
of a (hip when her keel is parallel to the pLne of the hori.
zon, fo that (he is generally deep in the water at both ends.

\\¥.v.h-haHug, or Keel-raking, is a punifliment infliftcd at
fea, in the Dutch navy, on very great offenders, who are
drawn underneath the very keel of the (hip. See Ducking,

KEEL-ro/>;, a hair rope running between the keelfon and-
the keel of a fliip, to clear the limber-holes when they are;
choaked up with ballad, &c.

KEELAGE, Killagium, a privilege to demand money
for the bottoms of (liips reding in a p»rt or harbour.

i^ 0 a KELLERS,

K E E

KEELERS, in the Sea Languags, fmall tubs to hold
fluff to grave a fliip's bottuin.

K'EELING, a name ufedin feme Englilh 'Ariters for the
coinrt.on cod-fiil-. Sfc AsELLUS.

KEELSON is a kcd witliinlide fimikr fo that without,
upon the floor limbers exactly over the keel of the fame di-
meniiona, but always oak, keeping their butts or fcarfs
clear of each other : thus the bottom cf the fhip becomes
firmly united by bolts driven through every floor timber,
from the upper lide of the keelfon to the tender fide of the
keel.

KEEMA-KEDAN, in Geesraphy, a clnfter of fmall
ifl mds in the Eaft Indian fea, near the W. coaft of the
jlland of Eeyta. N. lat. lo' ;^o'. E long. 124° t^^'.

KEEiMd, in Natural Hijiory, a large ihell of" the cock!--
kmd ; probably, iays Marfden (Hid. of Sumatra, p. 9.) tlie
largell in the world. It is tound in the bay of Tappaiiooly,
in Sumatra, chiefly, and likewiiein other parts of the EalL
Thefe ihells are taken in deep water, by thrufting a long
bamboo between the valves as they lie open, and by the im-
mediate clofure which follows they are made fail. The
largeft, fays Mr. Marfden, which 1 have feen, was about
three to four feet over. The (hell is perfeftly white, and is
worked up like ivory by the natives.

KEENDUEM, in Geography, a river which rifes in Thibet,
and runs into the Irrawaddy, 40 miles below Ava. This
great river conws from the N.W. and divides the country
of Caffay from that of Ava. It is navigable, as far as
the Birman territory extends, for velTels of burthen. The
entrance of the Keenduem is about a mile wide.

KEENE, Edmund, in Biography, an Eiigliih prelate,
was born at Lynn, in Norfolk, of which place his father was
alderman. He was educated at Caius college, Cambridge,
and, in 1740, obtained the redory of Stanhope, in the
bilhopric of Durham. In 1750, he was chofen matter of St.
Ptter'i, college, and in a ftiort time after he ferved the office
of vice-chancellor, in which he promoted the regulations for
improving the difcipline of the univerfity. In 17,2, he was
iiiiiJe bilhop of Chetter, where he continued eighteen years,
when he was tranflated to Ely. He died in the year 1781.
He had a brother who was feveral years ambaflador at the
court of Madrid. Gen. Biog. DiiS.

Kke.se, in Geography, a poft-town of America, in New
Hampfliire, and one of the moll flourifliing in Chefliire
county; incorporated in 175^, and containing, in 1800,
1645 inhabitants. It is 86 miles N.W. from Botton.

KEENEEBALOV, or St. Peter'j, Moint, a lirge
mountain in the N. part of the ifland of Borneo, near which
are a people called Oran, Idaen, and Maroots, who offer
human facrifices to their deity. It is faid that they ai-e ac-
quainted with a fubtle poifon, in which they dip their fmall
dart«, and thus caufe a wound which produces inllant death.
KEEP, To, in Sea Language, is a term ufed on various
occafions : as

To leep the land chroad, is, to keep within fight of land as
much as pofiib'.e. See Hold.

To ke.'p the Ivjf, is to continue clofe to the wind, or to fail
with a courfe inclined to the direction of the wind as much
;;.'! poiUble, without deviating to leeward. This is alfo called
hep'mg the wind. See CLOav.-havled and LoOF.

To kc:p off, is to fail oft, or keep at a diilance from the
ihore. See Ori'iKG.

Keep, or Dungeon, the ftrong tower of an ancient cadle,
commonly placed on a high natural or artificial mount, into
which the garrifon retired when the cattle itfelf was taken.
The lake or cellar of fuch keep was generally ufed to confine
f riloners in.

K E E

KEEPER 0/ /^w Forejl, other wife called chief -warden 0/
the forej], is an ofliter who has the principal government of .lil
things belonging to a royal forett, and the check of all tt.c
other officers.

The lord chief juftice in eyre of the foreft, when he thii.t i
fit to hold his juliice feat, fends out his general fummoiis; to
the keeper forty days before, to warn all under-ofhcers ra
appear before him, at a day affigned in the fummon?. See
Ju.sTICE 0/ /Z'f /on/.

Keeper of the Greatfah is a lord by his office, and 't
ftyled lord keeper of the great feal. He is one of tlie king's
privy-council, through whofe liands pafs all charters, com.
miffions, and grants of the king under the great-feal ; with-
out which feal, all fuch iuttruments, by law, are of no force :
for the king is, in the interpretation of the law, a corpora-
tion, and paffes nothing firmly but under the faid feal ;
which is, as the public faith of the kingdom, in the higfielt
efteem and reputation.

The lord keeper has the fame place, authority, pre-emi-
nence, jnrifdiSion, execution of laws, and all other cuttonvs
commodities, and advantages, as the lord chancellor of
England has for the time being. Both thefe officers cannct
pruperly fubfitt at the fame time, fince the ftatute of ^ Eh/
The lord chancellor, or lord keeper, is fuperior in point e '
precedency to every temporal lord.

Keeper of the Privy-feal, is a lord by his office ; through
whofe hands pafs all charters figned by the king, before they
come to the great feal, and fome things which do not pals
the great-feal at all. He is of the king's privy council, and
was anciently called clerk of the privy feal ; yet reckoned in
the number of the great officers of the realm. 12 Ric. II.
c. II. 27 Hcn.VIlI. c. n.

Keeper, Boat, i« Sea Language, one of the rowers, who
remains as a centinel in his turn, to take care of any boat
and her contents, either when flie lies by the fliore, or along,-
fide of tlie fhip ; or when fhe is towed a-ftern of her.

Keeper, The, in Geography, ^\n'g\\ mountain in the county
of Tipperary, province of Munller, Ireland, which forms a
confpicuous objedl to a great extent of country. It is feven
miles S.S W. from Nenegh.

KEEPING, in Pu/w/m^, is a technical term, v.hich fig-
nifies the peculiar management of tho'e parts of the art, co-
louring and chiaro-fcuro, which produces the proper degree
of relievo in objcCls admitted into a compofition ; according
to their relative pofitions in the imagined fcene, and the de-
gree of importance the artiil attaches to them.

When he has chofen his lubjedl, and arranged his figures,
forms, and colours, liis next talk v.iU be, to give each objeCl
its local fituation, and to bring thofe forward in the pidture
which he intends fhould be moil impreffive on the beholder ;
or at leaft, fo to manage the furrounding ones, that thofe
which are principal in the fubjeft and compohtion, ftioulJ
not fail of their effeft. This may be effefted either by fhada
or colour : cither by throwing a Ihadow acvofa the inferior
objefts, or teinting them with a colour lefs bright than that
given to tl'.e others ; and even, in very {l<iiful hands, it may
be done by the very reverfe mode of practice to cither of
the above : but that is extremely difficult, and requin s
the knowledge and the hand of a great matter in the art to
execute it.

As the objc£ts recede in the ground-plane of the pifture,
the hue of tlie atmofphere intermixing with tiieir proper, or
local coluur, as it is termed, (thougli improperly lo,) will
affitt in tlieir keeping ; ;. e. will caufe them to appear at
their jutt dittance from the front figures. Therefore there
is lefs art required here, than in feparalmg and rounding
figures fi u.ited nearly in the fame plane, and combining to.
5 gether

KEF

rether in mafles, wherein the great difficulty of keeping

It wiH be Ceen by what ha? been faid, tliat keeping is but
another word for efrd in its more confined fcnfe, as it relates
to the individual objods of a pidure ; it is, itowcver, a com-
ponent part of rjft,! in it:; general and moll extenfivo mean-
ing ; of which it forms tho bafis in conjun£iion with arrange-
ment of forms and eolourt, ; which latter includes, in the
painter's eye, lights and Ihades. S<-e Effect, in Painting.

On keeping, relievo etitircly depends ; for if the lights,
(hadaws, and half-teints be not kept in their exaft relative
proportions of dupt lis, no rotundllv can be efft-dled ; and
without due oppolition of light, fiv-.de and colours, no ap-
parent reparation of ohieds can take place.

Whatever kind of effcd is intended, keeping mud be
called into action ; fmce each objetl mull have its own ap-
parent, proper, and local projedion ; and no lefs its relative
Itrength in regard to tlie general impreffiun which the fub-
jed is calculated to produce.

So much has been faid that applies to this artic'e under
the word Eifecl, that we forbear to enlarge further upon it,
than ju(l to date, that the Flemifli fchool may be moll ad-
vantageoufly lludicd with regard to it, m what relates to hif-
tory, portraiture, and lllll life : and in lamifcape, we would
add to Ruyfdale and Hohbima, the more valuable name of
Claude, as the painter wlio has produced the moll exquifite
produdions in art for the quality we are now difculTing.

KEEPITHEJA, in Botany, the name by which fome
authors call die trees, on the branches of which the gum laeca
of the Ihops is ufually found.

KEERA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Bog-
gilcutid j 12 miles E. of Kewah.

KEERETPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Sumbul ; lo miles S.S.W. of NiJjibabad.

KEERPOU, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal; 33
JTiiles S.S.W. of Burdwan. N. lat. 2Z^ 45. E. long.

KEERYSHUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; 22 miles S.S.W. of BomrauzepoUam.

KEESERA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Condapilly ; 16 miles N.W. of Condapilly.

KEEVE, in Rural Economy, a provincial term uftd to
fignify a vat in which beer is worked or fermented.

Keeve is alfo a veflel ufed in dreifing tin-ores. See
Tis.

KEFF, or Kefts, in Geography, a town of Africa, in
the kingdom of Tunis, reckoned the third for riches and
llrcngth in the country : anciently called " Sicca," or
*' Sicca Veneria." In the l8th century the citadel was
blown up, and afterwards rebuilt with additional ftrength
and beauty. In levcliing an adjacent mount on this occa.
fion an entire ftatue of Venus was dug up, which was in-
ftantly broken to pieces by the Moors. At the fame time
was dug up an equeftrian ftatue, dedicated to Marcus An-
toninus Rafu^, v^iiich fuftered the fame fate. Kcff, as its
name i.nports, is iituatcd upon the declivity of a hill, with a
plentiful fouice of water near the centre of it ; 70 miles
W.S-W. of Tunis. N. lat. 36 15'. E. long. 9 3'.

KEFFEKIL, in Mineralogy, a ftone of a white or yel-
low colour, foapy feel, and moderate hardiiefs, which in-
creafes in the fire. It is the fubftance of which the large
Turkey pipes are made. It is found in Krim Tartary, in
Canada, in Flanders, and in other places. Tlie Tartars
vife it inftead of foap, and it is fo ufed in Auftrian Flanders.
Wiegleb found it to confill of equal parts of magnefia
and lilex, whence it feems to operate as a. fuller's carih.
See Meeuschaum.

K E I

KEFFING, in Geography, a final! iiland in the Eaft In-
dian lea, near the S.E. coallof {he iflandof Ccrain. S. lat.
3'' 28'. E. long. 131" 11'. . '

KEFIL, a village of the Arabian Irak, famous for the
tomb of the prophet E/.ekiel, annually vilited by a multi-
tude of .lews : 14 miles S. of Helleh.

KEFKEBEH, a town of Natolia ; 20 miles N.E. of
Elkiniehr.

KEFKEN, a fmall iftand in the Black fea, near the
coall of Natolia. N lat. 41" 6'. E. long, ^o* 4c'. ,

KEFREEN, a town of Syria, on a liirge" plain to which
il gives name, diftinguiftied for the number of pigeons that
are bred there ; I, miles from Aleppo.
KEFT, or Kkfht. See Coi'To.^:.

KEHEEP, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore ; 4rniiIeB
S. of Attock.

KEH EMEND, a town of Perfia, in tiie province of
Farfiftan ; xc miles N. of Eftakar.

KEHL, a fortrefs in the duchy of Baden. At the
peace of Ryfwick in 1697, this fort was ceded to the em-
peror and eniprefs, and declared an imperial fortrefs. In
the war between France and Aullria, it was often taken and
retaken; 2 miles E. of Stralburg. Kehl was united to the
French empire by a decree of the Confervatory Senate in
.knuary i8c8, and made a part of the department of the
Lower Rhine.

KEHOA, atownof Afia, inTonquin, near the coaft..
N. lat. i^)" 12'. E. long. 105" 21'^

KEHRICZ, a town of Perfia, in Khorafan ; 70 miles
N. of Herat.

KEIA-REGIAN, a town of Perfia, in Irak ; 60 rniles
W. N.W. of Hamadan.-

KEIFLINGE, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Schoneni 6 miles N.E. of Lund.

KEI-GAM, a town of Corea ; 30 miles S.E. of Cou-
fou^

KEIGHLEY, a town of England, in the county of
York, fituated on a navigable canal, and having a market
on Wednefday. In 180T, the population confilled of 5745,
perforiE, of wVrom 34)6 were employed in trade and manu-
fadurc ; ii miles N. of Halifax, and 209 N.N.W. of
London.

KEIKEM, in the Jilaleria- Medica, a name given by the
Arabian writers to a gum ufed in their time for making of
varnilli..

Gu.n lacoa is generally faid to be the fubllance meant by
it, but Avicenna feems to exprefs by it every thing that wat
ufed as varnilh. Thus he fometimes mean.i by 11 the gum-
fandarach, and fometimes amber. The gum cancamum of.
the Greckb is alfo certainly often meant by it ; but this ia.
fcarce to be mentioned as an application of the word, it
being almoll as general a term as itfelf, and (landing with'
many of the old authors for fandarach, gum lac, and amber,
as well as for tlic gum properly exprclFcd by it. In ftiort,
all the gums ufed in making varnifti, are in general called by
the names of any one of them, and thus vernix, fandaracli,
cancamum, and lacca, are made fynonymous words, and
cither ftands for each of the things figniiied by all the
words.

KEIKIS, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the go-
vernment of Abo ; 48 miles N. of Biorneborg.
KELLAH. See Ckil.v.

KEILL, John-, in Biography, a celebrated mathema-
tician and philofopher, was born at Edinburgh in the ycur
1671; here alio he received his early education, and at the
univerfity purfued his maturer ftudics, and took his degree
ofM.A. He was particularly attached to Dr. Gregory,

K E I

'sho taught the tnathematics, and read a courfe of leftures
on the Newtonian philofophy. Under him and by his aid
he was enabled to make himfelf mafter of the " Principia,"
which he regarded as the ground-woik of his future ftudics.
In the vear 1694, Mr. Ke:ll went with his tutor to Oxford,
entered himfelf of Baliol college, and read leftures himfelf
in his own chambers upon natural and experimental philo-
fophy, by which he acquired confiderable reputation. As
an author, he firft appeared with an " Examination of Dr.
Burnet's Theory of the Earth," which led to a more ex-
tended controverfyon the fubjeft : in this he difplayed Very
commanding talents, and ably refuted the ingenious theories
of Dr. Burnet and Mr. Whilton. He readily admitted that
though the work, the errors of which lie undertook to ex-
pofe, was full of millakes in philofophy, yet none ever
abounded with more beautiful fccnes and furprifmg images
of nature. In 1700, he fucceeded Dr. Millington, who was
appointed phyUcian in ordinary to the king, as Sedleian pro-
fefibr of natural phi'ofophy, and read leftures in the public
fchools. He now removed to Chrift-church college, and, in
1702, hcpubhrtied his treatife, intitled " Introduclio ad ve-
ram Phyficam/' containing the fubftance of feveral leftures
on the new philofophy. This work met with a favourable re-
ception in his own and in foreign countries, and was confidered
as a good introdudlion to the Principia. In 1736, a new edi-
tion of it was printed in London at the wi(h of M. Maupertuis,
^o fubjoined to it a new hypothefis of his own concerning the
ring of the planet Saturn. In 1708, Mr. Keill was elefted
a member of the Royal Society, of which he proved himfelf
a very ufeful member, and enriched the Tranfafticns of
the Society with many valuable papers. In the following
year he made a voyage to Now England, as treafurer of the
JPalatines who were fent by government into that country,
and foon after his return, in the following J'car, he was
chofen Savilian profefTor of ail-onomy. Mr. Keill next
engaged in the contra^'erly refpeciip.g fir Ifaac Newton's
claim ttf the invention of fluxions: feveral letters pafled on
the fubjeft between M. Leibnitz and our author, till at
length a fpecial committee of the Royal Society was ap-
pointed to examine the merits of the cafe, which committee
concluded their report with declaring, that they reckoned fir
I. Newton the firit inventor of the method in quellion, and
that they were alfo of opinion that Mr. Keill, in aiTerVing
the fame, had been no ways injurious to M. Leibnitz. The
particulars of thefe proceedings may be found in a work to
which we have, in this Cyclopedia, already more than once
referred, viz. the " Commercium Epitlohcum'' of Mr. Col-
lins. The difpute was carried on for fome years in the
" Afta Eruditorum," and the " .Journal Litteraire.'" It was
generally admitted that Mr. Keill conducted himfelf in thefe
coiitefts with a great degree of firmnefs and fpirit, and that
he fatisfaftorily repelled the attacks upon the reputation of
our illullrious countryman. In 171 1, hepublilhed apaper
in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, « On the Rarity of Mat-
ter, &c." in which he points out various phenomena which
cannot be explained upon the fuppofuion of a plenum. About
this time queen Anrie was pleafed to appoint him to the office
of decypherer to her majeity, in which he continued till the
year 1716. In I7y, tlie u.iiverfity of Oxford conferred
iipon him the diploma of doftor of medicine, and two years
afterwards he publilhed an edition of Eiiclid, to which ho
added two tracts on Trigonometry and the Nature of Loga-
rithms. In the year 1718, Dr. Keill publifhed at Oxford
hit " Introduftio ad veram Allronomiam," which was after-
wards tranllated by himfelf into Englifh, at the requeil of
the' iihchefs of Chandos, under the title of "An Introduc-
tion to the true Allronomy," &c. The author did not long

K E 1

furvive this work. He died of a fever in the fumraer of 1 721?
being only in the 50th year of his age.

Keill, J.\ME.«i, an eminent phyfician, was born in Scot-
land on the 27th of March r673. Having received thi5
early part cf his education in his native country, he wenf
abroad with the view of completing it in the fcho&Is of
celebrity on the continent ; and obtained fuch a deg»-ee of:
knowledge as diftinguiflied him foon aficr his return to^
England. He had early applied to (lifTeifioiiB, and pur-
fued the ftudy of anatomy, under Duverney, at Paris ;
whence he was enabled to give anatomical lectures, with
great reputation, in both the Englifli univerfities. He'
was honoured with the degree of &I.D. by the univerlity-
of Cambridge. In 1703 lie fettled at Northampton, and
began the practice of his profcfilon, in which he attained
confiderable fame and fuccefs. In 1706 ho publillied a'
paper in the Philofophical Tranfaclions, N- 306, containing
" an account of the death and difTeftion of John Bayles,
of that town, reputed to have been 130 years old." Thecir-
cumftances which he detailed very much relembled thefe that
were obferved by the celebrated Harvey in the diirection of'
old Parr. Dr. Keill, like his brother John, was well (lulled
in mathematical learning, which he applied to the explana-
tion of the laws of the animal economy. His tirlt pub-
lication was a compendium of anatomy, for the ufe of the
pupils who attended his lectures, and was entitled, "The'
Anatomy of the Plunian Body abridged,'' i2mo. Lond.
1698, and was taken chiefly from Cowper : it went through
many editions. In the year 1 7c 8, he gave the world a proof
of his mathematical fl<i!i, in " An Accouut of Animal
Secretion, the Quantity of Blood in tlie Human Body, and
Mufcular Motion," Lond. 8vo. This work was reprinted
in 1717, with tlie addition of an effay, " concerning the Force
of the Heart in driving the Blood tliroi:gh the whole Bodyj"
and under the title of " Effays on feveral Parts of the Ani-
mal CEconomy." He likewife publilhed the fame treatife"
in Latin, with the addition of a " Mediciiia Statica Britan-
nica." The effay concerning the force of the heart drew
him into a controverfy with Dr. Jurin, which was carried,
on in feveral papers, printed in the Philofophical Tranf
actions of the iloyal Society, of which Dr. Keill had betn
e'ecled a member; and was continued to the tim.e of the
death of the latter, which took place at Northampton, on
the i6th of July 1619, in the vigour of his age. He had
for lome time laboured under a very painful diforder, u'=..
a cancer in the roof of his mouth, to which he had apphcd
the cautery with his oun hands, in order, if poffible, to.'
procure fome relief, but in vain. Eloy. Diet. Hill. Hulchin-
fon's Biog. Med.

KEILLESAY, in Geography, one of the fmallet;
Weftern iflands of Scotl^d ; 3 miles N.E. of Barray^
ifland. N. lat. ^-j" 2'. W. long. 7' 23'.

KEIM-HOl'UN, a town of Chinefe Tartary, in the
government of Kirin. N. lat. 44° 4J'. E. long. 1 ic^'-' 2^'i

KEIRAN, in the Oriental Learning, tiie Pcriian and
Arabic name for the planet Saturn, according to Salmafius.
See Chiun.

KEIRLEBERUS, JouS George, in Biography, bom
at Wiirtembcrg, was at once a philofopher, poet, and mu!:-
cian. In 1691, he compofed for the birth-day of the em*
peror .Tofeph I. a Latin poem, which he fct to mufic in a
perpetual canon of 16 vocal part.s, and i6 violin acconi-
paniments, in a different meU)dy ; a piece of pedantry
much admired by profeffors and deep dilettanti at the latter
end of the 17th century. He aftenvards" compofed another
perpetual canon in eight parts, four viol da gambas, two coun»
ter-tenors, and two tenors, with feveral other various and
comphcatcd

K E I

Complicated contrivances, as myftical, and as much refpedted
at the time as the oracles delivered by the Pythia.

KEIS Day, or S'mclalr's Bay, in Geography, a bay on
the E. coaft of Scotland, in the county of Caithnefs. N.
■lat. 58' 28'. W. long. 2= 58'.

KEISER., REiXHAnD, in Biography, a German com-
pofer of the fir'l clafs, for invention, 'ingenuity of accom-

• paniments, and number of his wovks. This admirable

• inuiician was born in 1673, *^ WeifTenfels in Saxony, and,
very early in his profcflional' career, appointed maellro di
cappella to the duke of Mecklenburg. Though his firft at-
tempt at dra:natic niuTic was a paftoral, called " Ifmena,"

•for Wolfenbuttle, which he fct in his 20th year, the year
■ following he compofed his opera of" Balilius," whicli was
'performed in the theatre at Hamburgh with very great ap-
plaufe ; and he continued writing for that ftage till the year

He was educated at LeipCc, where he was entered of that
univerfity. He began to ttudy""mufic in that city, but was
chiefly his own mailer, formii!g hinifelf upon the Italian
fchool, hj ftudying the bell productions of that cfountry.
His fecond opera for Hamburgh, " Adonis," ellablilhed
him in the favour of that city for the reft of his life. Ac-
cording to Matthefon, whatever words he fet on the fubjefl
of love, his mufic was peculiarly excellent. His operas, in
Hamburgh alone, amounted to ilS. • But belides Ins dra-
•matic productions, he compofed Jivfrtim/nri, Jirinatc, and
' cantatas innumerable. Indeed, this mailer was as fure of
■fancy and originality whenever he put pen to paper, as
Haydn in his tiuie. In a mannfcript collection of near
feventy cantatas by the greatell compofers of his time, both
of Italy and Germany, in which there are twelve by Keifer,
in opening the book by chance, in any part of it where his
cantatas are inferted, it is inftantly known to be his mufic,
at the firft glance ; fo new are the paflages, and fo different
"the arrangement of the notes from that of his companions
in this colleflion, amounting to near thirty of the firfl: order.
For grace and facility we do not recommend him : indeed,
'thefe excellencies were little known or fought during his
time ; but for modulation, ingenuity, and new ideas, he had
"fcarcely his equal.

In a converfation with the elegant and judicious Haffe
at Vienna in 1772, lie allured us that, according to his con-
ceptions, Keifer wat one of the greateft mulicians the world
ever faw. His compoCtions, he faid, were more voluminous
than thofe of Aleffandro Scarlatti ; and his melodies, though
then 70 years old, were Hill, hetliought, modern and grace-
ful. Adding, that this had been always his opinion ; and
he was not hkely to be prejudiced in his favour, as Ktifer
■wasL not his relation, his mailer, or even his acquaintance ;
but having lately looked at fome of his work?, he v»-as,ailo-
pifiicd to fee fo much more elegance, clcarnefs, and pleafing
jnclody than are to be .found in the produclions of molt
modern mafters, even now. " He compofed, indeed, chiefly .
for Hamburgh," Slgnior HafTe obfcryed, " and, in general,
to the German languaj^e, not beiiig very well vcrfed in that
of Italy ; fo that l^e often blundered in fetting Italian
jirords ; but he had'ahv2,ys merit of other kinds to compen-
fate for this defeft." ! . '.

. At this time, ail .pur own. knowledge. of this compofer
vras traditiQnal, as v/e were then totally unacquainted with
bis works ; but we can now fi>eak from deinonftration, and
our own examination of his works of. various kinds .vAieh
enati.ife.l all the vigour of a fertile iiiyention, and corredlncfs
«f ftu(ly nod experience.

KxiSER "s River, . in -Cto^xipliy^ a «vcr ^of Africa, . -at

K E K

the Cape of Good Hope, wliich dcfccnds from Table
mountain.

KEISKAMMA, a river of Africa, which runs into the
Indian fea, S. lat. 34' 40'.

KEITH, Ja.me.s, in Biography, a diftinguiftied general,
younger fon of George Keith, earl marfhal of Scotland,
by a daughter of Drummond, duke of Perth, was born in
1696, and educated at the college of Aberdeen. He was
an adlierent to the Stuart family, and engaged in their de-
fence in the year 1715- ; but on the defeat of his party he
was glad to efcape to France, where he applied to all the
- branches of knowledge ufeful in the mihtai-y profeflion.
He was admitted a member of the Academy 1 f Sciences
on account of his great proficiency in mathematics. He
travelled through many countries in Europe, ferved 10 years
in the Iridi brigades in Spain, and afterwards entered into
the Ruflian fervice, in which he was raifed to the rank of
■ bvigadier-generah In the war between the Rnfilans and the
Turks he gave the moll fignal difplays of courage and
heroifm, and was himfelf the firll to mount the breach at
the capture of Otchakof. He had a fhare in the war in
Finland, between the Swedes and Rullians, and was iniiru-
mental in placing the princefs Elizabeth on the 'hronc of
Ruflia. At the peace of Abo in 1743, he was fent am-
bafTador to the court of Stockholm, and on his return to
Peterlburgh he was honoured witli the marlhal's ftafl" ; but
as the emoluments of this office were inhifficient for his
fnpport, he accepted an invitation from Frederick king of
Pruflia, by whom he was honoured with cortfiderable ap-
pointments, and with his own perfonal friendlhip. In the war
of 1756 he entered Saxony in the quality of field marfhal ;
and in 17-8 he was killed, at tlie furprife of the camp of
HcKhkirchen, by count Daun. He was reckoned a very-
able general, and was highly ellimable in his private^ cha-
rafter. The king of Pruflia honoured his memory with a-
fine monument at Potzdam.

KEmi, in Geography, a parilh in the county of Banff,
Scotland, contains four hamlets or villages : I II, the rldto.Vu
of Keith ; 2d, the new town of Keith ; 3d, the new town
of New-Mill; and, 4th, the old town of New-Mill. The
old town is 'nearly deferted by the inhabitants iii con-
fequence of the fuperior advantages of the new town
This was commenced in the year 1750, by the carl of
Findlater, upon a barren moor, which was let in loti of
30 feet by 70. Here fcveral mai.ufaiflurers ellablilhed
themfelves, and the place gradua'ly increafed in houfes and
population. In 1 791 there were 1075 "^ ^'"^ ^ ■^'^'' ! ''"'^ '"
1800 the whole parifh contained 749 houfes, and 32S4 in-
habitants, Thefe. are comprifed within an area of about
fix miles in length, by frx in breadth. Flax-drcflTing,
fpinning, 'and weaving, are the chief branches of manu-
fafture : a tannery, diftillery, and' bleaching-iield, are' in-
cluded within the parifh. The pari(h-f"chool of Keith has
been long noted for its able mafters. Near old Keith, the
river Ifla, falUng over, fome h:gli rocks, forms a fine' caf-
cade, called the " Linn of Keith," James Fergufon, juftly
celebrated for his aftronomical and philofophical wiitihgg,
was a native of this parilh. V7itliiii the precini^1s-of the
parifh are fome druidical remains. Sinclair's Statiftfcal.
Account, vol. v. article written by the Rev. Alexander
Humphrey. .

.. KEKI, a'town of Jap?n, in the ifland of Ximo ; 1.; miles
N.N.Vs'-. o.f Naka. ' .

. K'EKIO. See Fern-O;/.

IIEKO, inCeography, alown of Hungary, with a caftie;
jj miles S.E.- of Korpona.

K E L

KELA, or QuiLLA, a town of Africa, on the Slave
C6>a(l, in the canton of Koto.

KELAIA,a town ofArabia.in the province of Hedsjas ;
50 miles E.S.E. of Calaat cl Moilah.

KELANG, or KiLAs-G, a fmall ittrnd in the EaR Tn-
dian fea. near the W. coail of the iilanj of Ceram. S. lat.
5 »'. E.long. 128'.

KELAR, a town of Perfia, in Irak ; 70 miles E S.E of
Cafhin.

KELAT, a town of Perfia, in the province of Khora-
fan, at the edge of a mountain furroundeJ by rocks : it
Avas taken by Timur Bee in 1382 ; 12 miles E. from Abi-
•verd.

KELES, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; :§
miles E.N E. of Ephefus.

KELHEIM, a town of Bavaria, fituatcd on an ifland
formed at the conflux of the .Vltmuhl and Danube ; 46
miles N.N.E. of Munich. N. lat. 48' 52'. E. long.
1 1^ ,2'.

KELIUB, or Kaljub, a town of Egypt, on the Ka-
lit's Abu Meneggi, the capital of a diftrici ; 6 miles N. of
Cairo.

KELL, in Rural Economy, a web, or kind of bag, in
which infects are bred.

KELLAH, in Geography, a to>vn of Abyflinia ; 75 miles
E. of Axum.

KELLER, JoHX BALTirASA«, in Biography, a cele-
brated artift, was born at Zurich in 163.S. Having learnt
-the art of a goldfmith, in whicli he difplayed great in-
genuity, he went to Paris by the invitation of his brother,
who held the polls of canon-founder, and commilTary of ar-
tillery to the king of France. While in the French ler-
vice he call a great many cannon, together with feveral
ftatues for the gardens of Verfailles ; but that by which he
is chiefly celebrated is the grand equeftrian Itatne of Lewis
XIV. executed after the model of Girardon. He was made
infpeiflor of the foundery'at the arfenal, and died at Paris in
the year 1702. Gen. Biog.

Keller, Godfrev, a native of Germany, who fettled
in England about the beginning of the lall century, and
had much praflice as a harpfichord mailer. In 1711, he
publilhed. at Amfterdam, fix fonatas, engraved on copper-
plates ; of which the three fird were for two violins, a tenor,
a trumpet or hautbois, and a bafs ; the three lad for two
flutes, two hauttois or violins, and a baflo continuo. Tliefe
the author dedicated to queen Anne. After this he arid
Finger pubhihed fonatas, jointly, in five parts.

As a compofer, Keller was foon forgotten ; but he was
remembered a confiderable time as the author of a poflhu-
mous treatife on thorough-hafe, which he had finilhed, but
did not live to publifli. It was, however, printed, a fliort
time after, by CuUen at the Buck, between the Temple
gates and Fleet-llroet, with the follov/ing ample title : " A
.complete Method for the attaining to play a Thorough-
Bafe upon cither Organ, Harpfichord, or Theorbo-Lute ;
by the late famous Mr. Godfrey Keller, with Variety of
proper LelFons and Fugues, explaining the feveral Rules
throughout the whole Work ; and a Scale for tuning the
Harpfichord or Spinet, all taken from his own Copies, which
he did defign to print."

This treatife, though meagre, was the beft our country
could boall, till Lampe, in 1737, publifhed iiis " Plain and
Compendious Metliod of teaching Thorough-Bafe, after a
moil rational Manner, with proper Rules for practice ; the
Examples and I.,effon8 curioufly engraved on Copper-
plates." Of tliis work we ihall fpu-jik hereafter. See
t,AMi>i:.

K E L

KELLERAMPT, in Gfof,v//.Ay, a bailiwick of Swit-
zcrland ; in the canton of Zurich, al wliich Bremgarten is
the principal place.

KELLEY, Edward, in Biography, the afibciate of Mr.
Dee (to whofe article the reader is referred), in his incanta-
tions, was born at Worcefter in the year 1,^55;. He was edu-
CMted in giaminar learning m his native city, and at the age of
fevcnteen he was fent to the univerfity of Oxford. According
to Anthony Wood he left Oxford very abruptly, and in his
peregrinations behaved lb ill, and comn\ilted lo many foul
matters, that at Lancaller he was for fome offence deprived
of his ears. After this he became acquainted with Mr.
Dee, and, as we have feen, they fet out for the continent.
For fome time Kelley lived in a very expenfive flyle, fup.
ported, probably, by the contributions which he levied 00
the credulou'!, till he was ordered into confinement by the
emperor Rodulpli. He obtained his releafe, and conciliated
the favour of the prince, who conferred on him the honour
of knightlwod. Freih dilcuveries of his knavery occafioned
a fecond iniprifonment, and in attempting to efcape from the
place of his confinement, he met with an accident which put
an end to his life in the year 1 5 95. He was author of
feveral works, of which " A Poem on Chemiftry," and
another on " The Pl^iiofopher's Stone," were inferted in
Afhmole's " Theatrum Chymicum Britannicum." He
publilhed at Hamburgh, in 1 6;6, a treatife, " De Lapide
Philofophorum ;" he was author, likewife, of " A True and
faithful Relation of what paffed, for many Years, between
Dr. John Dee and fome Spirits, &c." Several of his MSS,
are Hill preferved in the Aflimolean Mufeum, at Oxford.
Wood's Athen.

Kelley, Hugh, a dramatic writer, was a native of Ire-
land, and bred a llay-maker, which profeffion he quitted
when he came to London, and became writer to an attorney.
He afterwards obtained a livelihood by his pen, and was
author of the following pieces: " Falfe Delicacy;" "A
Word for the Wife ;" " The School for Wives j" « The
Romance of an Hour." Thefe, as their titles denote, are
all comedies. He was author alfo of " Clementina," a
tragedy ; " Thefpis," a poem ; " Memoirs of a Magda-
len ;" " The Babbler ;" and a colkaion of Eflays. He
died in the year 1777.

KELLI, in Geography, a town and fortrcfs of Hin.
dooftan, in the country of Tanjore ; 27 miles S. of Tan-
jore. N. lat. 10^ 20'. E. long. 79° 7'.

KELLINORE, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carna-
tic ; 10 miles N. of Pondicherry.

KELLS, a market and pod-town of the county of
Mcath, province of Leinfter, Ireland. It was in former
times a city of note, and on the arrival of the Englifli wa»
walled and fortified with towers : a calUc was built in 1 178,
and there were feveral religious houfes. It was alfo a bo-
rough town, which, before the Union, fent two burgefles to
parliament. Kells is 32 miles N.W. from Dublin on the
river Blackwater, and nearly eight from Navan.

KELLY, Earl of, in Biography, an illuflrious dilet-
tante mufician, in whom were united ai)plication, genius,
and a powerful hand on the violin. This nobleman went
through all the gradations of dudy neceffary to form a,
profound contrapuntill. When he quitted Great Britain to
make the tour of Germany, according to Pinto, he could
fcarcely tune his violin ; but ftopping at Manheim, he
heard the beil indrumental mufic in Europe, and {hut
himfelf up with the elder St.imitz, whofe originality and fire
fet his young pupil in a blaze, and fo congenial were the
tade and difpofition of the fcholar and the mailer, that they
feemed the growth of the fame foil. The fame energy and

enthufiHiro

K E L

tntTinfiafm wliich had lifted Stamitz above liis follows of the
Manheim fchool, ftimulatcd the young carl to ftiidy coinpo-
fitioii, and praftife tlie violin with fuch feriinis application,
that, on liis return to England, there was no part of theo-
retical or praftical mnfic in which he was not equally verfed
with the greatcft profefTors of his time. Indeed, he had a
fteength of hand on the violin, and a genius for conipolition,
with which few profefTors are gifted. His ear was fo cor-
rect, and his perception fo acute, that in the midft of a
turlmk-iit and tumultuous movement <if a fymphony in twelve
or fourteen parts, if any intlrumcut failed either in time or
tune, though playing a different and diflicult part himfelf,
he in'laiuly prompted the erroneous performer witli his
voice, by iiii<rni'^ his part witliout abandoning his own.

KELLY.SBURG, in Geography, a townfliip of America,
in Chit'enden county, Vermont, at tiie he?d of the north
branch of La Moille river.

KELMEE, a town of Hindooftan, in the Baglana coun-
trv, on the coall ; 1 6 miles N. of Baffcen.
'KELMEBElv, a town of Natolia ; 28 miles E. of Per-

Eall Gothland ; 23
miles N. of I.inkioping.

KELNAR, a town of Caraniania, near the coalt of the
Mediterranean ; 1 2 miles W. of Selcf keli.

KEENER, in B'n/gritpliy, a German mufician, who came
into England early in the lall century, and performed on the
double-bafe in the theatres and concerts of the time. Hav-
ing attached himfelf to Dr. Pepufcli, liis venerable country-
man, it was found, at the doftor's deceafc, that the moll
curious books and MSS. of his valuable library at the
Charter-houfe, were bequeathed to Kelner and Travers,
another of the doctor's couftant attendants, who both dying
fo m after their bequell was known, that, and the remainder
of the molt curious and inellimable mulical library perhaps
in Europe, were fold piece-meal, difpofed of and embezzled,
in a manner difficult to defciibe or underftand. Sec 1*K-
puscil, and Miifcnl 'L\m\..\v.\.

KELP, in Agriculture a term applied to the mineral alkali
in its more impure Hate ; the kelp of commerce contains the
allies of the plant that aff )rds it, and is found to be a good
iiuinnre. SeeCAKUONAT of Soda.

KELSAL'S Island, in Geography, a fmall illand in the
Mergui Arcliipelago, feparated from the S.E. extremity of
the iflaiid of St. Sufaima, by Alderfey's llraits. N. lat.
10 2-'.

KELSO, a town in tlie county of Roxburgh, Scotland,
is built on a fpot where the rivers Tcvid and Tweed unite
their llrcanis, and is nearly furrounded with eminences co-
vered wi:h trees. Hence tlie fceiicry is particularly pic-
turcfquc and plealing. Tlie lioufes are arranged round a
large fqujre. and on the tides of fix ilivets, which diverge
from the fquare in nearly a regular and uniform manner.
The town lioufe, with fhops and fome of the principal dwel-
lings, arc in the fquare. Ii the town are the parifli-church
and an epifcopal chapel, which are defcribed as handfome
Itruftures. Among the public buildings are a difpenfary,
a public fubfcription library, and a modern bridge over the
Tweed, ereAed in the place of a fornier one, fwept away
by a Hood in 1798. A church was founded here in 1138 ;
and a monallery was transferred from Selkirk to this place
by David I., who " conferred on the monks this village,
with its linds and waters, free from all exaillion." David II.
granted to the abbot a free-market here. " The town of
Kel'o ihared the fate of the abbey during the hollile con-
flifts between the kindivd nations in being often plundered
and fometimes fired." In the years 1522, 1542, and 154.}.,

Vol.. XIX.

K E L

it was greatly damaged from the border warriors. The
town was almolt dellroyed in 1686 by an accidental tire, and
about the middle of the lall century, it fuftained great da-
niap^e from the fame caufe.

David II. conllitutcd the town of Kelfo, with the ba-
rony of Bolden, and other lands, a free regality. This was
converted, in 1607, into a lordfliip in favour of Robert Kerr,
earl of Roxburgh. The duke of Roxburgh is proprietor
of the lands here. The principal trade of Kelfo is the
manufafture of woollen cloth, and dreiiing of (lieep and
lambs' |]<ins, of which it is fuppofed that from 70,000 to
80,000 are annually exported. Great numbers of hoots and
Ihocs are annually made here. This place is much reforted
to by gentlemen who attend the " Caledonian hunt," and
by others on acconnt of the races. The abbey buildings of
Kelfo have been very extenfive and grand. At prefcnt its
ruined church prcfents many interelling fragments of Norman
architefture. Mr. Pennant remarks, that the " environs of
Kelfo are very fine, and the inhabitants have much reafon to
boall of their profpeds." In the vicinity of the town arc
feveral feats of the nobility and gentry : FIcurs, " the mag-
nillcent feat" of the duke (--f Roxb^jirgh ; Springwood-park,
the relidence of fir George Douglas, bart. ; Soft law-tower,
Mr ProClor's; Rofc-bank, captain Scott's ; Pinnacle-hill,
Mr. Davidfon's ; Wooden, Mr. Walker's; &c. In iSoo,
Kelfo contained 527 houfes, and 4196 inhabitants. Chal-
mers's Caledonia, vol. ii. Sinclair's Statiltical Account,
vol. X p 576. Pennant's Tour to Scotland.

KELTAN, a town of Thibet; 40 miles E.N.E. of
LalTa.

KELTANPUSITACLIAN, a town of Tliibet ; 53
miles W. of Sgigatclie.

KELTSCH, a town of Moravi.i, in the circle of Pre-
rau ; 14 miles E. of Prerau.

KELVAN.atownof Perfia,inFainilan; iSmilcsEN.E.
of Schiras.

KELVEH, a town of Perfia, in the province of Mecran,
on the NeluMik ; 2S0 miles S.E. of Zaiviig. N lat. 28 50".
E. long 65 48.

KELVIN, a liver of Ireland, in the county of London-
derry, which runs into the Rue, about 4! miles S. from
Newtown Liniavaddv.

KELVIO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Ulea ;
nine miles E N.E. of Gamla Karlebv.

KEL\VAY, JosKPii, in Bingmphy, the beft extempo-
raneous performer on the organ, and neatell harpfichord
plaver among the natives of our ov.ii country, during the
middle of the laft century. He had been, early in his life,
apprenticed to a dancing-mailer at I'ath ; but having at-
tempted the harplichoid, and received a few leflons from
old Chilcot, he had made fuch a progrefs on that inftru-
ment, that Gemiiiiaiii, happening to hear him, dilcoven d a
hand and difpofition fo promiling, that he not only encou-
raged him to Ihidy mufic as a profeffion, but gave him in-
ftruttions. And his llyle of playing ever after more
refemblcd the compofitions of Geminiani than thofe of
Handel, which all other organiils fcrvilely copied. The
broken phrafes and rhapfodical flights of Geminiani often
feem more hke voluntary playing than regular compofition.
Stanley's voluntaries were fo (mootli and well-phraled, that
they feemed pieces played by incmory |»but Ktlway's ex-
tempore playing, in the ilyle of Geminiani, never had tJie air
of iludied pieces.

In removing from P)ath to London, Kclway was foon

noticed, and eledted organill of St. Michael's, Cornhill,

where he did not long remain ; for on the death of Wcldoii,

he refigncd the organ at St. Michael's cliuich to Mr., after-

4 X ward*

K E M

xvdrds Dr., Boyce ; and was elefted organift of tlie king's
parifli church, St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, where, of a Sun-
day afternoon, it was the cuftom, not only for young or-
ganifts, but the principal profeffors, to crowd under the
organ-loft to hear his voluntaries ; in which there was an
original and mafterly wildnefs, which long fupported his
charafter as a great player, in a flyle totally different from
other organiils ; bold, rapid, and fanciful.

With his harpfichord playing we were unacquainted ; but
we have often been affured, that he conftantly kept in high
praftice, Scarlatti's belt and moft difficult leflbns, which he
executed in a manner peculituly neat and delicate. As to
compofition, it is to be lamented tliat he did not exercife
his pen and fancy more early in life, or that he ever attempted
it at all : for on the arrival of Bach, and appointment at
court as chamber-mufician to the queen, to whom he dedi-
cated his firll publication in this country, Mr. Kelway thought
it neceffary, as mufic-mailer to her majefty, to publidi a
book of harpfichord leffons, which are, perhaps, the moll
crude, aukward, and unplcafant pieces of the kind that have
ever been engraved. There is a manifeil want of facility
and experience, which proves, that though he was old in
praftical mufic, he was young in its theory and in com-
poiition.

Handel, who ufed to go frequently to St. Martin's
church to hear him play, always, when indifpofed, requelled
Kelway to play the organ for him in Ids oratorios.

This adinirable performer, the inoH brilliant we ever heard,
in point of fancy and finger, lived to a great age, but, un-
happily, during the lad years of his life, his intellects were
fomewhat deranged. He died in 17S2, and was fucceeded
at St. Martin's church by Dr. Benjamin Cook, organill of
Weltminiler Abbey.

KEMA, in Geography, a town on the E. coaft of the
ifland of Celebes. N. lat. i' 8'. E. long. 125- 2'.

KENf A, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by Leo Afri-
canus, and other writers of the African hiftory, to a fort
of . fubterranean production of the vegetable kind, greatly
efteemed as a delicious food. The Arabian writers on me-
dicine have often mentioned it, and that under names fuffi-
ciently refembling the modern African appellation, fuch as
iamahe, camah, L-emah, and camha. They are not the roots
of any plant, but a fine kind of fubterraneous murtiroom, or
truffle, white on the out fide, and which lie generally pretty
deep in the earth.

KEM.AOON, in Geography, a fmall ftate, which, with
others, forms a tract of country feparated from Hindooftan
by lofty mountains, and utuated to the N. of Oude and
Rohllcund.

KEMAR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; eight
niiles S. of Sinob.

KEMBELA, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Ulea ; five miles S. of Ulca.

KEMBERG, a town of Saxony ; fix miles S. of Wit-
tenberg.

KEMER, a town of Afiatic Turkev, in the government
of Trebifond ; i 2 miles E.N.E. of Rileh.

KEMGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 27 miles
N.N.E. of Durbunga.

KEMI, a town of Ruflia, in the government of Olonetz,
at the mouth of the river Kem, on the W. of the White
fea. N. lat. 64^ 55'. E.long. 28 38'. — Alfo, a fea-port
town of Sweden, in Ealt Bothnia, fituated on the right bank
of the river Kemi, which runs into the gulf of Bothnia, about
three miles from its mouth; 10 miles E. of Tornen. N.
lat. 66' 49', E. long. 24" 2;'.

K E M

KEMIJ.'\N, a town of Hindooilan, in Bahar ; 31 miles
S.S.W. of Patna.

KEMITRASK,atown of Sweden, in Ealt Bothnia, at
the N. extremity of a confiderable lake formed in the river
Kemi ; 90 miles N.E. of Kemi. N. lat. 6642'. E.long.
27 14'.

KEMLUC, or Ghio, a town of Afiatic Turkey, on tlje
b.iv of the fea of Marmora ; 20 miles W. of Ifnik.

KEMMOO, a town of Africa, the metropohs of Kaarta •■,
formerly large and populous, but deftroyed fince it was
vifi'ed by Mr. Park. N. lat. 14' 20 . V/. long. 7" 46'.

KEMNAT, a town of Bavaria ; 26 miles N. of Am-
berg. N. lat. 49" 53'. E. long. 1 1" Jj'.

KEMNITZ, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Jauer, on a river of the fame name, which runs into the
Bober ; fix miles W. of Hirfchberg.

KEMPACH, a town of Tyrol ; fix miles N. W. of
Schwas.

KEMPEN, a town of France, in the depai-tment of the
Roer, and chief place of a canton, in the diltrift of Cre-
veldt ; 15 miles N.E. of Ruremond. The place contains
2870, and the canton 12,830 inhabitants, in 12 communes.
It formerly contained a college and three convents, wirh
fome linen manufadtures. — Alfo, a town of the duchy of
Warfaw % 26 miles S. of Siradia.

KEMPFERA, in Botany, fo named by Houftoun, in
honour of Dr. Engelbert Kempfer, or rather Ksempfer,
the celebrated traveller and naturalift. See Vekben-a, and
K/t;mpff.r.

KEMPIS, Thom.\s a, in Biography, was born in the
year 1 3S0, at a vil'age in the diocefe of Cologne, whence he
derived his furname. The circumftances of his p.irents were
fuch as led them to feek for hmi an education on a charitable
foundation. At this place he was dittinguifhed for his ta-
lents, piety, and attachm.ent to a contemplative hfe. He
entered the monailery of Mount St. Agnes, received the
habit in 1406, and was ordained prieit in 1423. He occa-
fionally filled very important pofts of his order, though it
was much againft his v.-ill that he engaged at all in tiie aftive
duties of life. He died in 147 1, at the advanced age of
ninety-two. His works are chiefly devotional, and written
in an animated ftyle. The m.olt complete edition of them
is in three volumes, octavo, publilhed at Antwerp in 1600,
and in 1615. Many of them have been tranflated into a
variety of languages, particularly that entitled " De Imita-
tione Chrifti," which is to be found in almoft every known
tongue in the world. The bell Enghlh verfion is that by
Dr. George Stanhope, which was printed in 1696, and has
been feveral times reprinted. The learned are not agreed
as to the real author of this celebrated work, though given
to Thomas a Kempis by general confent, many have offered
reafons why he cannot be the writer. The queftion was
w^irmly agitated for fixty years, and gave rife to many
curious difcuffions, an account of which is given byDupin.

KEMPSVILLE, in Geography, apoft-town of America,
in Prince Ann county, Virginia ; 243 miles from Wash-
ington.

KEMPTEN, a town of Bavarb, on the river Her, lately
Imperial, The burghers and magillracy profefs Lutheran-
ifm, and in the tov.m are a handiome pariih church and a
grammar fchool. In 1801, this town and its abbey were
given to the eleth^r of Bavaria ; 36 miles S. of Augfburg.
N. lat. 47-' 43'. E. long. lo- 17'. — .\lfo, a princely abbey,
founded, or at leaft repaired and enriched, by Hildegard,
wife of Charlemagne, in the 8th century. To this abbey
belonged fome towns and villages.

7 KEMSER,

KEN

KEMSER, a town of Bengal ; 15 miles S.S.E. of Cur-
ruckpour.

KEMSKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Tobolfl-c. N. lat. 57- 2j'. E. long. 92°.

KEN. Thomas, in Biography, an Englidi prelate, was
born at Berkhamaead, in Hertforddiire, in the year 1637.
He received liis claffical education at Wincheller fchnol, was
eleSed fcholar, and removed in dnt* time to New-College,
Oxford, of which he was chofen fello*'. After taking his
degrees be entered into holy orders, and became chaplain to
lord Maynard, comptroller of tlie houfhold to kmg Charles
II. In 1666, he was chofen fcUew of Winchefter college,
and in- a (hort time afterwards was appointed domeilic chap-
lain to Dr. Morlcy, bilhop of Winchefter, from whom he
received a prefentation to the rectory of Brixton, in the llle
of Wight, and afterwards, in 1669, to a prebend in the
churclf of Winchefter. About the year 1673, the fame
friend and patron gave him the reftory of Woodhey, m
Hampihire, which, however, he foon refigned, conceivmg that
he ought to be fatislied with the emoluments which he had
previoufly poflcfFed. In 1675, '^^ ^^^"'^' '" company with his
nephew, Mr. Ifaac Walton, to Rome, and on his return he
ufed to fay he was grateful for the eft'eA produced by the
journev, inafmuch as he was more ft;rongly confirmed in his
belief of the excellence of the reformed religion, by wntneffing
the abfurdities of the fupcrftitions praClifed abroad. In
1679, he took his degree of doctor of divinity, and being
appointed chaplain to the princefs of Orange, he went to
Holland. He difcharged the duties of his office with fo
much prudence and zeal, as to fecure the efteem and confi-
dence of his royal miftrefs, but he mcurred the temporary
difpleafure of her confort, afterwards William III. of Eng-
land, by obliging one of his favourites to fulfil his engage-
ment to a young lady of the princefs's train, whom he had
feduced under "a promife of marriage. On his arrival in
England he was appointed chaplain to lord Dartmouth, who
received a commiffion to demolifh the fortifications of Tan-
giers, and on his return from this expedition, he was imme-
diately advanced to be chaplain to the king, by an exprefs
order from his majeily, who hoped thereby to render him
fubfervient to his mezrfures, and to the laxity of his morals.
When the court removed to Winciiefter, the fovereign de-
fired Dr. Ken to admit into his prebendal houfe Eleanor
Gwyn, one of the king's miftreffes, but he pofitively refufed
to fubmit to an arrangement which might appear to give
countenance to vice ; and Charles, fo far from being offended
with this decifive proof of religious intrepidity, took an early
opportunity of raifing him to the epifcopal bench, by pre-
fenting him with the fee of Bath and Wells. Within a few
days of this appointment the king was attacked by his lait
iUiiefs, during which the bifhop attended him in the moft
fedulous manner, endeavouring, though, it is faid, meffeftu-
ally, to awaken the king's confcience te a fenfe of forrow
for his paft profligate hfe. Neverthelefs the bifhop did not
hefitate to pronounce abfolution over his majefty wnthout re-
ceiving any declaration of repentance, for which he has been
defervedly cenfured ; though it is to be feared, that almoft
all death-bed repentances, being the elTeCl of dread of the
future, can avail the fuppofed penitents very little with re-
gard to a future ftate. The hilltop was exemplary in per-
forming the duties of his llatioo, and was inceffantly; de-
vifing means for relieving the poor, and inilruaing the igno-
rant. With this view he built the firit workhoufe at Weils,
-.vhich has proved the model for numbers tiiat have been
ereded fince his time ; and he eftablifhed many fchools in
all the great towns of hisdiocefe. To thcfe, and many other
fimilar object-, Dr. Ken devoted the principal part of the

KEN

income of his fee. He was a warm friend to the doiSrine
of paflive obedience and non-refiftance, and on that account
was at firft well received by Jaraes II., but when that princo
endeavoured to introduce popery as the eftablilhed religion
of tlie country, he found it expedient to act upon more
conftitutional grounds, and to oppofe tlie meafures of the
court with fpirit and zeal. He was one of the fevcn bifliops
fent to the Tower for refilling that monarch's difpciifing
power, and for petitioning in belialf of their own and the
people's rights. The bilhop and his brethren, tliough
charged with high treafon, were honourably actpiitted, to
the inexpreflible joy of every friend to the country. At the
Revolution he refufed to transfer hit allegiance to the new fo-
vereigns, and, declining to take the oaths required of him,
was deprived of his biftiopric. He now lived a life of re-
tirement, but cojifidered himfclf ftill as bidiop in right,
though not in fad, conceiving that no human power coulif
feparate him from the relationfhip which he bore to liis dio-
cefe. Upon the death of his firft fucceffor, Dr. Kidder, he
urged Dr. Hooper, who had been nominated to the vacaiit
biftiopric, to accept it, and ever afterwards figncd himfelf
" late bilhop of Bath and Wells.'' From this time the queen
fettled on him a penfion of 200/. per ann. which he enjoyi-d
fo long as he lived. Ho died, as he was on a journey to Bath,
in Miu-ch 1 7 10-11, in the 74th year of his age. He had
been in the habit of travelling many years with his ftiroud
in his portmanteau, which he always put on when attacked
by i'.lnefs : of this he gave notice the day before his death,
in order to prevent his body from being ft ripped. His works,
which are all of a theological and praAical turn, were col-
lected, in 1 72 1, in four volumes octavo. Biog. Brit.

Kex, in Geographf, a town of Hindooftan, in the pro-
vince of Behker; 20 miles N. of Behker.— Alio, a fmall
low idand in the Perfian gulf, in which arc a few ihrubs.'
N. lat. 27' J4'. E. long. 50' 76'.

KEN.AMOW, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 30 miles
S.S.E. of Caunpour.

KENAPOOSSAN, a fmall iflai-.d in the Eaft Indian
fea, in the Sooloo Archipelago. N. lat. 5- 12'. E. long.
120' 23'.

KENAREI-HAV AZ, a town of Hindooftan, in Moul-
tan ; 20 milts E. of Batnir.

KENAWAS, a town of Hindooft^an, in the circar of
Kitchwarah ; 1 7 miles W. of Sheergur.

KENCHES TER. See Auicoxiu.m and Hereford.

KENDAL, or Kentdale, a market town and parifti
in the ward of Kendal, and county of Weftmoreland, Eng-
land, is built in a pkafnnt valley on the weftern banks of
the river Kent, over which there are three bridges. The
town confifts of one principal ftrect running north and fouth,
with feveral fmaller ones branching off at right angles. Ken-
dal has long been famed for its manufafture of cottons. In
the year iSoo, Houfeman ftates that the town contained 12
manufaftories engaged in this bufinefs, and that about i2CO
pieces of cotton were made weekly, each of which contained
about 24 pounds of v.-ool. The bufinefs was then increafing.
Eight houfes were alfo engaged in the linfey manufaftuies,
and " feveral other manufactures of lefs confequence are car-
ried on. There are likewife a confiderable number of perfons
employed in working and pohfliing marble, which, in the
beauty and variety of its colours, is thought by many to be
fuperior even to that imported from Greece and Italy. Mr.
Wakefield manufafturcs large quantities of gunpowder at
Lis mills a little below the town.' The public biii'dings ot
Kendal are the churcii, a large and commodious workhouie,
and a bridewell. Near the church is a handfome houle
called Abbot-hall, the property of fir Alan Chambrc, one
4X2 ot

KEN

of the judges of the court of common pleas. To the ead
of the town are the remains of a cafUe, which is fuppofed to
have been built by the firll barons of Kendal. It was for-
merly a place of corfidcrablo extent and llrength ; but its
towers and wallj are much mutilated and reduced. Parts of
two fquare and two round towers, however, Hill remain, as
well as great part of the wall round the outer liallium. An-
other objeft of antiquity is an artificial mount, called by the
inhabitants Caftle-law-hilL In the town are chapeh. for
Quakers, Methodills, Pre^yteriairs, and Roman Catholics.
Tlie chief manufafturers and tradefmen of the town are
united into twelve companies, each of which has a hall :
-.•/:: Mercers, Tanners, Glovers, Sheermcn, Cordwainers,
Taylors, Pewterers, &c. Kendal is 2 2 miles from Lan-
cafter, and 260 N. of London. In the year iSoo it con-
tained 1424 houl'es, and 6892 inhabitants. Nichoifon and
liurn's Hillory of Wellnioreland, Sec. two vols. 410. ; and
Houfeman's " Defcriptive Tour through various Northern
Counties," &c. 8vo. iSoo.

RENDER, a town of Hindooftan, in Sehaurunpour ;
Xo miles N. of Sehaurunpour. — Alfo, a town of Ci'.rdillan;
rB miles SAV. of Ik-tlis.

KENDRICKs Island, an idand which forms the W.
Cde of Nootka Sound, into which there is an entrance from
the \V. by Maffachufctt's Sound, along the northern fide^
of the ill'and.

KENDUSKE AG, a river of America, which runs into
the Penobfcot at the town of Bangor, about two miles be-
low the head of the tide ; where is a thriving vidage
cf handfomc houfes, and a place of tlie greateil trade in the
river.

KENDY, a town of Bengal ; 50 miles N.N.E. of Ram-
gur. N. lat. 24~ 16'. E. long. 85- 6'.
KENE'. SeeC.BNF.'andGniNNA.

KENEE, a town of Perlia, in the province of Khora-
fan ; 4, miles N. of Herat.

KENERA, or Kenereii, a mountain on the iflind of
Salfette, near Bombay, celebrated for the number aad extent
of its excavations. Its principal cavern is arched, in the
ftyle of that defcribed under the article Kakly; and was
evidently, from its ftile of fculpture, a temple of the god
Budha.'or Boodli. (See Boodh.) On each fide of the
veilibule are (landing figures of the god, in eafy attitudes,
of tolerable proportions, and well fculptured in alto-relievo,
fourteen feel high. This cave and three figures are ele-
gantly reprefented in Daniel's fine feries of oriental fcenery.
See Kaklv.

KENFIG, or Cynek;, a parifh of Glamorganfhire, South
Wales, is noticed in this work, chiefly to correcl the errors
of other topographical writings ; in molt of which it is
defcribed as a town. Mr. Donavan, in his " Defcriptive
Excurfions through South Wales,'" defcribes it as a poor,
fmall village, inhabited moftlv by failors and fmugglers, and
reprefents thefe as being particukrly rude and infulting to
ftrangers. A duller of mean cottages, grouped together,
with a church on a ridge of rifing ground, conftitute this
village. In this parilh is Kenfig-pool, a lake of frefh water,
which " IS embolomed in a deprefiion of an irregular form,
in the midll of lands that have been apparently drifted upon
this fpot from the contiguous coall, and though lying within
a very Ihort diftance of the fea at flood tide, invariably re-
tains its freflmefs pure and untainted by the m.uriatic pro-
perties of the former. The circumference of this pool is
cilimated at a mile and three quarters. The dcpih is great
in fome plants. Indeed it has the reputation of being, in
many parts, unfatiiomable." It is traditionally faid, that a
town formerly occupied this fpot, and that it was fwallov.cd

KEN

up by an earthquake. At a (hort diflance from this lake,
on an eminence, are fome ruins, called Kenfig-caftle, which
was only a fmall fortrefs. In iSoo, this parifli contained 15S
houfes, and 65J inhabitants.

KENGHEVAR, a town of Perfia, in Irak, on a river
which runs into the Karafa ; 240 miles N. of Ifpahau.
N. lat. 54 20'. E. long. 47 10'.

KENJAR, a town of Hindoollan, in Eahar ; ;o miles
S.W. of Patna.

KENIIAVORTH, a market town and parilh in the
hundred of Knightlow and county of Warwick, England,
is famed in the annals of the kingdom for its ancient caftle,
"which,"' fays Diigdale, " was tiie glory of all tiiefeparts,
and for many refpects may be ranked, in a third place at the
leall, with tlie moll ilately callles of England." This for-
trefs was built by Geoffry de Chnton in the time of Henry I.
He was chamberlain and treasurer to that monarch. By
fubfequent kings and occupiers it was greatly enlarged and
ftrengthencd at different times : and in the various civil and
domelUc wars of England, it was frequently the objeft of
contention with different monarchs and nobles. To detail
futh particulars would be foreign to the nature of this work,;
but the reader may find much curious and in'.crelling inlor-
rcation relating to the fame, in Dugdale's " Antiquities of
Warwickfliirc." What remains of tlie buildirijjs flicw that
the who'e was an immenfe and fpacious pi e : coniilling of
an outer wall with baftion towers, a tilt-yard, with towers' at
each end ; and fevera' buildings within the ballium, or bafe-
court. The area wiihin the walls confills of feven acres.
There were four gatehoufcs, and the walls were from ten
to fifteen feet in tliicknefs At a (hort diflance from the
callle was a priory for Black canons. Of the buildings,
parts of the gateway and chapel remain. Near thefe is the
parifh church, the wellern door-way of which is a curious
fpecimen of ancient architefture. In the town are two
meeting-houfes, or chapels. Kenilworth is five miles from
Warwick, and five from Coventry. In 1800, the town con-
tained 41 S houfes, and 1968 inhabitants. Dugdale's An-
tiquities of Warwickfliire.

KENKRI, a town of Europenn Turkey, in Livadia ;
40 miles W of Athens.

KENKS, in the St-a P/jiv/e, arc doublings in a cable or
rope, when it is handed in or out, fo that it does not run
fmooth, or when any rope makes turns, and docs not run
fmooth and clever in the block, they fay it make>" kenks.

KENMARE Town, called AW..;«, in Gf<*^ra//.j.,a poft-
town of the county of Kerry, province of Munller, Ire-
land. It is lituated at the norlh-eall extremity of an exten-
five river or bay on the Atlantic ocean. Kenmare is 155
miles S.W. from Dubhn, and 12 miles S. from Killarney.

Kknmake River, a river or arm of the Atlantic ocean,
on the coall of Ireland, which extends about 20 miles in
length, and about three in breadth, fituated at the fouth-weft
fide of the county of Kerry. It affords a fafe and capacious
harbour, but little frequented. The mouth is lituated in
N. lat. ji 40'. W. long. 9 57'

KENNEBECK, a river of America, which, next to
Penobfcot, is the finell in Maine. Three miles from the
mouth, the waters of the river are divided by Swan ifland,
fcveii miles in length ; on both fides of which they are na-
vigable : at tiie dillance of 38 miles from the fea is the
ifiand Nahunkeag, fignifying the land where eels arc taken.
Within three miles of this illand, a fmall river, ilfuing from
ponds in the town of Winthrop, runs into the Kennebeck,
and it is known by the Indian name Cobbifleconteag,
denoting the place where flurgeons are taken. Six miles
higher is the head of the navigable waters, which is a
8 baibn

KEN

bafon four miles from tlie fca, and commodious for the an-
chorajje of vefTeN. Where the navigation terminates (lands
Fort Wcllern, eredcd in 175:. From this fort to Tacon-
net Fall is a diilance of iS miles On the eaftcrn fide of
the river near the fall is Fort Halifax, creeled in 17J4,
fituatcd on the point of land where the Snbaftacook makes
an addition of one-third to the ii/.e of the Kcnnebcck.
Thirty miles above Halifax fort Sandy river flows into the
Kennebeck ; and about 40 miles higher, the Kennebeck
takes a S.W. courfe ; and 50 miles from Halifax fort it re-
ceives the eallern branch. The main branch of the Kenne-
beck, in its courfe througli the wilderncfs, forms feveral
carrying pl.ices or portages. At about loo miles diflance
from the mouth of the eaftern brar.ch, the fourco of the
main or ivcllern branch extends to a great diilance along the
fide of the Chaudiere, which carries the waters from the
highlands into the St. I^awrence. The eallern branch if-
fues from a body of waters which lie N., about 20 miles
from the confluence of the two branches. Thefe waters are
called Muofe pond, or lake. The fides of the lake are
very crooked, io that it forms an irregular figure, contain-
ing three times as much water as Lake George. To the
N. and W. of the lake are high mountains, from which
waters run by many channels to the St. Lawrence. The
Kennebeck affords great quantities of lumber, and is in-
habited, at different feafoiis, by I'everal fpecies of valuable
fi(h ; particularly falmon a. id llurgeon, fliad, and alewives.
This river forms the neareft iea-port for the people on the
upper part of the river Connefticut. From the Upper Cohos,
Or Coos, on the latter river, to the tide water in Kennebeck,
is a diilance of 90 meafured miles. — Kennebeck is alfo a
county in the dillricl of Maine, and the full inland county
erected in this dillridl. It was feparated from the maritime
county of Lincoln, by which it is bounded on the S., by
H;nicock county on the E , by Cumberland on the W , and
by the Highlands on the N. It was incorporated in Fe-
bruary 1799, and derives its name from the river, which,
pafnng through it, divides it nearly in equal parts. It is about
40 miles wide and upwards of ico miles long. The foil is
better and more ealily cultivated than that on the fea-coall.
It contains 24,402 inhabitants.

KENNEBUNK, a river of Maine, having at its mouth
a good harbour, whence great quantities of lumber are
/hipped. This river divides the townfhips of Wells and
Arundel. After running a fhort courfe, it difcharges itfelf
into the fea between Capes Porpoife and Neddick — Kenne-
buiik is alfo the Indian name of the place, lince called Wells,
in Maine, about 33 miles below Portfmouth, in New Hamp-
(hire ; in which is a poll-office.

KENNEDY'S Creek, a river of Kentucky, which runs
into the Ohio, N. lat. 58' 30'. W. long. 83- 36'.

KENNEL, a term ufed indifferently for a puddle, a wa-
ter-courfe in the llreets, a houfe for a pack ot hounds, and
the pack or cry of houndd themfelves.

Among fponfmen, a fox is faid to ienne!, when he lies
clofe in his hole.

On a prefumption that a kennel for hounds is to be credled,
its fcite is thus defcribed by Somerville :

" Upon fome little eminence eredl.
And fronting to the ruddy dawn ; its courts
On either hand wide opening to receive
The fun's all cheering beams, vs'hen mild he lliincs
And gilds the mountain tops.''

Tlowever, this fclettlon of a high fituation is incompatible
with a running brook ; and as tliefe two advantages cannot
be united, water !•> to be preferred, with the afpecl to

KEN

the morning fun as niucli attended to as polTible. The
number of its inmates mull regulate the Ii/.e of the kennel,
and the architcfture (houlJ be neat without being ufe-
lefsly cxpenfive. The mod magnificent is the duke of
Richmond's, at Goodwood, which cod 19,000/. and is fuf-
ficiently extenfivc for two packs of hounds. The building
comjirifes live kennels ; two 36 by i j, three 30 by i j,
and two feeding rooms 20 by i^ feet, witli lloves for warm-
ing the air when too cold. The huntfman and whipper-in
have each a parlour, kitchen, and (leeping room. The
kennel (hould be near the houfe, that it may be duly in-
fpecled ; as cleanhnefs is nn !efs elfential than food. There
fllould be room for two kennels under the fame roof, for the
convenience of keeping both clean, and for removing the
hounds from one to the other, when they are walhed. IJe-
fides, a fecond kennel will afford opportunity for draftiiig
the hounds that are intended for hunting tlie next morning.
Hounds will foon learn to anfwer to their names, and in
drafting them, they may be ealily counted into the hunting
kennel. When the feeder firll enters the kennel in the
morning, he Ihould let the hounds into the outer court ; and
the lodging room Ihould be then thoroughly cleaned, the
windows and doors opened, the litter well (haken, and the
kennel be madefweet, before the hounds are again Ihut into
it. The lodging room Ihould be bricked, and floped on botfi
fides to the centre, and a gutter fhould be provided for carry-
ing off the water, I'o that the floor, when waihed,'may be foon
dried. It fhould be recollected, that nothing is more hurtful
to hounds than damp, or more refreftiing than warmth, after
hard work. The kennel ihould have three doors, two in
front and one behind ; the latter having a lattice window in
it with a wooden fhutter, which is to be always kept doled,
except in fummer, when it fhould be left open during the
whole of the day. The large centre window fhould have a,
folding fhutter, wiiich at night, according to the weather,
may be wholly or partially clofed, and thus the warmth of
the kennel may be regulated according to circumftances, and
as it may be judged neccfiary. The two great lodging rooms
are exaftly fimilar, and having a court be'onging to each,
are dillincl kennels, fituated at the oppolite ends of the build-
ing ; in the centre are the boiling houfe and feeding yard ;
a leffer kennel, either for hounds that are drafted off, or
thofe that are fick and lame, or tor any other neccffary pur-
pofe, is on each fide ; at the back of which, as it is but
half the depth of tlie two larger kennels, are places for
coals, &c. for the ufe of the kennel. There is alfo a fiuaU-.
building in the rear for hot bitches. The inner court floors-,
fliould be bricked or flagged, and floped towards the centre,'
like thofe of the lodging rooms ; and water brouglit in by
a leaden pipe, fhould run through the channel in tlie .middle. .
In the centre of each court is a well, large enougii' to dip
a bucket to clean the kennel ; to keep thefe from wanting
repair, they fliould be faced with ilone ;, to that of tho
feeding-yard a wooden cover fliould be fixed. . The benches,
which mull be open to let the urine tbroughj fliould have
hinges and hooks in the wall, that theymay fold uji when tho
kennel is waflied : they fliould be made as low as poffible, that
when a hound is tired, he may have no difficulty in jumping
up, and at no time be able to creep under. A large brick court
in front, having a grafs court adjoining, and a brook running
tt'.rough th^ middle of it, completes the ktnnel. This court
fhould be planted round, and alfo have lime and horfe-chcfnut
trees near the centre for Ihade ; fome polls bound round with
flraw rubbed with galbanum, m.ay be pl.iced to prevent the
hounds urining again ll the trees. Tlie brook may be ufed
as a cold bath tor hounds lamed in the llifle, and flrained,
A high pale Ihould inclofe the whole, which, to the height

KEN

of four feet, (hoiild be clofe, the other open two inches wide.
At the back of the kennel fliould be a thatched houfe, fenced
up at the fides, to contain at lead a load of ftraw ; a pit for
receiving the dung, and a gallows for the ilefli. If a piece
of ground adjoining the kennel can be inclofed for fuchdog-
horfes as may be brought alive, it will be very ferviceable,
as the diforders of condemned horfes are not always to be
difcovered, and may be dangerous to other.t ; the hounds
may alio be brought into this field to employ themfelves after
feeding ; and the draft for the next day's hunting can here
be more acciu'ately made than when they are confined in the
kennel. Stoves arc ufcd in fome kennels ; but a good feeder,
and the mop properly applied, render them nccdlefs. Should
ticks at anytime be troublefome, the walls of the kennel fliould
be v.ell walhed ; and if they are not thus deftroyed, the walls
fliould be white-wafhed. When the hunting feafon is over,
one kennel will fuflice ; the other, with the adjoining grafs-
yard, may be allotted to the young hounds. If there
be convenience, the dogs (hoiild be kept feparate from the
bitches during the fummer months. When hounds are
very riotous, the feeder may fleep in a cot in the adjoining
kennel, and if they be well challifed at the firll quarrel, his
voice will be fufficient afterwards. A feeder in Oxfordfhire
pulls a bell, the meaning of which he has taught the hounds
to underltand ; and it filences them immediately, without
his having the trouble to leave his bed. The farther removed
a kennel is from a road or pathway, the quieter will it be.
The interior regulations of a kennel comprehend the feeder,
the forts of food, and the mode of preparing and adapting
it to the appetites of the hounds. A good feeder, young,
aftive, induilrious, and good-tempered, is efiential. The
exquilite fenfe of fmelling peculiar to the hound, being
that on which the fport principally depends, fliould be care-
fully preferved ; and nothing fo much contributes to this
purpofe as cleanlineis. It is, therefore, of the greateft im-
portance that the kennel fliould be kept clean and fwect.
The heartieft and beft food for hounds is oatmeal ; which
fhoiild be preferved in binns or fugar hoglheads ; for the
older the meal is the better. The boiler fliould be of
caft iron ; and in fize proportioned to the number of hounds
in kennel. The flefh fnould be thoroughly boiled, and taken
out of the broth with the llrainer, before the oatmeal is put
into it. After about three quarters of an hour's boiling, the
liquor may be taken off and left to cool, which will foon be-
come a flrong jelly, and tor hunting hounds it cannot be too
compaft. Five or fix pecks of good old oatmeal will thicken
a boiler of broth, fufficient for two feeds for ^o couple of
hounds. The meat fliould never be given to the hounds too
hot. The feeding troughs fliould be wide at bottom and
have wooden covers ; nor fliould they be made too long, as
they are lefs convenient for being moved. After all,
great attention to the time and mode of feeding will be re-
quired on the part of the kennel huntfman. He fliould be ac-
cuftomed to call each hound by name, when he is fed ; when
a hound is called, he (hi.uld approach the huntfman, and
when he is touciied with a ftick, he fliould follow any where.
By thus ufing hounds to their names, they will learn obedi-
ence. The day before hunting the hounds fhould be fed at
eight in the morning, and three in the afternoon. Thofe that
are to hunt the next day fhould be drafted into the feeding-
yard, when about three buckets of thick mixed oatmeal is
prepared for tliem ; and the tender and bad feeders fliould
have a handful of boiled flefti given to them afterwards.
If hounds be low in condition, and have far to go to cover,
they may all have a little thin lap again in the evening ; but
this fhould never be given, if you hunt early. Hounds
/hould be fluirp fet before hunting, as in this flate they run

KEN

the better. During the hunting feafon, hounds fliould have
one pound of fulphur given them in their meat, and when
the feafon is over, half a pound of antimony flionld be
added to the fulphur and well mixed with the meat. Greens
boiled in their meat, once a week, are likewife proper. A
horfe killed and given to hounds whilll warm, after a very
hard day, is an CMcellent meal ; but they fliould not hunt till
the third day after it. The bones broken are good for poor
hounds ; fheep-trotters are very fvveet food ; and bullocks'
paunches may alfo be of fervice, in the fcarcity of liorfe-
flefli. Immediate!" when hounds return from hunting, they
fliould be fed ; and if they have had a fevere day, fome
hours after they fliould be fed again. By turning them out
from the lodging-houfe to be fed, they will be rcfreflied, and
flretch their limbs ; and befidcs the litter being fliaken up,
and the kennel cleaned out, they fettle themfelves better on
the benches afterwards. At all times after being fed, the
hounds fhould be turned into the grafs-coiirt to empty them-
felves ; as this practice will not a little contribute to the
cleanhnefs of the ker.nel. Hounds fliould be fliut up warm
at night after hinitmg. Daniel's Rural Sports, vol. i. See
Hounds and Hunting.

KENNERY, \a Geography, a fmall ifland near the coaR
of Ma!abar, furrounded with a wall and towers. N. lat.
1 8 42'.

KENNET, a river of England, which rifes near a vil-
lage of the fame name in Wiltfhire, paffes by Marlborough,
Hungerford, and Newbury, v.'hence it is made navigable to
the Thames, whichitjoinsalittlebelow Reading. SeeCAN.i,!,.
Kennet, a townlhip of America, in Chefler county,
Pennfylvania.

KENNETH II., in Biography, king of Scotland, fuc-
ceeded his father Alpin in 823. He made war upon the
PiCts, and lubdued their dominions in the north, which he
divided among his foldiers. Ke tranflated the flone chair to
Scone, where his fuccefTors were crowned, till it was re-
moved by Edward I. He died in the year SJ4.

Kenneth III., fon of Malcolm, fubdued the Britons of
StrathcUiyd, and was equally filfccefsful again II the Danes,
who had invaded his dominions, but attempting to alter the
fuccethon of his crown in favour of his family, he was afraffi-
nated in 994.

KENNETS, in our Old IVnlers, a fort of coarfe Welflj
cloth, mentioned in the flat. 33 Hen. VIII. c. 3.

Kennets, in a Ship, are fmall pieces of timber, nailed to
the infide of the fhip, into which tlie taeks and fheets are be-
layed (as they call it), /. e, faftened.

KENNETT, White, in Biography, a learned Englifli pre-
late, fon of the Rev. Bafil Kennett, rector of Dimchurcli, in
Kent, was born at Dover in the year 1660. He received
the early part of his education in the country, and made fuch
progrefs in claflical learning, that upon his being removed to
Welfminfter, he was admitted into the upper fchcol. Im-
mediately after his admifTion he fell fick of tiie fmall-pox,
which obliged him to wait another year before he could be
received into the fchool. During this period he undertook
the office of tutor to a gentleman's fon in the neighbourhood.
He entered himfelf at Oxford in 1678, and went through
the iludies and exercifes of the place with great reputation.
While he was an under-graduate, he was introduced to the
acquaintance of Anthony Waod, and employed by him in
collefting epitaphs, and other notices of eminent men, who
had been members of Oxford. Mr. Kennett was particularly
attached to the feveral branches of polite literature, connefted
witli antiquities and hiftory. But his career as an author
commenced in the publication of a political traft while he
was under-graduate, entitled " A Letter From a Student at

O-sford

KEN

Oxford to a Friend in the Country concerning tlie approach-
ing Parliament, in Vindication of his Majefly, the Church of
England, and the Univcrlity." It was written in defence
of court mpa-rures, and fnpportcd principles which he re-
nounced in his matiirer years. The Whig party in jiarlia-
ment were fo much offended with it, that enquiries were
made after the author, in order to get him punifliL-d, but the
fuddcn diffolution of parliament prefcrved him from the ef-
feiits of their rcfentmcnt. Mr. Kennett took his degree of
B.A. in 16S2, and in the following year he publi(hed an
Englift tran.flation of Erafmus's " Morise Encomium ;"' en-
titled " Wit againlt Wifdom, or a Panegyric upon Folly."
He entered into holy orders about the year 16S4, and in the
following year he was prefentcd to the vicarage of Amerf-
den, in Oxford, by fir William Glynne, to whom he dedicated
" An Addrefs of Thanks to a good Prince, prefented in the
Panegyric of PHuy upon Trajan, the bell of Roman Empe-
rors." Mr. Kennett diftinguifliedhimfelfby preacliiiigagainil
Popery, though he did not engage in the famous Popifh con-
troverfy. WTiile he was out on a {hooting party, he received
a dangerous wound on his head, which obliged him to un-
dergo the operation of trepanning : he, however, foon reco-
vered, and was chofen lefturer at St. Martin's, Oxford : he
washkcwifechofen tutor and vice-principal at Edmund Hall,
where he lived in terms of friendfliip with the principal Dr.
John Mill, wh.o was at this time employed in preparing for
the prefs his celebrated edition of the New Teftament. In
1693, he obtained tiie rectory of Shottefbrook, in Berkfhire,
and, in 1695,116 commenced D.D., and in the following year
was prefentcd to the living of St. Boltolph, Aldgate, having
been already appointed arch-deacon of Lincoln. In 1701
he engaged in a controverfy on the rights of the convocation
againil Dr. Atterbury. In 1705, upon the advancement of
Dr. Wake to the fee of Lincoln, Dr. Kennett was appointed
to preach his confccration fermon ; which was publilhed at the
defire cf the archbifhops andbi(hops,and was greatly admired
by lord chief juftice Holt, who declared that it contained
more to the purpofe of the legal and Chriftian conftitution of
the church of England than any volume of difcourfes. In 1707
he was made dean of Peterborough, but he was growing very
unpopular on account of his Whig principles andhisoppofition
to Dr. Sacheverel : ncverthelefs, in the fame year, he was
allowed £0 exchani^ehis living in Aldgate for the reftory
of St. Mary Aldermary, in order that he might have more
leifure for Rudy and retirement. The zeal whicivdean Ken-
nett difplaycd in oppofiticn to the claims of the high church
clergy, and the fcntiments of moderation which he difcovered
towards the Diflenters, as well as his attachment to the Pro-
tellant fuccefiion, and the interells of civil Hberty, rendered
him very obnoxious to the Tories, who took every method in
their power to expofe him, one of which was devifed by Dr.
Wilton, reftor of Whitechapel, who was afterwards de-
prived of his living as a nonjuror. This clergyman prefent-
iiig a new altar-piece, rcprefenting the Laft Supper, to his
church, caufed the figure intended for Judas Ifcariot to be
drawn as a likenefs of the dean of Peterborough, with a_black
patch on his head, fimilar to one which Dr. Kennett wore
on the wound which he had formerly received. It was foon
known for whom the caricature was intended, and peo-
ple came in crowds to fee it. But by all moderate people of
both parties, it was regarded as an infolent and profane profti-
tution of what was intended for the moft facred ufes, and the
biftiop of London, without any interference on the part of
the dean, ordered it to be taken down. After theacceffion
of king George I., and when a rebellion was breaking out
in Scotland, he preached with the utmoU boldncfs in de-
fence of the prefent fettlcmcnt of the government of the

KEN

houfe of Hanover : he ufed to fay, he was ready to live or die
in defence of the glorious principles of the Revolution, and
that he would go out to figlit, when he could no longer preach
in defence of them. He warmly oppofed tlie proceed-
ings in the convocation againft Dr. Hoadly, bifliop of Ban-
gor, on whole fide he was deeply engaged in the Bangorian
controverfy. His zeal in the caufe of civil and religions li-
berty was, in the year 1718, rewarded by the bilhopric of
Peterborough, which he enjoyed ten years. He died in
1728, in the fixty-ninth year cf his age. His principal
works arc, I. "The Life of William Somner," which
was prefixed to Mr. Bron.e's edition of the famous
antiquary's " Treatifc of the Roman Ports and Forts
in Kent." 2. A coUetlion of Englifh hillorians, under
the title of "The Coni))lite Hillory of England," in three ■
vols, folio, the laft of which was written by himfelf.
3. " Hiftorical Account of Appropriations." Bifliop Ken-
nett fuftains a confiderable ra:.k in the epifcopal order for
learning and abilities, He was deejily read in Englifh hif-
tory and antiquities, though he was by no means dehcicnt in
that kind of knowledge which was the more immediate
bufinefs of his profeffion. He was anxious to difchsirgc the
duties of his miniiferial funflions with credit to himfelt, and
advantage to thofe who were the inuucdiate fubjcfts of his
paftoral care ; nor did the high rank to which he attained lead
him to yegle£l the duties of a parifh-priefl^. He was accef-
fible and communicative, a true friend, as well as an admir-
able pattern to his clorgy, and thofe of them who dillin-
guifhed themfelves either by their learning, or by a zealous
difcharge of their parochial duties, were fure of his refpect.
and encouragement.

Kennett, Basil, younger brother of the above, was
born at Poflling, in Kent, in 1674, and educated at Corpus
Chrifti college, Oxford. In 1696, he publifl-.ed " Romx
Antique Notitia, or the Antiqi:itii,s of Rome," a work that
for a century was generally uled in our clatTical fclicols. In
the following year he gave to the public " The Lives and
Charafters of the Ancient Greek Poets ;" and he was about
the fame tir.ie eletled a fellow of his college, and entered into
orders. He was author likewife of " An Expofition of the
Apoftles' Creed, according to Bifhop Pearfon," and^ " An
Effay towards a Paraphrafe on the Pfaims in Verfe, with
a Paraphrafe on the third Chapter of Revelations." In
1706, he was appointed chaplain to the Englifli fattory at
Leghorn ; in this office he condufted himfelf with fo much
prudence and propriety that he acquired univcrfal edeem,
even from the Catholics, wha had ufed every effort to pre-
vent his officiating in that capacity. In 1 7 14, he returned to
England, and commenced D.D., but died in a few months
afterwards. A volume of his fcrmons, prepared for the prefs
during his life, was publilhed in the year 1715. Biog. Brit.
KENNICOTT, Benj.-\min, a learned Englifh divine,
and oriental fcholar, was. born at Totnefs, in Dcvonihire, in
the year 17 18. . His father was mailer of a charity-fchool
in that place, and the fon fucceeded to the employment at a
very early age. While in this fituation his talents were
difcovered, and a fubfcription entered into, in order to pro-
cure him the advantages of an academical education. He
accordingly was entered of Wadham college, Oxford, where
he foon dillinguifhed himfelf in that department of ftudy in
which he afterwards became fo eminent. He commenced
his career as an author while he was an under-graduate, by
publilhing two diifertations ; the firfl " On the Tree of Life
in Paradife, with fome Obfervations on the Fall of Man ;''
the fecbnd " On the Oblation of Cain and Abel." This
work procured the author the extraordinary honour of having
the degree of B.A. conferred on him by the univerfity a year

before

KEN

■before the (latutable period ; and likewife was tVie means of
obtaining for him a fellowdiip of Exeter college. \Vhc;i
he was of a fufficient ftanding, he took, the degree of M. A.
and about the fame period he was admitted to holy orders.
In the year 1753, he laid the foundation of his great work,
by publifhing " The State of the Hebrew Text of the Old
Teftament confidcred ; a Diflertation in two Parts, &c.''
The defign of this publication was to overthrow the ftrange
notion which had long prevailed among divines concerning
what is called the integrity of the Hebrew text ; fit. that
the copies of it had been preferved abfolutely pure and vm-
corrupt. This notion had been thrown out and vindicated by
Capelhis, but thoitgh his arguments were fupported by the
authority of the Samaritan Pentateuch, that of parallel paf-
fages, and the ancient verfions, yet as he had no opportunity
of confulting MSS. he could never prove his point. This
talk was referved for Mr. Kennicott. His , differtation
proved that there were many Hebrew MSS. extant, which,
though they had hitherto been generally fuppofed to agree
with each other, and with the printed Hebrew text, yet
contained numerous and important various readings, and that
from thefe coiifiderablc authority was derived in fupport of
the ancient verfions. This work was examined with great
fevcrity, both at home and abroad : many excellent and
learned Chrillians imagined that it was opening wide a
door to infidelity, and that the caufe of their holy religion
would be much injured by it ; but by the generality of
learned and candid biblical fcholars, both natives and fo-
reigners, its value was juttly appreciated, and they were led
to form high expeftations of the author's future labours in
the fervice of facred criticifm. Mr. Kennicott fpent the
next threa or tour years principallv in fearching out and ex-
amining Hebrew MSS. In 1 751), he was prefented to the vi-
carage of Culham, in Oxfordllure, and in the following year
he pubhihedhis " State of the printed Hebrew Text of' the
Old Tellament conlidered." In this volume he vindicated
the authority and antiquity of the Samaritan copy of the
Pentateuch ; — proved that the prefent Chaldee paraphrafe
has not been taken from MSS. fo very ancient as has been
generally fuppofed, and that it has been, in fome cafes wilful-
ly, altered in conformity to the Hebrew text, where that text
itfelf had been corrupted ; — appealed to the fentiments of the
Jews themfelves on the fubjed of the Hebrew text, and gave
a hiftory of it from the clofe of the Hebrew canon, down to
the invention of printing, and prefented an account of all
the Hebrew MSS. then known, with a collation of eleven
Samaritan MSS , and a particular catalogue of 1 10 Hebrew
MSS. in Oxford, Cambridge, and the Britifh Mufeum Mr.
Kennicott how publifhed propofals for collating all the He-
brew MSS. prior to the invention of printing, that could be
found in Great Britain and Ireland, and for procuring as
many collations of foreign MSS. of note, as the time and
money he (hould receive would pcrr»ir. In this undertaking
he was fupported with the moll liberal fubfcriptions from
perfons of all parties, and of the very higheft ranks in fo-
ciety, and he bent his whole powers to complete the very
arduous undertaking. While he was proceeding in the work
he was appointed keeper of the Radclitfe library ; admitted
to the degree of dodor of divinity ; prefented to a living
in Cornwall, and rewarded by a canonry of Chrift-church,
Oxford. In the year 1776, Dr. Kennicott publilhed the
firfl volume of his Hebrew bible, and in the year 1780 the
fecond volume, which completed the defign, made its ap-
pearance. To the whole was prefixed a general dilfertation,
giving a full hillory of the nature of the defign, and of the
benefits likely to relult from it. The various readings whicli
are inferted in it are the refult of a collation of lix hundred

KEN

MSS. Such a work, and fo important to tlie beft intcreflJ
of mankind, refleCls very high honour on the country in
which it was firll patronized and carried into execution.
Within two years of his death, Dr. Kennicott refigncd his
living in Cornwall, from confcientious motives, on account
of his not havii.g a profpeft of ever again being able to vifit
his pari(h. No one, however, capable of appreciating the
doctor's labours, can doubt that they might properly have
entitled him to retain this preferment ; llill a conduft, fo
fignally difinterefted, deferves to be recorded and celebrated.
He died at Oxford on the i8th of September 17S3, at the
age of fixty-five. At the time of his death he was employed
in preparing for the prefs " Remarks on felect Paffaoes in
the Old Teftament," which were publilhed as a pollli'

work, accompanied by eight fermons, partly critical and
partly praftical. In private fife, Dr. Kennicott fullained tlje
character of a liberal, worthy, and friendly man : in com-
pany he appeared unaffected, good tempered, and cheerful.
Encyc. Brit. Monthly Review, and New Ann. Regiller.
For a particular account of Dr. Kennicott's laudable un-
dertaking, fee the article Hcbre-iv Bibles.

KENNINGTON, in Geography, an extenfive and popu-
lous hamlet, annexed to the parilh of Lambeth, Surry,
England. The manor formerly belonged to the duchy of
Cornwall, and was provided with a palace, which was occa-
fionally occupied by Edward the B ack prince, and Henries
IV., VI, and VII. On a common or open piece of ground
the convicted felons of Surry were formerly executed ;
around this fpot feveral rows of houfes and llreets have been
recently built : and Kennington may now be confidcred as
conilituting a part of tne Bntiih metropohs. Lyfons's Eu-
virons of London.

KENNIS, in Bhgraphy, a performer on the violin, with
an uncommon power of execution. See Louvain and

C.\RILLONS.

KENNOMICK, Gri;.\t, in Geography, a navigable
river of America, in the N.W. territory, which empties
itfelf into the S. end of the lake Michigan, N. lat. 42 14'.
W. long. 86 52'. The waters of this river communicate,
by a portage of 30 yards, with Little Kennomick, a fhort
river which runs north-eallerly into this lake..

KENPOU, a river of Thibet, which runs into the San-
poo, in the kingdom of Ava.

KENRICK, WiLLi.\M, in Biography, the fou of a
citizen of London, was brought up to a mechanical employ.
ment, which he foon abandoned, and devoted himfelf to the
cultivation of letters, by which he fupported hinife)f during
the remainder of life. He was fome time a iludent at Leyden,
and, upon his return to England, he appeared as a poet, in
" Epillles Philofophical and Moral. " He wrote an avowed
defence of infidelity while in prifon for debt, and with a
declaration, that he was lefs ambitious of the character of a
poet than of a philofopher. He was for a confiderahle time
a writer in the Monthly Review, but having a difagrcement
with Mr. Griffiths he began a new review of his own. He
publiflied, in a few days after the appearance of Dr. .Tohn-
fon's edition of Sliakfpeare, a review of it, " in which the
ignorance or inattention of that editor is expofed, and the
poet defended from the perfecution of his commentator.s,
I 76 J." In the year 1766, he produced a comedy, entitled
" Falftaff s Wedding," at firft intended to have been given
to the public as an original play of Shakfpeare, retrieved
from obfcurity ; and it was admitted to be a tolerably good
imitation of the great mailer of drama. Mr. Kei.rick was
continually involved in difputcs, many of which were not
creditable to his characler. He tranllated the Emilius and
Eloifa of RoufieaUj and MiUots Elements of the Hillury of

England.

KEN

England. He was likewife the author of feveral dramatic
performances, and other mifccHaneous pieces. He was, in
1774, the editor of «< The Poetical Works of Mr. Robert
Lloyd," in two vols. Svo. He died in the month of June
■I7'^7. Encyc. Brit.

' P.NSINGTON, in Geography, a pleafant and populous
in the hundred of Oifulllon, Kiigland, is about one
d a half W. of Hyde-park Corner, and conlillcd, in
; -^^j of 143^ houfes, which were occupied by 85J6 in-
ha''>itants. U'liis place is chiefly noted for its royal palace,
which was firit appropriated to the crown by king Wil-
liam HI. who built a houfe here ; but that and the gardens
have been much altered and improved by fucceeding
monarchs. The gardens are of confiderable extent, and
are laid out i:i grave! UT.iks, plantations, Sec. This is a
favourite place of refort and exercife for the inhabitants of
I.oi'dcn, i>articularly during the fine weather in fummcr.
They are nearly four miles in circumference, and are fe-
parated, on the ealtern fide, from Hyde-park by a low
wall. Through thefe gardens flows a fmall ilreamj which
is made to fill :•. canal within the inclofure, and another much
larger, called the Serpentine river, in Hyde-park. The
palace is a large irregular edifice, built at vavijus periods,
without harmony of delign or beauty of architeAure. Its
ftate rooms coniill of a fuit of 12 apartments, winch con-
tain fcveral valuable and curious paintings by urtills <.f emi-
nence. The names of fomq of thefe are publifiied in
. Lyfons's Environs of London ; and more fully in " The
Ambulator," i2mo. 1810. Befides fcveral elegant villas
in this pariili, is a fine ancient manfion called Holland Houfe,
the feat and property of lord Holland, for a view and account
of which, fee Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain,
Vol. ii.

Kessixgtox. a townfhip of America, in Rockingham
county, New Hampfhire, about fix miles S. of Exeter, and
eight N. of Newbury port. It was incorporated in 1737, and
contains 776 inhabitants.

KENT, a maritime county of England, forms the
fouth-eaftern extremity of this illand, and is bounded on the
weft by Surry, on the north by the German ocean and the
river Thames, which feparates it from EfTex, on the eail
by the Downs and the llrp.its of Dover, and on the fouth
by SufTex, and part of the fame ftraits. The medium
length of the dilbicl:, thus encompafTed, from eail to well,
is 66 miles, and its breadth about 26, whillf the circumfer-
ence is nearly 174 miles Its area, according to Boys's
Agricultural V^iew, is about 832,000 acres.

Kent is primarily divided into five large diflric^s, called
Laths, viz. Sutton at Houe, A}lesford, Scray, Sliipway,
and St. Augulin .. Thefe are fubdivided into bailiwicks,
hundreds, and liberties. The whole county contains fourteen
b'iiliwicks, fixty-three hundreds, fifteen franchifes or liber-
ties, the two cities of Canterbury and Rochefter, and thirty-
four market towns, though in fome of thefe the market is
difcontinued. The number of houl'es, according to the re-
turns under the population act of iSco, amounted to
52,9.98; that of inhabitants to 307,624; of whom 151,374
were ma'cE, and 556,250 females. For local purpofes, the
county is nearly equally divided into Eail and Well Kent,
the former contains the laths of Sutton at Hone, Ayles-
ford, and the fouthern part of Scray ; the latter the northern
part of the l.ith of Scray, and tliofe of Shipway and St.
Auguftine. In each of thefe great dillricts, a court of
fefiion is held four times every year; twice originally and
twice by adjournment : thofe for the caftern divifion at Can-
terbury, for the weftern at Maidftone. The juftices, though
appoii)ted for the whtjlc county, generally confine their at-
tention to that diftricl in which they refide. The county

Vou. XIX.

KEN

town is Maidftone, where the aflizes are held, and the
kniglits of the (hire are elecled. Kent returns eighteecn
members to parliament ; viz. two fjr the county, and two
each for Canterbury, Ruchelter, Maidftone. Queenborougli,
Dciver, Sandwich,' Romuey, and Hillie.' The four lad are
reckoned among the Cinque Ports. The ecclefiatlical jurif-
didion is divided between the archbilhopric of Cautt-rbury
and the bifl\opric of Rochefter; the former having eleven
deaneries, containing 281 parifties ; the latter four deancriei-,
containing 132 pariflies.

Ancinit Hijlory. — This di(lri£t is peculiarly intercfting to
the antiquary, not only from the numerous veftiges of caf-
ties, abbeys, and old churches ft ill remaining, but from its
proximity to the continent. Many authors contend, that
it formerly joined the main land, by means of an ifthmus ;
and adduce plaulible arguments in fuppoit of fuch hypothe-
fis." Strabo, CxI'ar, Ptolemy, and fomo otr.er ancient wri-
ters, call this diftrid Cantium ; which word the Saxons ai-
te.-cd to Caut-guar-Cantd. In the Domefday Survey it is
written Chenth. All the tranfadions relating to C;T;far's in-
vafion of Britain occurred in this county ; for on this coall
he made two defcents, the I ft, fifty. five years before the birth
of Chriil, and tiie 2d, in the follmving'year. At this Um<:
Kent was g;)verned by four Britifti kings ; who coUedt-d
not only their own fubjeds, but a vaft concourfe of arm.ed
men from the neighbouring ttates, to oppofe and repel the
invading Romans. Their efforts and bravery were unavailing,
and tiie foreign warriors ultimately compelled the Britons
to pay an annual tribute. In the year A.D. 43. a third de-
fcent was n.ade on this couft by Aulus Plautius, who, being
afterwards joined by Claudius, efFeded a conqueft over the
Britons. Kent was now included in that divifion of Britain
called Britannia-Prima ; and was governed by Roman laws
and Roman ofncers. Several permanent ftations and tempo-
rary encampments were eftabliflied in this county ; and mili-
tary roads v.cre formed. Among the latter was the Watling
ftreet, which extended from Dover, Dubris, to London,
Londinium. On its courfe were the other Roman ftations
of Durovernum, at Canterbury, Durolevum, Durobrivis,
at Rochefter, Vagniacae and Noviomagus. Two other vi-
cinal roads, at leall, were formed in tliis county ; one from
Durovernum to Regulbium, or Reculver, and the other
from the firft place to Rutupinm, or Richborough. An-
otiier road, called Stone-way, extended from Canterbury to
Limne, the Roman Portus Lemanis.

The firIt defcent of our Saxon anceftors was made in
this county, A.D. 449, when Hcngift and Horfa, with about
1500 m.en', landed at Ebbsfleet, in the Ifle of Thanct. After
fome battles with the Pids and Scots, Hengift was invcfted
with the fovereignty of Kent ; but wifliing to engrofs the
whole ifland, he was involved in a war with the Britons, and
feveral battles were fought within this county and on its con-
fines. The Saxons, however, prevailed, and Kent continued
a diftind kingdom for many reigns. In this county Chrifti-
anity was firft eftabliflied in Britain. See St. Augustine,
and Turner's Hiftory of the Anglo-Saxons, 2 vols. 4to.

The prefent fiounfliing condition of Kent has partly ori-
ginated from the peculiar cuftom by which the defcent of
landed property is' here regulated, and which is compre-
hended under the term gavcl-hiud. The cuftoms are of very
remote date, and prevailed tliro-ghout England till the Nor-
ma 1 conqueft. It is evident that at that period the eldcft
fon did not inherit to the cxchifion of his bre-thrcn : the
right of fole fuccefiion, in preference to the divifible pradice
of inheritance, was then introduced by the Conqueror, as a
fpecimen of the arbitrary dominion he intended to cftiiblifli.
The men of Kent fuccefsfuUy rcfifted the incroachment, and
retained their ancient culloms: wliile the other parts of *tl}C
4 Y nation

KENT.

nation were gradually brought to acquiefce in the claim of
primogeniture.

The law of gavel-kind comprehends the joint inheritance
of all the fons to the ellate of the father ; and (hould the
fither furvive his fons, the inheritance devolves to his
grandfons, or to his daughters. The partibility of this
cuftom is not reftrained to the direft Hue of confanguinity ;
for all brothers may jointly inherit the ellate of a deceafed
brother ; and, ag;reeably to the fame ru!e, nephews and
nieces, by the right of repn-fentation, are, in their degrees,
intitled to the fame divifioji of property. So predominant
is gavel-kind in Kent, that all lands are prefumed to be fub-
jeft to that ufage, till the contrary is proved ; and formerly,
fuch lands only were exempted from it, as were holden by
knight's fervicc. See Gavei.-kind.

The general afpeft of Kent is very beautiful; arifing
from the inequality of the furface, the diverfity of the fce-
nery, and the variety in the verdure. " The whole county,"
Mr. Halted obferves, " excepting the m.arlhes and the Weald,
is a general clufier of fmall hills; two chains of which,
higlier than the rell, run through the middle of Kent, from
well to eaft, in general at about eight miles diftance from
each other, (though at fome places much lefs,) and extend-
ing from Surrey to the fea." Thefe are called the Upper
and Lower Hills, and are inofily covered with coppice and
woodlands. The northern range, and, indeed the wlio'e
north fide of the county, is compofed principally of chalk
and flints, as well as a large tradt on the eallcrn coaft : the
fouthern range is chiefly of iron-ftone and rag Hone : to
the wedward, clay and gravel prevail on the eminences.

Mr. Boys, in the Agricultural Survey of this county,
has divided it into eight diftridls, according to the nature of
the foil and produce : thefe refpedlively comprehend the
Ifle of Thanet ; the upland farms of Eafl; Kent; the rich
flat lands in the vicinity of Faverfliam, Sandwich, and Deal ;
the hop-grounds, &c. of Canterbury and Maidftone ; the
Ifle of Sheppty ; the upland farms of Weft Kent : the Weald
of Kent ; and Romney Marfli. The Ifle of Thanet forms
the north-ealUrn angle of Kent, from the main land of which
it IS fparated by the river Stour and the water called
the N.-thergo;ig ; its length is about nine miles, and its
breadth about live. This diftridl is in a very high
flate of cultivation, and of very remarkable fertility ; its
foil, though origmally a light mould on a chalky bottom,
having been greatly improved by the inexhauttible ftore of
manure fupplit-d by the fea. The whole ifle contains about
Jjoo a.res of excellent marlTi land, and 23,000 acres of
arable; thole of the latter, v^hich border on the marlhes,
are the moll produdlive ; thongh even the uplands are
rendered extremely fertile by the excellent modes of cultiva-
tion. The general routine of crops on the lighter foils is
fallow, barley, clover, and wheat ; but a crop of peas is
occafionally introduced inltead of the fallow; and fometimes
beans in the place of the clover. Where the round-tilth
courfe is purfued in the rich fandy loam lands, the general
routine is btans, wheat, and barley. Canary-fceds are hke-
wife grown here in great quantities, as well as radiih, fpinach,
multard, cabbage, and other efculent plants for the Lcndon
markets. The marfli lands are princijjaily applied to the
fattening of flieep and cattle. The upland farms of Eaft
Kent may be defcribed as including an open and dry traft of
land, lying between the city of Canterbury, and the tow.- s of
Dover and Deal ; and another traft, inclofed with woods
and coppice, extending from Dover, by Elcham and Afliford,
to Rochefter, in length ; and from the ifle of Sheppey to
Lenham, &c. in breadth. The former tract includes a
great variety of foi'.s, fcarcely tliofe of any two farms being
Jiniilar. Stitf clays are principally met with on the tops of

the higheft hills about Dover ; flinty trafts occur in the val-
lies in the fame neighbourhood, and about Stockbury near
Maidftone. The woodlands in Eaft Kent are difperfed
chiefly between the great road from Rochefter to Dover,
and the chalk hill that runs from Folkftone, by Charing to
Dethng. Thefe furnifli the adjacent country with fire-wood,
and the dock-yards with timber for fliip-building ; but the
nioft material part of their produce, is the immenfe quantity
of hop-poles cut out for the neighbouring plantations. The
wood is generally cut at from ten to foiuleen years growth,
and its value is eftimated by the quantity of hop-poles pro-
duccd. The rich flat lands in the vicinity of Faverfliam,
Sandwich, and Deal, lie nearly on a level, are extremely
fertile, and excellently managed under a general fyftem.
They are almuft entirely arable ; the foils are a rich fandy
loam, intermixed with fand, and a ftift wet clay. In the '
vicinity of Sandwich are many orchards, which in fome years
produce large quantities of good apples, the greater part of
which is conveyed by the coal veflels to Sunderland and
Newcaftle. The hop-grounds, extending from Maidftone
and Canterbury to Sandwich, are very produdlive, and
under a good fyltem of management; though the foils are
different, as well as the kind of hops cultivated. The plan-
tations have of late years been greatly increafed, particularly
in thofe parts contiguous to Maidftone, Fuveilham, and
Canterbury ; the plantations called the City Grounds, extend
through a circuilt of two miles and a half round Canterbury,
and are eftimated to include from 2500 to 3000 acres. The
hops grown here, and in the grounds runnnig hence to Sand-
wich, are very rich in quality, and in much requeft for their
great ftrength ; if well managed, they are alio of a good
colour. Thofe grounds are found moft productive, which
have a deep rich loamy furface, with a fub-foil of deep loamy-
brick earth ; and this kind of land forms the principal part
of the plantations of Eaft Kent ; though there are fome
good grounds where the furface is very flinty. The pro-
duce is fubjeCl to great fluftuation ; in fome years amount-
ing to fourteen or fifteen hundred weight per acre; in others
not exceeding two hundred. In drying hops, a fmall quan-
tity of briuiilone is fometimes ufed, in order to iuffbcate the
infers, and occafion a more fpeedy evaporation of the fuper-
fluous moillure: by the ufe of the fulpiiur, the hops are

thought alfo to be improved in colour. In the plantations
- jyj^j ■ ■

grown ; but they are inferior in quality to thofe of Canter-

)f Maidftone, and

of 1

vicinity, very great crops ot liops
ilit
bury and Eaft Kent. The foil is what is locally termed
ftone fliatter ; that is, where there is a mixture of fmall
pieces of ftone and fand : the fub-foil is called Kentifli rag,
and burns into good lime. The hop plantations afford em-
ployment to great numbers of the poorer dafles, not only of
this, but of other counties ; and the motley groups that
aifemble to aflill in hop-picking are truly amufing. Hops
are generally regarded as having been introduced into this
country about the time of Henry VI. ; and in the year 1428,
they were petitioned againft as -wkked lueed. This, how-
ever, can only refer to the ufe of them, for they are found,
wild in almoll every part of Bri'ain. They came into more
general ufe in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth.
Nearly one-fourth of the whole produce of the hop-duty iij,
England, is paid from the plantations of Eaft Kent. Be-
fides the hop-grounds, the neighbourhood of Maidftone is
celebrated for apples, cherries, and filberts ; many fmall
fields, of from one to fifteen acres, being planted with
different fpeciea of thtfe kinds of fruit ; it is alfo a common
practice to plant hops, apples, cherries, and filberts, all
together. The apples intended for cyder, are generally
gathered towards the end of Odober, and after being laid
in heaps to ripen, under cover, arc inanufadured iox ule.
3 . In

KENT.

In plentiful years tlie cyder fruit fells for fourtcen-pcnce per
biirtifl. Tlie apples nppropriated for domeftic ufes are fold
to the fruiterers, \v!io fend them to London by the hoys, or
to the north of England by the coal veflols. The cherries,
vhich are of the white and black heart, Hcrtfordlliire-black,
red, and Flemilh or Kentifli kinds, are ufiially fold to higlers,
who retail them on the fca-coall by the ficve or baflvCC, con-
taining forty-eight pounds each ; or elfe they are fent by
water to London, and configned to the fruit-faftors. The
iil'ierts are nioilly difpofed of m the fame manner. The-Iile
of Shepijey is fcparatcd from the rell of Kent by an arm of
the fea, called the Swale, which is navigable for veffels of
2CO tons burthen. Its length is about eleven miles, and its
breadth eight; four-fifthi of it confifting of mardi and pallure
lands ; the remainder is arable. The prevailing foil is a
deep, ftrong, rtiff clay, through which the plough can
hardly be forced. The upland farms of Well Keiitinclude
a great varietv of foils, and are cultivated under various
fyilems of hulbandry. This diftrict is more inclofed than
the eaftern part, and produces greater quantities of timber
and underwood, particularly on the upper or weileriimoft
fide. The watle and common lands of this diftrift form an
extent of many thoufand acres. The turnpike roads are
moftly in good condition ; but the crofs roads of Well Kent
are frequeiitly impafl'able for carriages. The Weald of
Kent is a confiderable and remarkable traCt, ilretching
along the fouth fide of the county, from Roinney Marfh,
to .Surry ; on the north it is bounded by the range of
hills which enter the county near Well-llreet, and ex-
tends, in nearly a due wefterly direclion, to Sutton and
Egerton, and thence fouth-ealhvard to Hythe ; on the
fouth it ftretches to the confines of SuiTex, and includes
the Ille of Oxney. This dittricl was in ancient times
an immenfe wood or forell ; wholly deftitute of inhabitants,
excepting fwine and deer. By degrees, however, it became
peopled, and is now every where interfperfed with towns and
villages ; though it ftill contains fome extenfive and flourifh-
ing woodlands. Its prefent name is Saxon, and fignifies a
woody country ; but the Britons called it Colt Andrcd, the
f^reat chafe or foreft. The whole was a demefne of the
Saxon kings ; and there are ftill certain privileges annexed to
the pofleffion of the lands, which induce the proprietors to
contend for being within its limits. " It is faid," Mr.
Hailed obferves, " that within the Weald, the proof of wood-
lands having ever paid tythe, lies on the parfon, to enable
him to' take tythe of it, contrary to the ufual cuilom in other
places, where the proof of exemption lies on the owner ;
nor are the lands in it fubjeft to the ilatute of woods ; nor
has the lord wafte within the Weald ; the timber growing
thereon belongs to the tenant. This latter cuilom of ex-
cluding the lord from the wafte, is called land-peerage."
The Weald, when viewed from the adjoining hills, which
command the whole extent, exhibits a moft delightful land-
Icapc, interfperfed with fmall eminences, highly cultivated,
and animated by farm-houfes, feats, and villages, promifcu-
oufly fcattered among towering oaks and other trees. Rom-
ney Marfii is an extenfive level trai t of rich marlh land lying
on the fouthern coaft, and comprehending, in itfelf, about
23,92, acres; but when defcribed, as it frequently is, in
connection with Walland Marfh, whick adjoins it on the
fouth-weft, and Donge Marfh, which connecls with the
latter on the fouth-eatt, it includes about 43,:?26 acres;
Walland Marfh containing 16,489, and Denge IVIarflt 2912.
The whole level, however, is yet more extenfive ; for Guild-
ford Marfh, which adjoins Walland Marlh on the well, com-
priy.es 3265' acres ; moft of this latter traft is in SufTex.
i"he beautiful appearance of thefe levels in the fummer fea-
ion, when the entire furface is clothed with luxuriant ver-

dure, and covered willi numerous flocks of flieep and
droves of cattle, cannot fail to excite connderable interell
in every obferver. The Marfh is defended agaiiill the vio-
lence of the fea Ivy an immenfe bank of earth, of great
flrength, called Dimchurch-Wall, which extends above
three miles in length. Tliis wall is the fole ban i.r ihpt
prevents the fea from overflowing the whole extent of the
level ; and as it is for the general fafety, fo " is it fup-
ported," fays Hafted, " as well as the three grand fluicis
through it, which are for the general drainage of the
marfhes, by fcots levied over the whole of it ; but the in-
terior drainage, which is portioned out into a number of
divifions, called waterings, is provid'-d with fewers, ar.d
maintained at the expence of the refjcftive land-holders, by
a fcot raifed feparately on each" in proportion to their own
watering. In that portion of the Mavflies within this county,
are comprehended the two corporate towns of New Rom-
ney and Lydd, and fixteen olhcr pariflies. The inclofures
are principally formed by ditches and a rail fence. The
foil of thefe fpacions levels has been almoft wholly depofited
by the fea, and confifts principally of a fine, foft, rich, loain
and clay, with a greater or lefs proportion of fea-fand in«
termixed. The fub-foil conlills of alternate layers of fand
and clay, with fea-beach occafionally intervening. In many
places throughout the Marfh, at the depth of three or four
feet, have been frequently dug up oak leaves, acorns, &c.
together with large trees lying in difterent diretlions ; fome
acrofs each other ; fome appearing with the roots to them,
as if overturned by a Itorm, or other convullioii of nature ;
and others as if cut down with an axe or fliarp inftru-
ment ; the colour being as black, and the wood as hard, as
ebony. Thefe marflies are almoft entirely appropriated to
the grazing and fattening of flieep and cattle, biit chiefly to
the former, which are bred and fed here in immenfe quan-
tities ; their number, perhaps, exceeding that of any other
diftritl in the kingdom. Romney Marfh has generally been
confidered as unhealthy; and probably tliis opinion has ope-
rated to keep it thinly peopled. Of late, however, its fa-
native qualities have been greatly improved ; a change at-
tributed to the attention that has been given 10 keep the
ditches free from flagnant and putrid water. The extent
and rental of farms in Kent arc uncommonly various, as muil
be evident when the peculiar cuiloms of the county are con-
fidered in connection with the diverfitics of the foils and fur;
face. The number of freeholds in the county is ftated, bv
Mr. Hafted, at about 9000 ; independent of the large eftates
of the churches of Canterbury and Rocheftcr, arid of
various corporate bodies. The copyhold and cuftomary
tenants are very few. The general dillribution of the free-
holds, and their clofe intermixture with each other, occa-
fion a very frequent intercourle between the gentry and the
yeomen, and thus generate that equaUty of fentimcnt fo fa-
vourable to the intercfts of individual right.

The manufadlures carried on in Kent arc various, though
not particularly extenfive. The clothing trade, which once
gave employment to great numbers of its inhabitants, is now
nearly forgotten in the county. At Canterbury, ir.ufliiis,
brocaded filks, and ftockings, are made ; at Deptford and
Whitftable are large copperas works ; at Sloner, in the lf!e
of Thanet, and likewifc in the Ifle of Graine, fait is manu-
faCltired ; at Ofpringe is an extenfive raanufaClory for gun-
powder, ereftcd by government ; and there is alfo another
near Dartford ; in the Weald, bordering on SufTex, arc
various iron furnaces ; and at Dartford and Crayford are
mills for the manufacturing of iron ; at the latter place alfo,
are extenfive works for the printing of calicoes, and fpacious
grounds for the bleaching of linens ; at Seven Oaks are large
iilk mills; and at Boxlcy, near Muidllone, is the moil ex-
aX 2 Icnlirff

KEN

tenfivc and curious mamifafture of paper, perhaps, in Eu-
rope ; piipei- is aifo made in tlie viciniiy of Durtford, and
fome other places. The variov's dock-yards at Deptford,
WooKvich, Chatham, &c. provide eaiplovment for numerous
artizans in all tlie different branches of niival affairs ; (hip-
buildiiij;; is alfo carried on at other places on the fea-coail.

I'hc religious honfes, or monadic ellahlifimicnts, in Kent,
were formerly very numerous, and tiieir net annual income,
at the periods of their diirolution, amounted to 9000/.
Anioncj them were two abbies, three priories, and five nun-
ficrioo. of the Benedictine order ; one priory of the Clnniac ;
<'ne abbey of the Cillercian ; of fecular canons, five coUcg-cs ;
of reijular canons, four abbies and five priories, xme of which
was Premonftratenfian : of friars, there was one priory and
one nunnery of Dominicans ; two priories of Francifcans,
one priory of Trinitarians, three priories of Carmelites, and
four alien priories : there were alfo two commanderies of
knights hofpitallers of St. John of .ferufalem ; and fifteen
hofpitals ; befides various heraiitagcs, chantries, and free
chapels.

The number of caftles that have been erefted in Kent is
very confiderable ; and many of them yet remain, in dif-
ferent degrees, almod perfed. Of thefe, the immenfe
fortrefs of Dover is the principal ; and this is now garrifoned
with a ftrong force, as are alfo feveral others on the fea-
coad ; but molt of the callles in the interior of the county
are difmaotled and mouldering into ruins.

The principal rivers that interfeft or bound tliis county
are the Thames, the Medway, the Greater and Lefi'er Stoure,
the Rother, the Darent, the Cray, and the Ravenfborne.
Tiie Thames, the Tamefis of C;elar, which has a very im-

porta

ifliience on the trade and

of this coi.i

I be fully defcribed in its place. ( See Tha.mes. ) The
Medway, which is more peculiarly a Kentilli river, was
called Vaga by the Britons, a name defcriptive of its very
finuous courfe and mazy wandering?. The Saxons changed
this appellation to Mcdweg and Medwege, of which the
p'refenl naiiie is a corruption. This river lias four principal
fo:irces,nf which only one is in this county ; two being in
SufTex, and the other in Surry. That branch which enters
Kent from Surry, rifes in Blechinglcy parifii, and having
been joined by feveral rills, flows on to Eaton bridge, He-
ver calUe, and I'enfhurll, near which it receives one of the
branches thai rile in Sufiex, and proceeds to Tunbridge.
A little above this town the river feparates into fever.il chan-
nels, one of which is navigable and is again joined by the
other divihon about two miles below Tunbridge. At
Yalding it receives the uiritcd waters of the other two prin-
cipal branches, and flows in a winding dircftion to Maid-
llotie, and gradually augmenting m depth and breadth, jnir-
fucs its picturefquc courfe to Rocheller, where the fcenery
is peculiarly beautiful. Proceeding hence towards Sheer-
nefs, it palfes Chatham, ITpnor Callle, and Gillingham Tort,
and flows onward to the Thames, which it enters between the
Ifles of Graine and Sheppey, having firil united its waters to
th^fe of the Swale. The Medway, with its uumcrous tri-
butary tlreams, is calculated to ovcrfpread a furface of nearly
tltirty fquare miles in the very midll of Kent. The tide flows
almoil as high as Maidftone ; but at Rocheftcr bridge it is
exceedingly llrong and rapid ; and below that, all the way to
Sheernefs, a dillance of about twenty miles, thebtdofthe
river is fo deep, and the reaches fo convenient, that many of
the largelUine of battle fhips are mooi-ed here, when out of
conimiuion, as in a wet dock, and ride as fafely as in any
harbour in Great Britain. The Medway was firll made na-
viijable to Tunbridge albout the middle of the lull century,
■under the provifions of an att of parhament pafil'd in the
year 1740; though an aft had been procured for the pur-

K E N

pofe in the reigii of Charles II. The Greater Stoure li ^
two principal branches, botli of which rife in this coui.t ,
the fird at Well-llreet near Lenliani ; the other amon;; ■,
hills between Liminge and Pofthng. Thefe ftreams i
near Afliford ; whence the Stoure proceeds to Canterl .,
through which it flows in a divided dream, and again umirs
a little belov/ that city. The LePTer Stoure rifes hi the vici-
nity of Liminge, and dirccling its courfe northward, has
its waters increafed by feveral fmall nils, and fometimt-s by
a temporary water called the Nailbourn, which, alter con-
tinued rains or fudden thaws, ilTues from feveral fprings and
forms a firong current. The Rother, formerly called the
Limcne, rifes at Gravel-hill, in the parifli of Rutherfield, in
Snffex, and flowing eadwaxd becomes the boundary of this
county below Saiidhnrd and Newenden. The Darent
rifes on the borders of this county and Suiiex, near Wetter-
ham, whence flowing to the north-ead, it paW'es on to River-
head, where it turns to the north, and flews in that diretlion
to South Darent. The Cray, and the Raveiiflwurne, are
only fmall ilreams ; the former has its fource at Newell, in
Oppingtmi parifli, the latter rifes on Kellon Downs, near an
ancient Roman encampment. Haded's Hidory and An-
tiquities of Kent, 1 2 vols. Svo. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. vii. iSofi.

Kent, a county of America, in Maryland, on the eafl
fiiore of Ciief.ipeak bay, bounded E. by K'ewcadle, and part
of Kent county, Delaware, and W. by Chefapeak bay :
about 32 miles long, and 13 broad ; containing j 1,771 in-
habitants, including 4474 flaves. Its chief town is Cheder.
Ki:xT County, in Upper Canada, extends northw^u'd to
the boundary line of Hudfon's bay, including the whole
territory to the wedward and fouthward of that line, to tiie
utniod extent of the country known by the name of Canada.
— Alfo, a county of Rhode iiland, lying S. of Providence
county, on the W. fide of Narrag.anfet bay ; 20 miles long
and I o broad ; divided into four towiifliips, and icontaining
84S7 ir.liabitaiits. — Afi, the middle one of the three coun-
ties of Delaware ; 40 miles from N. to S. and 26 from E.
to W. ; containing 10,544 inhabitants, including 1485
flaves. The lands in this county are eileemed the riclielt
in the date. It is well watered by feveral fmall dreams
that empty them felves into the Delaware. Tiie chief town
is Dover. — Alfo, an iiland in Oueen Ann's county, Mary-
land, and the larged in Chefapeak bay ; I 2 miles from N.
to S. and fix broad. It has a pod-office. — Alfo, a townfliip
in Litchfield county, Conncfticut, bordering on the date of
New York, and 6 or 10 iniles W. of Litchfield ; containing
1607 inhabitants.

KENTAISSE, a ridge of mountains of Thibet, be-
tween the heads of the Ganges and the Sanpoo rivers. N.
hit. 30- 40'. E. long. 80 49'.

KENTHI, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Cra-
cow ; 30 miles S.W. of Cracow.

KEN rSHlAN, a mountain of Thibet ; 3 miles E. of
Saranirpour.

KENTUCKY, a crooked river of America, which rifes
in tlie date of the fame name, and after a general N.W.
courfe of 200 miles, falls into the Ohio, N. lat. 38' 35'-
W. long. 85 30'. It IS foine.times called " Cattawa." Its
fource is in the Laurel mountains, and it interlocks with
LickinEC river. Its mouth, which is 2jo yards wide, is 77
miles above the Rapids, and 626 below Pittfburg. 'J'he
river is navigable 130 miles, though its current is rapid, the
banks being high and rocky. It is faid that black-lead
mines have been found on the head waters of this river.
Little Kentucky river is 25 yards wide, and 3 miles W. oi
Kentucky river.

Kentlcky, one of the United . States of America,

bounded

KENTUCKY.

bounded N.W. by the river Oliio, W. by Cumberland
river, S by TcnolTce Hate, E. by Sandy river, and a
line drawn due S. from its fource, till it ftrikes tlie northern
boundary of Teneffee. It lies between 36- 30' and 39 30'
N. lat., and between 81° and 89^ W. long., is about 250
miles long, and 200 broad ; and contains 50,000 fquare
miles. It was well known to the Indian traders many years
before its fettlement : a map of it was made from their
defcription in 17,2; and it was farther explored in 17,4
and 1 769. But it was firit fettled i)v Col. Daniel Boon
in 1773 J eredted into an independent ilate by ad of Con-
grefs, in December 1790; and received into the Union in
June 1792. Kentucky, which was orijrinally divided into
two counties, Lincoln and .leiferfon, has been fiiice fubdi-
vided into 42, as in the following table.

( ount.rs.

■M^'-

Shiver i„
ISOO.

c:imfTuv.,„.

Nu. In.

Fayette

12,23?

3,786

Lexington

',795

JelTamine

5.438

''553

Nicholasville

23

Woodford

0.4)2

2,058

Verfailles

172

Scott

7,6,-9

•,787

Georgetown

34S

Mafon

11,405

■,603

Waftington

570

Bracken

2,382

i9t

Augulla

■43

Harrifon

4.2 J3

393

Cinthiana

87

Pendleton

1-573

239

Falmouth

40

Clerk

"'5-3

^'S3S

Wincheller

130

Montpjomcry

6,990

749

Mount Sterling

^3

Fleming

4,^93

240

Flemingftnirg

123

Flovd

472

29

Prelfonftury

6

Franklin

4,450

1,109

Frankfort

628

Gallatin

1,078

276

Port William

21?

Boone

■>5.-!4

3-5

Campbell

''797

258

Newport

106

Henry

3.=58

406

Niciiolas

2,86?

322

Newtow-n

62

Boin-bon

1 2,,^ 56

1,99+

Paris

377

Mercer

9,242

2,169

Danville

2S0

Garrard

6,083

1.234

Lancafter

103

Nelf.m

9,087

1,735

Beardllon

570

BuHit

3.446

944

Shepheidsville

96

Green

6,025

8ir,-

Grcenlburg

Cumberland

236

Shelby
Jefferfon

8.9:9

1,409

Shelbvville

262

S'395

-u3°

Louifville

359

Linc'.ihi

^'555

',75°

Stanford

66

Harden

3,597

3'°

Elizabethtown

56

Breekcnridge

75S

38

Hardenlburg

49

Ohio

1,121

122

Hartford

73

Poiaiki

3,361

232

Knox

1. 119

62

Henderfon

1,263

340

Henderfon

S05

Livin^fton

2.787

444

Eddyville

69

Chriluan

2,318

297

Logan

5,690

730

RufTelville

127

VVarren

4,645

417

Bowling-Green

41

Muhlenburg

i.5'7

116

Green v'ille

26

Barren

4,-S4

5'=>S

WaOiington

8,887

1,382

Snringficld

163

Madifon

10,380

1,688

Richmond

1 10

Total 42

220,959

40.343

Total 1790

Increafeinl
1 0 years j

73.677

' 2,43°

.47.282

27>9'3

In Januai-y 1799, t^'c legidaturc pa/Ted an nB, apporticm.
ing reprefentation, and diftributing the Aate into fenatorial
dillriiSfts. This aCl provides, that the l-.oufe of reprefcntatives
(liall be compofed of 62 members, elecled fi-om the feveral
counties, according to the ratio of one for every 5CO
qiialified clcdors, and that the fenatorial branch of tiie Ic-
gillaturc fliall confill of 24 members.

The whole extent of tlie uorth-wcftern fide of Kentucky is
wafhed by tlie river Ohio ; theprincipalbranchesof which, that
ferve to waiter this fertile trad of country, are Sandy, Lick-
ipg, Iventucky, Salt, Green, Tenedee, and Cumberland rivers.
Tliefe again branch out into rivulets and llre;uiis, which,
purfuing different direftions, ferve to fertilize tiie whole
country. In the dry feafon, however, many of them dif-
appear, and the inhabitants arc dillrcfled for want of water.
At the bottoms of thefe water-courfes, the lime-ftonc rock,
which is common in this country, appears of a greyidi
colour ; but where it is expofed to the air, in its natural
Hate, it appears like brown free-Hone. Qi\ the banks of
thefe ilreams the Hone has tlie appearance of fine marble,
being of the fame texture, and found in great plenty. In
tliis country there are live noted falt-fprings or licks, which
fnpply abundance of fait for nfe and exportation. The
whole country lies upon a bed of lixe-ftone, generally about
lix feet below the furface, except in the vallies, where the
foil is much thinner. A tract, about 20 miles wide, along
the banks of the Ohio, is liiUv, broken lai.d, interfperfeU
with many fertile fpots. The reil of the country is agree-
ably uneven, formed of gentle afcents and defceiits. The
vallies are commonly narrow, and the foil thin and inferior
in quality ; and that along the afcendiii)! ground is fre-
quently liot much better ; though it is fnffieiently deep for
Vegetation, as the i'v/.e of the trees indicates. The foil is either
black, or tinged with a brighter or deejier vermilion, or is
of the colour of dark aihcs. In many places there arc ap-
pearances of potter's clay, and of coal in abundance. Al-
though this country is generally hilly or mounlainous, and in
many parts barren', it has various plains and Hiips of land
tit for paHurage and the rearing of cattle ; and a project
has been accompliflied of cutting a road through the molt
mountainous part from Kentucky, to pafs by the fwtet
fprings in Virginia, and thence to Wincheller, by u liich 3
faving is made of 200 miles in diHaiice from the one to the
other. This country is well timbered. Of trees of tlie
natural growth of the country we may reckon the elm, the
beech, the afli, the juniper, the fugar, the coffee, tiie papaw,
the hackberry, and the cucumber. The two lall are foft
wood, and bear a fruit of the li/.e and Hiape of the encumber.
The coffee tree refembles the black oak, and bears a pod,
that inclofes a feed, of which isprcpaied a liquor not uidike
coHee. Befide thefe there is the honcy-locnll, the black
mulberry, and wild cherry, of a large fize. The buck-eye,
an exclullvely foft wood, is the horfe chefnut of Europe.
The magnolia bears a beautiful blod'om of a rich and ex-
quifite fragrance. Such are the variety and beauty of the
flowering flirubs and plants, which grow fpontaneoully in
this country, that in the proper feafon the wildernefs appears
in blolfom. The accounts thai have been given of the fer-
tility of the foil in this country have, in fome inllanccs,
exceeded belief, snd probably have been exaggerated. How-
ever, it is allowed that fome parts of Kentucky, particularly
the high grounds, are remarkably good. Tlie lands of the
firft rate, it is faid, are too rich for wheat, and will produce
50 or 60, and in fome inftances, too buHicLs of good com
/)£■»• acre. In common, the land will yield 30 bufltcls of
wheat or rye per acre. Barley, oats, flax , hemp, and ve-
getables of all kinds, common in this climate, yield ao
abundant incrcafe. Cotton is fcldom, and with difiicuUy

brought

KEN

brouglit to perfeftioii. Irifh potatoes thrive well ; but
fweet potatoes are raifed with difficulty. A fpecies of rye
was found by tlie firll fettlors growing wild in Kentucky,
and on the lands near the Ohio. It had a bearded ear like
the cultivated rye, the beard iomewhat longer, and the grain
lefs. The llaple commodities in this ftate are wheat and
tobacco ; but as the circumltances of diltance from a
market, and the difficulty of navigating the Miffiffippi, render
them unprofitable to the cultivators, they arc turning their
attention to the raifing of hemp, for which the foil is well
adapted. The rivers abound with fi(h of various forts ;
and as fuamps are rare in Kentucky, the reptiles which
they produce, fuch as fnakes and frogs, &c. are not nu-
merous. The honey-bee may be called a domeftic infeft, as
it is faid not to be found hut in civihzed countries. Ac-
cordingly, it is a common faying among the Indians, when
they fee a fwarm of bees in the woods, " Well, brothers, it
is time for us to decamp, for the white people are coming."
The quadrupeds, except the buffalo, are the fame as in Vir-
ginia and the Carolinas. The climate, if we except a few
places m the vicinity of ponds and low grounds, is healthy
and delightful. Their inhabitants do not experience the
extremes of heat and cold. In 1798 the greateft heat was
89 Fahrenheit. The weather in winter is fiuduating. Snow
feldom falls deep or lies long. The winter begins about
Chriftmas, and is never longer than three months, commonly
two, and is fo mild that cattle can fubfift without fodder.
Fahrenheit's thermometer feldom falls below 35 in winter,
nor rifes above 80 in fummer. The approach of the feafons
is gradual ; the fummer continuing till the m.iddle of Oflo-
ber, the autumn or mild weather till Chrillmas, and the
fpring appears to produce efFeft in March, and by the
middle of April, the foliage of the forells is completely ex-
panded. Kentneky has various minerals. A valuable lead
mine has been difcovered between Cumberland and Green
rivers. Marie, chalk, gypfum, and ochres are found in dif-
ferent places. The country affords alfo iron, copper, ful-
phur, nitre, copperas, alum, &c. From the caves on Green
river earth i.s coUefted for falt-petre ; and many of the in-
habitants manufaAure their own gun-powder. Iron-works
are eftablifhed. Paper-mills, oil-mills, fulling-mills, faw-
mills, and a great number of valuable grift-mills, are erefted.
Several valuable tanneries have been eftablidied in different
parts of the country. Attempts are made, on a large fcale,
for the culture of vincvards, and the introduftion of the
cotton manufafture. The falt-works are more than fuf-
ficient for the fupply of all the inhabitants, at a low price.
Confiderable quantities of fugar ai-e made from the fugar
trees. The amount of exports from this ftate, in ]8ei, was
626,673 dollars. Malt liquor, fpirits diftilled from corn and
rye, and the juice of the fugar.trce, mixed with water, con-
flitute the ordinary b ; orage of the country. No preference
is given to any one religious denomination in this country.
The Prefbyterians, Baptilts, and Methodifts, are the mofl
numerous. Among the natural curiofities of the country
may be reckoned the banks of Kentuckv- and Dick's river.
Here may be obferved 3 or 400 feet of folid perpendicular
rocks, in fome parts of the lime-ftone kind, or in others of
fine white rharble, curioufly chequered wiiti ftrata of allo-
nilhing regularity ; fo that the rivers appear like deep ar-
tificial canals. Their high rocky banks are covered with
red cedar groves. Caves have alfo been difcovered in this
country, feveral miles in length, under a fine lime-llone rock,
Supported by curious arches and pillars. Springs that emit
fufphureous matter have been found in feveral parts of the
country. Near Lexington are found curious fepuklires, full
of human bones.

Uy the cor.ftitution of this ftate, formed and adopted in

KEN

1792, the powers of government are divided into three dif-
tindt departments ; legiflative, executive, and judiciary.
The le'i'lative is v.-fted in a general aflembly, confifting of
a ienar ..iid houfe of reprefentatives ( fee the beginning of
this article) ; the fupren-,e executive in a governor j the ju-
diciary in the fuprcnie court of appeals, and fuch inferior
courts as the legillature may eftablifh. The reprefeniatives
are ci. 'fen annually by the people ; the fenators and go-
vernor are choien for four years by eleftors appointed for
that purpofe ; the judges are appointed during good be-
haviour, by the governor, with the advice of the fenate.
The declaration of rights alTerts the civil equality of all ;
their right to alter the government at any time ; liberty of
confcience ; freedom of cledtions and of the prefs ; trial by
jury ; the fubordination of the military to the civil power :
the rights of criminals to be heard in their own defence ; tlu-
right of the people to petition for redrefs of grievances, to
bear arms, and to emigrate from the ftate. It prohibits nn-
reafonab'e fearches and feizures ; excefUve bail ; confine-
ment of debtors, unlefs there be prefumption of fraud ; fuf-
penfion of habeas corpus writ, unlefs in rebellion or inva-
fion ; ex poll fafto laws ; attainder by the legillature ; ftand-
ing armies ; titles of nobility, and hereditary diflinftions.
The legillature of Virginia, while Kentucky belonged to
that ftate, made provifion for a college in it, and endowed
it with very confiderable landed funds. There has been
fince eftabliilied a college at Lexington, called " Tranfyl-
vania," regularly organized and well endowed, having a
fund of 14,000 acres of land. The officers of the univerfity
are a prefident and two profefTors, in the literary depart-
ments ; three medical profefTors, in the fchool of medicine ;
and a profolTor of law : a divinity profefTorfliip has been alfo
contemplated. The library, fupphed chiefly by liber.il
gentlemen in England, amounts to near ,5000 volumes ; and
the pliilofophical apparatus is gradually enlarging. In
Lexington there is alfo a circulating library of about
1000 volumes. Schools, in feveral towns, are liberally en-
couraged and fupported. The diftance from Philadelphia
to Kentucky by land is from 7 to 800 miles ; from Balti-
more nearly 700 ; nearly 600 from Alexandria ; and up-
wards of 500 from Richmond. Morfe.

KENTZINGEN, a town of Germany, in the Brifgau,
about a mile from the eaft fide of the Rhine ; 13 miles N.W.
of Friburg.

KENYON, Lloyd, in Biography, was born at Grc-
dington, in Fhntihire, in the year 1733. He was educated
at Ruthin fchool in Denbighfliire, after which he was ar-
ticled to Mr. Tomlinfon, an attorney at Nantwich, in
Chefliire. When he had completed his clerkfliip, he entered
hinifelf a member of the fociety of Lincoln's Inn, and was
called to the bar in 1761. He now began to practife as a
conveyancer, and foon obtained a high reputation as a found
lawyer, which was the means of introducing him to notice
in tlie chancery court. Still, however, he made no figure
at the bar, till the trial of lord George Gordon, in 1 7S0,
gave him an opportunity for a full difplay of his talents ;
and from this moment he was looked up to with refpeft by
his brethren at the bar. In 1782, he was made attorney
general, and chief jnftice of Cheller ; and, much about the
fame time, he was returned to parliament for Hindon in
Wiltfliire. In 1784, he was appointed to the office of
mafler of the Rolls ; and on the rcfignation of the carl of
Mansfield in 1788, he v.-as, by the zealous recommendation
of lord Thurlow, raifed to the office of chief jnftice of the
king's bench, and ennobled with the title of baron Kenyon.
He died at Bath in April 1S02, leaving two fons, George
the prefent lord, and the honourable Thomas Kenyon.
Gent. Mag.

KEOGANG,

K E P

KEOGANG, in Geography, the mod w-eftcrly of the
branches or muuths of the river Ava, in Pegu, wliich runs
i:Uo the ffa near Cape Negrais.

KEOWE, or Keowee, tlie name given in America to
the Savannah river, above its conflux with the Tugulo, the
veil main branch. — Alfo, the incient name of the populous
town and territory of the Cherokee Indians, on the river of
that name. The foil is fertile, and the adjacent heisjhts
mighr, with little expcnce, be rendered alinoil imprcgnabl".
The fruitful vale of Keovve is feven or eight miles in extent,
terminated by a high ridge of hills, and opening again to an
extent of ten or twelve miles down to Sinica, and in breadth
one or tv.o miles. Thii was once a thickly inhabited fettle-
ment, well cultivated and planted. To the feeble remains
of the once potent Cherokees it now exhibits a different
fpeftacle.

KEOZEE, a town of Birmah, on the Irawaddy ; JJ
miles N.E. ot Pagahm. Tiiis town is ornamented with fe-
veral neat temples.

KEPELDEE, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
the Nayrs ; 30 miles E. of IVllicherry.

KEPHER Kenn-a, a village of Paleftine, faid to be the
ancient " Cana," where our Saviour changed the water into
wine.

KEPLER, John-, in Biography, a celebrated aftronomer
and mathematician, born at Wiel, in the duchy of Wirtem-
berg, December 27th, 1571, was fon of Henry Kepler,
an officer in the army, who had ferved his country with dif-
tinction, but who, by misfortunes, was reduced to low and
narrow circumftances. He gave his fon the beft education
in his power, though the youth was fubjecl to many diffi-
culties, by being fent to difFer-ent places, and by being put
tinder different n.afters. His genius and avidity for know-
ledge aninatcd him to furmount every obilacle, and to make
a very rapid proficiency. He was fent to Tubingen to pur-
fue his academic ftudics, and was admitted to the degree of
bachelor in 1588, and to that of mailer of philofophy in
1591. He applied himfelf to mathematics and theology,
and undertook the duties of the miniftry for a fhort time.
But his inclination being decidedly in favour of mathematics,
he refolved to devote his whole time and ilrength to the
fcience ; and fo high was his reputation, that in the year
1,94 he was invited to Gratz, in Stiria, to fill the mathe-
matical chair in the univerfity of 'that city. In the year
ijg'i, he married a lady of a noble family ; and in two years
from this period he was driven from Gratz by perfecution,
on account of his religious principles ; though he was foon
recilled by the flates of Stiria : but not thinking himfelf
fafe, he acc-pted a preffing invitation from Tycho Brahe
to fettle in Bohemia, and removed thither with his family
and books in the year 1600. Upon a dole intimacy, Kep-
ler wa« diiTatibfied with the conduct of Tycho, and com-
plained of his un^nllingnefs as well to promote his iiitereft,
as to communicate to him all his difcoveries and improve-
ments. Tycho, however, died in 1601 ; but previoufly to
this, he introduced him to the acquaintance of the emperor
Rodolph, who gave him a favourable reception, and ap-
pointed him his mathematician. This title of mathematician
to his imperial majelly Kepler poffefTed during the remainder
of his life, not only under the reign of Rodolph, but under
kis fuccefTor-s Mattliias and Ferdinand. Upon the death
of Tycho, the emperor Rodolpli ordered him to com-
plete the tables begun by tliat great man, which were to be
called the " Rodolphinc Tables.' Thefc, tiotwithftanding
the vigour with which he applied himfelf to them, were,
owing to unexpected diffienlties, not completed and pub-
lished till the year 1G2-. Having completed that work, he

K E P

obtained the emperor's leave to go and refide at Sagan, in
Silefia, where he fullered much inconvenience from not hav-
ing his penlion regularly paid him. This circumllance ob-
liged him to take a journey to Ratifbon in 1630, to fohcit
for the arrears due. Here he died in November, at the age
of 59 years. Tlie account of the labours and difcoveries of
this great man has been given by Mr. Maclaurin, in his
work on the " Difcoveries of Sir Ifaac Newton," and from
that we ihall extradt the following (Itetch. " To Kepler,"
fays lie, " we owe the difcovery of the true figure of the
orbits, and the proportions of the motions of the folar fyf-
tem. This aftronomer had a particular paffion for finding
analogies and harmonies in nature, after the manner of the
Pythagoreans and Platoniils. Three things, he tells us, lie
anxioully fought after from his early youth: — Why the
planets were W-f. in number ? Why the dimenfions of their
orbits were fuch as Copernicus had defcribed from obferva-
tions ? And, what was the analogy or law of their revolu-
tions ? He fought for the reafons of the firll two of thefe
in the properties of numbers and plane figures, witliout fuc-
ccfs. But at lengtli reflecting that while tlie i)lane regular
figures may be infinite in number, the regular folids are only
five, he imagined that certain myileries in nature might cor-
refpond with this limitation inherent in the efiences of things :
he therefore endeavoured to find fome relation between the
dimenfions of thofe folids and the intervals of t!ic planetary
fpheres ; and imagining that a cube infcribed in the fphere
of Saturn would touch by its fix planes the fphere of Jupi-
ter, and that the other four regular folids in like manner
fitted the intervals that are between the fpheres of the other
planets ; he became perfuaded that this was the true reafon
why the prim.ary planets were precifely fix in number, and
that the author of the world had determined their d;!tances
from the fun, the centre of the fyllem, from a regard to this
analogy. Bemg thus, as he imagined, poffelied of the
grand lecret of the Pythagoreans, and plealed with the dif-
covery, he publiflied it in 1596, under the title of " Myf-
teriuni Cofmographicum." He fent a copy of this book to
Tycho Brahe, who did not approve of the i'peculations con-
tained in it, but wrote to Kepler, urging him firll to lay a
fohd foundation in obfervations, and then, by afccnding
from them, to ftrive to come at the caufes of things : and to
this advice we are indebted for the more folid difcoveries of
Kepler. This great man, foon after the death of Tycho,
foimd that aftronomers had erred from the firft rife of the
fcience, in afcribing always circular orbits and uniform mo-
tions to the planets ; and he difcovered that each of them
moves in an clhpfis, which has one of its foci in the centre
of the fun ; that the motion of each is really unequable,
and varies in fuch a manner, that " a ray fuppofed to be al-
ways drawn from the planet to the fun defcribes equal areas
in equal times." It was fome years later before he dif-
covered the analogy that there is between the dillances of
the feveral planets from the fun, and the periods in which
they complete their rev- lutions. He has, however, left it
upon record, that on the 15th of May, i/')i8, he found
that " the fquares of the periodic times are always in the
fame proportion as the cubes of the mean dillances from the
fun." When Kepler faw, according lo better obfervations,
that his difpofition of the five regular folids among the
planetary fpheres was not agreeable to the intervals between
their orbits, he endeavoured to difcover other fchemts of
harmony. For this purpofe, he compared the motions of
the fame planet at its grcateft and kail diflanees, and of the
different planets in their different orbits, as they would ap-
pear viewed frcm the fun ; and here he fancied that he had
found a fimilitude to the divilions of the odlave in tnulic.

Of

K E P

Of fVieTe notions, which are wholly unfounded in nature, he
was fo fond, that hearing of the difcovery of the four fatel-
lites of Jupiter by GaUleo, he owns that his lirft refleftions
were from a concern liow he could fave his favourite fcheine,
which was threatened by this addition to the number of the
planets. The fame attachment led him into a wrong iudg-
ment concerning the fphere of the fixed ftars : for being
obhged, by his doftrinc, to allow a vaft fuperiority to the
fun in tlic univerfe, he retrains the fixed tlars within very
narrow hmits ; nor did he confider them as funs placed in
the centres of tlieir feveral fyllcms, having planets revolving
round them. Kepler's great f.igacily, and continued medi-
tations on the planetary mrttions, fiiggefted to him fome
views of tlie true principles from which thefe motions flow.
He fpealis of gravity a.s of a power that was mutual between
bodies; and fays, that the earth and moon tend towards
each other, and would meet in a point, fo many times nearer
to the earth than to the moon, as the earth is greater than
the niooii, if their motions did not hinder it. He adds alfo,
that the tides arifo from the gravity of the waters towards
the moon. But not liaving notions fufRciently ju.'t of the
laws of motion, he was unable to make the bell ufe of thefe
ideas ; nor did lie fteadily adhere to them, for in his " Epi-
tome of Atlronomy," pubhfhed many years after, he pro-
pofes a phyfical account of the planetary motions derived
from different principles. Kepler was author of feveral
pieces bcfidcs thofe already mentioned, of which the follow-
ing may be noticed : " Prodromus Didertationiim Cofmo-
graphicarum ;' " De Stella nova in Pede Scrpcntarii ; '
" Aftronomia nova, feu Pliyfica Cceleftis, Tradita Com-
mentariis dc Motibus Stellas Martis ex Obfervationibus
Tychonis Braliei ;" " De Conietis libri tres."

This great geumerrician and aftronomer, in his " Har-
monices Mundi," publiflied at Lintz, in Aullria, in 1619,
and dedicated to our James I., fpeaks on the fubject of
niufic iike a man who had not only thought of it as a fcience
fiibfervient to the laws of calculation, but in the language of
one who had ftudied it pratlica!ly as an elegant art, and been
truly fenlible of its powers. And though the eloquent
aftronomical hi'.lorian Bailly fays, in a fweeping decifion,
that " Kepler, from his veneration for Pythagoras and
Plato, has plunged into mufical ratios, and blended them
with the movement.';, diftanccs, and eccentricities, of the
planets, in his vifionary analogies ; they contain not one
iingle true ratio or refemblancc : in a crowd of ideas there
is not one fiiigle trutli." Tiiis fevere cenfure of M. Bailly
ir.uft be confined to the proportions and analogies between
mu'ical intervals and tlie diftances of the heavenly bodies :
as the ratios of Kepler are accurate, as far as concerns
inulic.

Neither Maclaurin nor Dr. Hutton have expreffed them-
felves fo harfhly on his fancied fimihtudes to the divifions of
the octave in nuific ; which they indeed cail the dreams of
this ingenious man, as t!ie harmony of the fpheres had been
of Pythagoras and Plato long before.

This great mathematician and precurfor of fir Ifaac
Newton was fo far from allowing to the ancients, much as
he refpecied them, fiich harmony as is prattifed by the mo-
derns, tliat he fays, though Plato, in his " Republic,"
fpeaks a.' if fomttliing like it were in ufe, he fuppofes if
tiiey ever had any accoaipaiiiment to their melodies by way
of bafe, it mull have been fiich a one as is produced by the
drone of a bagpipe This is perhaps being as unjull to the
ancients, as thofe are to tlie moderns, who will not allow
them to have made any progrefs in mufic, becaufe they are
unaljle, by their con-iiofitions and performance, to cure
difeafes, tame vviU bcalls, or build to\Vns.

K E P

Kepler's Laivs, is a term ufed by ardronomcrs to denote
certain analogies between the diftances of the planetary bo-
dies from the fun, and their times of periodic revolution ; as
alfo between the rate of motion in any revolving body,
whether primary or fecondary, and its diftance from the
central body about which it revolves. The latter of thefe,
which is generally called Kepler's firft law, being that
which he iirfl difcovered, is commonly exprefled as follows,
viz.

r. Equal areas are defcribcd in equal times ; that is, if a
line be fuppofed to join the central and revolving body, this
line always palTes over, or defcribes equal areas in equal
times, whether the planet be in its aphelion, perilielion, or
in any other part of its orbit.

2. The fquares of the times of revolution of the planetary
bodies are as the cubes of their refpeftive diftances from the
fun.

Thefe laws were firft difcotered by Kepler, the cele-
brated aftronomer, whofe name they bear ; — a name which
will be perpetuated as long as the fcience of aftronomy itfelf
is known, and the fublimity of its law.s l-.ave charms to cap-
tivate the minds of philofophers. The difcovery of thefe
analoijies forms a moil important epoch in the hillory ot af-
tronomy, as tiicy may be confidered as having paved the
way to that fubhme and univerfal fyftem of attraftion, the
difcovery of which has immortalized the name of Newton :
for Kepler having deduced them from the comparilnn of
aftual obfervations, and therefore independent of any theory,
they formed a very ufeful criterion for the corroboration of
any particular hypothefis, as well as an important datum in
the inveftigation of new theories.

In order to form a proper e.ftimate of the value of thefe
improvements, and the difficulty their author had to en-
counter in eilablifliing them, we muft look to the ftate of
aftronomy at that period". Copernicus had jull revived the
Pythagorean fyftem, and Kepler was one of its afeleft ad-
vocates : but ftill it was held as a facred principle, that the
motions of all the planetary bodies were performed in uni-
form circular orbits ; to reconcile which to aftual appear-
ances, many ingenious contrivances were made ufe of, and
which, it muft be allowed, reprefented the planetary motion
with confiderable exaftnefs.

The angular motion of each of the planets confifts of two
parts : one part increa.lng uniformly with the time ; and an-
otlier which is periodical, and acquires all degrees of mag-
nitude within a certain limit, in the feveral parts of the or-
bit. Now every fuch motion was accounted for with a tole-
rable degree of accuracy, by the ancient contrivances of epi-
cycles and deferents. Accordingly the ancient fyftems re-
prefented, with confiderable exaitnefs, rhofe obierved places
of the planets that defended only on the real angular mo-
tions ; as at the oppofitions. But they failed when ap-
plied to the other pofitions of the planets, and to the lati-
tudes, where the apparent places depend not only on the
angular motions, but likewife on the relative dilhinces. It
was here that all the ancient fyftems were alike defetlive ;
and it was by a ftrift comparifon of obfervation with theory,
that Kepler at laft found himfelf obliged to depart from
that principle of uniform circular motion, which had been fo
fcrupuloully adhered to by a 1 his predecefTor.' .

The fituation of the heavenly bodies, in refpeft to one
another, depends upon their real angular motions, and their
relative diftances. But when a planet is in oppofition, the
apparent places, as feen from the earth and fun, arc coinci-
dent, and its pofition is effefted only by the angular mo-
tions; and, therefore, obfervations in oppofition, being the
fimpleft and the leaft hable to inaccuracy, are of great ufe
3 ' in

KEPLER'S LAWS.

in adronomy. But in obfcrving oppofitions, a praftice had
been introduced, ■ tliat in part defeated the pnrpofe for
which fuch obfervation3 had been preferred to all others. A
planet was reckoned to be in oppofition, \\h^n its place in
the heavens was removed iSo" in longitude, not from the
real place of the fun, but from his mean place. It is evi-
dent, therefore, that by this pracliee the obferver was VjOt
fituatcd in the fame line with the fun and the planet, at the
computed time of oppolition ; and, therefore, the apparent
place of the planet was not entirely divefted of the fecond
inequality, excepting in the rare cafe when the true
place of the fun coincided with liis mean place. To this
pradice Kepler objefted, and conceived the dtfip^n of de-
termining the orbit of M.irs from real, in Head of apparent
oppofitions ; and he entertained the moll fantruine expecta-
tions of completely reforming the theory of the planets, by
his projected innovation. Kepler's intended fubilitution of
real for mean oppofitions led him to examine the practice of
allronomers in another important point. It very feldom
l»appens that a planet is found in the plane of the ecliptic,
in which the motion of the fun is performed ; and in order
to afcertain the place of the planet in its orbit at the time cf
obfervation, a reduftion from the ecliptic to the plane of the
orbit becomes necelTary : and in examining the ancient me-
thods of reduction, Kepler found them to be erroneous and
inconfillent ; and his invefligation ultimately eftablidicd tins
important conclufion, " that the orbits of the planets are
invariable planes, interfedting each other in lines paiTing
through the fun's centre." This was a moll important im-
provement, and of greater conlequence in fimplifying the
fcience of aftronomy than any that had been introduced in
all the preceding ages ; and his fuccefsful and decifive ella-
bliihment of its truth may be julliy ranked among his
gieateft difcoveries

Kepler having overcome all the difEcukics that oppofed
his projecled mnovation, at length completed a theory of
Mars, derived folely from apparent oppofitions ; and its ac-
curacy was unqueftionabie in reprefenting the oppofitions ;
but it totally failed when applied to the latitudes, and to the
longitudes out of oppofition. Uiiappointed in the high ex-
petlation he had formed of his new theory, he yet drew
from its failure an important inference, the firil ilcp to
emancipation from the ancient prejudice of uniform circular
-motion. For as the theory involved only two fiippofitions,
•y.'z. that the orbit of Mars was a circle, and that tiie mo-
tion of the planet was uniform about a fixed point in the
line of apfides, he juiliy concluded that one at Icall of thefe
two fuppofitions was falfe. He now prepared for further
refearches ; but, firft of all, judged it necelfary to examine
the circumftance that affeAed tlie theory of the earth's an-
nual motion : for as the latitudes of the planets, and the
longitudes out of oppofition, (the phenomena which had
hitherto rendered his attempts abortive,) depended on the
ditlances of the earth from the fun, it vva^ requifite to be
affured that no eiTors crept in from tliis quarter.

Nor was Kepler wit'nout fufpicions of inaccuracy in
the terrellrial orbit. He had early remarked it as an
anomaly, that an equant was afligned to all the planets,
the Earth or Sun excepted ; and although the autlioiity
of all aftonomers was againil him, he even then pre-
fumed to doubt of the jiiilnefs of the exception. Ke-
fumiiig the examination of this point on the prefent occafion,
he ellablifhed, by multiplied and undeniable proof, that the
eceeiitricitv was bifefted in the orbit of tiic Earth or Sun,
as well as in the orbits of the other planets. Kepler, in
turning his attention to the folar theory, had alfo a farther
improvement in view, viz. a method for dcfivhig the cqv.a.-

VoL. XIX.

tions of the planetary orbits from a lefs arbitrary and preti-
rious priniriple than that cf the equant, or a centre of uni-
form angular motion. He had remarked, that it is a gene-
ral fad in the folar fydem, that the velocity of a planet
diminifhes as it recedes from tlie Sun, and increafes as it ap>-
proaches that luminary ; and he concluded, that thefe two
quantities, the velocity of a planet, and its diftance from the
Sun, mull be related according to fome law, which, if dif-
covered, would enable allronomers to calculate the rate of a
planet's motion for all points of its orbit, and, of courfe,
to determine the equation, or correftion due to the mean
motion in every fuch point. This was undoubtedly the
conclufion of a man of genius and originality ; for tliough
we are now familiar with the notion, that whenever the
variations uf one quantity depend on th; fe of another, the
one of the quantities may be exprelTed by fome fundlions of
the other ; yet, in the days of Kepler, it muli: have required
no fmall effort of generalization to perceive this truth, and
the important confequences which refult from it. Great
difficulties, however, flood in the way of the in-
veiligatio;! ; and Kep'er had to ftruggle, not only with his
own precioitancy, which frequently led him into error, but
witli the imperfeclions of the geometry of that age, which
were great in all matters connected with the quadrature of
curves.

His ingenuity and perfeverance, however, atlart prevailed.
He found that the times of defcribing fmall arcs of the
Earth's orbit, are as the ditlances fro.Ti the Sun ; that there-
fore the times of defcribing any arcs whatever, mud be as
the fums of thofe alliances ; and having fatisfied himfelf, from
geometrical coiifiderations, that the fum of the dillaiices
maybe expounded (at lead nearly) by the area contained
between the arc and tlie radii drawn from its extremity to
the centre, he inferred that the times of defcribing any arcs
whatever, arc proportional to thefe areas, or which is the
fame, Tkit equal areas are ckfcrihcd in equal times. In coiife-
qucnce of this improvement, Kepler began to fpeculate on
the nature of the force which produced fo curious an ad-
judment ; but the honour of this difcovery was referved for
the genius of the iinn.ortal Newton. Wlien he again re-
fumed the confidcration of the orbit of Mars, he foon faw
rcafon to conclude that this body defcribed its orbit under
the guidance of the fame law that he hadjuft found to hold
on the Earth ; ws. that the areas defcribed by a line drawn
from tiic planet to the Sun, are every where proportional
to the time of defcription.

The attempt, however, of computing the equation of
Mars's motion on this principle, was attended with much
didiculty, on account of the great eccentricity of the orbit,
but dill more from that prejudice in favour of the old doc-
trine of circular orbits, which has been already mentioned.
In his new method of computing the equations, Kepler
fuppofed tlie orbit to be accurate ; but the refuks, from the
combination of the two principles, were fuch as could not
be reconciled with the places of Mars, obferved by Tycho
Brahe. In this dilemma, finding that he m.iid give up one
ot the principles which he had adopted in his calculation, he
fird propofed to facrifice his own theory to the authority
of the old fyllem ; thus giving one of the mod memorable
examples which has ever occurred, of the influence of can.
dour and prejudice at the fame moment. He foon found,
however, that this facrifice would not anfwer his purpofe,
and that, in order to make the calculus agree with obfer-
vations, it vvas the old liypothefis, and not the new one, that
mud be abandoned.

Thus the idol was overthrown by which Kepler had been

fo long deceived, and the emancipation of adronomy was

4 Z acliieved ;

K E P

achieved ; but many difficulties wcro yet to be overcome,
bcFore the empire of trinh could be firinly cllabliflicd.

It was proved, that the orbit of Mars was not circular,
b«t its real form wr.s yet undifcovered. The hypothefis
which tirit prefented itfe'i was, that this orbit is an oval or
ellipfis, coinciding with t!ie fuppofed circiitar orbit at trie
tv.o apiides, but falli:ig very much within it i:i the middie
between them ; and Kepler having affigned the proportions
of the longer and (liorter axes of the curve, according to
viev.-s that he thougiit found, but which proved to be" ex-
tremely fallacious, proceeded to defcribe the elliplis, to
obtain its quadrature, to cut its area in any given propor-
tion, and to derive from thence the equations of the mean
motion ; all which was accompanied with fuch labour as no-
thing but his fortitude and perfeverance would have been able
to overcome. He com.pared the dillances of Mars, thus
•computed for no lefs than forty different arcs of anomaly,
with the fame as deduced from obfervntion, and had the
mortification to find, that they did by no means agree, but
that the real places of the planet fell as far witin ut the new
oval, as within the old circular orbit. After frying many
<lift'erent means of corrediiig thcfe errors with' incredible
labour, and always fv.bjccting eaeh hypothelis to the fevered
fell, he found, at'length, that an ellipfe, with the fun in one
of Its foci, and its greater axis equal to the mean diflance of
Mars, roprefented the whole motion of the planet with
wonderful txaftnefs. The phnds, therefore, defcribe ellipfes,
having the fun in their common focus ; and this is the fecond
great difcovery which delighted the mind, and has immorta-
lized the name of Kepler.

His third difcovery was that of a law of no lefs im-
portance than either, the defcription of equal areas, or tlie
elliptic orbits of the planets ; but it was made more eafily
th'.n them, and without the fame elaborate deductions.
His (Irong propenfity to trace out l.iws and difcover ana-
logies in nature, fet him eagerly at work to find out what
relation fublilh between the d'iilances of the planets from
the fun, and the times of their revolutions round him. The
data here lay in a much fmaller compafs, and were much
Jefs various than in the two former refearches ; and Kepler,
after making fome fanciful comiiarifons between the dif-
lances of the planets, and tiie regular folids in ^reometry,
and alfo between the fame and the divifions of the mono-
chord, thought at laft of comparing the different powers
ot thcfe quantities with one another, from which compa-
rifon, though not without fome abortive attempts, this
truth at laft emerged, thiit the flares of the periodic times of
thr planets, are ets the cubes of their mean dijtances from the fun.
He cxprcifed, in ftrong terms, the dehght and aftoniihment
lie felt on the difcovery of this fimple and beautiful ana-
logy. He has carefully marked the day on which the dif-
covery was made, (.8th May, 1618,) "and few," fays a
writer on this fubjeft, " are the days in the hiftory of the
world that deferve fo well to be remembered."

After the happy idea of comparing the powers of the
dillances and times, the ftep to the final refuit was ex-
tremely fimple and eafy ; though it does not appear that
Kepler employed any particular m.ethod for this purpofe,
but had rccoui-fc to various trials before the real law was
difcoveied.

Suppofe, for inftance, D, d, and J, to reprefent the dif-
tances of any three planets, and T, /, t, the three corre-
fjKinding tim.es of periodic revolution ; then, in order to
ilfcertain whether any law fublifts between thefe two feries
of i.i^uan:itie3, let us affiime the following proportions : v/s.

D"- : d" :: T" : t-

D" ! i™ :: T" : t'

K E P

w and n may
1 or fraitiunj

reprefent a:
1. Then

y numbers

vhatev

»r.

m log. D +
m log. D +

n log. / =

« log. T =

« log. d +
..; log. I +

« log.
„ log.

T

m (log. D -
m (log. D -

- log. d\ =

- log. i) =

D

n (log. T
n (log. 1

- 1<>,?-

/

m

0<T -'-' -

■^s-T

:c again.

x.o..y =

= log- -^ X log-

T

t

which equality muft neceffarily obtain if any lawfubfill, \
it is remarkable that it fliould' be totally independent (-t •: .;
law itfclf. Therefore, it was only neceffary to fubmit the
above equality to examination, in order to be affurcd of the
exiftence or non-exillence of any analogy; and having thus
afcertained that fome law muil: have place, the law itfelf is
readily difcovered from any of the above equations. Thus

D T

the equation m log. — = n log. - gives immediately

-" ,/

log.

D

__, which fraction being reduced to the loweS;

log.

terms v.'ill fiirnifli the particular values of ;n and'«. As
thefe formula: are applicable to any two feries of quantities, ,
between which any law of this kind is fufpecled to obtain,
they are not altogether unworthy of attention. We li.ive
thus given a flight Hcetch of the difcoveries of this cele-
brated allronomer, which, had the limits of our article ad-
mitted of it, might have been extended to a much greater
length ; in the prefent inilance, however, we can only refer
the reader who wiihes for more complete information on this
interefting fubject, to Dr. Small's " Account of the AUro-
nomical Difcoveries of Kepler."

Kepler'.s Pr'jbkm. See Problicm.

KEPPEL, Augustus, in Biography, a celebrated Eng-
lifli admiral, the fecond fon of William, earl of Albemarle, was
born April 2d, 1725'. He entered the fea-fervice while he was
young, accompanied commodore Anfon round the world,
and by the zeal which he manifefted in his profeffion, was
railed to the firil honours which it had to beilow. The moll
important occurrence in his life took place in 1778, when lie
had the command of the channel fleet, to wliich he had been
appointed at the perfonal and urgent folicitation of the
king, and which he readily accepted, though he could not
help obferving, that " his forty years fervices were not
marked by any favour from the crown, except that of its
confidence in the time of danger." On the 12th of July he
fell in with the French licet, under count d'Orvilliers, off
Ulhant : an engagement enfued, which, though partial, was
very warm while it lafled. It was necelTary to take a ftiort
time to repair the damages : which being done, the admiral
made proper fignals for the van and rear divilion to take
their refpedive ftations. This order was obeyed with great
alacrity by fir Robert Harland of the van, but admiral fir
Hugh Pallifer of the rear took no notice of the fignal, and
i-efufed to join his commander, till night prevented a renewal,
of the battle. The French, taking advantage of the darkncfs,
elcaped to their owji coall. Adiniral Kcppe), .willing to ex.

gufe

K E R

ciil'e fir Hugh Pallifer, at lead to fcreenliim from public rcfent-
ment, wrote home fucha letter a* fecuicd even to imply great
impropriety of behaviour in the commander himfelf. The con-
duct, however, of the rear-admiral was attacked in the pubbc
papers : he demanded of his commander a formal difavowal
of the charges brong!it againil him, v.'hieh Kcppcl indig-
Eantly refuftd. He immediately exhibited articles of acc.i-
f.jtion againil the commander-in-chief, for mifcondiicl and
r.egleft of duty, although he liad a fccond time failed with
him, and had never uttered a fyllable to his prejudice. The
lords of the admiralty, to the ailoninmieiit of the nation, in-
flantly fixed a day for the trial of admiral Kcppel : he was
mod honourably acquitted, and received the thanks of both
houfes of parliament for his fervices. Pallifer was next
tried, andefcaped with acenfure only, but the refentment of
the pubbc was fo great, that he was obliged to relign feveral
offices whicli he held luidcr government, and to vacate his
fcal in parliament. The acquittal of Keppel was celebrated
with the moll magnilicent illuminations, and other marks of
rejoicing which had never been known at that time in this
country, and the houfes of lord Sandwich, firft lord of the
admiralty, and iir Hugh Pallifer, were with difilculty faved
from deilruCtion ; the windows and much of the furniture
being demoliihed by the fury of the populace. In 1782,
admiral Kcppel was raifed to a peerage, with the titles of
vifcount Keppel, baron Elden : he v.as afterward', at two
diUerent periods, appointed liril lord of the admiralty. He
died Ocl. 3d, 1786, unmarried, and of courfe his titles be-
came extinei. He was a thorough feaman, and a man of
great integrity and humanity. Gent. Mag.

Keppel's Buy, in Geogrnphy, a bay of the South
Pacific ocean, on the N.E. coalt of New Holla;:d. S. lat.
zy" 28'. E. long, ijo^ 33'.

Kepi'F.I's Ijlaml, or Traitor's Ifiand, an ifland in the
South Pacific ocean. S. lat. 15' 53'. W. long. 172' n'
to 17J' 13' — Alfo, a fmall i.land on the N. fide of the
moft vvefterly of the Falkland iflands, in the S. Atlantic
ocean. S. lat. 51° 24'. W. long. 60" 15'. — Alfo, one of
thofe called- queen Ciiarlotte's illands, in the S.Pacific
ocean. S. lat. 10" ij'. \V. long. 134 56'.

KeppivL's Ijlands, a group of illands near Keppel's bay,
on the N.E. coall of New Holland, difeovered by captain
Cook in the year 1770. Near thefc illands the water,
which was too Ihaliow for filh, abounded with crabs, which
were of two forts, and both fuch as had not been feen before :
one of them was adorned with the fincll blue that can bo
imagined, in every refpeCt equal to tlie ultramarine, with
which all his claws and every joint were deeply tinged ; the
under part of it was white, and fo exquifitely pohlhed, that
in colour and brightnefs it refembles the white of old China ;
the other was alfo marked with the ultramarine upon his
joints and toes, but fomewhat more fparingly, and his back
was marked with three broivn fpots, which had a fingular
appearance. S. lat 2j' 8'. W. long. 2oy i'. Hawkef-
worth's Voyages of Cook, &c. vol. iii.

KEPSE, a town of Syria, on the cnaft of the J>fediter-
ranean, and on the N. fide of tlie mouth of the Oroiito.'i,
about a mile from the fea ; fitiiated, as it is fuppofed, on tiie
fcite of the ancient Scleuda, which fee.

KEPTA, a town of Bootan ; J4 miles 3. of Tufla-
fudon.

KERAMIANS, a heretical fea of Mahometans, the fol-
lowers of Mohammed Ebn Kerim, Called alio Mojatfemians,
orCorporealilh, who not only admittedarefemblance between
G.od and created beings, but declared God to be corporeal.
They were led to this notion by the literal afceptatioii of
thofe paflagcs in the Koran, which figurai'r\-ely attribute

K E R

corporeal aflions to God, and of the words of Mahomet,
when he faid, that God created man in his o-wn image, and
that himfelf had fill the fingers of God, which he laid on his
back, to be rolcl.

KERAMO, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Natoha ; 24 miles S.S.E. of Milcts.

KERANA, a long fort of trumpet : fomewhat in form
of a fpeaking-trumpct, ufed by the PerCans.

To the found of this, they add a confufed noife of haut-
boys, timbrels, drums, and other inflruments, every evening
at fun-fet, and two hours after midnight.

KERATI, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Caramania ; 26 miles N.W. of Beifliebri.

KERATIA, a town of European Turkey, in Livadia ;
24 miles S.S.E. of Athens.

KERATOPHYTUM, in Natural Iiy%ry, a fpecies of
Gorgonia ; which fee.

KERAUN, in Geography, a town of Hindooilan, in
Lahore ; 15 miles W.N.W. of Gujurat.

KERBEHj a town of Natolia ; 44 miles N.E. of
Ifmid.

KERBOOZ.\. a town of Hindooilan, in Lahore ; 32
miles S E. of Attock.

KERCAL, a town of Africa, in Fez, or. the coaft of
tke Mediterranean ; 45 miles E.S.E. of Tetuan.

KERCH, or KeriscHt a fortified town of Ruflia, in tha
province of Tauris, on the channel between the Black fea
and the fea of Azoph. It was founded by a colony o£
Greeks from Miletus, and afterwards fubdued by the kings
of Bofphorus. In the year of Rome 689, it was taken by
Mithridates. king c^f Ponti'.s, who, in confequu-.ce ct tlie
rebellion of his fo'n Pharnaces, wzs befieged in the calilc, and
at his own rcqi:elt put to death by an officer of the Gauls,
who had forced the wails ; ico miles E.S.E. of pcrekop.
N. lat. 4,- 16'. E. long. 36 14'.

KERCHA, a town of Pcrfia, iii Chufillan ; 30 miles
N.W. of Suiter.

KERCKRING, Theodore, in Biography, a celebrated
phyfician, was a native of A mftcrdam. He had attained
the age of eighteen, when he began the ftudy of the Latin
language, under the tuition of Francis Van Ende, and fooii
afterwards apphed himfelf to medicine with fo much zeal
and fuccefs, that he obtained a high, reputation, both
in the piaftice of the profeffiou, and by his anatomical
and chemical difcovcries. He continued the exercife of
his art at Amfierdam for feveral years, and married thq
daughter of his preceptor, before mentioned ; after which,
he fettled at Kambi.rgh in the yeai- 167S, where, after
liaviiig for a long time held the appointment of refident froiH
the grand duke of Tufcany, he died in November, j 693.
Anatomy was the favourite fubjeft of his refearches, and \,o
formed an anatomical mufeuni, which was long an objedl of,
admiration, and the refort of the curious, who vifited that
city. His principal writings were likeivife tipon anato-.
uiical fubiefts ; they arc as follows : 1. «' Spicilegium Ana-
tomicum," continent Obfervatioiium Anatomicarym rariorum.
Centuriam unam, nccnon Oilcogeniam Foetuunri, in qua, quid
cuique ofliculo fingulis accedat menfibus, quidquc decedat
& io to per varia immulctur tempora, uccuratiifimc pculi.^
fubjicitur." Amll. 1670, 1673. 2. " Anthropogeniie ich-'
nographia, five, confbrmatio Fuctus ab ovo ufque ad olUlica'-'
tionis'principia, in Suppleir.entum Ofteogcnix Fa:tuuin."_
(Ibid. 1671.) In this work the developement of the fcclus,
at di2«rent periods of its age, is traced with great- atlenli»ri
and minutenefs. 3. " Commentarius in Currum Trium,
phalem Antimonii Baf. .Valentiiii.' ' ( Ibid'. 167 u) This is
chiefiy a tranflatioii of Bafil Valcn-.iae's ,woik, from* tlie
4. Z i GcrnvdO

K E R

German to the Latin. A pollhumoiis colleftion of his ana-
tomical writings was publiOied at Leydcn in 1717, with tlie
title of " Opera omnia Anatomica." Eloy. Did.

KERCOLANG, in Geography, an ifiand in the Eaft
Indian fea, about 80 miles in cn-cuniference, inhabited by
Malays. N. lat. of the north extremity 4' 2S'. E. long.
126 30'.

KERDA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Sma-
land ; ^8 miles W.N.W. of Wexio.

KERDECAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kcr-
man ; 22 miles N \V. of Sirgian.

KERDISTAN, a town of Perfia, in Chnfiftan ; 90
miles E.S.E. of Sniler.

KERDIZ, a town of Candahar, in Cabuliilari ; 70 miles
E. of Ghizni.

KEREDGE, a town of Perfia, in Irak ; 15 miles S.W.
of Sava.

KERELO, a town of Tranfvlvania, on the Maros ; 20
miles W.N.W. of Scheftiur-,

KEREMPIBURUN, called Cape Crampi, a cape on
the N. coall of Natulia, on a neck of land which projects
into the Black fea. N. lat. 42 45'. E. long. 33 to'.

KEREN, a town of Perl'ia, in Irak; 45 miles W. of
Kermanflia.

KERESB.AN.TA, a town of Tranfvlvania; .1.4 miles
S.S.W. of Colofvar. N. lat. 4f 16'. E long. 22' 25'.

KERESOUN, a town of Turkifn .■\rmenia, at the
mouth of a river of the fame name, which runs into the
Black fea, anciently a city of PoKtus, called Cera/us ; which
fee.

KERESZTUR, a town of Tranfylvaiiia ; 36 miles N.
of Schefti.rg.

KERET, a town of RulTia, in the goveniment of Arch-
angel, on the White fea ; 14S miles S. of Kola.

KERETSKOI, a town of Rufiia, in the government of
Archangel, on the White fea ; 32 miles N. of Archangel.

KERF is the notch or flit that is made by the faw be-
tween two pieces of wood, when thev are Tawing afunder.

KERFE-K ARUMFEL, in the Materia Medica, a name
given by Avicenna, and ethers, to the wood of the clove-
tree, as the wood of the cinnanion-trre was cdled Ltrfc Jjr-
Jini ; and many others in the fame manner.

KERGONG, in Geography, a town of Hindoollan, in
Candtifh ; 4^ miles S. of Indore.

KERGUELEN'.s L.^nd, otherwife called the JJland
ef Defo'.ation, an ifland in the Southern Indian ocean, firit
difcovered in 1772, and afterwards vifited, in 1773, by M.
de Kerguelen, who, in his fccond voyage, difcovered lome other
fmall iflands in its vicinity. Kerguelen has, fincc the death of
captain Cook, publilhed the}ournal of his proceedings in thefe
two fuccelfive voyages, and has annexed to his narrative a
chart of the coafts of this land, as far as he had explored
them in both voyages. M. de Pages, much about the fame
time, favoured the public with another account of the fec-ond
Toyage, in forr.t- rcfpefts fuller than Kerguelen's own, on
ISoard of whofe fhip he was then an officer Captain Cook
fell in with thefe idands in December 1776 ; and of the firll
he fays, that it is an ifland of confiderable height, and about
three leagues in circuit. To this iiland Kerguelen had
given the nap.-e cf " Croy," or «♦ Crouy ;" and the view
cf it in his chart exaftly correfponds with Cook's account
cf its being of conlidf rabU height. Cook obftrved another
«(hnd of the fame m.-iffnit-de, one league to the eaftward,
which Kerguelen had call- d " Ifle Rolland," after the name
ef his own fhip, and of which Ke hdS given a view in his chart.
Bt-twecn thefe two irt.inds C( ok obferved fome fmalier ones
»» the direction of S.£. In tbe dire^i> S, by £. \ £. frvm

K E R

the E. end of thie firft ifland, a third high iiland was feen.
This appears to have been Kerguelen's " Ifle de Clugny,"
as marked on his chart. Another ifland in the N.E. direc-
tion was a high round rock, named by captain Cook
' Bligh's Cap," which he juftly concluded to be the fame
which M de Kerguelen called the '• Ifle of Rendezvous,"
though Cook fays " I know nothing that can rendezvous
at it but fowls of the air ; for it is certainly inacceflible to
every other animal." Bligh's Cap was afcertaincd to be
in S. lat. 48 29'. E. long. 68 40'. The French and
Englilli navigators agree very nearly with refpeft to the
latitude of tliis ifland; but they differ as to its longitude.
The pilot at Teneriffc made it only 64 57' E. irom Paris,
which is about 67 16' E. from London; or 1 24' more
weilerly than captain Cook's obfervations fix it. M. de
Pages fays it is 66 47' E. from Paris, that is, 69' 6' E.
from London, or 26 miles more eallerly than it is placed
bv captain Cook. Kerguelen himfelf only fays, that it is
about 68 E. long. The northern point of this land captain
Cook crroneoudy concluded to be the " Cape Louis" of
the firll difcoverers ; whereas, by an infpeftion of Kcrgue-
len's chart, this northern point defcribed by Cook, is the
fame with that to which the Fiench have given the name
of" Cape Fran9ois." The whole extent of coall lying be-
tween Cape Louis and Cape Francois, of which the French
faw very little during their firll vifit in 1772, and which
may be called the N.W. fide of this land, they had it in
their power to trace the pofition of in 1773 ; and they
have afiigned names to fome of its bays, rivers, and promon-
tories upon their chart. On the 25th of December (Chrill-
mas day), captain Cook anchored in the harbour from this
circumtlance denominated " Chriflmas Harbour," which
fee. On the 27th many of the Ihip's crew went on fliore,
and made excurlions, in different diredions, into the country,
which they found barren and defolate in the highell degree.
They brought with them a quart bottle, which was found
faflened with wire to a projecting rock on the N. fide of the
harbour. This bottle contained a piece of parchment, with
the following infciiption : " Ludovico XV. Galliarum
rcge, et D. de Boynes regi a fecretis ad res maritimas aniiis
1772 et 1773." Captain Cook, as a memorial of having
been in this harbour, caufed to be written on the other fide
of the parchment this infcriptio" : " Naves Refohition et
Difcovery de Rege Magnae Britannia, Decembris 1776."
This parchment was put again into a bott'e with a lilver
twopenny piece of 1772 ; and the bottle, having been
covered with a leaden cap, was placed on a pile of Hones
ereded for the purpofe, upon a liule eminence on the N.
fliore of the harbour, near the place where it was firll found.
The Chrillmas harbour of captain Cook is the fame with
the " Bale de I'Oifeau" of the French, and Cajic Francois,
and not Cape St. Louis, is the northern point of this land ;
and the account of the S. point of the harbour given by M.
de Pages and captain Cook remarkably agree. The land
on both fides of the inlet is high, and it runs in W., and
W.N.W. about two miles. Its breadtii is 1 1 mile, for more
than half its length ; above which it is on'y half a mile. The
depth of water is 45 fathoms at the entrance, and varies, in
proceeding farther inward, from thirty to five and four fa-
thoms. The fliores are Iteep, and the bottom is every where
a fine dark iand, except near the ihore, where are beds of
feaweed. I'he head of the harbour lies open only to two
points of the compafs ; and even thefe are covered by
iflands in ths offing, fo that no fea can fall in to hurt a (hip.
It i.^ high water here at the full and change da)s, about
10 o'clock ; and the tide rifes and falls about four feet.
Captain Cook explored this ifland, and other iflands adjacent-
8 to

K E R

lo it, with a view of extending Kerguelen's difcovery.
After having anchored in another harbour, called " Port
Palhfer," and fituated in S. lat. 49" j'. E. long. 69' 57',
and linding no encouragement to continue his refearches,
captain Cook put to fea. The French difcoverers, with
fome reafon, imagined Cape Francois to be the projedling
point of a fouthern continent. " The Englifli have fince

ved th:

fuch continent exifts : and that the land

in queftion is an idand of no great extent, which, from
its fterility," fays captain Cook, " I (liould, with great
propriety, call the " Ifland of Defolation," but that I
would not rob M. de Kerguclen of the honour of its bearing
Iiis name." Kerguelen now concurs with captain Cook as to
its being an ifland : but he apprehends, that it is about
200 leagues in circuit ; and he fays, that lie was acquainted
with about 80 leagues of its cuaft. After all, it cannot
but be remarked, that Kerguelen was pecuharly unfor-
tunate, in having done fo little to complete what he had
begun. He difcoveied, indeed, a new land, but, m two ex-
peditions to it, he could not once bring his fliips to an anchor
upon any part of its coafts. Captain Cook had either fewer
difficulties with which to Itruggle, or was more fuccefsful
in furmounting them. From the account of Mr. Anderfon,
furgeon to captain Cook, who loll no opportunity of fearch-
ing the country in every direction, we make the following
extraft.

" Perhaps no place, hitherto difcovered in either hcmi-
fphere, under the fame parallel of latitude, affords fo fcauty
a field for the naturaliil as this barren fpot. The verdure,
wliich appears when at a little dillance from the fhure, would
flatter one with the expectation of meeting with fome herb-
age ; but in this we were much deceived. For on landing,
we faw that this lively colour was occafioned only by one
fmall plant, not much unlike fome forts of faxifrage, which
grows in large fpreading tufts to a conilderable way up the
hills. It forms a furface of a pretty large texture, and
grows on a kind of rotten turf, into which one finks a foot
or two at every ilep. This turf, dried, might, in cafes of
neceffity, ferve for fuel, and is the only thing we met with
here that could poiTibly be applied to this ufe. There is
another plant, plentifully enough fcattered about the boggy
declivities, which grows to near the height of two feet, and
not much uniike a Imall cabbage, when 11 has (liot into feeds.
The leaves about the root are numerous, large, and rounded;
narrower at the bafe, and ending in a fmall point. Thole
on the llalks are much fmaller, oblong, and pointed. The
llalks, which are often three or foui, all rife feparately from
the root, and run into long cylindrical heads, compofed of
fmall flowers. It has not only the appearance, but the
watery acrid tafte of the antifcorbutic plants, and yet differs
materially from the whole tribe ; fo thai we looked upon
it as a production entirely peculiar to the place. We ate
it frequently raw, and found it almoll like the New Zealand
fcurvy-grafs. But it feemed to acquire a rank flavour by
being boiled." In our gardens it might, by cultivation,
fo far improve as to be an excellent pot-herb. Two other
fmall plants were found near the brooks and boggy places,
which were eaten as fallad ; the one almoll like garden
creffes, and very fiery ; and the other very mild. Tins lail,
though but fmall, id in itfdf a curiofity ; having not only male
and female, but what the botanills call androgynous plants.
A coarfe grafs, which we cut down for the cattle, grows
pretty plentifully in a few fmall fpots about the fides of tlic
harbour, with a fmaller fort, which h rarer : and upon the
fiat ground, a fort of goofe-grafs, and another fmall plant
much like it._ In (hort, the whole catalogue of plants does
list exceed llxteen or eighteen, including fome forts of muls,

K i: R

and a beautiful fpecics of lichen, which grows upon th^
rocks higher up than the reft of the vegetable produftion.--.
Nor is there even the leall appearance of a fli^ub in the
whole country. " Nature has been rather mere bountiful
in furnilliing it with animals ; though, itriftlv fpeaking,
they are not inhabitants of the place, being all of the mariniy
kind ; and, in general, only ufing the land for breeding, and
for a refting-placc. The moft confiderablc arc feals, or'
(a» we ufed to call them) fea-bears ; being that fort called
the urfinc feal. Thefe come afhore to reft or breed ; but
they were not very numerous ; which is not to be wondered
at, as it is known, that thefe animals rather frequent out-rocks,
and little iflands lying off" coalls, than bays or inlets. They
were, at this time, Ihedding their hair, and fo tame, that
we killed what number v\e chofe. No other quadruped,
either of the fea or of the land kind, was feen ; but
a ^reat number of birds, viz. ducks, petrels, albatroffes,
(liags, gulls, and fea-fwallows.'' Penguins form by far the
grcatell number of birds here, and are of three forts. 'Ihe
Ihags of this place are of two forts ; the leffer cormorant or
water-crow, and another which is black above with a white
belly ; the fame that is found in New Zealand, Terra del
Fuego, and the ifland of Georgia. Another fort of white
bird, flocks of which flew about the bay, is very fingukr ;
having the bafe of tlie bill covered with horny cruft. It k
larger than a pigeon, with the bill black and the feet white,
made like thoi'e of a curlew. Some of the people put it in
competition with the duck, as food. The feine was hauled
once, but we found only a few fi(h about the fize of a fmall
haddock." " The only ftiell-filh are a few limpets and muf-
cles, and, among the Itones, a few Imall llar-fifli and fea-
anemonies were found.

" The hills are of a moderate height ; yet many of their
tops were covered with fnow at this time, though anfwering
to our June. Some of them have large quantities of ftone
irregularly heaped together at their foot, or on their fides.
The fides of others, which form fteep cliffs towards the fea,
are rent from the top downward, and feem ready to fall off,
having ftones of a conliderable fize lying in the filfures.
Some were of opinion, that froft might be the caufe of thefe
filfures, which I (hall not difpute ; but how others of the
appearances could be effefted, but by earthquakes, or fome
fuch feverc ftiocks, I cannot fay." — " It appears that rain
mull be almoll conftant here, not only from the marks of
large torrents having rulhed down, but from the difpofitiou
of the country, which, even on the hills, is almoft an entire
bog or fwamp, the ground linking at every ftep. The
rocks, or foundations of the hills, are compoi'ed chiefly of u
dark blue, and very hard ftone, intermixed with fmall par-
ticles of glimmer or quarts." " Another brownifti brittle
ftone forms here fome confiderable rocks ; and one which
is blacker, and found in detached pieces, inclofes bits of
coarfe quartz. A red, a dull yellow, and a purplifti fand-
ftone are alfo found in fmall pieces ; and pretty large lumps
of femi-tranfparent quartz, difpofed irregularly in polycdral
pyramidal cryftals of long lliining fibres. Some fmall
pieces of the common fort arc met with in the brooks, made
round by attrition ; but none hard enough to refift a file.
Nor were any of the other ftones adle d on by aquafortis, or
attracted by the n.agnet. Nothing, that had the leaft ap-
pearance of an ore or metal, was feen." S. lat. 49'2o'. .
E. loi:g. 69 30'. Cook s Thud Voyage, vol. i.

KERI-CHET113, are various rcadmgs in the Hebrew
bible : Lri figiiifies that which is read ; avAchetib that which
is written. (Sec CnKTlu nr.il Kkhi.) It is generally faid
by the Jewiih writers, that thefe correiSlions were intro-
duced by Ezra ; but it is muft probable that they had their

original

K E R

original from the miftakes of the tranfcribers after the time
of Ezra, and the obfer vations and correftions of the Ma-
forites. Thofe keri-chetibs, which are in the facred books
written by Ezra himfelf, or wliich were taken into the canon
after his time, could not have been noticed by Ezra him-
felf; and this affords a prefuir.ption, tliat the otliers are of
late date. Tliefc words amount to about a thoufand ; and
Dr. Kennicott, in his " Diflertatio Generaiis," remarks, that
all of th?m, excepting fourteen, have been found in the text
of manufcripts.

KERJE, or El Kerdsje, in Geography, ^ dilh-ifl: of the
province of Neged, or Nedsjed, in Arabia, lying on the
$.W. part of tliis province, and of courfe on the frontiers
of Yemen, extending along the eall of Hedsjaz, or Hejaz,
a confiderable way to the N. In this diftricl is the city
of Imam, famous even before tiie days of Mahomet, for

K E R

KERKUK, a town of Curdiftan, the capital of a o ••
vernment, and refidence of a pacha ; furrounded with wnl..
and defended by a caftlc ; 150 miles N. of Bagdad. N. Lit.
353 J9'. E. long. 4_:;'- 42'.

KERKWYCK, a town of Holland, in the department
of Guelderland ; two miles S. Bommcl.

KERL, John- Gaspau, in B}ogrnp'iy, a native of Saxony,
but halving acquired in early youtli (jrc.it reputation as an
organ player, he was called to Vienna by the archduke Leo-
pold, and appointed organill at his courC; and manifelHng
iigns of extraordinary genius for compofition, he was placed
under Giovanni Valentini, mneftro di cappella at the impe-
rial court, and afterwards fcnt to Rome to itudy under
Cariffimi. Upon his return to Germany, great offers were
made to him from the cleftnr palatine, if he would enter
nto his fervice : but he decl

a prophet. This province alfo comprifes other townS;
which is Salernia, on the confines of Yemen.

KERIGAR, a town of Hindooilan, in the foubal
Oude ; 80 miles N. of Lucknow. N. lat. 28^ 12'. E. Ic

of

taken by

b^i ^- '.. r nT -1 ' 1 r 1 • r ir luLu ma icivitc ; uiiL iii: ucLinjvu them, and pr-cferrcd fet-

eing the native city of Mozeilama, who fet himfelf up as ,,• . a/t ■ 1 1 11 /i j- ' n ,

°- ■' __,!__ ._ H" thug at Munich, where he became macftro di cappella to the

eleCior of Bavaria, Fcrdinando Maria. His principal work,
as a compofer was his " Modulatio nrganica fupcr Magni-
ficat 0(3o Tonis Ecclefiallicis Refpondens," engraved and
publiflied at Munich, in 1686. Kerl was efteemcd one of
the moft able and ikilful organifts of his time. In a cora-
petition with fome Italian muficians at the court of the
elector of Bavaria, he is faid by ^Va!thcr to have compofed
a piece for the organ of wonderful contrivance, which nor.e
but himfelf could execute.

KERLE, .Jacob de, canon of t!ie cathedral of Cum*
in the dillri-1 of ^"'^)'> ^^'°™ Ypres, was a very voluminous compofer, contem-
j.j^.gj. porary with Gafpar. He publiP.ied " Pecces fpecialis fuc-

celfu," in 1569 J " Cafmen Italiea muficis raodulis ornata,"
1,70; " Cantiones facras, j &: 6 vocem," 157 1 ; in 4to.
Venice, 1^7 J, two, four, and five-pait mutctti, four and
five-part nialies, and a l"e Deum.

KERLEH, in Geography, a circar of liindooflan, in
Berar, N. ViT. of Goondwina, and S. E. of Hmdia and
Bopaltol.

KERMAN, anciently diramania, a province of Pcr-la,
bounded on the N. by Segellan, on .the E. by Mekran, on
the S. by the Perfian gulf, ard on the W. by Farliltan
and Larillan. The northern part is barren and almoil dc-
fert, without rivers or brooks, and the air unhealthy ; tO"-
wards the S. the air is more pure, and the land fertile.
This province contains a city of the fame name (fee Sir-
yenr 167S. gi.\n); but fome aulliors reprefent Yezd as the capittil.
and dillin- (See Yezd.) The Guebres in this province are numerous :

KERIKERD, a town of Perfia, in Chufift
Timur Bee in 1303 ; ij miles N. of Sufter.

KERIMGUNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar 1
24 miles E.S.E. of Hajypour.

KERION, a town of Thibet, 24 miles N.W. of Serang.
pour. N. lat. 32^35'. E. long. 83 '.

KERISONGAR, a lake of America,
Maine, which fends its waters to Pcnobfcot river.

KERIST, a town of Perfia, in Fariiltan ; ic6 miles
vS..S.E. of .Schi.-as.

KERKA, a town of Perfia, in Chufifcan ; 4^ miles W.
of Toltar.

KERKELAN, a town of Afi.ttic Turkey, in the go-
vernment of Sivas ; ^o miles W.S.W. of Amafieh.

KERKENI, a fmall ifland near the E. coaft of Tunis.
N. Lit. 34^59'. E. long. 11' 12'.

KERKER, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Aladulia, on
the Euphrates; 30 miles S. of Malatia.

KERKHA, a town of Perfia, m Chufillan, on the Ka-
rafu; 15 miles N. of Sufter.

KERKHERUERE, John- Gi-k.^rd, in Bh.raph, a
learned profelTor of the univerllty of Louvain, v.'as horn in
the neighboiwhood of Maellricht, about tl
He purfued his academical ftudies at Louva

■guLlied himfelf during feveral years for his accurate and and are chiefly employed in manufaftures of Ihiffs and fil„-
tomprehenfive knowledge of hillory and the belles-lettres. Here are fome mises of copper, lead, and iron. The great
In J 708, he was appointed hiltoriographer to the emperor defert of Kerman joins with the Great Saline defert, by the
Jofeph I , and died in the year 1738. He was author of NaHben Dejiam, and extends about 350 miles. The Sahne
y works in generaUiiltory and theology,_of which the defert extends from tlie vicinity of Kom to that of the fea

principal are entitled " De Monarchia Rom» Pagana; fecun
dum Concordiam inter S. S. Prophetas Danielem et Joan
nem, &c. :" and " Prodromus Danielicus five novi Conatiii

of Zurra, in a line from E. to W. of about 402 Britifti
miles ; the breadth from N. to S. being about 250. Thefe
two extenfive deferts may be confidercd as flretehing N VV.

hiftorici, critici, in celeberrimas diffieultates Hiftorice veteris and S.E. for a fpace of about 700 miles, bv a medial
Teftameiiti." ■ Thefe pieces are dillinguilhed by profound breadth of about 200 ovithout including in the length other
erudition and great critical acumen, and are faid to tlirow 200 miles of the defert of Mekran), thus interieding tlie

light oil many obfcure pailages in the fcriptures re-
lating to hilfory, chronology, and geography. He pub-
lilhed a Latin grammar, and a number of Latin poems.

KERKIL, or GnERGiL, in Gtograpby, a town of Cur-
diftan ; 35 miles S.S.E. of Amadieh.

wide empire of Periia into two nearly equal portions. Tl
valt extent is impregnated with nitre and other fdits, which
taint the neighbouring lakes and rivers.

Kkhman. See Sihoian. <

KERMANA, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 40

KERivISlA, or Keukisif.h, a town of Afiatic Turkey, miles E. of Bahraiteh.

in the province of Diarbekir, now decayed ; eight miles N. KExMANSHER, a town of Perfia, in the province, of

of Rabba. N. lat. 3^' 18'. E. long. 40° 10'. ■ Kerman ; 130 miles S.E. of Sirgian. N. lat. 28^ 20'. E.

KERKONI,- a town of Georgia ;• 2^ miles S.W. of long. 58^ 50'. .-....,

/Teilis. EERMANTSCHUK, a town of CircaC.a, near which

• - the

K E R

Xhe Mosful Tartars were farprifed by the Ruffians in i;S3,
and defeated with great lofs.

KERMASIN, a town of Pcrfia, in the province of Ker-
man ; i6o miles S.E. of Sirgian.

KERMES, a kinchof little animal, found in great plenty
in many parts of Afia and the S. of Europe, on an ever-
green of the oak kind, and forming excrefcences, or iiu/ufis,
of confiderabL' ufe, both in phyfic and dyeing. That which
was brous;ht from Galatia and Armenia was formerly pre-
ferred ; but at prefent it is chiefly gathered in Languedoc,
Spain, and Portugal.

The kermes, called a\(o /^r.rL:' grain, and by the Greeks
eoccos baphica, by the Latins vermiculiis, by the French fome-
times "u-'rOTiVi^/;, or grain de gale, or •vermeil, is about the iize
of a juniper-berry, round, imooth, and gloffy ; of a beauti-
ful red colour, and full of a mucilaginous juice, of the fame
dye ; it is found adhering to the bark on the ilcm and
branches of a peculiar fort of fcarlet oak. See Coccls
Jlicis.

Kermes has been fuppofed to derive its name from an
A r.ibic word, fignifyin;.^ a little worm, "vermiculus, whence
it lius been called vermilion. Aftruc deduces the name from
two Celtic words, one of which fignifies an oak, the other
an acorn.

This infeft hangs to the tree from which it is gathered
by means of a cottony down, which, according to M.
Chaptal, has many charaftcrilUcs of the caoutchouc, being
inf )luble in alcohol, melting at the heat of boiling water,
and burning with a flame on the coals. In Languedoc,
about the middle of May, when this infecl has attained to
its proper fize, and when in colour and (liape it refembles a
fmall floe, the harveft commences, and the pcafants begin to
■gather it. This harveil continues till about the middle of
June, or later, if the great heats be retarded, or no violent
rains fall ; for one heavy ilorm of rain puts an end to the
gath..Ting for that year. The perfons employed in this bu-
linefs are women, who fet out early in the morning, with a
lanthorn and a glazed earthen pot, fo as to pick off the
kermes from the branches before day, which is tlie moll
favourable time for this bufmefs. A Tingle perfon may ga-
ther from one to two pounds a day. At the commencement
of the harveil, the kermes weighs more, but fetches a lefs
price than at the end, when it is drier and lighter.

According as the winter has been more or lefs mild, the
harveil of kermes is the more or lefs plentiful ; and the
people always prefage thernfelves a fine feafon, when the
fpring has been free from t'rolls and fogs. It is obferved,
that the lowefl and oldell Ihrubsare always the fullell of this
infeft ; and the ki-rnies produced on thofe trees, which are
in the neighbourhood of the fea, is always larger and finer
than from the inland places.

It is no uncommon thing to have two harvells of kermes
in a year. Thofe of the latter feafon are fmaller and lefs
valuable than thofe of the lirll, and are found not on the
branches, but on the leaves of the flirub ; which is jud
analogous to the cullom of the gall-infefts of all other
kinds ; all which, about this age, leave the brandies to teed
on the leaves, where their yet tender trunks can find an eafier
entrance.

From this analogy between the kermes, and other infefts
of the fame clafs, it fliould feem worth while to try, whe-
ther fome of thofe may not pofTefs the fame virtues in
medicine, at leaft, if not in the arts. It is certain that the
common oak produces a red-gall infeifl of the very fiiape of
the kermes, and of the colour of the paler ones. Reaumur.
Sec the article Cocri;s.

The kermes is of a vinous fiuell, a bitter, rough, and pun-

K E R

genttatle; and its pulp, or juice, is pregnant »i;h numerous
nunute ova.

The ainnial retains thefe ova under her belly, till tliry
hatch into a very numerous ofT^pring.

Hence, when the kermes is dried, there comes out of it
an infinite number of little infefts, and (lies, fo fmall, that
they are fcarcely vifible ; infomuch, that the whole inward
fubllance feems converted into them. This fliell is nothing
but the body of the mother, diftended by the growth of ih"
eggs. To prevent this inconvenience, they ufually llecp the
kermes in vinegar before it be dry ; and tlius prevent the ex-
clufion of the ova, and kill fuch animals as are already
hatched. It is aftenvards dr'ed on linen cloths. This ope-
ration gives it a colour like that of red wine. They draw
the juice, or pulp, from the kermes, by pounding it in a
mortar, and then firaining it through a fieve : of this they
make a fyrup, by adding a fufTicient quantity of fugar.
Sometimes they dry the pulp feparate from the hui]< ; which
pidp, thus dried, they call pujiel of kermes. If the living ii:-
feft be bruifed, it gives out a red colour.

The kermes was formerly of great ufe in phyfic : cfteemed
to be cardiac, deficcative, and aftringent ; 'to fortify the
ftomach, and prevent abortion. Of this was made that ce-
lebrated confedion called alkermes.

The reflringent and corroborant confe£lion that was fold
in the ihops, was prepared by diflblving, in the heat of a
water-bath, fix ouixcs of fine fugar, infix ounces, by mca-
fure, of damalk rofe-water ; then adding three ounces of the
juice of kermes, warmed and ftraincd ; and after the whole
had grown cold, mixing half a fcruple of oil of cinrramon.
This confeflion was taken, from a fcruple to a dram, or
more, either by itfelf, or in juleps, with which it mingles
uniformly, without injuring their tranfparency.

The dried grains of kermes, if they have not been too
long kept, give out, both to water and to redlificd fpirit,
the fame deep red colour, and nearly the fame kind of fmell
and tade with thofe of the expielTcd juice. The infpiflated
extracts are confiderably bitter, allringent, and of a kind of
mild balfamic pungency.

it is, however, of greater ufe in dyeing fcarlet ; for whicli
ufe, the manner of preparing it is as follows : the kermes
being taken when ripe, theyYpread it on linen ; and at firft,
while it abounds moil in moiilure, turn it twice or thrice a
day, to prevent its heating, till fuch time as there appears a
red powder among it : this they feparate, by paffing it
through a fieve, and then again fpread abroad the grain on-
the linen, till they perceive the fame rednefs of powder,
when they repeat the lifting : thus they proceed, while they
difcover any red powder on the furface of the grain, which-
is flill palTing through the fearce, till it yield no more.

In the begimiing, when the fmall red grains arc found to
move, as they will always do, they are fpriiikled over with
flrong vinegar, and rubbed between the hands. Were not
tliis precaution taken, out of every grain would be formed
little infeds, which would be of no ufe in dyeing.

The grain being quite emptied of its pulp, or red pow-
der, by the procefs above-mentioned, is wafhcd in wine, and
then expofed to the fun ; after this, it is put up into tlu-
hufks, formed into balls, and along with it the proportiou
of red dull that it had afforded.

According to M. Marfigli's experiments, made at Mont-
pellier, the kermes has the cffetl of galls, when mi.xed with
vitriol ; and makes a good ink : mixed with oil of tartar, or
lime-water, its colour turns from a vermilion to a crimlon
colour. In a decoction of lurnfol flowers, it retains its pro-
per colour. They have not been able to get any fixed
eUential fait from it ; but a vulatile ^t it yields iu
6' abundance :

K E R M E S.

abundance; which, in M. Marfigli's opinion, would have a
better efTecl in medicine, if taken in a liquid, than when en-
clofed in conferves and confeftions, which hinder its adion.

Woollen cloth, prepared with alum and tartar, acquires,
on being boiled with dry kermes berries, a durable deep
red colour, called fcarltt in grain, from the kermes having
been fprmerly fuppofed to be the grain or feed of the tree ;
and Venicd fcarkt, from the greatell quantities having been
dyed there. This colour wants the luftre and fire of the
cochineal fcarlet now in vogue, but in return is far more per-
manent, nor fubjetl to be ftained by dirt, or acrid liquors ;
and when fpotted with greaf e, may be cleaned again without
injury to the colour.

Mr. Heilot obferves, that the figured cloths to be feen in
the old tapeftries of Bruflels, and the other manufaftures of
Flanders, which have fcarcely loft any thing of their liveli-
nefs in Handing for two hundred years, W'ere all dyed with
this ingredient ; that, ncverthelefs, kermes is at prefent en-
tirely in difufe among the European dyers, though faid to
be commonly employed in the Levant, and exported thither
from Marfeilles in confiderable quantities : that when the
kermes fcarlet (now called an ox-blood colour) is wanted
for tapeftries, &c. our dyers endeavour to imitate it with
cochineal ; that as the colour is difficultly hit with cochineal
alone, they generally add a portion of Brazil wood ; and
that the dyes thus produced, though at firft more vivid than
they ought to be, often lofe their luftre before a year is at an
end, and turn white and grey in an extraordinary manner ;
that kermes might again be introduced to very good advan-
tage, as its colour is of the molt durable kind, and as fiindry
(liades are obtainable from it with lefs trouble and expence
than from ether drugs.

The fame author has given a great number of experiments
upon kermes, with different falts and metalhc folations. The
principal of thefe are as follow :

On adding to the decoftion of kermes a fmall quantity
of folution of tin, the dark colour of the liquor is immedi-
ately brightened, and prepared woollen dyed therein, inclines
more to the orange than with tlie kermes alone. With this
improvement of the colour, it receives the imperfeftions,
though not all the beauty of the cochineal fcarlet ; all alca-
lefcent fubftances ftaining the cloth, that is, deftroying the
efFedl of the acid folutiou.

Kermes, with cream of tartar, and as much of the fo-
lution of tin as is employed for the cochineal fcarlet
(without any alum) dyed unprepared cloth of an ex-
tremely vivid cinnamon colour. On dipping the cloth in a
folution of alum, a part of the red re-appeared, but was not
beautiful.

With cream of tartar, folution of tin, and alum in
larger quantity than the tartar, this drug gives purplifh
colours, which vary according to the proportions of the
ingredients.

If vitriolated tartar be fubftituted to the alum and tartar ;
and if after the kermes has been boiled in a folution of a
fmall quantity of this fait, the ftuff" be boiled in this mixture
for about an hour, the dye proves a beautiful kind of grey,
in which the red is little perceived.

Glauber's fait, employed along with kermes, entirely de-
ftroys its rednefs, and gives an earthy grey colour. This
dye is very perilhable, on account of the particular nature
of the faline fubftancc, by means of which the tinging
particles arc applied ; for Glauber's fait diffolves eafily in
cold water, and falls into a powder in tlie fun's heat. "This
obtains equally in all dyes ; ihofe drugs which afford moll
durable colours with tartar and vitriolated tartar, give

very perilhable ones with the more dilToluble and calcinable
falts.

Green and blue vitriol, fubftituted feparately to alum,
but taken in conjunftion with cream of tartar, deftroy like-
wife, or conceal the red colour of kermes, which in thefe
two experiments has the fame effeft with galls, for it pre-
cipitates the iron of the green vitriol which tinges the cloth
of a bright grey, and the copper of the blue, which gives a
kind of olive dye. It likewife gave an oHve dye with folu-
tian of copper made in aquafortis ; a certain mark, that it
poflefTes, like galls, an ailringent precipitating quality. It
is probably the ailringency of kermes that renders its dye fo
durable ; for all the barks, woods, roots, and other fub-
ftances that are aftringent, yield permanent colours.

White vitriol, employed with cryftals of tartar, change*
the red colour of kermes into a violet. A tintture of Ijif-
muth ore, in fpirit of nitre, and a folution of bifmuth itfclf
made leifurely in four times its weight of fpirit of nitre,
diluted with an equal quantity of water, gave alfo a violet
dye upon white cloth. All acids convert it to a cinnamon
colour, which inclines more or lefs to red, according as the
acids are weak, and their quantity fmall. Alkalies render
its colour dull and dry. See Neumann's Chemiftry, by
Lewis, p. 508, &c.

To dye fpun worfted with kermes, it is firft boiled half ati
hour in water with bran ; then two hours, in a frelh bath,
with one-fifth of Roman alum, and one-tenth of tartar, to
which four water is commonly added : after which it is
taken out, tied up in a hnen bag, and carried to a cool place,
where it is left fome da^s to obtain a full colour. As much
kermes as equals three -fourths, or even the whole of the weight
of the wool, is put into a warm bath, and the wool is put in
at tlie firft boiling. As cloth is more denfe than wool, either
fpun or in the fleece, it requires one-fourth lefs of the falts
in the boiling, and of kermes in the bath. Lefs propor-
tions of kerines will produce lighter and paler colours. If
a fucceffion of (hades be wanted, we muit, as ufual, begin
with the deepeit. Heilot direfts a fmall handful of cot or
refufe wool to be thrown into the boiler in which the
kermes is, and to let it boil a moment before the wool to
be dyed is put in. This will abforb a kind of black dregs,
and the wool afterwards dipped will take a better colour.
Before the wool that is juft dyed is taken to the river, it may
be dipped in a bath of water a little warm, in which a fmall
quantity of foap has been dilTolved. In this way the colour
will acquire more brightnefs, though it will be rendered a
littkf rofy, that is, will have a crimfon call. The colour
imparted by kermes to wool, has much lefs bloom than the
fcarlet made with cochineal ; whence the latter has been
generally preferred, fincc the art of heightening its colour
by means of folutiou of tin has been known. EerthoUet.

Kermes Mineral, or, in modern language, the hydro-
fulphuret of antimony. The kermes mineral was a pre-
paration of Glauber, which the king of France bought of M.
de la Ligerie, and made public in 1720. That receipt was
in the following form : take a pound of Hungarian antimonv,
broken into thin pieces, according to the diredlion of its
fpicula ; four ounces of nitre, fixed by charcoal ; and a pint
of rain water ; boil them two hours ; then filtre the warrn
liquor, and when it cools, tiie kermes precipitates. The
fame antimony undergoes the fame operations with the re-
maining liquor, to which three ounces of fixed nitre, and a
pint of water are addt?d. In a third boiling, two ounces of
nitre, and a pint of water are to be added to the former lixi-
vium. Tlie kermes thus obtained is about a dram, and is
well edulcorated by wa(hing it v.ith water, and burning
fpirit of wine on it ; then it is dried for ufc.

K E R

Mr. Geoffroy /hews, by many experiments, that the
kermes is the reguline part of the antimony, joined to a fort
of hepar fulphuris. He teaches us a much eafier way of
preparing this medicine, thus: Mix intiinately the fine
powder of two parts of antimony, and one of any fixed alica-
line ialt ; melt thofe metals in a crucible ; then having
powdered them while hot, boil them two hours in a large
quantity of water ; after this, pafs the hot liquor through
paper, receiving it into a veflcl, in which there is hort water,
the kermes feparatcs when it cp(J>is. The groIFer parts,
which do not pafs through the paper, are to be boiled
again, and filtrated as before ; and the operation is to be
repeated a third time, by which fix or fevcn drams of kermes
may bi got out of every ounce of antimony. He fays, he
has feen efleCts like to thofe of mild kermes from antimony,
reduced to fuch a fine powder, that none of the fhining fpi-
cula are to be feen ; and that the magillery of antimony,
made by pouring fpiric of nitre, or aqua regia, on the pow-
der of antimony, and then edulcorating the mafs with water,
has the fame effects as kermes. Mem. de I'Acad, des
Sciences, 1734, 173 J. For the modern method of pre-
paring it, fee ANTiMON"i".

Half a grain, or a grain of this powder, given every three
or four hours, produces no violent effects ; but by increafing
the dofe, it may be made to vomit, purge, and fweat.

When feven or eight grains are taken at once, it chiefly
afts upon the prima; vise, generally as an emetic and purga-
tive. A dofe of three or four grains is feldom emetic, and
more frequently purgitive. When taken in thefe quantities
as an evacuant, a little of it paffes alio into the vis fecundx
& tertiae. When it is adminiilered in fmaller dofcs, it paiFcs
almoll entirely into the laCteal blood aiid lymphatic veflfels.
In thefe it occafions fuch fpafms and ofciUations as it does in
the primx \ix ; fo that it increafes all fecretions and excre-
tions, but particularly thofe of urine, fweat, and expeftora-
tion ; according to the dofe, the nature of the difeafe, and
the difpofition of the patient. It produces fin;^ularly good
effedls in thofe difeafes of the breall which proceed from ful-
nefs and obftruSion. It may be adminiilered in any vehicle,
or incorporated in a bolus, with other fuitable remedies.
But it fliould never be joined with acids, when it is defigned
to aft as kermes.

Some commend this medicine as the mod univerfal refol-
vent and deobftruent ; affuring us, that it almoft infallibly
cures pleurifies, peripneumonies, alUimas, catarrhs, angina,
fmall-pdx, and many other difeafes. Othefs are as pofiiive,
that it heats ar.d thickens the blood, thereby increaling ob-
ftruclions, and is particularly hurtful in all inflammatory
difeafes.

Tiiis preparation was famous in France, and known by
the name of foutlre des Chartreux. becaufe a Carthufian
monk, who got it from M. de la Ligerie, firll brought it
into vogue. See Hiil. de I'Acad. des Sciences 1720, and
the Memoirs for the fame ^-ear, where it is faid that Glau-
ber was looked upon as the firft inventor of this remedy.
Its efl^edi, like thofe of many other antimonial preparations,
are very various, v.hich is frequently owing, as Mr. Geof-
fi-oy obferves, to the different manner and care in making it.
He adds that the more the kermes contains of a regulus eafily
revivified, the more it proves emetic. He alfo fhews how
to make a cinnabar with the kermes and mercury, and io
djfengage the vitriolic acid from the kermes. See Mem. de
I'Acad. des Sciences, 1734. This preparation of antimony
is now difufcd ; and in its room the pharmacopeias have
adopted the " Sulphur antimonu prarcipitatum vcl auratum ;"
for the method of preparing aud admiuitlcring which, fee
. .;oSY.
.XIX.

K E R

KERMISE, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the
province of Nedsjed ; 6^ miles S.S.E. of Jamama.

KERN, or Kerne, a term in the ancient Irifh militia,
fignifying a foot-foldier.

Camden tells us, the armies of Ireland confifled of cavalry,
caUed gaUoglaJfcs ; and infantry, lightly armed, called kernes.
The kernes bore fwords and darts ; to the kill were fitted
cords, by which they could recover them after they liad
been launched out.

Keiin, in the Englijb Raltnvorks , a word ufed to fignify
the cryilallizing, or Ihooting of fait in the brine, when fuffi-
ciently evaporated in the boihng pan.

This word is alfo ufed by the ieainen for the firll coming
of the bay-falt, made by the fun's heat in the ifles of Mav,
&c. See S.\z.T.

KuRK^^OTf, in Natural Ui/lory, a name given by the com-
mon people of many parts of England, to a pcculLir fort of
Hone, which is found on the fides of hills in fandy countries,
where the hills are rocky. Pyran fands afford a great many
llor.es of this kind ; and the manner of their formation is
thus : the rocks in the fides of the hills are continually
covered over with the loofe fand, v>'hich the winds tofs up,
and the fparry matter continually oozing out of the pores of
thefe ilones, with the wet, cements the grain of ftuid toge-
ther. When one cruft is thus formed, another is foon added,
and fo on till the whole mafs is of a confiderable thicknefs ;
and the fpar ftill ferving as a general cement, the whole '\h
held together, though but in a loofe way, yet fo as to re-
femble a fort of ftonc. The little grains of fand are Uill
\-ifible in all parts of this flone, and are what induced the
people to call it kern-ftone, as they call thefe term, or
Lerrufls. This account of the origin of the flonc is eafily
proved, by putting a fmall piece of it into aquafortis, for
this ditTolves the fpar, or cement, and the fand is left
loofe.

KERNES, in our Lazvs, fignify idle pcrfons, or vaga-
bonds.

KERNING, m Leiler-Foundcry. See /,£•//«■ FouNniiRY.

KERONA, m Geography, a town of Hindoollan, in the
circar of Gohud; 15 miles N. of Datteah.

KEROWLY, a town of Hindoollan, in the country of
Agra; 74 miles S.W. of Agra. N. lat. 26 27'. E. long.
77-28'.

KERPEN, a town of France, in the department of the
Roer, and chief place of a canton, in the dillricl of Cologne;
10 miles E.S.E. of Juliers. N. lat. 50' 25'. E. long. 6' 41'.
The place contains 1515, and the canton 10:419 inhabitants,
in 37 communes.

KERR AH, a town of Hindoollan, in Guzerat, on the
gulf of Cambav ; 65 miles S.S.W. of Gogo.

KERRERA, one of the fmaller wellern iflands of Scot-
land, near the coail of Argyle, where, in 1249, Alex-
ander II. died, when he was endeavouring to wrell the iflands
out of the poffeffion of the Norwegians; 12 miles S. of
Lifmore. N. lat. 56 23'. W. long. 5' 32'.

KERRI, a town of the Arabian Irak, at the conflux of
the Tigris and Euphrates; 50 miles N.W. of Bafforah.

KERROO, a town of HindooP.an, in Vifiapour ; 12
miles N.W. of Baddammy.

KERRY, a county of the province of Munller, Ireland,
fiiuatcd on the fouth-weflern coall of the ifland. It is
bounded on the north by the river Shannon, which divides it
form the county of Clare ; on the call by the counties ut
Limerick and Cork ; on the fuulh-eaft by the latter county ;
and on the fouth-well and well by the Atlantic ocean. Its
form is very irregular in confequence of two great projofting
tongue? of bnd, comprifing the baromcs of Ivcragli and
^ i\ Cortaguinny.

K E R

Corcaguinny. It extends from north to foiith 53 {6j\
Englifh) miles, and in the broadeft part from eaft to weil
41 (ji Englifh) miles; and contains 1012 fquare miles,
<^r 647,650 Inih acres, equal to 1,040,487 Englifh acres.
It thus appears to be the fifth county of Ireland in point of
extent, though after Gnlway its population is the thinneft,
and it is one of the moil backward in point of culture. The
number of houl'es, at the time Dr. Beaufort wrote, was, by
return to the houfe of commons, ig,_:;Qj, which at 5 J to a
houfe, would be 107,000. This, however, falls much fhort
of the prelent population. The number of parifhes is 83,
all in the diocefe of Ardfert and Agliadoe, but by unions
they are reduced to 40 benefices, in which are 20 churclies
and only three glebe houfes. Indeed, in this county the num-
ber of Roman Catholics is greater, in proportion to that of
Protcliants, than in almoft any other. The number of mem-
bers which reprefent this county in the Imperial parliament
is three, two knights of the fhire, and one member for the
borough of Tralee. " It is not i'urpriling,'' fays Dr. Beau-
fort, " that this county ihould be thinly inhabited ; barren
fiiountains, and almoil inaccedible rocks, render a large por-
tion of it unfit for habitation and incapable of culture.
Even the northern baronies, in which there is much good
land, with few inoimtains, are far from level ; and the cheer-
ful afpeft of cultivated fields and fine paftures, is frequently
interrupted by bleak and flony hills ; while trafts of bog
mteriert the narrow plain that extends from Callleman har-
bour to the borders of the county of Cork, between the
Mang and the Flellc. Grazing is more attended to than
Tillage, and this part of Kerry fupphes many fat beafls of
good fize, and great numbers of llore cattle ; but the native
breed of the country is extremely fmall, yet reir.arkably
good for the pail, refembling the Alderney cow both in fize
and character ; butter is confequently a confiderable article
among the exports of Kerry. The barony of Corcaguinny
forms a peninfula between the bays of Dingle and Tralee,
and terminates at Dunmore Head, the moft wedern point of
.Ireland and of Europe. It is full of mountaine, but the
liigh promontory of St. Brandon is eminent above the reft,
and the mountain of Cahircource ilands acrois the illhmus.
Among the rough and high hills in the barony of Iveragh,
and the fouthern part of Dunkerron, feme pleafant vallies
and improveable grounds are interfperfed ; and in the ifland
of Valentia, there are more inhabitants and a better culture
tiian could be e.xpecled in fo remote a fpot. Glanerought
is entirely covered with exceeding high and rugged hiils, and
fepaialcd from the county of Cork by an immenfe and
almoil impaffable ridge of rocky mountains ; over which
there is but one pafs, and that very difficult, called the
Priell's Leap ; but the Icftiell mountains in this county iland
in a huge affemblagc on the well and fouih of Killarney,
half encompafling the lower, and entirely furronnding the
upper lake. Of thefe, Mangerton is generally efleemed the
h'ghetl, being 2500 feet above the fea, but it is doubted
whether the craggy fummits of Macgilhcuddy's rocks do
r.ot furpafs it in altitude. In this defolate trad, there are
large herds of red deer, and abundance of game.' To this
account of Dr. Beaufort's, puWiflied almoil 20 years ago,
there is very httle to be added. The Hate of agriculture is
tlill very low, though a few gentlemen have turned their
attention to the improvement of it. The barony of Iveragh,
in particular, is in a very rude flate. It fliould be noticed
that the horfes of Iveragh are much efleemed ; they are
a fmall but an excellent breed, climbing over the moll
rugged rocks, and both afcending auddefcendingthe flecpell
precipices with great facility and fafety. They are flrong
and durable, eafily fupported, and not ill-fliaped ; fo hardy

K E R

as to ftaud abroad all winter, and will browfe upon heath,
furze, and other fhrubs ; and they have an eafy, ambling
gait. The principal lake is Lough Lane, generally
called the lake of Killarney, for an account of which,
fee Killarney. Many fine rivers water this county.
The Cafliing, which is formed by the union of the
Feele and the Gale, is navigable for eight or ten miles.
The Lane flows out of the lake of Killarney, which receives
the Fleflv. The Roughy pours its impetuous current into
Kenmare river. The Mang, which is navigable to Callle-
main, was the northern boundary of the ancient counts pa-
latine of Defmond, and falls into CaRlemain harbour, at the
bottom of the great bay of Dingle, which can only admit
veflels of moderate burden. V entry bay, the roads of
Dingle and Valentia, and Baliynaflcelig's bay, are fmall but
commodious harbours. Kenmare river is a fecure and capa.
cious haven. The principal towns are Tralee, where the
affizes are held, Killarney, Milltown, and Dingle, for whicli
fee the refpetlive articles under thole names. This county
has feveral marble and flate qu'arries, and is not dellitute of
coal mines, but the abundance and cheapnefs of turf render
them ufelefs. The mir.es of copper, lead, &c. near Killar-
ney will be noted under that head ; iron was formerly ob-
tained in great quantity, till the fcarcity of timber put a flop
to the works. The cider of Kerry, which is made of the
eockagee apple, is highly prized, and brings a great price ;
vet orchards are not very n merous, and that valuable fruit,
with another excellent apple, the Kerry pippin, are little pro-
pagated, and difScult to be procured. The original pofFef-
fors of this county were the O'Connors, O'SuUivans, and,
above all, the M'Carthys, who were kings of Munfler.
The Englifli families of Fitzmaurice and Fitzgerald- early
obtained feltlemenls in it, and the head of the latter, who was
created earl of Defmond, had the part of the county fouth
of the Mang ereCled into a county palatine. The power of
this family became very great, and the earls were often in op-
pofition to the Engliih government. In queen Elizabeth's
time an aft of attainder was pafTed, and all the pofTeffions
of the houfe of Defmond were divided amongft Englifh
fettlers. From thcfe fome of the p'-incipal Proteitant families
are defcended. Beaufort's Memoir of a Map of Ireland.
Smith's Hiflory of Kerry.

Kerry Head, a cape of Ireland, in the county of Kerry,
at riie fouth extremity of the mouth of tlie river Shannon.
Near this, very fine quartz cryilals, both white, and ame-
thyil are found, and for fome time the latter were in great
requeft. A let of ear-rings, a necklace, and other jewels
compofed of thcfe amethyiis, were prcfented to queen Ca-
roline. This cape is in N. lat. 52 24'. W. long. 9" 47'.
This cape is fometimes called Ballyheigh Head. Smith.
Beaufort.

KuRRY Poiti/, or, according to M'Kenzie, Kenry, a cape
of the county of Down, Ireland. N. lat. 54" 22'. W. long.
5=22'.

KERS, a town of Tyrol, on the river Inn; 12 miles
N.E. of Landeck.

KERSCHAN, a town of Iftrla ; 16 miles N.N.E. of
Pedena.

KERSEY, John', in Bio^ra[tly, an able mathematician
and philologilt, who flourifhed towards the clofe of the fe-
venteenth, and beginning of the eighteenth centuries, and
is chicfiy known in the fcientific world by liis " Elements
of Algebra," in two vols, folio, which is an ample and com-
plete work, containing a full explanation of the problems of
Diophantus : he was author likewife oi •' Didionarium An-
glo-Britannicum, or General Engliili Diflionary.''

1 Kr.n.=EV>

K K S

Kersey, a kind of coarfe woollen cloth, made cliicily in
Kent and Devondiire.

KERSHAW, in Geography, a diftria of South Caroli-
na, on Wateree river, wliich foparates it from Richland dif-
trift ; 35 miles long, and 30 broad, containing 7340 inha-
bitants, of whom 2530 are flaves.

KERUA, a town of Pcrfia, in the province of Kernian ;
go mi'es S.S W. of Sirgian.

KERVIKER, a town of Natolia ; 28 miles S.W. of
Aphiom-kara-hitTar.

KE RUN, a lake of Egypt, in a diftrid forming a kind of
excrefcence to the weft, about 30 miles long, and lix broad ;
which has no appearance of being artificial.

KERYE', a town of Hindooilan, in Baglaoa ; 25 miles
W. of NafTuck.

KESALAX, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Kuopio ; 84 miles S.S.E. of Ku'ipio.

KESAVA, in Mytholo^, a name of the Hindoo deity
Vi(hi;u ; and of his principal avatara or incarnation of
Kriftina, and is faid to refer to the beauty of his hair. The
name is alfo written Kefavi, and fometimes pronounced Keifu.
Budha, or V'iflinu in that avatara, is alfo fometimes addreiled
as Kefava.

KESAW, in Geography, a town of Hindooilan, in Ba-
har ; 48 miles S.S.W of Patna.

KESBAH, a town of Bengal ; 23 miles S.S.E. of
Moorfliedabad.

KESCHIM, or Kesem, a fea-port town of Arabia, in
the province of Hadramaut, and therefidence of a i'overeign
prince. Its inhabitants are faid to be lu;jhly civilized, and
to receive all ftrangers hofpitably. The Englilh fometimes
vifit this harbour. The fcheick of Kefchim is fometimes
called king of Fartak ; and his dominions comprehend a
confiderable number of cities, among which is that of Far-
tak. Belides his poIFefiions on the continent, the fcheick
of Kefchim is likewife head of the ifland of Soccatra, fa-
mous for its aloes. N. lat. 15- 20'. E. long, jo 2'.

KESELBAUDEN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Konigingratz ; 18 miles N.N. E. of Gitfchin.

KESELDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz; 10 miles E. of Gitfchin.

KESH, Kech, or Selz, a town of Grand Bucharia, and
capital of adiftria, of which Tinuir Bee was governor in 1360.
This town was famous on account of its univerfity for the
ftudy of fcienccs and law. It was the ordinary fummer re-
fidcnce of Timur, and declared by him to be the fecond feat
of his empire : lie encompancd it witli walls, and built a
new palace in 1379. It was alfo called " Cliaber-Sebz," or
the green city, from the verdure of the gardens and meadows
celebrated for rare and beautiful plants ; and alfo " Coubbet
Elilmi Veladeb," which iignifies tlie dome of fcience and
virtue ; 30 miles S. of Samarcand. N. lat. 39^ 10'. E. long.
64" 10'.

KESHAM, a town of Grand Bucharia ; 70 miles
W.S.W. of Badakfhan.

KESHIK-DAG. See Oi.y.mi'LS.

KESHO, Kec iio, or Kacho, a city of Afia, capital of the
kingdom of Tonquin and the royal refidcnce, is fituated upon
the navigable river Songkoy, or San Koy, about 40 leagues
from the fca, and about 21 N. lat. With regard to fize it.
may be compared with the mod cek-brated cities of Afia,
and may at leall equal that of Paris. On the ill and 15th
days of every moon are held great markets, which attracl
moft of the inhabitants of the furrounding towns and villages
to a confiderable diftancc. The crov/d is there fo immenfe,
that, tliougli tlie llreets be very wide, it becomes difficult to
advance 100 paces in half an hour. Yet great order prevails,
each merchandize and \illagc having dillicCt flreets for the

K E S

expofure of their articles. The ftreets are paved with brick,
except fome parts which are left for the paffage of horfes,
elephants, and the king's carriages. Two-thirds of the
houfes are of wcod, others of brick, among wliich are the
faflories of foreign merchants, diftinguifhcd amidft a multi-
tude of huts conlhuaed of bamboos and clay. The palaces
of the Mandarins, and the public buildings, which occupy
large fpaces of ground, are chiefly built with wood in a neat
and folid manner, and decorated with fculptures and paint-
ings. The roofs confift of tiles of difFercut colours. The
common houfes are compofed of a roof placed on wooden
columns, commonly covered with llraw, reeds, or large
leaves of trees, wliich, accidents excepted, will lafl 30 or
40 years. Thefe houfes have no cieluigs or ftories, but are
divided by partitions, on a ground floor ; and the numerous
windows are covered with gauze, or fine mullin, glafs being
almoft unknown. This construction being very liable to take
fire, the police only permits it to be lighted during certain
hours t)f the day. The trade is very confiderable ; and the
great river is crowded with barks and boats, conveying the
merchandize of the provinces to the capital. Each boat
pays about two-pence for the right of anchorage, and this
fmali tax forms a coniiderable revenue. The royal palace
occupies a confiderable fpace in the finell quarter of the city,
fituated amidll groves, gardens, and canals, and difficult of
accels. The women and eunuchs never quit its prccincls.
Before a recent revolution, the triple %valls of the ancient
city and palace, the courts paved with marble, and other
features of grandeur, difplayed one of the moft beautiful
and vaft edifices of Afia ; for the circumference of the pa-
lace and gardens is faid to have been from fix to feven French
miles. At prefent the capital is only defended by a quick
hedge of bamboos. In the neighbourhood is quartered a body
of foldiery ; the arfeiial and other magazines of ammunition
being on the banks of the river. On the other fide is the
Chinele town, cftablifncd by precaution ; nor are other
ilrangers allov.ed to enter the city without a fpccial permif-
fion. Abbe Richard cited in Pinkerton"s Geography,
vol. ii.

KESI, in Hindoo Mythology, a monfter flain by Vilhnu,
or Krifhna.

KESIRMAK, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Braclaw, near the Dneiftcr; 72 miles S. of
Braclaw.

KESITAH. This word is to be met with in Gencfis,
and in Job ; and is tranflated in the Sepluagint and Vulgate,
(licep or lambs. But the Rabbins and modern interpreters
are generally of opinion, that Kefitah fignifies rather a piece
of money. Bochart and Eugiibinus are of opinion the Sep-
tuagint meant iit'tru, and not lamls ; in Greek ZYi-<7/(3B mnoJi,
iy.y.~vi /uiv., inftead of ^jiktov af*>iv. Now a mina was worth
fixty Hebrew fiiekels, and confequently (\-i. pounds fixteen
(hillings and ten-pence halfpenny fterling ; or nine pounds
Engliih, fuppofing, as Dr. Prideaux does, that a Hiekel is
worth three (hillings. M. de Pelletier of Koueu is of
opinion, that Kefitah was a Perfian coin, (lamped on one
fide with an archer, {Ke/uah, or Kefeth, in Hebrew fignifying
a lo'w,) and on the other with a lamb ; that this was a gold
coin known in the Eall; by the name of a Daric, and was isi
value about twelve livres and ten-pence Frencli money. A
Daric is a piece of gold, worth, as Dr. Prideaux fay?, five
and twenty (hillings Englifli. Several learned men, without
mentioning the value of the Kefitah, fay it was a filvcr coin,
the impreffion whereof was a flieep ; for which reafon tho-
Septuagint and Vulgate trandate it by this name. Calmet
is of opinion, that Kefitah was a purfe of gold, or filver.
In the Eall they reckon at prefent by piirles : a purfe in
Pcrfia confiding of 50 tomans, which make 35 iS penny
5 A i pieces

K E T

pieces of French money. The word llfla in Chaldee figni-
fies a meafure, or veflcl. And Eiiilathius fays that kifta is
a Perfian meafure. Jonathan and the Targiim of Jerufalem
tr inflate Kefitah, a pearl. Gen. xxxiii, 19. Job.xlii. 11.
See his Conneft. P. I. p. lol. See Calmet Comment, upon
Gen. xxxiii. 19. Gen. xxv. 12. Job, xlii. 2, &c. and Did.
Bibl.

KESKER, or KuR.\B, in Geography, a town of Perfia,
in the province of Ghilan, on the coaft of the Cafpian fea ;
25 miles N.W. of Relhd.

KESOCOTTY, a town of Tiiibet ; 40 miles S. of
Ganp^otri.

KESON, a town of Hindooilan, iii Lahore ; 25 miles
E.N.E. Jullindar.

KESSELDORF, a town of Saxony, in the margra-
viate of Meiifen ; fevcn miles \V. of Drefden.

KESTEN, a town of Syria ; 25 miles W. of Aleppo.
KESTENUS, a town of Aliatic Turkey, in Natolia ;
20 miles S. of Amafieh.

KESTREL, the Englifh name of a hawk, called alfo the
Jlamiel and the icindhovei; and by authors the tiiinuncnlus
and ccncr'is. It builds with us in hollow oaks, and feeds on
partridges and other birds.

KESWICK, in Geography, a market town in the ward
of AUerdale, in the county of Cumberland, England, is
fituated near the lower end of Derwentwater, on the
eaftern fide of the extenfive and beautiful vale of Kefwick.
The town confifts of one long (Irect : the houfes are of
Itone, and were returned under the late population aft at
290 ; the number of inhabitants 1350. A cotton fac-
tory has lately been eftablidied here ; coarfe woollen goods,
carpets, blankets, kerfeys, and fome linens are alfo manu-
fadlured in the town and its vicinity. The chief trade is
derived from the influx of travellers vifiting the lakes :
by whom Kefwick, from its central fituation, is much fre-
quented ; the number in one fcafon, the fummer of 1793,
amounting to 1 5-40 A weekly market is held on Saturdays ;
and a fair for cattle every fortnight from May to Oclober.
In this town two mufenms, coUefted by private perfons,
are open for public infpeflion ; they contain fpecimens
of almoil every variety of the mineralogical fubfl:ances
of Cumberland, with many kinds of foflils, plants, antiques,
and other curioSlics. Kefwick is diftant from London 291
miles.

About two miles to the fouth of the town, on an eminence
called Caflle Rigg, is a Druidica! arrangement of ftones,
foir.e {landing upriglit, fome fillen, anil ?t!iers leaning
obliquely : the whole number is fifty ; of which forty are
difpofed in an oval form, thirty paces by thirty-two in dia-
meter ; the other ten compofc a recefs or long fquarc V'ithin
the area on the eaft fide, in conjunftion with the ilnnes of
tlie oval ; this is feven paces in length, and three in v.-idth.
One ftone is more than feven feet high, others exceed five
feet ; but the greater number are fmaller. Weft's Guide to
the Lakes. Houfeman's Tour. Hutchinfon's Hillory,
&c. of Cumberland. Beauties of England, vol. iii.

KET, WiLLiA.M, in Biography, a tanner of Norfolk,
who, in the regn of Edward VI. inftigated a revolt againfi
the government. The populace were at firft excited by the
complaints againft inclofures, but finding their numbers in-
creafe, and already amounting to 20,000 ftrong, they gre;v
infolent, and proceeded to more exorbitant pretenfions. They
demanded the fupprefTiDn of tlie gentry ; the placing of new
counfellors about the king, and the re-eftabhflmienl of the
Popilh religion. Kct alTumed the government over them,
and exercifcd his biief authority with the utraoft arrogance.
IIa\ing taken poffcffion of. Monfliold-hill, near Norwich, he

KET

ereftcd his tribunal under the branches of an old fpreading;
oak, thence denominated the Oak of Reformation, and fum-
moning the gentry to appear before him, he gave fuch de-
crees as might be expected from his charafter and fituation.
At length the earl of Warwick was fent againft the rebels,
and put them to flight. Two thoufand fell, either in tha
aftion, or purfuit : Ket was taken and hanged at Norwich
caftle : nine of his followers fuffered the hke puniftiment
on as many boughs of the Oak of Reformation, and the in-
furreftion was thus entirely fuppreffed in 1549. Hume>

KETAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in AHa-
habad ; 1 1 miles N. of Jionpour.

KETALEAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 74
miles S.S.W. of Patna. N. lat. 24'' 38'. E. long. 84" 36'.

KETCH, in the Marke, is a veffel with two mafts. The.
mafts are placed and rigged with fails, as the main and
mizen-mafts of a fiiip. Upon the bowrprit, and between
that and the main-maft, they have ftayfails, and a very large
jib. Formerly bomb-veflels and yachts were thus rigged, as
ketches, but of late years as (liips. At prefent only a few
coatting vefTels are rigged ketch falTiion.

KETCHAR-TCHOU, in Geography, a town o£
Thibet ; 10 miles S. of Giti.

KETCHENG-TASE Tart.^rs, a tribe of Tartars
who inhabit the territory of Chinefe Tartary, that lies orr
both the banks of the river Saghalien-Oula, and extends as
far as the eaftern fea. Their country, which is almoft 1^0
leagues in length, contains only fmall villages, moft of
which are fituated on the banks of the river. The language
of thefe Tartars is different from that of the Mantchesvs,
and is diftinguifhed by the name of " Fiatta." It is pro-
bably the fame which is fpoken by the other more northerly
Tartars, who hve beyond the mouth of the river Sag-
lialien.

The Tartars of Ketcheng-tafe do not (have their heads^
as other people of the empire. They wear their hair tied
in a knot with a ribband, or enclofed in a bag behind. They
appear to be lefs clownifh than the Yupi-tafe Tartars. They
employ much of their time in hunting fables, and are obliged'
to pav a certain number of their fliins in tribute.

KETCHICTEN, or Kesictex, a country of Chinefe
Tartary, divided into two ftandards. N. lat. 43 . E. bng.

117^38'.
KE'l

TEMBER, a fmall iCand in the Eaft Indian fea.
S. hit. 6' 12'. E. long. 132^ 53'.

KETMEBEH, a town of Natolia j 27 miles E. of
Pergamo.

KETMIA, in Botany, the Syrian appellation of the
flirub commonly called Althta frutex, HWtfcus fyrlaciis of
LinncEUS. Tournefort, in his InJlituHones , 99, t. i(>, adopts
it for the whole genus of H'tbifcus ; fee that article. Some
fpecies of Bomha.-o and Herniannia have alfo occalionally been
called by this name.

KETOI, in Geography, one of the Kiirile or Kurilfkoi
idands, in the N. Pacific ocean. This ifland is 30 vcrfts in
length, and about 10 in breadth. On it are feen high moun-
tains, with their white rocky walls and fummits : at the foot
of thefe, and in the vallies, are forefts of birch, alder, the
forbus fylveftris aucuparia, and feveral fpecies of pines.
The ifland nourifhcs white, black-bellied, and red foxes.
The fea animals are not plentiful. It is uninhabited. N. lat.
48^4;'. E. long. 153" 38'.

KETRAN, KiTUAX, or Alheiran, a name given by
fome of the Arabian authors to llie oil of cedar, called
by I he Greeks cedr'ia. We have of later times formed the
word cedranum upon this, and it has fince been applied to
the zopilTa of the ancientSj a compound made of pitch
7 and

K E T

and wax melted together, and uL-d for covering the bottom
of (hips.

KETSIO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Smaland ; 40 miles N.W. of Wcxio.

KET6KOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tobolfk, feated on the river Ket, which runs into the Oby
at Narim ; 64 miles S.E. of Narim.

KETSKEMET, a town of Hungary; 92 miles E. of
Canifcha.

KETTERING is a populous market-town, fituated on
an eafy afcent, in the hundred of Huxloe, Northampton-
fliire, England. In the time of the Saxons, it was called
Cytrinjran and Kateringes : the lordfliip was granted by
king Edwy, in the year 97/"), to his fervant Elfligc. The
church, which comprifes a n:>.ve, north and fouth aides, and
a chancel, has a handfome tower and fpire at the weft end.
The tower confifts of three ftories, in each of which are
large windows, or window frames, of feveral compartments :
the angles are flanked with double buttreiTes : under the
embattled parapet runs an ornamented fafcia, and at each
corner is raifed a fmall hexanguiar embattled turret ; the
whole furmounted by a handfome hexagonal crocketted
fpire, with three windows, diminifliing in their fize upwards,
on the alternate fides. The following quaint prophetic
promife is inicribed in this church : " Who fo redis mi
name (hal have Godys blyfling and our lady ; and my wyfis
doo fey the fame." Excepting the chureh, Kettering has
Bathing to attract or intercll the antiquary. Near the
middle of the town is a fpjci )us area, furrounded by fome
private houfes and Piiops of refpectable appearance. Here
are a fefiions-houfe, and a well endowed free-fchool ; alfo an
alms-houfe for fix poor widows, and two diffenting meetings.
By the returns male to parliament in iSoi, the number of
houfes appears to be 641 ; of inhabitants. :ioii ; of which
number 1770 were reported as employed in various trades
and manufafiures, and 221 in agriculture. The chief
manufactures are thofe of lace-working, wool-combing, and
the fpinning and weaving ef tammies and laftings. Ket-
tering is 16 miles di lant from Northampton, and 74 from
London ; has a well fupplied weekly market on Fridays,
and four annual fairs.

Kettering was the birth-place of Dr. John Gill, a dif-
fenting minifter of diftinguilhcd eminence, through the
greater part of the lad century. He was one of thofe
felf-taught fons of genius, who, by overcoming wiiat are
too often c-;nfidered infurmountable obftacles in literature,
allonilhed the world by the variety and extent of their ac-
quifitions. See Gill, John.

In the vicinity of this town, to the weftward, in a road
eal'ed Staunch Lane, are found what are denominated kit-
cat!, a kind of pellucid (lones, apparently vitrifications.
Thefe, when pulverized, arc confidered fingularly effica-
cious as a ilyptic, and are confequently much elteemed.
They are frequently difcovcred near the fnrface of the
ground, but more ufualiy in the argillaceous ftrata, dug
for making brick. In a fpot. named Stony-lands, between
Kettering and Weekly woods, in quarrying for ftones,
were found urns, bones, coins, and other antiquities.
Bridge'^ Hiftory of Northamptonlhire. Btauties of Eng»
land, vol. xi.

KETTLE Fall.s, acataraft on the river Utwas, in Ca-
nada ; yo miles W. of Montreal.

Kettle River, a river of Canada, which runs into lake
Erie, N. lat. 43'. W. long. 80" Jl'. See ClIArDIERE.

Kf.ttlk, in the Art r.f JVar, a term the Di:tch give to a
battinv of mortars, becaiife it is funk underground.
■ .\.l.\L- Drums. Sec Dlu.M.

KET

The kettle-drum, with trumpets, is the mo!l martial found
of any ; each regiment of horfe formerly had a pair.

The kettle-drummer rides always at the head of the fqua-
dron, and his poft is on the right when the fqiiadron is drawn
up.

The kettle-drum, belonging to the rcyal regiment of
artillery, is mounted on a fuperb wsggon, richly gilt and
ornamented, and drawn by four white horfes, elegantly ca-
parlfoned, with a feat for the drum-major general.

KETTLEWELL, .loin;, in Biography, was born at
North-Allerton, in the county of York, in the year 16J3.
Here he received the elements of a learned education, and in
1670 was entered a fervitor at St. Edmund Hall, in the
univerfity of Oxft>rd. Having taken tlie degree of B.A.
he was cliofcn a fellow of Lin.oln-college, and became emi-
nent as a tutor in that fociety. He took the degree of M. A.
in 1677, entered holy order's, and became celebrated for his
ufeful and inftruftive mode of prcacliing, ?nd alfo for his
great theological knowledge. In tlie year !6Sl, he pub-
lithed " Meafurcs of Chriilian Obedience, &c. for the Pro-
motion of the Piety and Peace of troubled Confciences,"
which procured the author a high degree of reputation as a
praftical and controverfial writer. It was dedicated to Dr.
Compton, bi(hop of London, but when that prelate took an
aftive part in the meafures that terminated in the abdication
of .lames II. Mr. Kettlewell ordered the dedication to be
crafed from all the copies of the work which were unfjld,
and directed it to be omitted in future editions The work
itfelf induced the countefs of Bedford to appoint him one of
her domelUc chaplains, and it prc-cured for him the patro-
nage of lord Digby, who, in l';82, prefcnted him wi'h tlie
living of Colefhill, in Warwicklhirc. On this liWng l.e con-
tinued to difcharge the duties of the paftoral ofRce, much
eftecmed and refpedlcd, till the year 1690, when he was de-
prived for refufmg to take the oaths of fupremaey to king
William and queen Mary. After his deprivation he removed
to London, where he chiefly an"ociated with gentlemen, who
entertained fimilar fcntiments with thofe which he himfelf
avowed. In conjunction with Mr. Robert Nelfon he con-
certed " a model of a fund of charity for the needy iui-
fering, that is, the nonjuring clergy." He died of a con-
fumption in i695', "■'^^" '" ^^^ 4-'^ y*^*"" "^ '"^ 'S^" " ^^
was,'"' fays his friend, " karned without pride, wife and
judicious without cunning : he ferved at the altar without
either covctoufnefs or ambition : he was devout without af-
feftation : fincerely religious without morofenefs : courteous
and aff"able without flattery, or mean compliances : juft with-
out rigour: charitable without vanity, and heartily zealous
for the intercft of religion without fa£tion " His works,
which are numerous, were pubhfhed in 1718, in two vols,
folio. Biog. Brit.

KETU, in Hindoo Mythology, is the regent of the de-
fcending node, orthe dragon's tail. The following legend
on this'fubjedt is from Moor's Hindoo Pantlieon, p. 282.
" Rshu was the fon of Karyapa and Diti (fee Karyapa),
according to fome authorities ; but others reprefcnt Sinhika
(perhaps the Sphinx) as his natural mother. He had four
arms ; his lower parts ended in a tai', like that of a dragon,
and his afpcdt was grim and gloomy, like the darknej's of
the chaos, whence he had alfo the name of Tamafa. He
was the advifer of all mifchief among the Daityas, or evil
fpitits, and his chief delight was to fow difiention among the
Devatas, or beneficent deities. ^Vhcn the gods had pro-
duced the Amrita, or elixir of immortality, by churning the
ocean (fee Kurmav.4Tara), he dil'gi'ifed himfilf like onr
of them, and received a portion of it ; bnt the Sun and Mocv
difcovering thr fraud, VifftnU fevered his head and two tR

hift.-

K E U

lib arms from the reft of his monftrous body. Tliat part
of the neftareous fluid, that he had time to fwallow, fecured
his immortahty ; his trunk and dragon-Hke tail fell on the
mountains of Malaya, where Mini, or Brahman, carefully
preferved them by tlie name of Ketu ; and, as if a complete
body had been formed from them, like a difmembered
polype, he is fald to have adopted Ketu as his own child.
The head, with two arms, fell on the fands of Barbara,
where Pitheiias was then walking with his wife Sinhika :
they carried the Daitya to their palace, and adopted him
as their fon. This extravricjant tale is no doubt adronomical ;
Rahu and Ketu being the nodes, or what aftrologcrs call tlie
head and tail of the dragon. It is added, that t'ney appeafed
Vifhnu, and obtained re-;(dmifiion to the firmament, but
•were no longer viiible from the earth, their enlightened fides
being tnrned from it ; that Rahu drives, during echpfcs, to
wreak vengeance on the Sun and Moon who detected him ;
and that Ketu often appears as a comet, a whirlwind, a fiery
meteor, or water-fpout, or a column of fand. Fifty-fix
comets are faid, in a book called Chintamani, to have fprung
from Ketu ; and Rahu had a numerous progeny of Grahas,
or crocoddes." A plate of the Hindoo zodiac includes
Rahu and Ketu, the latter appearing merely as a head of
a black colour, handfomely ornamented, and relling againft
a pillow. In a plate of the Indian zodiac, pubhflied by fir
V\''. Jones in t!ie fecond volume of the Afiatic Refearches,
Ketu is mounted on a frog ; the meaning of which, if it
have any, has not been explained. See Rahu.

KETVER, in Geography, a town of Grand Bucharia,
on a mountain, taken by Timur Bee in 139S ; ico miles S.
of Badaklhan.

KETZIN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle Mark ;
8 miles N.W. of Potzdam.

KETZLDQRF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Chrudim ; J 2 miles S.E. of Leutinifchl.

KEVALCOTTY, a town of Tiubet ; 18 miles N.W.
of Sirinagur.

KEVEL of Buffon, in Zo'Jogy. Anuhpe Ke-vella of
Linnajus, Ahy of Kxmpfer, 3.nA Jlcit-honicd antelope of Pen-
nant, has large horns, which are flattened, and bent in form
of a lyre ; the fur is yellowifli, with pale ftreaks, and a dark
coloured band runs along each fide. This animal inhabits
Barbary, Senegal, and Perfia. It is about the fize of a
fmall roe ; lives in large flocks, and, hke moll fpecies of the
genus, is reckoned very delicate food, though it has a
muiky odour when ahve. In both fexes the horns are
furrounded with prominent rings, ufually from 14 to 18,
except the ends, which are fmooth : they are bent in the
fame manner with thofe of the antilope dorcas, and in
general the two animals referable each other very much, ex-
cept thai the horns of this fpecies are flattened, and have a
greater number of i-ings.

KEVELS, or Cukvils, in a Sh'ip, are two pieces of
timber nailed to the infide of a fliip, from whence the upper
ends branch outward into arms or horns, ferving to belay
the great ropes, by which the bottoms of the mainfail and
forefail are extended.

KEUKZER, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Farfif-
tan ; 40 miles S. of Jezdkall.

KEULA, a town of Germany, in the county of
fichwartzburg ; 1 1 miles N. of Mulhaufen.

KEURA, in Botany, Forflt. TEgypt. Arab. 172.
Thunb. Nov. Gen. 3,-. See K.vida and' Pan dan ls.

KEURBOOM RlVKR, in Geography, a river on the S.
joail of the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, which, hke
the Knyfna, runs up into the midft of tall foreils, and
roight be navigated by boats to a confiderable diilance ;

K £ W

but its mouth, in Plettenberg's bay, is completely landed
up by tlie almoft perpetual rolling fwell of the lea, from
the fouth-eaftward upon the fandy beach.

KEURN, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Wafa ; 96 miles S.E. of Wafa.

KEVROI., a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Archangel ; 100 miles S.E. ot Archangel,

KEUSCHBERG, or Kiade, a town of Saxony, re-
markable for a victory obtained by Henry the Fowler over
the Huns, in 933 ; 6 miles S.E. of Merfeburg.

KEW, a village and parifli in the hundred of Kingfton,
and county of Surry, England, is pleafanlly feated on the
fouthern banks of the river Thames, at the diilance of 6|
miles wetlward of London. In the year iSoo it contained
85 houfes, and 424 inhabitants. Previous to the year 1769,
this place was only a hamlet to Kingllon, but in that year
an aci of parliament was obtained to unite this and Peter-
fham in one vicarage. The neighbouring inhabitants then
fubfcribed to build a chapel on a piece of land given by
queen Anne. In this is a tablet to the memory of Jere-
miah Meyer, a celebrated miniature painter ; and in the
adjoining cemetery repofe the remains of Thomas Gainf-
borough, an artilt of dillinguifhed merit. (See Gaiks-
BOROUGH.) Over the Thames, at this place, is a handfome
ftone bridge of feven arches, built from a defign by Paine.
It was opened in 1789, and is private property ; to defray
the expences of which a toll is exacled from all perfons,
carriages, horfes, &c. palling over it. In this village is
one of the royal palaces, which is held on leafe. It is a
fmall houfe, in a bad Ityle of architeflure, and in a flat,
confined fituation ; yet, from its contiguity to the fine and
intereiling gardens of Kew, has contmued a royal refidence
for many years. His prefent majefty, George III. has
commenced a new palace upon a larger fcale ; but the
works have been long fufpended, and it is not improbable
that both tliefe ftruttures may be utterly defertcd by
the next monarch. It is built from defigns of James
Wyatt, efq. The gardens of Kew are the pride and or-
nament of tlie place. They are comprifed in 120 acres of
land, and are planted with almoft every fpecies of exotic
tree, flirub, and plant that can be preferved ahve in this
country. Sir William Chambers publilhed a particular
account of thefe gardens, and of the various ornamental
buildings within them ; but fince iir William's deceafe many
additions and improvements have been made to the exotic
garden. The late Mr. Alton, gardener, gave fome account
of the rare plants, &c. cultivated here, in a work, entitled
" Hortus Kev.enfis." The following are the names and
dates of the different buildings eretted by fir William
Chambers within thefe gardens : The Orangery, or Green-
houfe, built in I 761, is 145 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 25
feet high. In the fame year, and near the fame building,
was ere&ed " The Temple of the Sun," partly refembling
one of the temples of Balbec. In the Flower Garden is au
" Aviary," and near it a " Menagerie," with a pavilion
defigned in imitation of a Chinefe opening. Contiguous
to this ftands " The Temple of Bellona," built in 3760,
of the proilyle kind, with portico tetraftyle Doric. In a
folitary walk, near the lake, is " The Temple of the God
Pan," of the monopterous kind, of the Doric order, built in
1758. On an eminence ftands " The Temple of Eolus,"
of fimilar figure with the preceding. Not far from tin.'', at
the head of the lake, is a Chinefe oiTtagon, of two llories,
called " The Houfe of Confucius," built from defigns
by Goupy. Pafiing hence through a winding fliady walk,
the rtraiiger is next condufted to a Corinthian colonnade,
called *' The Theatre of Augulla," built iii 1760. " The

Temple

KEY

Tdnple of Viilory" is tlie next objcft, executed in 17,9,

in commemoration of a viftory obtained by prince Fer-

(' ill and of Brunfuick, in that year. The Alhandia is

t.itive of a morefquc building ; and the great Pagoda is

■. I in imitation of the Chinefe Taa. The bafc is a
:!ar oftagon of 49 feet in diameter, and the elevation is

• pofed of 10 prifnis, or 10 Itories, and is 16; feet in

:.t. The other buildings are called the Mofque, tlie

'-ry of Antiques, the Temple of Arethufa, and the

,, ..:i. The Gardens at Kew are opened every Monday

uMing the fummer. Lyfons's Environs of London.

KEWAN, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Kitchwara ; 10 miles W. of Sheergur.

KEWEH, a town of Natolia, on the Sakaria ; 24 miles
E. of Ifnik.

KEXHOLM, a town of RiifTia, in the government of
Viborg, built on two iilands at the mouth of a river, on the
fide of lake Ladoga. The houfes are conftrufted of wood,
but the town is well fortiiied, and defended by a citadel;
40 miles E.N.E. of Viborg. N. lat. 6i\ E. long. 29^
50'.

KEXLEBODA, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 36 miles S.S.W. of We.xio.

KEY, Great, a fmall ifland in the Eail Indian fea,
about 50 miles long, and from 5 to 12 broad. S. lat. j
24'. E. long. 133' 28'.

Key, Little, an iiland in the Eaft Indian fea, about 60
miles in circumference. S. lat. 5 ^2'. E. long. 133 12'.

Key, a little iron inftrument for the opening of locks.

L. Moliuus has a ticatife of keys, " De Clavibus Ve-
terum," printed at Upfal. He derives the Latin name
€!avh from the Greek xXu-x, ckudo, IJhut ; or from the ad-
verb c/am, pr'fvalcly ; and adds that the ufe of keys is yet
unknown in fome parts of Sweden.

The invention of keys is owing to one Theodore of Samos,
according to Pliny and Polydore Virgil; but this mull be
a miftake, the ufe of keys having been known before the
fiege of Troy : mention even feems to be made of them in
the nineteenth chapter of Genefis.

Molinus is of opinion, that keys, at firft, only fencd for
the untying certain knots, wherewith they anciently fecured
their doors; but the Laconic keys, he maintains, were
nearly akin in ufe to our own : they confiHed of three iingle
teeth, and made the figure of an E ; of which form there are
ilill fome to be feen in the cabinets of the curious.

There was alfo another key, called ,5x>,av;'.-/;z, made in
the manner of a male fcrew, which had its corrcfponding fe-
male in a bolt affixed to the door.

Key is hence become a general name for fevcrai things
ferving to fhut up or clofe others.

Key, or Keyjlone, of an Arch, or Vault, is the laft
fione placed atop thereof; which, being wider and fuller at
the t(jp than the bottom, wedges as it were, and binds in all
the reft.

The key is different in the different orders ; in the Tufcan
and Doric, it is a plain ftonc, only projecting ; in the Ionic,
it is cut, and waved fomewhat after the manner of confoles ;
in the Corinthian and Compofite, it is a coiifole enriched
with fculpturc, foliages, &c.

M. Belidor makes the thicknefs of the arch-ftones of a
bridge, one twenty-fourth part of the width of the arch;
but Mr. Gautier, another experienced engineer, makes their
length, in an arch twenty-four feet wide, two feet; in
arches, forty-five, fixty, icventy-five, ninety wide, tliree,
four, five, fix feet, rcfpcfkivcly : and it is obferved by Mr.
Muller, that the thicknefs allowed by Belidor is not fuffi-

K E Y

cient to prevent the weight of the arches from cruthing ilic
kev-ftones to pieces by tlieir piefTure againft one another.
Midler's Praa. Fortif. p. 253.

Tiie name key-ftones, or arch-Hones, is fomctimes alfo
given to all the ftones which form the fweep of an arch, or
vault, anfwcring to what the French more diftinctly call
voujfoirs.

Key i.' alfo ufed for the ecclefiadical jurifdiclion ; parti-
cularly for the power of excommuniaating, and abfolving.
The Romanics fay, the pope has the power of the keys,
and can open and fhut paradife as he pleafcs ; grounding
their opinion on that exprtffion of Jcfus Chrift, " I will give
thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven ''

In St. Gregory we read, that it was the cuftom hereto-
fore, for the popes to fend a golden key to princes, wherein
they always enclofed a little of the filings of St. Peter's
chains, kept with great devotion at Rome ; and that thcfe
keys were worn in the bofoni, as being fuppofed to contain
fome wonderful virtues.

Key, in Mujic, is a certain fundamental found, or tore,
to which the whole piece, be it concerto, fonata, cantata,
&c. is accommodated ; and with which it ufually begins,
but always ends.

To get an idea of the ufe of the key, it may be obferved,
that as m an oration there is a fiibjctl, ix'z. fome principal
perfon or thing, to which the difcourfe is referred, and
which is always to be kept in view, that nothing unnatural
and foreign to the fubjetft may be brouglit in ; fo in every
regular piece of mufic, there is one note, ■viz.. the key,
which regulates all the reft. The piece begins and ends in
this ; and this is, as it were, the niulical fubjeft, to which
a regard muft be had in all the other founds of the piece.
Aigain, as in an oration there are feveral diftinft articles,
which refer to different fubjeds, yet fo as they have a'l a
vifible connexion with the principal fubjeft, which regulates
and influences the whole ; fo in muiic there may be various
fubaltern fubjefts, that is, various keys, to which the dif-
ferent parts of the piece may belong : but then, they mull
be all under the influence of the firll and principal key, and
have a fenlible connection with it.

To give a more diilinft notion of the key, we muft ob-
ferve, that the oclave contains in it the whole principles of
mufic, both with refpeft to confonance or harmony, and
fneceffion or melody ; and if either fcale be continued to a
double oftave, there will, in that cafe, be feven- different
orders of tlie degrees of an oflave, proceeding from the
feven different letters, with which the terms of the fcale are
marked. Any given found, therefore, i e. a found of any
determinate pitch or tune, may be made the key of the
piece, by applying it to the feven natural founds arifing
from the divifion of an odlave, and repeating the odlave
above or below, at pleafure. The given found is applied
as the principal note or key of the piece, by making fre-
quent clofcs or cadences upon it ; and, in the progrefs of
the melodyj no other but thofe feven natural founds can
be admitted, while the piece continues in that key, every
other found being foreign to the fundamental, or key.

For inftance, fuppofe a fong begun in any found, and
carried on upwards, or downwards, by degrees and har-
monical diftances, fo as never to touch any founds, but
what are referrible to that firll found as a fundamental, ;. e.
arc the true founds of the natural fcale proceeding from the
fundamental ; and let the melody be fo condufted through
thofe natural founds, as to clofc and terminate in the funda-
mental, or any of its oftnvcs above or below ; that found is
called the key of the melv.dy, bec:iufc it governs all the veil,
limiting tJiem fo fdr, as that they mull be to it, in the rela-

KEY

tion to the feven elTential founds of an o£lave ; and when any
other found is brouglit in, it is called ^oj'hj^ out of the ley.

From which way of Ipeaking, viz. a fong's continuing
in, cr going out of the key, it may be obftrved, that the
whole otlave, with its natural fovinds, come under the idea
of a key ; though the fundamental or principal found is, in a
peculiar fenfe, called the key.

In which lalt fenfe of the word key, (viz. where it is ap-
plied to one fundamental found,) another found is faid to
be out of the key, wlien it has rot the relation to that fun-
damental of any of the natural founds belonging to the con-
cinnous divifion of the oftave.

Here too it mud be added, with refpcct to the two dif-
ferent divifions of the oAave, that a found may belong to
the fame key, i. e. it may have a juft mufical relation to the
fame fundamental in one kind of divifion, and be out of the
key with refpeft to another.

Now a piece, of mufic may be carried through feveral
keys ; /. e. it may be given in one key, and be led out of
that into another, by introducing fomc found foreign to the
firft, and fo on to another : but a regular piece muft not
onh- relurn to the firft key, but thofe other keys too, mull
have a particular connection with the fufl. It may be
added, that thofe other keys muft be fome of tlie natural
founds of the principal key, though not any of them at
pleafure.

As to the diftiniSions of keys, we have already obferved,
that to conftitute any given note or found, a key, or funda-
mental found, it muft have the feven effential or natural notes
added to it ; out of which, or their oftaves, all the notes of
tl'.e piece muft be taken, while it keeps withhi the key, ;. e.
within the government of that fundamental. It is evident,
therefore, there are but two different ipecies of keys, which
arife according as we join the greater or lefs third, thefe be-
ing always accompanied with the fixth or feventh of the
fame fpecies ; the third g, for inftance, with the lixth or fe-
venth g, ai.d the third / with the iixth and feventh I.

This dillinftion is expreffed under the names oi Jljarp key,
which is that with the third ^, &c. and the _/?«/ key, which
is that with the third /, &c. : whence it is plain, that how-
many different clofes foever there be in a piece, there can
be but two keys, if we confider the effential difference of
keys ; every key being either flat or fliarp, and every
fliarp key being the fame, as to melody, as well as every
flat one.

It mu(? be obferved, however, that in common practice
tlie keys are faid to be different, when nothing is confidered
but the different tone, or pitch of the found, in which tl'e
different clofes are made. In this fenfe, the fame piece is
faid to be in different keys, according as it is begun in dif-
ferent foundr, or degrees of tune.

To prevent any confufion which might arife from ufing
the fame word in different fenfes, Mr. Malcolm propofes the
■word mack to be fubilituted inftead of the word key, in the
former fenfe ; that is, where it exprelfes the melodious con-
ilitution of the oflave, as it coulifts of feven effential and
natural founds, befidcs the fundamental; and in regard
there are two fpecies of it, he propofes, that that with a
third g be called the greater mode; and that with a third /,
the lejpr mock: appropriating the word key to thofe founds
of the piece in which the cadence is made ; all of which may
be called different keys, in refpedl of tlieir different degrees
of tune.

To diftinguifh then accurately between a mode and a key,
he give; us this definition ; -vi-z.. an oftave, witli all its na-
tural an 1 effential degrees, is a mode, with refpeft to the
cvuftitution, ox manner of dividing it j but with refpeft to

KEY

its place ib the fcale of mufic, i. e. the degree cr pitch o\
tune, it is a key ; though that name is peculiarly applied to
the fundamental.

Whence it follows that the fame mode may be with dif-
ferent keys ; :'. e. an ottave of founds may be railed in the
fame order, and kind of degrees, which makes the fame
mode, and yet be begun higher or lower ; i. e. be taken
at different degrees of tune, with refpeft to the whole,
wihich makes different keys ; and I'icc •verjd, that the fame
key may be with different modes, i. e. the extremes of two
oftaves may be in the fame degree of tune, yet the divifion
of them be different.

'Keys alfo imply thofe little levers in the fore-part of an
organ, harpficiiord, or piano-forte, by means of which
wind is given to the pipes, and the jacks or hammers ftrikc
the firings of the inllrument.

In large organs there are generally three fcts of keys ;
one for the great or full organ, one for the choir organ, and
one for the fwell and echoes. The long keys ufcd to be
black, and the fhort, or fiats and fharps, white ; but a con-
trary pradlice took place about the beginning of the laft
century.

Key.s, in Sea Language, a name given to certain rocks ly-
ing near the furface df the water, particularly in the Weft
Indies.

Key, a dry piece of tapering oak, driven into fcarfs to fet
them clofe.

Key, in a Navsl Senfe. See Kay.

Key, in Polygruphy, and Stcganography, denotes the al-
phabet of a cijiher ; which is a fecret known only to the
perfon who writes the letter, and him who deciphers it.
See Alphabet and Cipher.

Some ciphers Imve a fingle key, where the fame charadlers
are ufed throughout ; in other ciphers, the characters aie
varied, and the key is doubled.

Keys, a denomination given to the feeds of the afh.

KKY-Lcugh, in Geography, a lake of Ireland, in the
northern part of the county of Rofcomm.on, near the town

of Boyle. Tiu

Boyle flows through this lake, which

a beautiful piece of water, interfperfed with feveral iilands,
fome of them well wooded, and others highly cultivated.
It is fometimes called Kingflon lough.

KEYNSHAM, a market town and parifli in the hundred
of Keynftiam, and county of Scmerfet, England, is five
miles eaft of Briftol, and feven weft of Bath", on the great
public roaa between thofe cities.. In the year i8co, the
town coufifted of 286 houfes, and contained 1591 inha-
bitants. Here was formerly a confiderable woollen manu-
faftory, bnt at prefent the ftaple trade of the town is
malting. An abbey was founded here, in 1 170, by William
earl of Gloucefter ; and at the diflblution was granted to
Thomas Bridges, fome of whole defcendants ftill have an
intereft in the lands annexed to it. The fub-ftratum of the
county is an immenfe rock ; in which are imbedded vaft
numbers of the cornu-ammonis, or fnake ftones. Many of
thefe are very large, and by the common people are be-
lieved to have originated from fome miraculous power.
The church is a large building. Here are a weekly market,
and two annual fairs. Colliufon's Hiftory, &c. of Somer-
fetfiiire. 3 vols. 410.

KEYSLER, .John George, in Biography, a celebrated
traveller, was born at Thurnau, iu the county of Giech,
in the year 1683. He received a good education, and mani-
fclled, at an early period, a flrong attachment to the Iciences.
At a proper tune, and having laid in a good ftock of
elementary knowledge, lie was entered at the univerfitv of
Halle, where he ftudied jurifprudence, without neglecting

the

Khezi/, a river of Alia, which rife;

icharii!, N.E. of .Samarcand, ar.d for-

fea ; but the RiifTians, in 17 19,

ream, were put to death by the

jf tlie river into lake Aral,

KEY

tfie other branches of academical inftruillioii. Wlien he had
fmiilied his lludies, he was invited to fuperinteiid tlie educa-
tion of Charles Maximilian, and Chriilian diaries, counts
of Oiech-Buchau, with whom he repaired to Halle in 17 17,
and then accompanied them on their travels in foreign coun-
tries. In his journey he met with the celebrated Roland,
who recommended to his attention the immenfe field of
German antiquities, as yet almoll untouched : he accord-
ingly caught at the idea, and formed the rcfolutioii of un-
dertaking fomethinjj fyllematic on the antiquities of Ger-
many, and the origin of its inhabitants. He went through
the principal towns m Germany and the Low Countries,
coUefting, as they occurred, materials for his intended
work. In confcquence of the preat reputation whicli he
acquired in his firll tour, M. Bernllorff, miniller of his
Britannic majelly in Hanover, an enlightened ftatefman, en-
gaged him as a travelling tutor to his fons. After remain-
ing two years in hanover, he obtained permiiTion, in 1718, to
vifit England for his own improvement. At I. udon and
Oxford he met with a kind reception, but nothing, probably,
pleafcd him more, than the honour of being elected a mem-
ber of the Royal Society. He wrote fome tradls at this
period, oiie containing feveral curious obfervations on Stone-
heno'e, and a diflertaiion on the confecrated mifletoe of the
Druids ; and on his return to Hanover in 1720, he publiilied
his immortal work, entitled «' Antiqnitates felettK Septen-
trionales et Celtics," in which the author is exceedingly
happy in folving a great number of difficulties never before
fufficiently explained. In 1727, Keyfler's pupils, who con-
tinued under his care more than ten years, accompanied him
to Tubingen, and, in 1729, they began their travels, which

comprifed the whole of Germany, SwifTerland, Italy, Hun- in the province of Tremecen, feated on an eminence near
gary, France, England, and Holland. On their return am- the river ShellifF. Dr. Shaw concludes from its ruins,
pie provifion was made for the tutor, and they entrufted which are about three miles in circumference, that it was once
him, at the fame time, wiih a valuable library, their coUec- a large place. According to Ptolemy, its ancient name
tion of medals and natural curiolities, and even gave him was " Zucchabbari," and according to Pliny " Succabar"
the chief management of their domellic concerns. M. Key- and " Colonia Augufta." Eaitward are the remains of a
fler, in the courfe of his traveL', had made a valuable col- Hone bridge, probably the only one ever built over the
leftion of book-!, antiques, S:c , to which he added, by pur- S'lelliff, though travellers are much inconvenienced, in the

winter feafon, by waiting a whole month before they can
ford it ; j," miles S.S.W. of Algiers.

KHALEKAN, EnN, in Bw^rcphy, a celebrated biogra-
pher of ilhiilrious MulTulmen, particularly of fuch as were
diiUnguiflied by their proficiency in the fcienccs, was born
in. the year 608, and died in 6t) l of the Hcgira. His work
is entitled " Vafiat Alaian," or " The Deaths of illuftrious
Men," and was undertaken by him at the city of Cairo, in
Egypt, under tjie reign of Bibars, a lultan of the Mame-
ing appointed by that prince cadi of Da-
• 659, the duties of his new employment
o far interrupted his Itiidies, that he was not able lo finifh
his work before (he year 672.

KHAMI, in Geography See Hami.

KHAMIES Bekg, a clutter of mountains belonging

K II A

KEYZER's Bay, a bay 0,11 the S. coaft of the ifland of
Sumatra. N. lat. 5 40'. E long. 104 \;5S'.

KEZEMSKA, a town of Ruiha, in the government of
Irkutik, on the Angara ; 40 miles S.W. of 'Uimlk.

KEZEREH, a town of Naiolia ; 40 miles E. of Caf-
tamena.

KEZIL, a river of Perfia, which runs into the Cafpian
fea. near Refhd.

Kezil, Khef.l, (
in the mountains of
merly ran into the Cafpian
endeavouring to trace the Itream
Tartars, who turned the current

by uniting it with the Giho:i : but this change of the
courfe_ of the Gihon has been difputed. See Oxis. See
alfo KnARASM.

\^v:/.\.i.-Agqfh, a town of Porfia, in the province of Glii-
lan ; 20 miles N. of Lenkeran.

IvEZlL-A'tyn, a town of Natolia ; 25 miles S. of If.
barteh.

KEZIN, a town of Poland, in Volhvnia : 10 miles W
of Krzeminicc.

KEZMA, a town of Rufiia, in the gover)«nent of
Irkutflc, on the Tungufl<a ; 160 miles N.N.W. of liimik.

KEZUC, a town of Perfian Armenia; 4 miles 6. of
Erivan.

KHABUR, a river of Afiatic Turkey, which rifes 20
miles E. of Harran, and runs into the Euphrates at Ker-
kiiia. — Alfo, a river of Curdillan, which palTts by Betlis
and runs into the Tigris ; ij miles S.E. of Ge/.ira.

KHADARAH, El, or Chadra, a town of Algiers

chafe, that of M Eckard, and to prevent the whole from
being difoerfed, he deilined it after his death to be added to
that of M. Bernflorff. He was of an open and communi-
cative dilpohtioH, and ready to affilt in their literary labours,
all thofe who Itood in need of his advice. He rendered
M. Eckard great fervice when about to publidi his German
Antiquities, after the model of the " Thefaurns Antiqui-
tatum Gricarum ct Romanarum," by Grxvius and Gro-
novius. This work was never printed. In 172S, when
M. Jark reprinted the work of Schedius, on the German luke dynally
deities, Keyfler not only corrected it, but furnidied him mafcus in the y
with confiderablc additions, and I'nbjoined an ingenious dif-
fertatiim " De cnhu Solis." He died luddemy, in June
I 743, at Stentenbourg, an eftate be ongingto M. Bernftorff.
His travels were tranllated into the Englilh language from
the fecond edition in German, and publifhed in four vols.
4^0. Gen. Biog,

to the colony of the Cape of Good Plope, lituated in the
itry, that was formerly inhabited by tlie

middle of tin

KEYSERSrUL, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, Namaaqua Hottentots, at the dill

of

in the co-inty of Baden, on the river Rhine, with a wooden
bridge to SchafThaufen ; 9 miles N.N.E. of Baden. N. lat.
47° 37'. E. long. 8' 15'.

KEY-SIM A, an ifland of Japan, between Corea and the
W. coaft of Niphon.

KEY-WALE'LA, an illnnd in the Eaft Indian ,l"ea,
about 45 miles in circumference. S. lat. 5 36'. E. long.
138.

KEYWAWA, a fmall inand near Ciiarlcilon harbour,
.Sou*h Carohna.

Vol. XIX.

jouniey

N.VV. from the Hantiim, (whick fee,) over a dry faiidy de-
fert almoll delHtute of water. Tiiis duller ot mou;;taiiif
being the belt, and indeed almoll the only habitable part
in tlie Namaaqua country, has been taken pofftlfioii of by
the wandering peafaiitry, who, to the advantage of a good
grazing country, had the additional inducement of fetthng
ttiere, from the eafy means of increaliiig their flock of
iTieep from the herds of the native Hottentots, who, however,
are now fo reduced and Icattered among the Dutch farms,
as Icarccly to be coiilldercd .1 diilinct tribe of people. The
5 B copper

K H A

copper mountains commence where the Khamies-berg ends,
the whole furface of which is faid to be covered with mala-
chite, or the carbonate of copper, and cupreous pyrites.
But the ores of thefe mountains, though abundant and rich,
are of no great value on account of the total want of every
kiad of fuel to fmelt them, as well as of their very great
diftance from the Cape, and from there being neither bay
r.or river, where they could be put on board of coafting
veffels. In the Khamies-berg is alfo found, in large blocks,
tiiat beautiful fpccies of ftone, to which mineralogifts have
given the name of Prehnite.

KHAMIR. SeeCiiAMiR.

KHAN, or Kan, the name of an officer in Perfia,
anfwering to that oi governor in Europe. There are khans
of provinces, countries, and cities, who have different ad-
ditions to diftinguifh them. In the language of the north
of Afia, this title exprefles the full extent of the regal
dignitv. ^

KHANAKA, a town of Kharafm, on the Gihoif; 250
miles S.W. of Samarcand.

KHANGA, El, a town of Egypt, formerly enriched
by the caravans which pafl'ed from Cairo to Syria, and
containing about 1 000 inhabitants; 12 miles N. E. of
Cairo.

KHANUDUM, a large lake of Perfia, in the province
of Adirbeitzan, 60 miles long and 30 broad ; called alfo
the lake of Urmia ; 30 miles S.W. of Tabris.

KHAR.^, a malignant being, according to Indian le-
gend?, who commanded a legion of 14,000 demons, like
himfelf, in the wars of Lanka, as Homerically defcribed
in the Rama-yana. He efpoufed the caufe of Ravena, and
was with his followers dellroyed by Rarr.a.

KHARASM, CiiARASM.or Khurhm, in Geography, a
country of Afia, bordered on the N. by Turkeftan, on the E.
by Great Bucharia, on the S. by Chorafan, or Korafan, and
on the W. by the Cafpian fea ; extending from the Gihon,
or Amu to this fea, and terminating N. and S. in wide de-
ferts. Its chief town is Khiva. This country is about
35'0 miles in length and breadth, and in the time of Zingis,
was a powerful kingdom, including at that time Korafan,
and a part of Great Bucharia. D'Anvil e fuppofcs, that
this country was the Chorafmia of antiquity, and he fup-
pofes Korafan to have been the feat of the Parthians. In
the loth century, Ebn Haukal calls this country Khuarezm,
and fays that the river Gihon flows into the lake of Khu-
arezm, while he terms the Cafpian the fea of Khozr. We
have reafon to believe, that the deferts, probably occafioned
by the decompofition of hills of fand-ftone, have increafed in
Kharafm ; and thefe encroachments may be eftimated from
the hiftorians of Zingis and Timur. At prefent this Hate is
almoft rellriaed to the dillrift of KLnva (which fee), the
circuit of which may be performed on horfeback in three
days ; but there are five walled cities or rather towns within
half a day's journey of each other. The inhabitants are Tur-
comans and Ufteks, bcfides the Sarts, which perhaps is an-
other name for the Tadjiks. The khan is abfolute and al-
together independent of any other power, except the MuUa
Baflii, or high prieft, by whom he is controlled. The
Kievinfki Tartars differ very httle from the Kirgeefe or
Kirgkifcs (whicli fee), btit furpafs them in cunning and
treachery. Tiieir manners are the fame, only that the Ivir-
geefe live in tents, whiUl the others inhabit cities and
villages. Their only trade is with Bokhara and Perfia,
vrhithcr they carry cattle, furs, and hides, all which lliey
have from the Kirgeefe and Turcoman Tartars, who are
«rflen very troublefome neighbours to them. The place
itfelf produces Httle more than cotton, lamb-furs of a very

K H A

mean quality, and a fmall quantity of raw filk, fome
of which they manufafture. Hanway, cited by Pinker-
ton. (See Khiva.) The hiftory of Kharafm has been
well ilhiftrated by its king, or khan, Abulghazi, in his ge-
neral hiftory of the Tartars, written about the year 1660..
See his biographical article.

KHAREJITES, the firft heretical fea among the Ma-
hometans, which revolted from Ali in the 37th year of the
Hegira ; and hence their name, which fi^ni lies " revolters,''
or " rebels." This feft commenced with 12,000 men, who-
abandoned Ali and his caufe, after having fought under
him at the battle of SefFein, taking offence at his fubmitting-
the decifion of his right to the caliphate, which Moawiyah
difputed with him, to ai-bitration, though they themfelves
had firft obliged him to do it. They were alfo called Mo-
hakkemites, or Judiciarians j becaufe the reafon which they
gave for their revolt w'as, that Ali had referred a matter
concerning the religion of God to the judgment of men,
whereas the judgment, in fuch cafe, belonged only to God.
The herefy of the Kliarejites confifted in two particulars j
T'/a. I. That they affirmed a man might be promoted to the
dignity of Imam, or prince, though he was not of the tribe
of Koreifli, nor even a freeman, provided he was a juft and
pious perfon, and endowed with the other requifite quali-
fications, and alfo held,thatthelmam, if he turned alide from
the truth, might be depofed or put to death, and that there
was no abfolute neceffity for any Imam at all in the world.
2. That they charged Ali with fin, for having left an affair
to the judgment of men, which ought to have been deter-
mined by God alone ; and went fo far as to declare him
guilty of infidehty, and to curie him, on that account.
In the following year, iv's. the 3Sth of the Hegira, all
the Kharejites, who perfifted in their rebellion, to the num-
ber of 4000, were cut to pieces by Ali. Nine of them are
faid to have efcaped, two into Oman, two into Kerman,
two into Segeilan, two into Mefopotamia, and one to Tel-
Mawrun ; and to have propagated their herefy in thofe
places, the fame remaining there to this day. The princi-
pal fefts of the Kharejites, befides the Mohakkemites al-
ready mentioned, are fix ; which, differing in other refpefts,
agree in abfolutely rejefting Othman and Ali, preferring
the doing of this to the greateft obedience, and allowing
marriages to be imparted on no other terms ; that they
account thofe who are guilty of grievous fins to be infidels ;
and that they hold it neceffary to refill the Imam when he
tranfgrefTes the law. Sale's Koran, Introd.

KHAT.\NGA, in Geography, a river of RiifTia, that hasits
fource in a lalce in the government of Tobol.'k, about 68 N.
lat. and 110 long ; and in 1 20 long, rulhes into a large bay
of the Frozen ocean, called Khatanlkaia Guba. Tins river
purfues the greateft part of its courfe through a low and
very marlhy country ; and the molt confiderable rivers which
add to its waters are the Kheta and the Potigan.

KHATOUN-SER.AI, a town of Aiiatic Turkey, in
Caramania ; 12 miles S. of Cogni.

KHAUAR, or Cheveu, a townof Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Irak, feated on a mountain, which terminates the
province of Irak towards Mazanderan, and gives name to a
pafs, called the Strait of Khauar ; 2co miles N. of If-
pahan.

KHAUASH, a town of Perfia, in Segeftan ; 18 miles
N.ofZareng.

K HAUL .AN, a fmall diftrift of Arabia, in the province
of Yemen ; a few leagues S.E. of Sana. It is governed by
an independent fcheick, the reprefentative of a veiy an-
cient family ; who ordinarily refides at Beit Rodsje, a fmall
town in his own dominions. Several places which once be-
longed

K II I

K II O

riff'i

longed to the prince of Kliaulan have been gradually an- hijjher than the houfes, with turrets at feifll diflances, and
iiex.-d to the dominions of the Imam. — Alfo, a fmall dilliift a broad deep ditch full of water. It occupies a confidcr-
oi" Arabia, lyinj; among the niountains weftvvard from Saade, able fpace, and commands a pKafant profpcd of the adjacent
days journey from plains, which the iiiduftry of the natives has rendered very
fertile; but the houfes are low, moilly built with mud, the
roofs flat, and covered with earth. Tlie city of Urghenz,
which was formerly the capital of Kharafir, is now in ruins,
with only a mofquc remaining. The mofl fouthern town in
the dominions of Khiva is Az^irift, or Hazarafp, which
adjoins to the great defart, called Karakum, which fee.
Khiva is faid to itand at the dii'ance of 17 days from the
Cafpian fea, and from Orenburg ^^, computing the day's
journey at 40 verlls ; equal, by Hanway's account, to 17
Britilh miles ; fo that the diftance of Khiva from the C;if-
pian would be 459 Britiih miles, while our maps fcarcely
„n .- T_ .•„_ 1.1 _r i.-i ■ _ n- I 1 , '

the road from Sana to Mecca, ft
Hall, the extreme city upon that fide of the fli
tory. It has an independent fcheick.

KH.AZARES, the name of a bold and powerful Turk-
i(h tribe, which liril occupied the ilUimus of Caucafus be-
tween the Cafpian and the fea of Azof. In the feventh
century they began to be famous, and till towards the mid-
dle of the ninth century their ftate was increafinjf and flou-
rilhing. About that time the empire of the Khazares ex-
tended from the Volga and the C^.fpian, acrofs the Cauca-
fian illhmus, the pcniiifula of the Krimea, and what is now
the fouth of RuiSa, as far as to Moldavia and Walachia; and

feveral Slavonian tribes, particularly the Pohanes about allow 300. In 1739, the khan of Khiva aflcmbled an army
Kief and on the Dnieper, the Severans, on the rivers Defna, of 20,000 men, to ojipofe Nadir ; but the city furrendercd
Sem, and Sula, the Viatitfches on the Oka, and the Ri.di- at dilcretion. According to the informati n of Pallas, the
mitfches on the Soiha, were tributary to them. But after people of Khiva bring to Orenburg confiderable quantities
tlie year 862, three nations effected their downfal ; ii'iz. the of raw cotton. But the coalts of the Cafpian are held by
Rufhans, the Petfchenegrans, and the Uzes. The Varagian fome remains ef Turcomans in the north, and by Ufbeks in
or Ruffian leaders, OIkold and Dir, raviihed from them the the fouth. A more confiderable trade is maintained wi;h
dominion over the Polianes ; Oleg, in 884, reduced the Se-
verans and the Radimitfches to his authority. His fucceffor,
in 964, conquered the territory of the Viatitfches and the
rine Khazarian countries on the illhmus of Caucafus. The
Khazares loil the refidue of their dominion about 1016,
to the combined forces of the Ruffians and Romans of the
eaft. The nation, indeed, continued for fome time longer,
but they were fubmiifive and tributary to the Ruffians.
Tooke"s Ruff. Emp. vol. i.

KHAZINE, the grand feignior's treafury. See Trea-
sury, and ExcHEQVKK.

Here are kept regiilers of receipts, accounts of provinces,
in drawers, marked with the years, and the places' names :
here is alfo kept part of the emperors wardrobe.

Everj' day of the divan tiiis tieafury is opened, either to
take out, or put lometliing in ; and the principal officers,
who have the charge of it, are all to afful at this opening.
The tchaouch-bachi, in their prefcnce, firft breaks the wax
with which the key-hole had been fealed up, and carrying it
to the grand vizir, that minifter full kiffes it, and then draws
out of his bofom the grand fcignior's gold feal. In the mean
time he looks narrowly after the officer, who, when he has
done liis bufinefs in the treafury, locks and feals up the
place,- and returns the feal to the vizir with the fame cere-
mony as before.

Befides this, there are other apartments for the money,
where the officers are never allowed to enter with any clothes
that have pockets in them.

KHEIR, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan, in the
countrj' of Vifiapoiir ; 18 miles N. of Poonah.

KHEIVAN, a town of Arabia, in a diftrift of the fame
name, in the extenfive country of Hafchid-u-Bekil, is re-
markable for having been the feat, firll of the Hamjare mo-
narchs, and afterwards of the Imams. Ruins of a very an-
cient palace are iiili to be feen there.

MangvfAak, which fee. As the merchants of Khiva
brought gold and gems to Aftrachan, probably from the
two Bucharias, an idea was fuggefted to Peter the Great,
that thefe precious produds were fotind in Kharafm, in cor-
fequence of which he attempted a fettlement. But the Ruf-
fians, to the number of 3000, advancing under the command
of a Circafhan prince, called Beckawitz, towards Khiva,
were all cut off by the U(bi-ks. Upon this occafian, as it
has been faid, thefe Tartars changed the courfe of the Khefel
or Kczil, which formerly fell into the Cafpian ; but as this
river is isn the E. of the Gihon, it is clear that it could
not pafsthat river to join the Cafpian ; and in the loth cen-
tury the Gihon is known to have flowed into the Aral. It
is_not improbable that, before the deferts encroached on
Kharalm, one or two rivers might have run to the Qaf-
pian from the eaft ; or perhaps tliefc fables may have arifen
from one or two fmall branches of the Amu having joined
that fea. Pinkerton. Khiva is 260 miles N.W. of Sa-
marcand. N. lat. 41'' 7,0'. E. long. jS' 25'.

KHILLI, a cape on the N.E. coaff of the ifland of
Negropont. N. lat. 38 36'. E. long. 24 4'.

KHILLIS, a town of Syria, governed by an Aga;
which, fome years ago, was created into a pachalic, to" rc-
flrain the Arabs ; but the. pacha being defeated, it was
again put under an Aga. It is filuatcd at the foot of
Mount Taurus, and is a celebrated market for cotton ; :S
miles N N.W. of Aleppo.

KHIRTIPOOR, a town of Nepaul, the rcduflion of
wliich coif the conqueror fo much trouble, that in refent-
ment of the refiftance made by the inhabitants, he cut off all
the men's nofes. Col. Kirkpatrick, at the diftance oi i\
years, was reminded of this aft of barbarity, by obfcrving
that a great proportion of the people appointed to tranfporL
his baggage acrofs the hills were deprived of their nofes.
To perpetuate this exploit, the fovereign ordered the name
KHEMLASA, a large walltd town of Hindooflan, of tlie place to be changed to Nalkatapoor, which fignifies

adjoining to which is a fort, built upon a hill. It belongs
to the diitrict of Sagur, which is diltant about 17 cofs to
the fouth eailward.

KHIEBAR, or Keibar. See Hedjas.

KHIEVA, or Khiva, a diftrid of Kharasm, which
fee. — Alfo, the capital of this diiirid and of Kharafm, fitu-
ated on a rifing ground, W. of the river Gihon, and having

the town of m.en without nofes.'

KHONDEMIR, in Biography, a celebrated Perfian
hiftorian, who obtained the patronage of the emir Ali Sliir,
a lover and proteiitor of men of letters, whom he infpircd with
a paffion for his own favourite purfuit, and with the defire
of forming a coUedlion of the principal writers in this clafs
of fcience. The great objecl which Khonderair had in view.

three gates, and a very thick, Itrong wall of earth, much was to facilitate the fludy of. hi.ftory by drawing it up in a

5 B 2 more

K I A

more methodical manner, than had been done by other
writers, and the refult of his labours was a judicious com-
pendium of oriental hiftory from the creation of the world to
the year 875 of the Hegira, under the title of " Kheladat
Alakhar li Veian Ahual Ahlchiar," that is, " A faitliful
and correcl Summary of nhat is valuable and interefting in
the moft authentic and genuine Hillories."

KHORASAN, Korasax, Chorafan, or Cora/an, in
Geography, a province of Perlia, fituated in the N.E , and
hounded on the N. by Kharafm, on the E. by Buchari? and
Candahar, on the N.E. by the river Gihon or Oxus, on the
S. by the lake of Zurrah, or Dnrrah, and Segeilan, and on
the W. by the provmce of Mazanderan and the Cafpian fea.
This province comprehends the ancient countries of Mar-
giana N. and Ariana S. Its length is elliraated at 450 miles,
and its breadth at 420. This country was comprehended
within the dominions of Tnnur Bee, who conquered it in
I :?96, and granted it to his fon Mirza Charoc, togetlier with
Mszanderan and Segcftan. Its capital is Herat.

KHORFAKAN, a i'ea-port of Arabia, in the province
of Oman, iituated in tlie bottom of a bay of the Arabian
gulf, which is only open to the eaft. On the S.E. fide is
a harbour for boats. The town is now in a reduced Hate,
confuting mollly of fnliermen's huts, with few houfes of
ilone. N. lat. 2j" 15'. E. long. 56' 14'.

KHORREiMABAD, or Curremabad, a town of
Perfia, in the province of Irak, fituated on a river which
runs into the Karafu ; 200 miles W.N.W. of Ifpahan. N.
lat. 34- -35'. E. long. 4S 5'.

KHOSCIAH, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Heds'ias ; 26 miles S.W. of Medina.

KHOUD, a town of Hindoollan, in OrilTa ; 55 miles
S. of Koonjoor.

KHUNTIJANT, atown of Hmdooftan, in Guzerat ;
20 miles N. of Surat.

KIA, a town on the E. coaft of the ifland of Gilolo.
KIAB, a town of Perfia, in the province of Chufiftan,
on the Karafu ; 120 miles N. of Baflbra. N. lat. 32 50'.
E. h'Ug. 47 40'. — A)fo, an Arabian tribe, called alfo by
the Perfians " Psjeb," who inhabit the furthell point upon
the fide of the Perfian gulf. The territory of this tribe
extends from the defert of Arabia to the country of tlie
Hindian, and northward to the principality of Havifa. It
is Wdtered by feveral rivers, large and fmall. It abounds in
dates, rice, grain, and pallure. Its principal cities are
Dameh, lying within Perfii, Hafar, and Ghoban, the feat
of a fcheick, near one of the mouths of the Euphrates.

KIA-KING, a city of the firft rank in China, in the
province of Tche-kiang. This city is large and populous,
and carries on a good trade; its fuburbs are extenfive, and
ovL-r the canals and ditches are feveral bridges, and these is
not a houfe in the town, in which iilk-worms are not bred.
C'.mals are cut through all parts of the town ; and its ftreets
are ornamented with beautiful piazzas, which {belter palTen-
gers from the fun and rain. There are many triumphal
arches within and without the city, and 15 marble towers on
the fides of the canal that lies to the welt of the city, by
which all the barks pafs. Seven cities of the third clafs
iire dependant upon it. N. lat. 30^'' 50'. E. long, i 20" 14'.
KI A KILUMA, one of the fmall Japancfe illands. N.
lat 29 50'. E. long 132^ 12'.

KIAKTA, or KiAciiTA, a town of RutTia, in the go-
Tcrnment of Irkutfk, fituated on a fmall nver which runs
into the Seliiiga : one of the places open, between the courts
of Peking and Peterfburg, to private trade between the
fubjefts of both nations ; the other is Tzuruchatu, or Zu-

K I A

ruchaitu, on the Argunia ; according to a treaty, fettled at
Kiakta, in 1728. In 1762, the emprefs abolilhcd the im-
perial monopoly, and laid the fur trade open ; fince which
time, no caravans have been fent to Peking, and Kiakta is
become the centre of the Ruffian and Chinefe com::ierce ;
60 miles S. of Selengiaflc. (Coxe's Ruffian Difcoveries,
p. 220.) Kiakta contains about 150 houfes, ii. habited folely
by merchants and comminaries. Oppofite to it, about 1 20
yards diftant, lies the Chinefe village of Maimatfchin, con-
taining about 200 houfes. Kiakta is reckoned the third
trading city in Ruffia, and (lands 49S verfts S. of Irkutllc,
and 1532 from Peking, on a fmall Itream of the fame name.
The following goods are exported free of duty ; ■viz. all
forts of paper. Ruffian cloth (except the common cloth
ufed by poafants), and fpirits diftilled from fruits. Goods
imported, which are duty free, are raw and dyed wools,
glafs-coral, falfe pearls, white lead, fans, fevnng needles,
printed cottons, ginger, confeftionary, rice, toys, mufical
and other inllruments, porcelain, earthen ware, lacquered
and enamelled goods, furniture, and ornamental articles. The
exportation of arms, warhke (lores, powder and lead, fpecie,
gold and filver in ingots, flallions and mares, hides, beaver-
hair, pot-alh, refin, and hemp-yarn, is prohibited ; as is alfo
the importation o( fait, fpirits, poifon^, and copper coin.
Since the year 1754, the merchants of European Ruffia,
who traded with Kiakta, were allowed, on account of the
diliance, to pay the duties there by giving drafts. An order
in 1 7()4, extended this privilege to the Siberian merchants
iikewife, under the following conditions ; the drafts muft be
given on Irkutlk, Tobolilc, Mofcow, or Peteriburgh, and
made payable there. Nine months' payment was allowed,
but 10 per cent, per annum were claimed by the crown for
this allowance. The drafts muft be drawn according to
a particular form, and guaranteed. The mod important
articles of trade are peltry, partly imported to Peterf-
burgh from North America, particularly Canada, Ruffian
manufactures, •viz. hides, leather, coarfe cloth, Ruffia lea-
ther, Mufcovlan woollens and filks, liren, metal and glafs
wares, and ilinglafs ; provifions, ■ul-z. (heep and cattle, fait
meat, &c. and tallow and glue, foreign iiianufadlures, par-
ticularly fine cloths. The principal articles imported, are
fine filver in ftamped bars ; raw and wrought filk ; raw and
manufaftured wool ; tea ; rhubarb, porcelain, tobacco, pro-
vifions and preferved fruits. The manner of condiidiing
the commerce of Kiakta is as follows. Barter is the grand
medium. The Chinefe come to the Rufiian warehoufes,
where the famples are laid out, previoully to make their
affortments. Bargains are often (Iruck on the fpot, but ge-
nerally the Chinefe go to the merchants' houfes to fettle
their biifinefs. At firft the Ruffians ftate wiiat Chinefe
goods they will take in exchange ; then the price is accu-
rately fixed by both parties ; and when they arc agreed,
they return to the warehoule, where the Chinefe puts his
feal on the bales, and fometimes on the whole ftock. Then
the Ruffian goes to the Chinefe, examines the goods which
he is to receive in exchange, and if they anfwer thecontraft
the barter is concluded. For the conveyance of this mer-
chandize the Chinefe moftly ufe camels, but fometimes two-
wheeled carts. Wlien the caravans crofs tlie defert in «iii-
ter, they carry with them tents made of felt ; but in dim-
mer they have balagans, made of reeds, which fold up
and are put into a cafe. When the balagans are fixed, and
covered with fail-cloth, two perfons can deep :n one of them
very commodioufly. All the Chinefe who trade to Kiakta
underftand the Mogul language, which is alfo fpoken by
the Ruffian merchants.

The

K I A

The flate of the trade at Kiakta, from i ■
.■as as follows :

Imports - - 2,3:46,8:5 ruble

Exports - - 2,54^,785

Total

5,090,610

Zuruchaitii, another mart of the Ruflian and Chinefe trade,
though much inferior to Kiakta, is featcd on the river Ar-
gun, and lies 1326 verfts e?.il of Irkutfk. When tlu; Mo-
gul troops are quartered on the frontiers during the fum-
mer, this place carries on a trifling bartering trade in arti-
cles of primary neceflity, vhich arc not worth the detail,
as the trade is funk almoft to nothing. From 1793, ^°
1797, the imports and exports amounted only to 724 rubles ;
whereas from 1773, to 1777, they amounted to 29$^-
rubles.

KIAI,F.K, a town of Pcrfia, in Adirbcitzan ; 50 miles
N.'W. of Urmia.

KIAM, atown of Egypt, on the right bank of the Nile;
QO miles S. of Girge.

KIANGARI, a town of Natolia, and chief place of
a fanwiacate, defended by a catUe on a rock ; 25'6 miles
E.S.E. of Conftantinople. N. lat. 39- 54'. E. long. 34^

KIANG-NAN, a province of China, reckoned to be
the moft fertile, commercial, and opulent in the whole em-
pire. It is bounded on the W. by the provinces of Honan
and Houquang ; on the S. by Tche-kiang and Kiang-fi ; on
the E by the gulf of Nan-king; the reft borders on the
province of Chan-tong. The emperors long kept their
courts in this province ; but they have fince made choice of
Peking, becaufe it is nearer to Tartary. This province is
of vaft extent, and contains 14 cities of the firft clafs, and
g^ of the fecond and third Thefe cities are very populous,
and places of trade. Large barks can go to them from all
places, becaufe the whole country is interfered by lakes,
rivers, and canals, which have a communication with the great
river Yang-tfe-kiang, or Kian-kou, which runs through the
middle of the province. Silk iluffr,, lacquer-ware, ink,
paper, and, in general, every thing that comes from Nan-
king, as well as from the other cities of the province, are
much more elleemed, and fetch a higher price, than thofe
brought from the neighbouring provinces. In the village of
Chang-hai alone, and the villages dependent upon it, there
are reckoned to be more than 200,000 weavers, of common
cotton cloths. Tiie manufaclure of thefe affords employ-
ment to the greater number of the v/omop. In feveral
places on the fca-coaft there are found many fait pits, from
which fait is dillributcd over the whole empire. Upon the
whole, this province is fo abundant and fo opulent, that it
brings every vear into the king's treafury about 32,000,000
taels, a tael being e<|ual to an ounce of filver, worth, in
China, about fix fliillings llerling ; exclufive of the duties
upon exports and imports. The inhabitants, who, according
to the eilimate of fir George Staunton, amount to 32
millions, are ingenious and docile ; and hence many of them
become eminent in literature, and rife by their abilities to
offices of importance. This province is divided into two
parts, each of which has a dilHnft governor. The governor
of the eaflern part rclides at Sou-tcheou, that of the wef-
tern at Nan-king, which is the capital of the province,
Grofier.

KIANG-NING. See Nan-king.
KIAN-FE, or Tciii.\s(i if., a town of Thibet, near
a river which runs into the Sanpoo. It is reprefentcd as a
fine city with a fortrefs, and a convent, fo cxtcnfne, as to
3

K I A

, have the appearance of another cily ; 25 miles S.W. of
LafTa. N. lat. 29" 58'. E. long. 90 4'.

KIAN-KU, Ki.\M, Kian^, or Tang-lfe-l'iansy one of the
two great rivers of China, (the other bemg Iloan-ho, or
Hoimg, wliich fee,) rifes in the vicinity of the fources of the
Hoan-ho ; but according to the received accounts and maps
about 200 miles further to the well, and winds nearly as far
to the fouth as the Hoan-ho does to the north. After
wafhmg the walls of Nan-king, it enters the fea aboi^t 100
miles to the fouth of the Hoan-ho. The Kian-ku if. known
by various names through its long progrefs ; and near i's
fource is called by the Eluts Porticlio or Petchou : the
courfe is about equal to that of the former, thefe two rivers
being conlidered as the longeil on the face of the globe :
they certainly equal, if they do not exceed, the famous river
of the Amazons in S(juth America, and the majcllic courfe of
the Ganges does not extend half the lenjjth. In the late
embaffy of lord Macartney, the length of the Kian-ku is
eftimated at about 2200 miles ; and it is obferved, that thefe
two Chinefe rivers, taking their fources from the fame moun-
tains, and paffing almoft clofe to each other, in a particular
fpot, afterwards feparate from each other to the diftance of
ly of latitude, or about lojo Britilh miles ; and finally dif-
charge themfelves into the lame fea, comprehending a tract
of land of about 1000 miles in length, wliich tl.ey greatly
contribute to fertilize. To thefe great rivers many import-
ant ftreams are tributary. Pinkerlon.

KIANG-SI, a province of China, bounded on the N.
by that of Kiang-nan, on the \V. by Hou-quang, on the S.
by Quang-tong, and on the E. by Fo-kien and Tche-kiang.
The country is very fertile, but it is fo populous, that it can
fearcely fupply the wants of its inhabitants. The moun-
tains of this province are covered with medicinal plants and
trees, and contain in their bowels mines of gold, filver, lead,
iron, and tin. The rice of this country is'delicate, and ic-
veral barks are loaded with it every year for the court.
The porcelain, made principally at King-tc-ch«ig in thi.i
province, is the fincft and moft v.Juable of the empire ; and
the wine made from this rice is reckoned delicious by the
Chinefe. The river Kan-kiang divides the whole pruvince
into two parts; and it contains 13 cities of the firft clafs,
and 78 of the fecond and third. I'he capital is Nan-tciiang.
The population of the province, according to fir George
Staunton's ftatement, is 19,000,000.

KIAO-KE, a town of Corea ; 72 miles W. of King,
ki-tao.

KI AO-TAO, a fmall idand of China, in the Hoan-ho,
or Yellow river, near the coaft of Corea. N. lat. 38' 13'.
E. long. 124- 2 j'.

KIARE, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ; 3c
miles S.VV of Cafom.

KIA-TCHUEN, a town of Corea; 27 miles S.S.W.
of Sing-tcheou.

KIA-TING, a city of China, of the fecond clafe, in the
province of Se-tchuen, on the river Yang : great quantity
of mufl< is collcdicd in the environs of this cily. N, lat
29'-' 29'. E. long. 103 30'.

KIAUTEN, a town of PrufGau LithuanLi, fituated in a
mountainous country, with an iron foundery, and a large
manufafture of paper.

KIAYA-BEY, an officer in the Ottom.in empire, who
is the iKutenant of the vifir, and momentarily difcharges
his functions when the latter happens to die. All aftairs
pafs through his hands before they arrive at the vifir, and all
orders emanating from the Porte receive their executioft
through the impulfe of the kiaya-bey. He is appointed by
ihe grand fignior, oa the prcfentation of the vifir. He

K I D

IS generally involved in the difgrace of his principal, and if
he do not lofe his head as frequently as the other, his for-
tune always, in that cafe, runs tiie greateft rifle. Although
he has no military rank, it may be faid that he occupies the
fecond adminiftrative place in the empire, conliderin^ the
importance and multiphcity of his funftions. If the fultan
be diflatisfied with his fervices, he receives, on quitting his
office, the dignity of fimple vifir, or pacha with three tails.
It feldom happens that he is given only the two tails when
he is fent to govern a province. See Bev.

KIBBIED, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Bornou ;
150 miles S.E. of Bornou. 'N. lat. 18' 23'. E. long. 24" 16'.

KIBES. See CiiiLCLAix.

KIBITKA, 2 travelling carriage in Ruffia, which is a
fmall cart capable of contaming two perfons abreaft, while
the driver fits on the farther extremity clofe to the horles'
tails. It is about five feet in length, and the hinder half is
covered with a femi-circular tilt, open in front like the top
of a cradle, made of laths, interwoven and covered with birch
or beech-bark. There is not a piece of iron in the whole
machine. It has no fprings, and is faftened by means of
wooden pins, ropes, and fticks to the body of the carriage.
The Ruffians, when they travel in thefe kibitkas, place a
feather-bed in the bottom, admirably calculated to break the
intolerable jolts and concuffioiis occafioned by the uneven
timber roads. With this precaution, a kibitka, though in-
ferior in iplendour, equals in comfort the mod commodious
vehicle. Tlie traveller llretches himfelf at length upon the
feather-bed; and, if inclined, may dofe away the journey
in perfcft tranquillity.

KIBOLA, in Geography, a town of Mingreha ; 35 miles
S.E. of Anarjjhia.

KICKAPOO, a town of America, in the Weftern ter-
ritory. N. lat. 40" 20'. W. long. 87" 10'.

KICKAPOUS, an Indian nation, whofe different tribes
inhabit near the entrance of lake Superior, where, fome years
ao-o, they had 400 warriors ; fome refide at lake Michigan,
and between that and the Miffifippi, near the Outtagomies,
&c. ; and another tribe near the Piankefhaws, and on the
Wabafh and its branches. The Kickapout and Kalkadiias,
two Indian nations lately hoftile, ceded lands to the United
States at the treaty of Greenville, Aug. 3, 1795. ^'^^ ^-**"

KASKIAS.

KICKEMNIT, a river of America, being the north-
weftern arm of Mount Hope bay ; about two miles long,
and half a mile broad. North-weft of it hes the town of
Warren, in the ftate of Rhode ifland.

KICKER, in ylgricuhure, a term applied to fuch horfes
as have the habit of kicking : this Ihoiild be particularly
CTuarded againft in the rearing and managing of young
horfes, efpecially thofe intended for team labour.

Kicker againft the Spurs, in the Manege. See Ra-
WINGLE. •

KICKTOOL, in Geography, a town of Eaft Greenland.
N. lat. 61^ 15'. W. long. 45' f'.

KICYDANI, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wilna; 4S miles N N.\y. of Troki.

KID, a fmall idand near the weftern coaft of Ireland, a
little N. of Broadhaven ; 3 miles S.W. of Browy Head.

Kid, a name apphed to the young of the goat kmd. See
Goat.

Kid, in Rural Economy, a fmall faggot of under, or brufti-
wood.

KID ARNAUT, in Geography, a town of Thibet ; 100
miles N. of Sirinagur. N. lat. 32'' 4'. E. long. 79'' 12'.

KIDDER, Richard, in Biography, a learned Englifh
prelate, of whofe earlj life no account has come down to

K I D

us. In the year 1649, ^^ ^^^ f^"* '° Emanuel college,
Cambridge, where he took his degrees. Two years after-
wards, he was incorporated at the univerJity of Oxford.
He was prefented by his college to the vicar.ige of Stan-
ground, in Huntingdonftiire, from which he was ejetted for
non-conformity, under the Bartholomew Acl, in 1662.
Either the fear of fuffering, or fome other motive, foon
brought him back to the bofom of the church, and lie was,
in 1664, prefented by the earl of Effex to the rqdlory of
Raine. Here he continued about ten years, efteemed by
his connexions, and in high reputation for learning, particu-
larly for his exienfive and deep knowledge of the oriental
languages. In 1674, he became rector in the melrofiohs,
and, in i68l, he obtained a prebendaryin the cathedralchurch
of Norwich, which was fucceeded by his nomination to the
deanery of P-^-terborough in the year 1689. About this
period he took his degree of D. D. and in 1691 he was con-
fecrated bilhop of Bath and Wells. In 1693, he preached
the lefture founded by Mr. Boyle, and afterwards inferted
his fernions on that occafion in his " Demonftration of the
Meffias," of winch work they conftitute the firft three
chapters in the fecond part. The biihop continued his la-
bours as an author till he was unhappily killed in his bed,
together with his lady, by the fall of a ftack of cliimnies in
his palace at Wells, during the great ttcrm in the night of
Nov. 26^h, 1703. He was efteemed one of the heft divines
in his time. His largeft work, next to that already men-
tioned, was "A Commentary on the Five Books of Mofes,
with a Diflertation concerning the Author or Writer of
thofc Books, &c." in 2 vols. 8vo. Bifltop Kidder was
author of " The Life of Dr. Anthony Horneck," 1698 :
" Critical Remarks upon fome difficult Pailages of Scrip-
ture in a Letter to Sir Peter King," 1719, a pofthumous
publication ; feveral practical treatifts ; tracts on the Popifti
controverfv, Sec. Biog.Brit.

KIDDERlNIINSTER, in Domefday Book written
Chideminjler, in Geography, a market town and parifh in the
hundred of Halfftiire, and county of Worcefter, England,
is feated on the river Stour, at the diftance of 1 3 miles of
Worcefter, and 126 N.W. of London. In the year. 1800,
the town contained 1695 houfes, and 8036 inhabitants,
the majority of whom were dependant on, or connefted
with, the manufactures of the place. In the time of king
Henry VIII. Kidderminfter was noted for its manufaftures,
lirft of broad clo;hs, afterwards of wolfeys, and fubfequently
of bombafine-S crapes, and poplins. But early in the laft
century the carpet bulinefs was introduced here, and has
been continued, with increafing fuccefs, up to the prefcnt
time. In the year 1772, the town and its fnburbs contained
no lefs than 2^0 looms, and fince that time a larger number
has been employed. At lirit, the carpets made here were of the
Scotch and flat fpecies; but foon the cut carpets were invent-
ed, and this kind has fince continued to be the diftinguiftied
clafs of Kidderminfter. By fundry charters from Henry II.,
Richard II., Henry VI,, and Henry VIII., the inhabitants
are granted an exemption from toll, pontage, and murage
throughout the whole kingdom ; all thefe privileges are
alfo confirmed by a charter from queen Elizabeth. In this
town tlie lord of the manor, or his deputy, occafionally
holds a court-leet, principally for the prevention of encroach-
ments and public nuifanccs ; here is alfo a court of requeft
for recovery of debts under forty ftiillings. No county-
juftice has a right to exercife any judicial authority in this
town, which is governed by a recorder and bailiff ; the
latter is annually eleiiled by his brother aldermen, twelve in
number, with the concurrence of twenty-five common-coun-
cil-mcn, who coUeftively are enabled by charter 1 2 Cliailes I.

K. I D

to make bye-lawS for tlic government of the body-corporate
and the trade of the town. It formerly fent members to
parliament. A market is held on Tliurfdays for all forts
of grain ; but this article is now chiefly difpofed of by fam-
ple : here are four annual fairs. The church, a large tlruc-
ture of great antiquity, is capable of containing more than
two thoufand perfons. In the choir are feveral ancient mo-
muments belonging to the Bounts and Cookcfcys ; alfo a
crofs-legged effigy of the late fir Thomas Afton. The
tower is a llrong and lofty pile. The grammar-fchoo!, to
which all the inhabitants have the privilege of fending their
children free of expence, is at the eail end of the choir of the
church : the preceptors, one dcfcribed in the charter as the
high, the other as the low mafter, are elefted by certain
feoffees, to wliich the confent of the bifliop is always necef-
fary : their annual ftipend, upwards of 150/., ariVcs from
buildings and lands with which the fchool is endowed.
The town-hall, which is principally conftruftcd of brick,
is roomy and elegant : a portion of the lower part is ufed
as a priibn, but to the credit of the town, it is very rarely
occupied : on what is called the ground-floor are eredled
ftalls for the butchers : and, above is the council- chamber
for tranfacting the bufinefs of the corporation. Kidder-
minfter, by the late inland navigation, has communication,
by the jundion of the Severn canal, with the rivers Merfey,
Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber,
Thames, Avon, &c. ; which navigation, including its wind-
ings, extends above five hundred m:les. The river Stour rifes
in the celebrated groves of the Leafowes, near Hales Owen,
diftant from hence about twelve miles, and after forming a
large refervoir at a village called Cradely, proceeds through
Stourbridge, Kinver, and Wolverley, and enters Kiddermin-
fter on the north fide, tracing nearly its whole length, and
thereby dividing it into two unequal parts. Over this little
river, whofe length is not more than twenty miles, part of
which was once navigable, are now erefted a great number of
forges, flitting-mills, corn-mills, and other works of confider-
able utility : and to the fitnefs of its waters to the purpofe of
dyeing is attributed, in a confiderable degree, the unequalled
luftre of the colours of the yarn ufed in the feveral branches
of the weaving manufuftory here, which, on this account, is
juftly efteemed an inexhauftible fource of wealth to the in-
habitants. The Staffordihire and Worceftedhire canal, com-
pleted in the year 1774. at the expence of 105,6)00/., crofles
the Stour within one hundred yards from Kidderminller
market-place. In this town are three refpeclable reading
focieties for cultivating the ta(te of the wealthier inhabitants ;
and the inllruction of the poor is not forgotten ; for, ex-
clufive of feveral Sunday fchools, no lefs than eight charity
fchools are eftabliflied. Here are alfo twelve alms-houfes, and
other charitable endowments. At Roui:d-!iill, in this town, is
a chalybeate fpring of great medicinal virtues ; and in the vi-
cinity are feveral others, of which that at Sandburn is the
llrongeft. Britifh Direftory, vol. iii. ' The name of Baxter
was long held in veneration in this toyn. See liis article.

KIDDERS, thofe that badge or carry corn, dead vic-
tuals, or other mcrchandife, up and down to fell : every
perfon being a common badger, kidder, lader, or carrier,
&c. fays the ftat. 5 Eliz. cap. 12. And they arc called
kiddicrs, 13 Eliz. cap. 25.

KIDDLE, or KiDEi., Kidellus, a dam or weir in a river,
with a narrow cut in it, for the laying of pots, or other
engines to catch fifli.

The word is ancient ; for in Magna Charta, cap 24. we
read, " omnes kidelli depnnantur per Thamefiam & Med-
weyam & per totam Angliam, nifi per cofleram maris."
And by kiug John's charter, power was gianted to the city

K I D

of London," de kidcllis amovendis per Thamefiam & Med-
weyam.'' A furvey was ordered to be made of the weirs,
mills, Hanks, and kide'ls, in the great rivers of England,
( 1 Hen. IV.) Fifliermen of late corruptly call thcfe dams
kettles ; and they are much ufed in Wales, and on the fea-
coalls of Kent.

KIDDOW, in Ornithology, the mod common Engliih
name of the lomwia, a web-footed bird, common on our
fliores, and called in different places the guillemot, or guillem,
and the fea-hcn and ikout. See Coi.YMnt'.sV/W^.

KIDED, in ylgricullure, a term provincially applied to
the pods of beans.

KIDELIA, in Geography, a town of RufTia, in the go-
vernment of Viborg, on the N. coaft of lake Ladoga ; 48
miles N.N.E. of Kexholm.

KIDEROW, in Rural Economy, a term that fignilies a
place for keeping a fucking-calf in.

KIDESjin Geograpliy, a town of Sweden, in the govern-
ment of Kuopio ; 83 miles S.E. of Kuo];io.

KIDGE, a fortified town of Perfia, in the province of
Mekran. N. lat. 26*^ 30'. E. long. 61° 10'.

KIDN.\PPERS, C.\PE, a cape on the E. coafl of New
Zealand, difcovered in 1769, and thus named by captain
Cook, from an attempt made hy the inliabitants to carry a
boy from the Endeavour. It is remarkable for two white
rocks like hay-llacks, and high while cliffs on each (ide. S.
lat. 39° 4^. W. lonjT. 182"^ 24'.

KIDN-iPPING, in Laiv, is the offence of a forcible
abduftion or flealing away of a man, woman, or child, frora
their own country, and fending them into another. This
offence was capital by the Jcwifli law. (Exod. xxi. t6.)
So likewife in the civil law, the offence of fpiriting away
and flealing men and children, which was callled " plagium,"
and the offenders " plagiarii," was puniflied with death.
(Ff. 4S. 151.) This is unqueflionabiy a heinous crime, as
it robs the king of his fubjetts, banirties a man from his
country, and may in its confequences be produ6kive of the
mofl cruel and difagreeable hardfhips ; and, therefore, the
common law of England has punifhed it with fine, imprii
fonment, and pillory. (Raym. 474. 2 Show. 221 Skin 47.
Comb. 10 ) Alfo, if a mailer of a fliip (hall, during his
being abroad, force any perfon afhore, or wilfully leave him
behind, or refufe to bring home all fuch men as he earned
out, if able and defirous to return, he (hall fufter three
months imprifonment. 11 & I3 W. III. c. 7.

KIDNEY, in Anatomy, a glandular body, fituatcd in the
abdomen, and fecrcling the urine.

The urinary apparatus confills of two fecretory organs
(the right and left kidnies), by which the urinary fluid is
feparated from the blood ; of two membranous tubes ^the
ureters) by which this fluid is conveyed into a large muf-
culo-membranoas refervoir (the urinary bladder) ; and of a
canal (the urethra) by which this refervoir is evacuated at
various intervals. The latter conveys the feminnl fluid alfo
in the male fubjed, and is therefore dcfcribed in the article
Gkneration. The different arrangement and conforma-
tion of the female generative organs occafion the ure.hra
to affume a very different form ; it is here entirely uncon-
nected with the generative functions, and we (liall therefore
dcfcribe it in the prcfent article with the bladder.

The cffential parts of the urinary apparatus corrcfpond
nearly to thofe of the biliary organs ; but there are fomc
remarkable differences. The liver is always a fiugle organ.
There are almoft conflantly two kidnies. The prf.portions
of .the fecretory organ and the refervoir arc invcrfe in the
two cafes : the liver is fo large as tp exceed probably all
the other glands in the body put together : the gall-bladd.-r

KIDNEY.

is comparatively fmull : in the other cafe, the capacity of
the refervuir coiifiderably exceeds the fize of the glandular
organs. A part only of the bile pafTes into the gall-bladder,
the remainder flowing directly into the duodenum ; and this
fecretion fce'.ns not to be very aCli%e in the intervals of the
digellive proccfs. The kidnies, on the contrary, are always
aclive, and the whole of the fluid which they feparate
paffes into the urinary bladder.

Two fmail bodies, placed near the kidnies, and called the
renal capfules, receive their veflels for the mod part from
the renal : we (hall therefore unite their defcription with
that of the kidnies.

The kidnies are placed deeply in the lumbar regions,
at the fides of the vertebral column. They are ufualiy
two, a right and a left ; but the number is expofed to
occafional unimportant variations. Sometimes the two are
united by their upper or lower extremities, fo as to form
a crefcent, with the concavity upwards or downwards,
fomething like the figure of a horfe-(hoe, from which the
gland, in thefe cafes, is fonietimes named : or, there may
be an unulually large one on either fide, with two ureters,
and a deficiency of the oppofite gland : or, a fmall fuper-
numerary kidney on the front of the vertebral column.
Other deviations from the accuftomed ftrudlure have been
regiftered by anatomiils ; but all thefe varieties are unim-
portant in phyfiology.

They are furruunded by a large quantity of fat, of a
peculiar fl;rufture and properties. This fubfi:ance is con-
tained in a loofe and eafily lacerable ctlhilar texture, which
connefts it to the kidney ; it forms a complete cafe, ifolat-
ing thefe organs from the furrounding parts. Its quantity
varies remarkably in different fubjefts, being fo abundant
as to hide the organs where the individual is very fat, and
very fparing in the oppofite llate. This fat is remarkable
for j;ro» ing hard when it is cold, particularly in the rumi-
nating herbivorous animals, where it is diftinguifhed by the
name of fuel.

On account of the different bulk of the liver and fpleen,
the two organs, which are placed immediately above the
kidnies, the latter are fomewhat differently fituated on the
two fides of the body, the right being rather lower than
the left : the difference in this refpect may amount to an
incii, but it is not conllant. They both he deeply buried
behind the abdominal vilcera ; the right having above it
the renal capiule and the liver, and in front the colon and
coscum, the duodenum, and the other fmall intellme ; the left
being covered by the fpleen and pancreas, flomach, colon,
and fmall inteilinc.

The figure is julUy compared to that of the kidney bean,
with the concavity placed inwards. It is elongated from
above downwards, convex in the greateft part of its cir-
cumference, and rather broadell at its upper end. The fize
varies confiderably, from four ounces in the adult to five,
fix, or even a pound : often one is confiderably larger than
the other.

In order to defcribe more exaftly the external form and
the relations of the kidney, we divide it into two furfaces
and a circu r.terence. 'i'he antenor fuitace is flightly convex :
fometimes completely covered by the peritoneum, with the
interfed'tion of a itratum of variable thicknefs of fat and
loofe cellular fubiVaace ; and fonietin.es in more or lefs im-
mediate contact with tlie correfponding part of the colon :
for in fome fubjects tlie membrane fimply paffes in front of
the inlellinc, and binds it to the kidney, while in others
there is a more or lefs loofe fold, called the lumbar mefo-
colon. From tlie right kidney the peritoneum rifcs to the
liver above, and even to the diaphragm ; below, it palfes

to the colon and duodenum ; on the left fide it goes to the
colon and fpleen. Cellular fubflance, containing more or
lefs fat, always co'.:net~ts the front furface of the kidney
to the membrane ; fo that the gland is behind the cavity
formed by that membrane, and would not be enumerated
among the abdominal vifcera, if that epithet were con-
fined to the parts contained within the cavity of the mem-
brane.

The poflerior furface is nearly plane, and reffs on a
thick layer of fat, which feparates it from the lower part
of the diaphragm, from the anterior layer of the aponeurofis
of the tranfverfus, where it covers the quadratus lumborum,
and from the pfoas magnus.

Thus, there is placed behind the kidney the thick mafs
of foft parts, which extends from the pelvis to the chelt,
protecting the organ from all external injury, and rendering
it nearly inacceflible to the knife of the furgeon. It is
alfo fupported behind by the two or three laft ribs. In
its longitudinal diredlion it corrcfponds nearly to the two
lail dorfal, and the two neighbouring lumbar vertebrae.

The circumference of the kidney prefents a thick and
rounded extremity above, covered by the concave bafis of
the renal capfule ; a thinner and more elongated end below,
approaching more or lefs nearly to the crilfa of the ilium :
a convex, Uiick, and rounded edge, turned outwards, and
correfponding to the mufcular parietes of the abdomen and
the diaphragm ; a deep excavation on the infide, called the
notch of the kidney. This notch has thick and rounded
edges, and contains fome fat. The divifions of the renal
artery occupy the upper and front part, thofe of the
vein are placed behind : the pelvis occupies the deepeft
portion, and tlie commencement of the ureter is feen below.

The confiftence of the kidney is remarkably firm, ex-
ceeding, in this refped, all other glandular organs. Its
colour is reddifh, with a tinge of brown ; but the intenfity
varies according to the quantity of blood contained in the
veffels.' When an animal has died of hemorrhage, it is quite
pale. The ftruAure of the organ comprehends a peculiar
glandular tifTue, arteries, veins, lymphatics, nerves, excretory
tubes, and a peculiar membrane.

The proper tiffue of the kidney is remarkable for its
firmnefs. It will be bell underltood by carrynijj a fc£lion
through the kidney, fo as to divide it into an anterior and
a pollerior half. VVe firall then be able to dillinguiih very
clearly two fubflances ; an exterior, which is called the
cortical or arterial, and an interior, named the tubular or
uriniferous. All kidnies are not equally well fuited for this
examination : in fome, without any alteration from difeafe,
the two fubltances are confided together. The contrail of
the two component parts is feen particularly cleariy after
minute injeftion.

The feclion of the kidney prefents to us alfo, difpofed in
a ftill more deeply feated ilratum than the tubular part, a
feries of fmall bodies, called papilla or maimlU, which are
merely the apices of the fmall cones formed by the tubular
fubllance. Many anatomiils defcribe thefe as a third fub-
ilance, under the name of the mamillary. Lallly, we obferve
the infundibiilaor calyce.i, and the pelvis, befides the orifices
of divided veflels fcattered here and there.

The cortical fubllance is fo named becaufe it covers tlie
exterior furface of the organ : it is about two lines in
thicknefs. Its colour is a pulilh red, inclining to yellow :
its confiilence is lefs firm than that of the tubular, and is
about the fame with that of the liver, fo that it maybe torn
eafily. It is fmoolh externally, and clofcly connccled to
the proper membrane of the kidney. Internally it is con-
tinuous with the tubular fubtlance, and it forms prolongs-

KIDNEY.

tione which fill the intervals of the different portions of the
tubular matter. Thefe fepta have been called the fle(hy
columns of the kiJney : they grow thinner as ttiey approach
the pelvis, round which there is always found fome adipous
fubitance. Their number depends upon that of the pa-
pilli. The renal arteries are dillributcd almoft entirely to
the cortical fubftance : injedlions thrown into thefe veffels
penetrate it moil eafily, and colour it througiiout : hence it
has been concluded to be of a nature entirely vafcular.
Some anatomiils have admitted the exiftcnce of very fmall
. glands in this fubllance, connefted to the blood-veflcls as
grapes are to their ihlks ; thefe are technically named acini.
On tearing the cortical fubftance, fmall granulacions are
obferved on the torn furface, and minute granular bodies are
feen in great abundance throughout this part of the kidney,
where it has been minutely injefted. Thefe are confidered
as the glands in queftion, while fome contend that they
are only convoluted blood-velTels. For an account of the
controverfy on this matter, fee Gland. The minutencfs
of the objefts does not allow us to arrive at any fatis-
fatlory conclufion concerning their intimate ftruaure.

The tubular or uriniferous, called alfo the Itriated fub-
ftance, is lighter in its colour, more denfe and folid than the
cortical. Injeftions do not penetrate it, but leave it in
general quite colourlefs. It is compofed of a vail number
of fmall tubes (tubuh uriniferi) united into conical fafci-
culi of unequal fi/.e. The rounded bafes of thefe fafci-
Guli are turned towards the exterior of the kidney, and
prefent diverging llrias, which are loit in the cortical fub-
ftance : their apices are directed towards the notcli. Thefe
fafciculi are every where furrounded by the cortical fub-
ftance, except at their apices, which are embraced by the
infundibula. Each of thefe points forms a conical papilla,
pierced by numerous fmall apertures, which are the openings
of the tubes juil mentioned.

The papillae, therefore, are fimply the points of the cones
■which conllitute the tubular fubftance : their number varies
from five to eighteen. Generally there is a Tingle papilla
for each cone ; fometimes two cones are united hy one
papilla, which is then larger ; two papillx are very feldom
found on one cone. Their form and length are very various ;
they may be fhort and rounded, or long and pointed. They
are of a tolerably bright red colour, but fometimes rather
pale, while the reft of the tubular fubftance is redder, or even
of a violet hue at the balls of the cones. Their furface is
fmootli, foft to the touch, and probably covered by a fine
membrane. The orifices of the uriniferous tubes are feen
on it, and as thefe are much lefs numerous than the ftris
of the tubular fubftance, probably feveral of the fine tubes
unite together before they terminate. Compreflion of the
kidney caufes the urine to tranfude at thefe pores ; and
the urine may be cxpreffed in like manner, when the papilix
have been divided by a feclion perpendicular to the courfe
of the tubes.

From the preceding defcription of the two fubftanccs
which compofe the kidney, it appears, that the cortical per-
forms the fecretion, and tliat the tubular, completely uncon-
cerned with this funclion, has the oflice of tranfmitting
the fecreted fluid. Thus it differs from all other glands
of which the component fubftance is identical throughout.

That the arteries of the kidney arc entirely dillributed
in the cortical matter is evident from anatomical injettions :
the exad mode in which they are connefted to the uri-
niferous tubes hardly admits of being unravelled. The
arteries feem to be continued towards . the cones, where
thev are joined to the cortical matter, and injedioqs often
pafs from them into the uriniferous tubes, Vihich arc then
• Voi,. XIX.

feen running in ftraight lines, and converging towards the
papillx. Ruyfch and others found that water, quickfilver,
fuct, wax, and air, thrown into the renal arteries, would
come out at the pores of the paplllx, wliich is a ftrong ar.
gunient for the exillence of continuous tube.«. A further
proof of the fame ciicumttance has been drawn from tiie
pafiage of attual blood in many inftances by the urinary
paftages.

The bafis of each papilla is embraced by a fmall mem-
branous tube, into the cavity of which the apex projects.
Thefe calyces, or infundibula, are furrounded externally by
fome fat, and are lefs numerous than the p-^pillie, becaufi:
two or three of the latter arc fometimes furnilhed with a
fingle tube. They are collected ordinarily into three trunks,
which come refpedtively from the upper, middle, and lower
parts of the kidney. Thefe three trunks open at the notch
into the pelvis : lometimcs a greater number of branches
opens into this membranous bag. The pelvis is placed at
the deepeft part of the notch, behind and between the di-
vifions of the renal artery and vein. It is moft capacious
in its middle, narrower at the two ends, and continued below
_ into the ureter. The openings of the trunks formed by
the union of the calyces, and of the ureter, are obferved on
its inner furface. Thefe are fimple openings without any
valvular apparatus. Sometimes there are two pelves to a
fingle kidney.

The pelvis and calyces are compofed of a firm, white,
and opaque membrane, connefted by a lo;>fe cellular texture
to the furrounding organs, and having a fmooth mucous
furface internally, continuous with that of the ureter, a!id
with the covering of the papill.c. Its ftrufture i« denl'e,
and not very vafcular ; of its properties and adlion we know
nothing. Bichat and Boyer diftinguilh three ftrata in this
membrane; an exterior, derived from the capfule of the
kidney ; a middle, or proper membrane, continued at the
bafes of the papilUe into the fubftance of the organ ; and an
internal, or mucous coat.

The arteries and veins of thefe glands will be defcribed
in the articles concerning thofe vefiels ; we have only to
point out a few circumftances here concerning them. The
renal arteries arifc nearly at right angles, and p.xfs through
a ftiort courfe before they arrive at their deftination. Tlicir
diameter io very confiderable in projjortion to the volume of
the organ. It is Ihewn by fome calculations, the refults of
which cannot be received with very implicit confidence,
that one-fourth or one-third of the blo;;d of the abdominal
aorta goes to thefe glands, confequenlly, a very large pro-
portion of the whole mafs. Hence the whole of the blood
will have paftcd through the kidnies in a few pulfations of
the heart. They are covered and accompanied by the renal
veins ; both vefTcls divide near the kidney into fevcnd
branches, which enter the notch and penetrate into the or-
gan, accompanied by nerves and l;iiiphaiics. All thffe
parts are furrounded by a loofe cellular tin"ue, continuous
apparently with that contained in the notch. The proper
membrane of the kidney adiieres to thefe fafciculi. The
large branches occupy the intervals of the pajullx, and fol-
low a winding courfe round the cones ; the .fmnller ramifica
tions form arches in the cortical fubftance, from the con
vexity of which numerous ramilications are dillributed in
that fubftance. They feem to terminate about thejuntiioi
of the cortical and tubular parts by uriniferous tubes. The
veins have a difpolitiou analogous to that of the arteries.

The lymphatic veflcls, dillinguiftird into fupcHu-ial and
deepfeated, communicate fiequeiilly. They follow t!ie
courfe of t!ie blood-vcifels, pafi out at the notch, jnd go to
the lumbar glands.

5 C '1'l.e

KIDNEY,

The nerves, derived from the ganglia of the great fyrapa-
thetic, conftitute the renal plexus, of which the branches
furround the blood-veflels, particularly the artery, and pe-
netrate with it into the kidney. The kidnies fecm to be
hardly fenfible in the natural ftate : but difeafe, as, for ex-
ample, inflammation, devclopcs their fenfibility in a very
high degree.

The external furface of the kidney is clofely invefted by
a peculiar membrane, fometimes called the capfule, which
adheres by means of /fiiort and very fine threads, but can be
feparated without much difficulty. It enters the notch, and
is conneiled there to the calyces and blood-vefTels It is
very denfe and firm, fenii-tranfparent, rather thicker than *he
peritoneum, and not divifible into laminar. Immerfion in
boiling water makes it curl up and become thicker.

The ureter is tlie tube def!c:ned to convey the urine from
the kidney, commencing from tlie inner and lower part of
the pelvis of the kidney by a widi opening, fometimes called
infundibulura, and continued thence in a defcending courfe
to the inferior furface of the bladder, where it is not more
than an inch diftant from its fellow of the oppofite fide.
Its ordinary iize is about equal to that of a qnill, except ,
towards the lower extremity, where it is lligbtly conti-adted ;
but it varies in this refpeft ni different fubjeds, and even in
different parts in the fame fubjeft. Commonly there is one
to each kidney, but fometimes it is double.

From its origin it goes obliquely inwards and downwards
as far as the front of the iacro-iliac fymphyfis, where it is
feparated from the oppofite one by the breadth of the bafis
of the facriim. lu this part of its courfe the peritoneum
and the fpcrmatic velTels lie in front: the pfoas miifcle, which
it croifes at a very acute angle, is behind it. Lower down it
CrofTes the common iliac artery and vein. The right tube lies
parallel to the outer fide of the inferior vena cava. Several
fmall blood-veffeis are diftributed on it. At the bafe of the
facrum it pafTcs forwards, downwards, and inwards through a
large quantity of adipous fuhllance, and advances towards
the under furface of the bladder. Here it crofTes the vas
deferens, and is placed a little above and externally to the
veCcula feminalis, at which point it penetrates the bladder.
It runs obliquely between the coats of that organ, pafTmg
for about an inch from without inwards and from behind
forwards, between ;he mufcular and mucous coverings, and
then opening into the cavity by a very narrow orifice placed
at the poftcrior angle of the triangular fpace near the neck
of the bladder.

The courfe of thefe tulies is the fame in the female ; they
prefent no peculiarities worthy of notice in the pelvis of this
lex.

As the ureter is a continuation of the pelvis, we naturally
expeft to difcover in it the fame organization as in that
bag. Anatomids defcribe three coats; an exterior, tliin,
tranfparent, and of a cellular nature ; a middle, w+iich is
thicker, and gives to the part its colour and confidence; and
an internal mucous covering, continuous with thofe of the
pelvis of the kidney and bladder, and habitually moiftened,
like them, with a mucous fluid capable of defending it from
the adlion of the urine. Thefe flrata are, however, fo
clofely connefted, that it is almoll impoffible to exhibit
them dillinfi. The blood-veffels are derived fro.n the renal,
tlie fpcrmatic, the aorta and vena cava inferior, and the
ili^cs

The ureters, as well as the pelvis and calyces of the kid-
ney, are very cxtenfible ; their ordinary functions probably
require the cxcrcife of fuch a property, as they mull be
fubjeft to various conditions of plenitude and einptinefs.
But difeafe elucidates this point molt clearly i when, the

natural paffage of the urine is obftrutted by a ftone, or
when it is dift urbed by difficulties in the evacuation through
the urethra, the ureters are often enlarged very contiderably,
even in tome cafes almofl to the fize of a fmidl intelline, and
the pelvis, with its dependencies, undergoes an analogous
dilatation.

Thefe parts do not feem to potTefs animal fenfibility in
their natural flate ; but that property is manifefted in them
to the highell degree, by the paffage of a ftone, v.liicli
caufes perhaps torture as exquifite as any difeafe ef any
organ in the body.

Their funttion of conveying the fecreted urine from the
kidney to the bladder, requires the exerciie of tonic powers :
the idea of this fluid finding its way by the force of gravity,
is not only repugnant to the laws of the animal economy,
but is irreconcileable with obvious phenomena. The adhelion
of the fides of the tube, where it penetrates the coats ot
the bladder, prefents an obilacle, which can be overcome
only by the exertion of fome force ; and this obilacle is
va'.Uy increafed in the diflended ftate of the bladder, during
which the fluid is conllantly finding its way into the recep-
tacle. The only power in thi;- cafe, by which the requi-
fite end can be obtained, is a contraftion of th.e canal.

Devehpimmt of the Kidney. — In the foetus all parts of the
urinary apparatus are remarkable for their conliderable ad-
vancement; and fome are diftinguiflied by confiderable pecu-
liarities of conformation and ilrufture. The kidnies are
vei-y large, furrounded at firft by a foft and reddilli cellular
tiffue, but covered, before the end of utero-geilalion, by a
fmall quantity of granulated fat : this is moil abundant be-
hind, fo that the peritoneum is almoft immediately in con-
taft with them in front. The external furface is tubercu-
lated at this time : anatomifts liave fometimes defcribed the
organ, as if the cones of tubular fubllance were imperfectly
conncfted together as yet, fo that each kidney might be
regarded as an affemblage of fmaller kidnies. Tliis repre-
fentation is not correft ; no traces of fuch diftinftion are
vifible in the interior ; and the tubercles of the outfide,
which correfpond to the bafes of the cones, feem to depend
on the cortical matter being not completely developed.
Some animals, as thofe mammalia which either live in or
frequent the water, have kidnies compofed of fmall kidnies
conneded by cellular fubftance. There is in thefe cafes a
large number of cones, each furrounded by a llratum of
cortical matter, and furniflicd with a calyx of its own : and
thefe feparate pieces are only united bv cellular fubftance.
We may conceive the human kidney to be formed in this way,
except that the feparate portions are blended into one mats :
and the diRinftion is only external even in the foetus. A
ftrufture of a defcription quite oppofite prevails in many
other animals, particularly in all the ferx of LinnvEus.
The kidney in them confiils of a fingle portion of tubular
fubilancc, with one papilla and calyx, and a fingle ilratum
of cortical matter.

Wiiile the kidney retains this tuberculated exterior, the
proportion of cortical matter is fmaller than in the perfect
gland ; but the diftindtion between it and the tubular is well
marked : the papilla exhibit a very lively red colour. Tlie
gland at this time has confiderable firmnefs, particularly if
compared to the liver or fpleen. The capfule is very per-
feftly formed, and fep-irates eaf:iy. The calyces, pelvis, and
ureter are remarkable for their confiderable progrefs : the
latter, in particular, is nearly half as large as in the adult,
in a foetus of feven or eight months. Its fi:£e may be more
accurately eftimated if it be compared to the vas deferens,
which is like a flender nervous thread, recognizable only by
its whitenefsv

2 Ko

KIDNEY

\'o confiderable cliange lias taken place at the time of
'i : although the kidnies are Hill tuberciilated, their
• ^ ::l- is more precilely determined, and the difTercnce of the
two coiilliuieiit parts is llrongly marked. There is nothing
remarkable about the pelvis or ureter. In the fubfequent
years fat is coUofted more abundantly about the kidnies :
thefe organs, by acquiring a thicker covering of cortical
matter, lofe their unequal furface, and gradually affume the
form which charafterizes them in the adult. The external
membrane becomes more denfe, and more clofely connected
to the furface. The other parts experience no further cliange
except that they partake of the general growth. In old age
the kidnies become foft and flaccid ; and the furrounding
fat is diminidied in quantity. The external membrane pre-
fents occalionally points of a cartilaginous confidence.

Pbyfwl'jgy of the Kitlnies. — The minute ramifications of
the renal arteries, which compofe fo great a portion of the
cortical fubftance of the kidnies, feparate from the blood
the urinary fluid, \vliich is conveyed along the tubuli urini-
feri, and depofited by their orilices in the calyces of the
kidney. It then goes through the pelvis and ureter, and
thus arrives at the bladder. The iecretion goes on conilant-
ly, and the tranfmifiion into the bladder is equally conftant :
for there is a continual efflux, when a catheter is placed per-
manently in the bladder, as alfo in thofe examples of mal-
formation, where the ureters open on the furface of the
body. Ligatures placed on the ureters, or obftrucllons of
thofe canals by other caiifes, as, for example, by llooes,
demonllrate this courfe of the urine ; the tubes are dif-
tended between the kidney and the obftacle, and empty
below.

'I'hat the urine is formed in the cortical fubftance of the
kidney, is the amount of our knowledge concerning this
part of the fubjeft ; the mode, in which the fecretion takes
place, is entirely unknown. This is the problem of fecre-
tion, towards the folution of which we have approached no
nearer than the above general fact fince phyfiology has been
cultivated. In the prefent inflance, indeed, it is not yet
agreed whether the uriniferous tubes be continuous with the
capillary arterial canals, or whether fome organ be inter-
pofed between them. Hence all attempts to explain the
peculiar nature of the urine from the ftrufture of the parts
n which it is formed, and to fliew how the properties of
this fluid agree with the ilze, direction, curvatures, &c. of
the canals, in which the fecretion takes place, muft be
founded on grounds completely chimerical, although thefe
reveries are fanftioned by the refpeftable autliority of Haller.
(Element. Phyfiol. lib. 26. fed. 4. $ 5.) Another unac-
fountabie error is committed by the fame phyfiologift m
Lis obfervations on this fubjeft. He aflerts that the urine
is formed in the blood, and feparated only by the afiion of
the kidney ; and detends the opinion by llating that this
fluid goes off by perfpiration, or by the llomach and intcf-
tines, when its ordinary pafl'age is obflructed. This noticn
is completely irreconcilcable with the prefent (late of our
knowledge concerning the chemical conftitution of the
blood and the urii:e ; and the alleged fafts, by which
it is fupported, are, to fay the leaft, of a fufpicious
nature.

We may eftablifh, in the fecond place, this fa£t ; that
the kidnies are the only organs m the body capable of
forming urine, and that the ureters are the only palfagcs by
which fluids can be conveyed into the bladder. Yet Loth
of thcle points are contrary to the opinions of fome phyfio-
logifts. When the evacuation of the urine from the body
IS ilopped, fome fuppofe that it is feparated by other organs.
** It appears," fays Haller (Elcai. Phyliol. Lb. 26. fed. 4.

§ 12.), " that the friction of the circulation, and the heat of
the fluids produce in the blood acrid particles, tending to
an alkaline nature, of which the more volatile are dilfipated
by infenliblc perfpiration, while others, too large for tho
pores of tlie (kin, can be feparated by the kidnies only.
For, in all cafes of ifchury, where thefe particles are not
feparated by the urine, either fymptoms of acrimony take
place in the whole body, or thefe matters are thrown off by
other organs. Thus the fweat and perfpiration have an
urinous odour : or there is an urinous oedema of the whole
body, or urine depofited in the cellular fubftance, with
violent and fatal fever. In other infl:ances urine has been
difcharged by the falivary organs ; by the eai-s or noftrils,
mixed with blood ; by the mamms ; by vomiting, or
ftool ; or it has become mixed with the fluid of the
abdomen, or it has been depofited in the brain, caufing
cephalalgia, blindnefs, delirium, llupor, convulfions and
apoplexy. When fecreted into the llomach, it caufes hic-
cough and vomiting. Laftly, the congeftion of earthy
fubltances in the blood, caufed by ifchury, may produce
fandy matter in the fweat." That a fluid, poffei.'ing fuch
very pecuhar properties as the urine does, confilling of
fuch numerous and complicated elements, and feparated
ufually in a very intricate glandular ftruilure, fliould be
formed alfo m almoil every other kind of organic apparatus
in the body ; that it Ihould be feparated by the exhalants of
the cellular fubltance, and of the fliin, by thofe of mucous
and ferous lurfaces, by the veffels of the brain, as well as
by glandular organs, is a pofitiou lb completely at variance
with all that we underitand of the compolition and aAions
of the animal frame, that we could not receive it without
very unexceptionable evidence. The whole quotation exhi-
bits credulity rather than the deliberate caution neccffary for
ellablifliing fo Angular a fad, and the fubjoined autliorities
are not at all calculated to remove our fcruples. Perhaps
an urinous odour has been fometimes obfervcd in the perfpi-
ration ; although we believe that even this has not been
hitherto proved by very convincing evidence. Mull we im-
mediately conclude that the cutaneous exhalants have formed
urine ? When the biliary paffages are obft^rufted, and vari-
ous fluids are tinged with bile, we explain the phenomena
by the abforption of that fluid from its natural receptacles.
Will not the fame explanation fuffice for the cafes, if there
are any fufliciently proved, of urinous properties in the
other fecretions and exlialations of the body .'

That there is fome more direct paffage from the alimentary
canal to the bladder, than through the abforberits, the ge-
neral circulation, and the kidnies, is an opinion that has
been partially entertained even from the moft. ancient times.
The very rapid manner in which the urinary fecretion ia
augmented by copious draughts of fluids, and the communi.
cation, within a very fliort time, of particular properties- to
the urine, by certain fubltances taken into the llomach, arc
the circumllances on which this opinion has bee., grounded.
Anatomical inveftigation has hitherto detected :u. fuch paf-
fage ; no diffetlor has met with any tube that could poflibly
ferve the purpofe of forming fuch a communication : while
the experiment of tying the ureters corroborates this nega-
tive fad, by teaching us that no urine gains admiflion into
the bladder, when thefe tubes are obihucted. " Claler.,"'
fays Haller, (Elem. Phyfiol. lib. 26. feet. 4. § 4.) " taught
us long ago, that when the ureters arc tied or divided in the
living body, the urinary bladder is found empty, and that
the animal evacuates no urine. This experiment has uni-
formly exhibited the fame refult in the hands o! fevera! vi-ry
pradifcd and dextrous cxjerimenters ; and Rail lately re-
peated it on a dgg, and found the kiduies hvoln »nd full ot
J C 2 water,

KIDNEY.

water, the papillae dilated, the ureters enlarged above the
ligature, and empty below, the bladder not containini^ a
fingle drop of urine." The phenomena of difeafe confirm
the conci'jfions to which thefe trials lead: obftniftions of
the invters, arid fiippreffion of the aftion of the kidnies, en-
tirely Hop the urinary difcharge, whatever quantity of fluid
the patient may drink.

This aficrtion of the exittence of a fliort communication
between th.e domach or bowels and the bladder, againlt the
evidence of anatomy and experiments, is founded on an af-
fumption which we confider to be highly queftionable. We
are fo far from allowing that the abforbents and blood-veflels
arc inadequate to the explanation of the phenomena, that
we believe the very reverfe to be true. We believe that the
great abforbing fui-face afforded by the alimentary canal,
together with the infinite number of abforbing vefTels, and
the diameter of the thoracic duft, fully account for the
conveyance of fluids into the blooj ; and that the large fize
of tlie renal arteries, which muft circulate the whole mafs of
blood through the kidnies feveral times in the courfe of a
minute, with the great number of the uriniferous tubes, very
fatisfaSorily explain the fecretion of urine in any quantity
of 'which wc have examples. If thefe paffages, which are
obvious to our fenfes, and large enouijh to allow a con-
fiderable quantity of fluid to pafs through them, cannot
tranfmit the urine with fufRcient celerity, how fhall we ex-
pect that a greater quantity can pafs through canals, which
muft be beyond all comparifon fmaller, iince no diffedlor
even conjecfures that he has ever feen them ? There is an-
other and flill more fatal objedion to thele opinions : the
fluids voided in thefe cafes are urine, of a very aqueous
kind indeed, but ftill urine ; — ilill that peculiar animal fluid,
w-hich is fecreted only by a kidney. Now, if there be a
direct paffage from the ftomach to the bladder, we ought to
void, according to the nature of our drink, tea, wine,
punch, cyder, &c. We mutl fuppofe, therefore, the ex-
iftence of an unknown kidney to convert thefe different
fluids into urine, as well as of an unknown paffage to con-
vey them to the bladder. The exiftence in the urine of par-
ticular properties, derived from certain articles of food, will
prove nothing in this cafe, until we have been convinced
that they cannot have been imported by the medium of the
gener;il circulation. Expofure of the body to the vapour of
turpentine will affeft the urine, without its introduction in-
to the rtomach. (See the experiments under the article
Inteoumexts. ) What are the fecret paffages by which
this is conveyed, in fuch a cafe ?

The uHkc is regarded as a fluid entirely excrementitious ;
as confining of materials, which are either ufelefs in the ani-
mal economy, or which, if retained, would be actually
prejudicial. The fluids which wc drink dilute the folid
food, reduce it to that ftate in which it conftitutes the chyle,
and are abforbed with it. Probably a confiderable portion
is taken up immediately from the alimentary canal, without
undergoing the previous change into chyle ; fince copious
drinks of'en augment the urinary difcharge much fooner
than the formation of chyle could be effected. The fuper-
fluous fluid, thus introduced into the blood, is feparated by
the kidnies, and very fpcedily feparated, when large quan-
tities are drunk : hence the chief component part of the
urine is water. The organs of the body are conflantly un-
dergoing changes in their compolltion : they receive frefh
particles from the blood, while the abforbing fyflem re-
moves the old ones ; I'o that there is a perpetual movement
over the whole body of combination and decompofition.
Again, a fimilar change is inceffantly carried on in the ani-
mal fluids. The lymph of the cellular texture and the

ferum of the circumfcribed cavities are at all times in thi?
kind of circulatory motion. Thefe old materials are con-
veyed into the blood by the abforbents, and feparated from
it in the kidnies, in order to be thrown out of the body.
They feparate it under the peculiar form denominated by
the French chemifls urce ; which matter exceeds in amount
by many times all the other fahne fub fiances difTolved in the
urine, and bellows on that fluid its colour, odour, — in a
word, all its peculiar charaftcrs. We fhall anticipate, from
this view of the matter, what the refearches of modern che-
miflry have moll clearly proved, that the component in-
gredients of urine are very numerous : it exceeds, in this
refpeft, ail the other animal fluids. A particular account
of its fenfible charadlers and chemical compofition will be
found under the article Ukin'E ; and that of the concretions
occafionally formed in the urinary paffages under Stone.

No fecretion exhibits fuch fignal variations as this : the
term urine, therefore, is applied to fluids differing in almoft
every circumflance from each other. The nature and pro-
portion of its ingredients are not alike in the fame individual,
at the difliercnt periods of life. Peculiar charafters diflin-
guifh it in the foetus, the boy, the adult, and the old fub-
je£l : they differ in the fame day, according as a perfon is
cxpofed to heat or cold, as he is inactive or ufes much
bodily exertion, according to the nature and quantity of
the food ai;d drink, and the length of time after meals at
which it is voided ; the Hate of health, particularly of the
ftomach, and other digeftive organs, and the paflions of the
mind, have alfo cc&ifiderable influence.

The kidnies and bladder of the foetus contain a very fmall
portion of fluid, which can hardly be deemed urine : it is al-
moft entirely aqueous, rather vifcid and turbid, and has no
fmell or talle. In the firil years of life, the colour is not
deep ; the acrid and odorous properties are but flightly
marked. As the motionof compofition prevails, in a'moll
all the organs, over that of decombination, the quantity of
uree is fmall. The earthy phofphates, particularly that of
hme, are not prefent, or in very minute quantities. While
offification is incomplete, this fubftance is required for the
developcment of the bony fyftem. In the adult, where the
growth of the body is complete, the refidue of nutrition is
more abundant.* all the properties of the urine are more
ftrong. It contains falts, earthy phofphates, phofphoric
acid, urce, and uric acid, according to the defcription in
the articles already referred to. The falts and the animal
fubftance increafe in the old fubjett ; the phofpate of lime
is very abrndant.

The m.odifications produced in the urine by heat and cold,
w^hich include alfo the effects of exercife, ai:d the influence
of the feafons, are not the refult of any dirett aftion on the
kidnies, but arife from the operations of thefe caufes on
the cutaneous functions. The relations between the urine
and the external and internal exhalations are peculiar to this
fecretion. In proportion as we pcrfpire more abundantly,
the urinary evacuation is diminiflied ; and the fame circum-
flance is obferved in confiderable dropiies. From this cha-
rafter, which belongs exclufively to the fundtion of the kid-
nies, naturally arife the frequent varia:ions in the quantity
of the urine ; while the other fccretions are nearly always iu
unifoi-m proportions. Expofure of the furface to cold, or
inactivity, is attended not only with an incrcafed quantity o£
urine, but with alterations of its other properties : it is pale,
not acrid, nor ftrong in its fincll. Warm;h, with free per-
fpiration, or ftrong exercife, diminiflies the quantity, and
renders it more highly coloured, acrimonious, ar.d odorous.
Slighter changes of an analogous nature may be remarked,
in winter and fummer. (See l>TEGUitiiNTS.J, When tlie
7 quantity

KIDNEY.

(jiiantity of urine is fo remarkably augnipiited in Jiabetts, the
flcin is parched and dry.

The quantity of food, and more particularly of drink, in-
fluences very greatly that of the urine ; and feveral phyfi-
ologifts reprefent the two as nearly equal. The effect of
aqueous drinks, however, will be conliderably incdified by
tlie ftate of the cutaneous difcharge. If the individual be
warm and llrong, a great part of fuch drinks is difTipated by
the flvin : in a weaker Hate of the body, combined with ex-
ternal cold, it is difpofed of by the kidnies. The labourers
in harvcll will often drink fome gallons of liquor, while pro-
fecuting their hard work under a hot fun, without any in-
creafed urinary difcharge ; the perfpiration, however, is un-
commonly copious, and its evaporation has a mod favourable
cfFcft in keeping the body cool. The liquors which in-
creafe tlie urine moll remarksblv are thofe of an aqueous
kind, fuch as water, vegetable infufions, weak beer, cyder,
&c. taken cold. Stimulating drinks, fuch as the ftronger
wines and fpirits, and warm fluids, excite the fyllem in
general, and are more likely to be difpofed of by the Ikiii.
The quantity of urine, afcertaincd by aftual experiment, has
varied confiderably. The accounts of Hartman, Robinfon,
De Gorter, Keii, Rye, Home, Sanclorius, and Linings,
give us the follcwing numbers of ounces in t.venty-four
hours; iH, 31, 36, 38, 40, 44, 50^, 64: the average of
the whole will be 49 ounces.

The qualities of the urine are affecled, in many inllances,
in a very obvious way by the nature of the food. As this
fecretion provides for the removal from the body of the re-
fidual and cxcrementitious part of our aliment, we cannot
doubt that it mull be very cITentially influenced by the pro-
perties of the food. Rhubarb, beet root, madder, and
other fubllances affeft its colour. Fourcroy mentions a
man, who conceived that he voided blood, but was perfeftly
free from pain, and all fymptoms of uriiiary affciftion. He
had eaten a large quantity of beet root for feveral days ; and
on leaving this off, the urine recovered its healthy appear-
ance. (Sya. desConnoifr. Ciiim. t. 10. p. 170.) Garlick
and onions affecf its fmell ; oil of turpentine gives it an
odour refembling that of violets ; and afparagus imparts to
it a remarkable fetor. Several other vegetables, fuch as
fennel, carrots, parfnips, &c. produce alfo very feniible ef-
fects on its fmell. A very ftriking inllarce of change in its
properties, produced by an alteration in the food, is afibrded
in the treatment of the diabetes mellitus by animal diet.
SeeDi.\nF-.TES.

The alteration of the urine by the food is more particu-
larly evinced in individuals, whofe digclUve organs are not
ftrong : hence the ftate of the urine is an important fymptom
in f-.'.ch cafes.

Two or three kinds of urine are diftinguifhed, according
to the interval between the repaft and the time of evacuating
the fluid. The fsri, difcharged within a very ihort time
after drinking, is called urine of the drink (urina potus), or
crude urine. It is often evacuated fo ioon after drinking,
and has fo little of the dillinguifliing characters of urine,
that it has given rife to the notion already mentioned of a
(hort communicatKjn between the llomach and bladder. It
appears almoll like a mere water, and has neither the fmell,
colour, nor weight of urine : it mull be regarded as an ex-
tremely diluted form of the fluid, in which the urce is dif-
fufed in a very large proportion of water. The urine of di-
gellion orconcoftion (urina chyli) is that evacuated two or
three hours after a meal. Its colour and ether urinous pro-
perties arc more ftrongly marked than in the preceding ;
but it is not yet perfedl urine. It is affected by the nature
•f the food. The urine of the blood (urina fanguinis) is

voided feven or eight hours after eating, or in the morniiig
after a night's flcep. It is highly coloured and acrid, has
a ftrong tafte and fmell, not that imparted by any particular
food, bot the peculiar urinous odour. The circumftances
of digeftion and the nature of the food either do not affeft
this, or afTed it in a much lefs degree. It contains a large
proportion of falls and nr^e. It's charaaers, in fliort, are
thofe defcribed as belonging to urine; and it is always felef'cd
for the purpofe of experiments on the chemical conftitution
of this fluid.

The paflfiuns have an influence on the nature of this fluid ;
fear, forrow, and, in general, tlie emotions which a6t vio-
lently on the frame, often caufc an abundant flow of colour-
lefs and inodorous urine, which feems to confift almoft
entirely of water.

But the effects of the caufes which we have ju 11 confidered;
are very flight in comparifon with the changes produced by
difeafe. The alteration in this cafe goes deeper, and the
variations are more numerous and charafterillic. Since the
earliell ages of medicine, phylicians have drawn iudications
from this fource concerning the nature, progrefs, and ter-
mination of dileafes ; and empirics have no; overlooked fo
favourable an opportunityof levying a t,ix on public credulity.
Careful analyfes of the various morbid urines are ftill attiong
thofe defiderata, which promifc very interefting refults to the
phyliologift and pathdogill. A few fadts only have been
collected on this fubjeft. The fedimcnt of the urine, at
the termination of acute difeafcs, has been found to confift
chiefly of uric acid. The colourlefs fluid voided in nervous
diforders, in hyfteric paroxyfms, &c. is little more than
mere water. Phofphoric acid and phofphate of lime are
not found in the urine during the paroxyfm of gout ; but
the latter returns towards its celTation, and is even more
abundant than in the healthy ftate. In thofe affeCtions, in
which the bones become foftened, the urine has a large
proportion of phofphate of lime : the earth abforbed from
the bones is evacuated by the kidnies. During utero-gefta-
tion, this earthy fait is not found in the urine. For the re-
markable qualities of this fluid in diabetes, fee that article.
The fecretions of the mucous membranes, over which the
urine pafles, may varioufly modify its properties ; and dif-
eafes of thefe parts may occafion the admixture of blood,
pus, mucus, &c.

The latt circumilance we have to mention concerning the
urinary fecretion, dilUnguiflics it from all others ; ria. that
the fecreted fluid is concerned in no oiher funftion, but is
entirely expelled from the body, after traverfmg the urinary
padages. In other inllances the fecreted fluids ferve fome
office ; the tears lubricate the furface of the eye ; the action
of the faliva in aflifting maftication is- very important ; the
bile and pancreatic juice concur in digellion. Hence the
alterations in the quantity or qualities of thefe are followed
by ferious confequences ; while the changes of the urine,
particularly in quantity, are hardly obfervcd.

The /-cnij/ fa/y«/fj ( capfulx fuprarenales, or atralil?.ri:c,
rencs luccenturiati) are two fmail bodies, a right and a loft,
placed above the upper extremities of the kidnies, which
they cover to a certain extent, and behind the peritoneum.
They are fometimes double on one or holh tides. Theic
fize varies much according to the age of the fubj;dt : in the
firft months of fcetal exillence they are at leaft as large
as the kidnies, and they continue to grow until the firil years
afterbirth: but as this growth is much lefs rapid than that
of the kidney, the proportionate lizrs of the two organs are
foon entirely changed, and become fuch as we lind them in
the adult. When they have acquired tlieir ^reatcft magni.*
tude, they fometinies prefcrve il in the adult ; . or they ara

gradually

KIDNEY.

gradually diminiftied, and at lad difappear almoft entirely.
Their figure does not much referable any known objedl ; it
is foraewhat triangular, and bent from above downwards.
We may diftinguifh in them an anterior and a pofterior fur-
face, a fuperior and an inferior margin, an internal and an
external extremity.

The anterior, which is alfo the broadcll furface, prefents,
a little above its middle, a tnmiverfe groove, which receives
the chief capfular vein : this correfponds, on the right fide,
to the inferior vena cava and the duodenum ; on the left, to
the fpleen and pancreas. The poftenor furface is in contatl
with the feini-lunar ganglion and the diaphragm. The in-
ferior edge, which from its breadth iias been dei'cribed as a
furface, is excavated obliquely from before backwards, and
from above downwards, and embraces tlie fuperior end of
the kidney. The fuperior margin, thin and convex, is rather
inchned inwards, correlponding to the liver on the right, and
to the fpleen on the left fide. In the extremities there is no-
thing remarkable : the inner is rounded and rather lower than
the outer, wliich is more pointed. The whole exterior is un-
equal, with an appearance of fmall lobes, and adheres to the
neighbouring parts by numerous veiTels, by nerves and by a
loole adipous fubflance, continuous with that which fur-
rounds the kidnies. This I'ublVance in moll cafes nearly re-
fembles the capfules themfelves in colour, fo that they may
be eafily overlooked in a fuperiicial examination.

A kind of triangular cavity occupies the middle of the
capfule, with an oblong eminence, caufed by the courfe of
a vein projefting into it below : the fides of this hollow
often appear united by a kind of downy matter. It contains
a fluid of a reddifh colour in the foetus, yellow in young fub-
jedls, and brown in the adult. Its confiftence and quantity
are variable ; and it is coagulable by alcohol. It has been
afferted that this cavity may be inflated by the capfular vein ;
but Haller could not fucceed in attempting this in the human
iubjeft, allhoUpjh he accompliflted it in animals. Some deny
the exillcnce of a cavity, and others have afferted that it is
a vein. Haller faw it clearly fixteen times in the human fub-
je£l : it was not obfervable in three inftances.

The colour is a brownifh-yellow, and dcepeft in the inte-
rior : it has more of red in the foetus and m children. The
form at that time is more rounded, the volume more confider-
able, and the fluid more abundant. Their confillence is
moderately firm ; more fo on the outfide than in the internal
portion, in the adult than in the child. They are compofed
of lobes divifible into lobules, which may again be reduced
into fmaller portions. The furrounding cellular iubltance
enters the organ and joins together thefe portions. In this re-
fpeft the ftrudture of the renal capfules refembles that of the
conglomerate glands ; but no excretory duQ. has been dif-
covered in them.

Their arteries are numerous, and divided into fuperior,
■which come from the lower diaphragmatic, middle from the
aorta or cse'iac artery, and inferior, which arile from the
renal. They anadomofc frequently, and feem to run on the
furfaces without entering the fubilance of the organs. The
veins are lefs complicated. There is always a large one on
each fide, produced from the inferior vena cava on the right,
and from the renal vein on the left fide. It enters the
groove of the anterior furface, and after running through
it, paffes into the neighbouring adipous fubftance, and to
the lower part of the diaphragm. The branches enter the
fubftance of the capfules, but probably do not open into
the cavities, as fome have fuppofed.

Lymphatic velTels arife from all points of thefe organs,
and feveral join thofe of the kidney. On the right fide
they go to fome lymphatic glands placed round the vena

cava, below the liver; or they are united with the abforb-
ents of the liver, and proceed with them to the thoracic
duA. On the left fide they enter glands placed in front of
the left crus of the diaphragm.

The nerves of the renal capfules come from the casliac
ganglia and from the renal plexufes.

Phyfwlogy of the renal Capfules. — The ufe of thefe bodies
is entirely unknown ; the phylioiogill or pathologift has not
hitherto noticed one faCl that can throw the fmalleft light
oil their office, or that can prove them to poffefs any
connection with any funition of the animal economy.
'' From an attentive confidcration of all circumftances,'' fays
Haller (Elem. Phyfiolog. lib. xxvi. fed. 4, J 14.) " I
can venture to affirm nothing further of thefe capfules,
than that they fecrete a fluid, which is more neceflary to the
life of the foetus than to that of the adult. I can draw no-
thing from comparative anatomy, except the probable con-
jednre, that they are made for important purpofes, as they
are found in fo many animals. They are large, and have a
large cavity in the carnivorous, as the tiger, and in fome
herbivorous animals. But in other herbivora they are
fmall, and the cavity is fmall in the voracious fliark.''

The urinary bladder, or mufcular and membranous re-
fervoir for the urine, is placed at the middle and anterior
part of the pelvis, behind the bones of the pubes ; before
the redlum in man and the uterus in woman ; below the fmall
inteftine, above the lower part of the redium, the vafa de-
ferentia and veficulas feminales in man, and the vagina in wo-
man. This is the naturdl lituation of the bladder in the
adult, but age and various circumllances produce changes
in this refpeCt, which it is important to obferve. In ihe
foetus the bladder is fituated almoll entirely out of the pelvis,
and reaches nearly to the navel, in the midll of the cellular
fubfl.aiice, v\'liicli occupies ttie lower and front part of
the abdomen, externally to the peritoneum. Hence it fol-
lows, that at this age its anterior furface is covered by the pe-
ritoneum only at the upper part, and that in the reft of its
extent it correfponds immediately to the offa pubis and the
refti and tranfverfi abdominis. It may accordingly be
opened above the pubes, even in its empty ftate, without
wounding the peritoneum. This peculiarity of pofition
ariles from the bladder being greatly developed in proportion
to the neighbouring organs, and efpecially from its being
very elongated, while the pelvis is fmall and very (hallow :
the upper aperture moreover is very oblique, and the rec-
tum, diltended by a large quantity of meconium, particu-
larly towards the latter periods of pregnancy, almoft en-
tirely fills the pelvis. As the cavity of the latter is deve-
loped, the bladder finks in it, and retires from the um-
bilicus. At three years of age it is faid to rife hardly more
than three fingers' breadth above the pubes, and at twelve
this is reduced to about half an inch : at eighteen it is faid
to be completely hidden behind the bone. Haller, however,
obferve."*, that he has feen the length of this vifcus remaining
even to the time of puberty, fo that it ftill projeded eonfi-
derably above the pelvis. In the adult, where the pelvis is
deep, and the bladder (horter, not exceeding the bulk of an
egg in its undiftended ftate, it never rifes above the pubes when
empty ; and even at other times is generally below the upper
edge of the bone. But wlien it contains a large quantity
of urine, it afcends and forms in the hypogaftric region a
very difcernible tumour, which rifes and increafes gradually,
in proportion as the quantity of contained fluid becomes
greater. It may reach in thefe cafes beyond the umbilicus.
It is contained in the abdomen in the latter months of preg-
nancy. Perhnps it may be inclined rather more backwards
in the fupine pofition of the body. It has foinetimes been

contained

KIDNEY.

contained in an iiigjuiiial or vaginal hernia. Its fituation
is not always perfeiAly ftraight, but fometimes, as Celfiis
has obfervcd, rather inclined to the left. It is retained in
its fituation by cellular fubilance, which furrouuds it on
all fides, and by other means, whicli will be defcnbed pre-
fently.

The capacity of the organ differs according to the age,
fex, and difeafos. It is much greater, in proportion to the
fi/e of the bjdy, in children than in adults : it diininillies
afterwards as it (inks in the pelvis. It is larger in perfons
who have tlie habit of retaining the urine for a long time,
than in others ; and on this account it may be larger in
fome females. In cafes of retention of urine it fomctimcs
is fo enlarged as to hold feveral pints : and it is diminifhed
in a corrcfponding degree in other affcAions, as when it is
irritated by the conftant prefence of a ftone, or by any other
caufe. We can hardly aifign any particular capacity as the
natural one, there is fo much variety in different individuals :
a healthy perfon may void, at one time, from half a pint or
L'fs to two pints.

The figure of the bladder, in an adult male, is nearly
that of an oval, ratlier flattened from before backwards, with
the large extremity placed downwards and a little backwards,
and the fmaller in tlie contrary du^ection. In females, and par-
ticularly in thofe who have had many children, it is not fo
high, but broader in the tranfverfe direftion. It is very
elongated, and nearly cylindrical, in the foetus, at which
time its extremity, formed by the urachus, approaches the
navel : its length is three times its breadth, and its tranf-
verfe diameter is nearly equal to the antero-pofterior. At
no long period after birth chefe dimenfions change, the blad-
der becomes more rounded, and affumes a fomewhat pyri-
form figure ; and, as the child grows, the figure ap-
proaches more and more to the oval. Several anatomiffs dif-
tinguilh in the bladder a fuperior portion, which they call
the fundus ; a middle part, or body of the bladder ; and
an inferior divifion, comprehending the lower furfaces and
the neck. We (hall divide the organ into two furfaces, an
external and an internal.

The external furface may be naturally divided into fix re-
gions ; tifs. an anterior, apollerior, a fuperior, an inferior,
and two lateral, or right and left.

The anterior, which is Ilightly inclined forwards, is
bounded above by the urachus, and below by tlie neck of
the bladder. At its lower part are feen two fm ill fibrous
fafciculi, called anterior ligaments of the bladder. They
have a hori'/ontal direction, and are attaciied to the back of
the fymphyfis pubis in front, to the fuperior portion of the
neck of the bladder, and to the prollate behind. This
region then correlponds to the flattened pollerior furface
of the offa pubis and their lymphyfis, to which it is con-
nefted by a loofe cellular fubilance. When the organ is
empty, or moderately filled, it does not alcend above the
bone ; but in the diilended Hate it rifcs out of the pelvis,
and correfponds imm.edia'cl) , without the interpofitiou of
the peritoneum, to the abdominal mufcles. Hence, at this
lime it may be perforated by a trochar, or opened for the
extraftion of a ilone, without expofing the patient to an
effufion of urine in the abdominal cavity.

The pollerior furface, flightly inchned upwards, is con-
vex, fmooth, entirely covered by peritoneum, contiguous to
the rectum in the male, and to the uterus in ihe female fub-
jctt, and to the inferior convolutions of the fmall intelline in
tolh fexes.

■ The lateral regions, which are broader below than above,
are covered by peritoneum in their pollerior portion only :
in front they are connected to the lides of the cavity of the

pelvis by a large quantity of cellular tiflue. The umbincal
arteries, and the vafa deferentia, pafs along them.

The fuperior region is commonly called the fundus of the
bladder ; it correfponds to the convolutions of the fmall
intelline, and affords attachment to the fuperior ligament of
the bladder. The latter is compofed of the urachus and
of the two umbilical arteries, each of which is here in-
cluded in a fmall faLiform portion of peritoneum. The ura-
chus, occupying the middle of tliii ligament, appears in the
adult under the form of a whitiih librous cord, extended
from the fundus of the bladder, on the external furface of
the peritoneum, to the umbilicus, where it is confounded with
the aponeurofes of the tranfverfe mnfcles. It is about as
thick as a fmall quill at the bladder, but it grows gradually
fmaller towards the navel. It poffelfes no interior cavity,
and feems capable of no other nfe than that of fixi'g the
bladder in its fituation. Inilead of being folid and liga-
mentous, it is faid fometimes to form a true can.al, by means
of which the urine efcapes at the navel; this un .f lal ap-
pearance, which we have never feen, is faid to arile from
obllruition at the neck of the bladder, and to ccafe as foon
as the urine flows through the urethra.

The elongated figure and great elevation of the bladder
in the foetus, make the urachus very fliort ; it then forms a
canal, beginning from the upper part of the bladder : thence
it afcends to the umbilicus, becoming at the fame time con-
trafted. Laftly, it enters this ring with the umbilical ar-
teries, and is continued into the cord : according to Haller,
it may be filled with mercury for an inch, or an inch and a
half. Farther on, it is faid to be divided into feveral fila-
ments, which are loft on the arteries : but Mr. Cruikfiiank.
Hates that it is continued, in the form of a very flender
thread, throughout the cord. In quadrupeds it is manifellly
hollow, and paffcs through the cord to a membranous bag
called the allantois, in which it ends. Its diameter ii vari-
able : in general it is not more than one-third of a line in
breadth, and it opens into the bladder by an orifice, which
is fo fmall and difficultly found, that many good anatomills
have altogether denied its exiltence Sometimes it is confi-
derably larger in this fituation. Haller fays that he has
expreffed from it a drop of gelatinous lymph, and others
fpeak of urine as contained in it. Its confillence is firm ;
it feems to be formed by a prolongation of the internal coat
of the bladder, inclofed by long and hard fibres continued
from the mufcular coat. It is clofed, and becomes folid and
ligamentous iome time before birth : its cavity is obliterated,
like that of the umbilical vcfl'els, and it can no longer be
dilated, or receive urine. Sometimes, however, it remains
open : Haller introduced a hog's brilUe into it in the adult,-
and he mentions gravel being contained in it in another in-
ftance. In 17^87, lays Boyer, I difletted the bladder of a
man thirty-fix years old, whofe urachus formed a canal an
inch and a half long, and contained twelve urinary calculi of
the fize of millet feeds. I aCcertained that the containing
tube was not a facculus or elongation of the internal coat
through the mufcnlar tunic. Thefe examples of a hollow
in the urachus of the adult are very rare.

As the exillence of a canal in this part is fometimes de-
nied, we fubjoin the following exprefs tellimony of Haller
on the fubjccl. " Doubts have been entertained whether
the urachus be hollow, fmce we often ilnd that nothing
palfes into it, when the bladder is diilended with air or mer-
cury ; and feveral good anatomills have found no canal.
But the repeated invelligations of this matter by myfelf,
and by one of my pupils, have plainly fliewn that a foramen
leading into the urachus exitls at 'he top of the bladder in
die liuman foetus. Whea the furroundiug. cellular fubilance

KIDNEY.

lias been removed, and the fold, which is fometimes formed
between it and the bladder,. is deftroycd, air, quickfilver, or
a briiUe will enter eafily : I have alfo fqueezed out a drop
of gelatinous fluid, and others have tound urine in the ca-
vitv. It maj- be demonttrated as far as the umbilicus."
Elem. Phyilol. lib. xxv. feft. 2.

The two umbilical arteries, which are conftantly obli-
tcratcd in the adult, form merely ligamcntary cords of a
cylindrical figure, placed at the fides of the urachus, and
adhering like it with tolerable flrmnefs to the peritoneum.

The falciform procell'cs of the peritoneum are neceflarily
and mechanically produced by tlie reflexions of that mem-
brane on tlie three ligamentary cords juil defcribed : they
raife the membrane from the fides of the cavity, and make
it project into the abdomen in the form of three fmall
elongated folds, of which the middle furrounds the urachus,
and the two lateral ones the umbilical arteries. They are
broader below than above, and more llrongly marked in
the fcetus than in the adult. They are united and blended
at the navel, but feparate as they defcend ; the middle,
which is verticil, and correfponds to the hnea alba, termi-
nating on the fundus of the bladder, the lateral ones, which
diverge, on the fides of the organ.

The lower region, which is alfo called the bafis of the
bladder, is rather more extenfive from fide to fide than from
ijefore backwards. It is fubdivided into an anterior and
a pollerior portion : the former, rather more elevated than
ihe latter, is narrow, fhaped like a funnel, and called the
I'.eck of the bladder. It is embraced by theproftate, and
correfponds to the pollerior and inferior part of the fym-
phyfis pubis. The poiferior part is large and expanded :
it is bounded behind by the kind of cul-de-fac which the
peritoneum forms as it is reflefted from the back of the
bladder to the redtum. This part covers, in man, the ve-
iiculx feminales and vafa deferentia, which arc united to it
by cellular tifTue, clofe in front near the proltate, and loofer
behind : in the triangular interval, fepavating the vafa defe-
rentia, the furface of the bladder is in contail with the
redhiin, and connected to it by a loofe abundant cellular
fubllancc, containing fat and interfperfed with numerous
blood-velTjis, particularly veins. In the female this part of
the bladder correfponds to the front of the vagina. The
fides of this lower portion of the bladder are covered in both
fexes, by the levatores ani, and correfpond to the intervals
between the anus and the tuberofitics of the ifchia.

The internal furface is poiiflied and covered by an abun-
dant mucous fecretion. It prefents a great number of
wrinkles, more or lefs ilrongly marked, taking various di-
rections, and formed by the internal membrane. Thefe are
very apparent when the bladder is empty and contrafted, but
are effaced almofl entirely when it is dilated. They arife
from the unequal contraction of the mufcular and mucous
tunics, of which the latter pofielfes a much lefs degree of
contraftility than the former. In fome fubjecls there are
feen, befides thefe wrinkles, elongated prominences, refem-
faling in many points the mufcular columns of the right
auricle of the heart. Thefe are formed by the fibres of the
mufcular coat, difpofed in large fafciculi, and elevating the
mucous membrane fo as to project towards the bladder.
Correfponding deprelflons are left between thefe columns,
which have given rife to a particular name in French (veflies
kcoloniics), diftin;^i!i(hing the bladders with this appear,
ance. Befides theie depreifjOiis, there are fometimes cells or
pouclies of various fizes and number opening into the cavity,
fitoiies may be contained in fuch cells, and are then called
encyfted.

TIjc anterior, pofterior, and. lateral regions of the isternal

furface of the bladder, prefent nothing befides what we have
juft particularized. In the fuperior region there is a fmall
pore in the fcetus, often fcarcely vifible, and contlituting the
commencement of the urachns, which we have already
fpoken of. The inferior region offers to onr view, in fuccef-
fion from before backwards : ifl;, the neck of the bladder ;
2dly, the triangular fpace ; 3dly, the infertion of the ureters ;
and, 4thly, the inferior furface or bottom of the bladder.

The neck of the bladder, or orifice of the urethra, ix a
tolerably large circular opening with thick fide.s, contracted ;i
little to form the urethra properly fo called. It occupie-
the moft: depending part of the bladder in the fcetus, becaiifc
the bottom of the organ (basfond in French) is not deve-
loped at that time. In the adult, the neck of the bladder
is rather higher than the inferior furface ; fo that there is a
flight declivity from the former to the latter, directed from
before backwards and from above downwards. Tlie circular
figure of the opening in the neck of the bladder is ordinarily
interrupted by a flelhy tubercle, arifnig from its lower por-
ti.-.n, and called by Lieulaud, wlio firll defcribed it, luette
vefica'e, or uvula veficje. Its fize varies, infomuch that it
is often fcarcely vifible. It is fubjedt to enlargement, parti-
cularly in oldperfons, and then it forms an oblong ti;mj-'.r,
rounded at its upper. margin, and, by its fituation, rendering
the expulfion of the urine difficult. However, we fumetimes
find it fwoln in the dead body v,hen the bladder has not been
dillended. It feems to be chiefly formed by the internal mem-
brane of the bladder, and to be merely the termination of the
anterior angle of the triangular fpace. It is defcribed by
Mr. Home, in a paper contained in the Fhilofophical Tranf-
aClions, as a third lobe of the proflate gland (See the de-
fcription of that gland in the article Gexer.vtio.v.) In
the natural ftate, the neck of the bladder is clofcd, except
during micturition ; and is only opened for the evacuation
of the urine. It is furrounded externally bv the proflate
gland. (See Gekkiiation.) The opening is larger in
the female j where, if it depended on the prollate, we fhoiibl
not expect to find a luette veficale : yet Lieutaud afcribes it
equally to tliat fcx.

The trigoniim veficx (trigone veficale in French) i.'s i
triangular portion, bounded by three openings, wliich mark
its three angles. Theie apertures are diltant from eai h
other about ah inc!), or an inch and a half, and arc, ii
front, the opening of the urethra already defcribed, w1ik:I.
forms the apex of the triangle ; behind and laterally, the
openings of the two ureters. The furface is a little in- I

clined backwards, and jnft prominent enough to allow of 1

the faft being obferved. It is much lefs wrinkled than other
parts of the bladder, and may alfo be diflinguiihed by its
colour, which is not the fame in all fubjeCts, but conilantly
difl'erent from that of the rell of the organ, and generally-
whiter. The anterior angle, or apex, winch is confounded i
with the luette veficale, is nearly three or four times its , |
thicknefs ; it grows thinner towards the bafis. Its thick- '
nefs and colour, and the llrong adhefion of the internal
membrane, lead us to fu])pofe that its organization is pc-
cuhar. It prcferves nearly the fame extent in the com rafted
bladder, and is then more prominent. It is more extenfive
in the female than in the male bladder.

The openings of the ureters, occupying the two pollerior
angles of the triangular fpace, are narrow, elongated, and
directed obliquely forwards and inwards. Their diameter is
much fmaller than that of the ureters, and they often ap-
pear to be covered by fmall folds of the internal menibrane,
which it is neceflary to elevate with a probe in order to lee
them clearly. The introdndtion of the probe fliews us the
obliquity of the canals, and the extent of their courle be-
tween

K I D N E Y.

' '■•en the two coats of the bladder, a point which we have
-M'ady mentioned in fpeaking of the ureters.

The bottom of the bladder is a large hollow fituated be-
i.ind the triangular fpace, and below the level of the neck :
it is, ill faft, the moil depending part of the organ.

The fides of the bladder become tiiicker in proportion
tis the organ csntrafts, and they are rendered thinner when
It is dilated. They confill of a ferous, a mufcular, and a
mucous coat.

The firll of thefe invefts only the pofterior region, and a
iaial! portion of the lateral regions. In the foetus it covers
nlio a fmall part of the front and upper portion of the organ.
Its external furface is perfectly fniooth, and moillcned by a
ferous fecretion. The internal furface is conneded to the
mufcular covering, by cellular fubftance, in fuch a way as to
admit with tolerable facility of feparation by direction.
This covering is furnifhed by the peritoneum, which palTes
from the front of. the abdominal cavity, that is, from the
refti mufcles or the ofTa pubis, to the fundus of the bladder,
then defcends over the potirior to the inferior iurface of the
organ. Here it quits the bladder, and paffes to the front
of the reftum in men, to the anterior furface of the uterus
in women. As it goes from one to the other of thefe organs,
it forms on die fides the two folds improperly called pofte-
rior ligaments of tlie bladder, and in the middle a cul-de-fac,
which is the loireft portion of the peritoneal cavity in the
male fubject. This part may become diftended with the
fluid of afcites ; and, as the cul-de-fac jutl mentioned ex-
tends to within two or three inches of the anus in many
fuhjefts, the paracentelis of the abdomen might be per-
formed, in the male fubjeft, from the reftum ; indeed this
has been actually done in one inftance. The cul-de-fac
formed in the female, by the reflexion of the peritoneum
from the vagina to the rectum, would allow a fimilar opera-
tion, in that fex, from the pofterior part of the lower furface
of the vagina.

Where tliis ferous covering does not exift, the bladder is
covered by a layer of cellular tiffue, the thicknefs and ap-
pearance of which are not every where uniform. At the
anterior region, behind the pubes, and on the lateral regions,
it is very loofe and abundant, and ufually contains more or
Icfs fat. At the inferior furface it is lefs copious, but ftill
loofe, and contaiiiin.; little or no fat ; a confiderable number
of velTels, particularly veins, is feen here. It is denfe and
whitilTi about the veficula; feminales and proftate.

The mufcular coat fiirrounds the bladder at all points ;
correfponding, by its external furface, to the ferous tunic,
and to the cellular fubftance ; by its internal furface, to the
outfide of the mucous coat. It is compofed of a thin ilrn-
tuai of pale fibres, difpofed in fafciculi of various fizes,
croifing each other in ail direftions, fo as to form a very clofe
network, of which the interftices prefent every variety of
fize and figure. Ordinarily the mucous coat is completely
covered by this mufcular tunic ; but fometimes there are
fmall fpaces without any mufcular covering. Through fuch
fpaces the mucous membrane may be protruded, fo as to
form the cells already mentioned, communicating witli tlie
cavity of the bladder.

An attentive examination of the mufcular fibres Ihews us,
that fome have a longitudinal, others a nearly circular direc-
tion ; that feveral are oblique, and that the reft compofe an
inextricable network. The longitudinal fibres, forming the
exterior ftratum, are directed from the neck to the fundus
of tlie bladder. The anterior ones arife from the proftate
and its covering, and fometimes from the pofterior and in-
ferior part of the pubes, and the front ligaments of the
bladder; in the female, from tlie poiat of union of the

Vol. XIX.

bladder with the urethra ; they afcend over the front of the
organ to its upper part, and ^ord to the urachus tlic ex-
ternal covering already mentioned. The pofterior fibres
form more numerous and larger fafciculi than the anterior :
tliey pafs from the urachus, over the pofterior and inferior
furfaces, to the proftate in man, and to the junftion of the
bladder and vagina in woman. Both thefe portions fend off
fibres laterally, which cover the lateral regions, decuftate
with euch other, and with thofe of the more deeply-feated
ftrata. As all thefe fibres have their fixed poii.ts in the
proftate and neck of the bladder, they will draw the other
parts of the organ, which are all more or lefs moveable, to
the neck, and confequently prcfs the urine againft the orifice
of the urethra.

Tlie obhque fibres are lefs diftinft and mere deeply-feated
than the longitudinal ; and are fo blended witii the otherj
that it is ahnoft impoftible to obfervc any order in their
diftribution. Some have a tranfverfe direction, and embrace
the bladder almoft in a circular manner : the more deeply-
feated they are, the more they approach to this courfe ; yet
feveral longitudinal fafcicuU may be feen in the interior of
the organ. The contraftion of thefe fibres diminifties the
capacity of the organ in all its diameters, and tends to bring
its fides in all direclions towards their common centre. The
urine, thus forced on all fides, will efcape in the direftion
where there is the leaft refiftance ; that is, the neck of the
bladder, againft which it is moreover forced by the con-
traction of the longitudinal fibres.

From its office of expelling the urine, the mufcular coat
of the bladder is frequently defcribed as a mufcle, under the
name of detrufor urins. It will be readily undcrftood, from
the account which we have juft given of its aftion, that the
bladder is brought into a flattened ftate, and lies wholly jul
behind the pubes, when this covering has contrafted. The
fixed point of the organ is behind thofe bones ; the proftate
and neck cannot move, and all the other parts are drawn
towards them. In this ftate the organ is flattened before
and behind, and has a triangular outline ; the fundus forms
the apex, the inferior furface the bafis, and the lateral regions
the two fides of the triangle.

In a diftended bladder, the m.ufcular coat is thickeft at
the inferior furface and at the bafis ; in other fituations it is
often remarkably thinner. This difference arifes from the
circumftance, that the coats do not yield equally to diften-
tion in all direftions ; for, when we divide a coiitradted
bladder, the thicknefs is nearly uniform throughout.

The dcfcription of the mufcular fibres about the neck of
the bladder is ftated very differently by different writers.
Some admit, and others deny the exiftcnce of a fphincter
veficx, or circular mufcle fura>unding the opening, and
clofing it by its contraiSlion. The fibres in tliis fituaiion ate
pale, and mixed with feveral veins and cellular texture ; they
are certainly completely continuous on all fides with the rell
of the mufcular coat. It is obferved by Hallcr, that a
fpiiincter was alhgned to the bladder, in the firft inftance,
from the fuppofed nccefllty of fuch a ftrudure to account
for the funftions, rather than from aftual diflcc'tion ; hence
Vefalius places it in front of the proftate. Santorini could
find no circular fibres furrounding the mouth of the urethra.
Others rcjeft altogether the notion of a fphindler ; aiid Win-
flow refers the defcriptions of fuch a part to fafciculi arifing
from the pubes. Haller gives tlie following defcription
from his own diffeClions. In men tlierc are tranfverfe and
even arched fibres above, intricately conncfted together, and
lying on the neck of the bladder, on the proftate, and on
the longitudinal fibres ariling from the pubes. Others of an
arched form, with the concavity towards tlie bladder, l[e
5 D under,

KIDNEY.

under tViefe. In women he found fibres at tlie anterior part
deciiflating at confiderable angles, fo as to form a kind of
circle ; in other inllanccs they were more tranfvcrfe. The
inferior fibres are tranfverfe, continHous with the circular
flratum of the bladder, and covered by the proftate. The
fffeft of the coiitraftion of thefe fibres, however flender and
obfcure they niay be, muft be tliat of contracting the open-
ing about which they are placed.

The modern French anatomifts will not allow the fibrous
fiibllance about the neck of the bladder to be of a mufcnlar
nature. " When the neck of the bladder," fays Boyer, " is
attentively dilTefted, we find under the external cellular ftra-
tum, and between that and the mucous membrane, only a
whitilh, thick, firm, and fibrous fubftance, continuous with
the mufcular coat, the fibres of which very manifeftly end in
it. There is no fphinfler, fince we fee no diftinft miifcle,
and the fibres of tlie neck are moreover continued with thofe
'of the general mufcular coat. But the ftrufture, which we
have juil defcribed, communicates to the neck of the bladder
a refilling power, which, although not produced by the
aftion of any particular mufcle, is ftill fuperior to the con-
tractile tendency of the bladder." Traitc complct. d'Anat.
t. 4- P 49°-

The mufcular coat of the bladder is proportionally thicker
in the foetus and child, than in tlie adult The irritability
of the organ, and the force exerted in expeUing its conteiits,
"fcem to be greater in the early years of life.

The name of nervous coat has been given to a uhuilh
ftratum, placed between the mufcular and mucous coats.
The ftrufture of this is completely cellular ; it is loofcr
towards the former, and more clofe towards the latter of the
tunics. It is very extenfible, and recovers itfelf after diftcn-
tion, forming, in conjunftion with the mucous membrane,
the folds which we have defcribed in the inner furface of the
organ. It contributes confiderably to the folidity of the
fides of the bladder.

The internal or mucous coat lines the whole interior. It
is continuous on one fide, with the linings of the ureters ;
and on the other, with that of the urethra. To its ex-
ternal furface adheres the cellular ftratum juft defcribed.
Internally it is perfectly fmooth, having no vifible villi, nor
any other inequalities except the rugi which aiife from con-
traction of the mufcular coat. Its furface is conftantly
covered by a mucous fluid, deftined, in the opinion of phy-
fiologifts, to proteft it from the irritating qualities of the
urine. This fecretion muft be perpetually removed by the
urine and perpetually renewed. It is expelled in that fluid,
and becomes fenfible by chemical analyfis. When any caufe
of irritation affects the bladder, as for example, when a cal-
culus is contained in it, this mucus is voided in very large
quantities, to the amount of fome ounces at each time of
making water : in fuch cafes it often fubfides and concretes
into a tolerably firm jelly.

The fources of this fecretion cannot be eafily demon-
ftrated ; although, as Hallcr obferves, the glands of the
bladder are mentioned as familiarly as if they were vifible on
fuperficial infpeftion. Is the mucus poured out by the ex-
halants of the internal membrane, or fecreted in a glandular
apparatus ? Sometimes, but rarely, fays Haller, have I feen
fimple follicles on the external furface of the mucous cont,
chiefly near the neck of the bladder ; fome round, like thofe
ef the cheeks, equal in fize to millet feeds, and in cluftcrs
iu the female, others fmaller. At other times I faw no fol-
licles, but mere pores." Element. Phyfiol. lib. 26. feft. 2.

The mucous membrane is thin and whitidi, particularly
towards the neck of the bladdir ; in other parts it has a
fomewhjrt red tint. We do not know much of its organiza-

tion or properties. It is continuous, through the urethra,
with the epidermis, and fecms to refemble that part in being
occafionally detached in fhrcds, and renewed.

A whitilh eminence is continued from the ureter on each
fide towards the mouth of the urethra, and fometimes feems
connefted to the verumontanum. It is a firm fubftance,
conneftcd to the mucous membrane, and it forms the trigo-
num veficiE already defcribed. According to Hallcr and
Morgagni, thefe rifings are not conftant.

The arteries of the bladder are derived chiefly from the
umbilical ; fome fmall ones come from other branches of the
internal iliac. Tlie epigaltric fends tvvigs towards the fun-
dus. They anaftomofe together, and form an elegant r;et-
work between the mufcular and mucous coats, extending
alfo into the latter. The veins, following the divilioiis of
the arteries, terminate on each fide in the obturator and in-
ternal iliac veins. They ramify chiefly on the lateral and
inferior regions of the organ, where they form, together
with thofe of the reCliim, a confiderable plexus.

The lymphatics arife from all points of the internal furface,
and generally follow the blood-ved'els. I'hey go through
fmall glands m the courfe of the umbilical arteries, and end
in the hypogallric plexus.

The nerves come from tlie facral ur,d from the great
fympathetic.

The urethra of the male has been defcribed in the article
GrvNEitAxroN ; we muft infcrt in this place an account of
that canal in the female. It is about an inch or a little more
in length, but much larger and more fufceptible of dilatation
than in man. Itj (hortnefs and large diameter enable it to
tranfmit ftones of a confiderable fizo ; confequeutly, the
operation of lithotomy is much lefs frequently performed on
females than on males ; and the former lnfl'cr, on the whole,
much lefs from calculous complaints. It ha- litci. enlarged
by fponge tents fniTiciently to ad.mit tlie finger and thumb.
Its direftion is nearly horizontal from the neck of the blad-
der, at which it begins, under the pubes and clitoris to the
pudenda; but it defcribes a very flight curve, of v.'hich the
concavity is turned upwards, and the convexity downwards.
It correfponds above to the corpus cavcrnofum of the cli-
toris, adhering to it by a loofe cellular fubftance.

Below it is very clofely conneftcd to the vagina, parti-
cularly in front, and forms a longitudinal projedlion, which
is fufficiently confpicuous on the front of the canal. The
anterior extremity is fituated rather lower than the poftcrior,
and terminates by an opening, called tht meatus iirinarius,
at the lower part of the triangular fpace included betiveen
the nympha;, and juft on the front edjje of the entrance into
the vagina. This aperture, which is fometimes as large as
the urethra, which it terminates, fometimes fmaller, is irre-
gularly rounded, and has a thick prominent margin, exhibit-
ing the excretory dufts of certain mucous glands fituated in
the neighbourhood. In pregnancy, particularly towards the
latter months, the meatus urinarius is rather drawn inwardS,
and not to be difcovered without difficulty.

The ftrutture of the canal is analogous to that of the
male urethra. Externally it is covered by a thick layer of
cellular and vafcular matter, the nature of which has not
been clearly afcertained, bearing confiderable refemblance
on a feCtion to the vafcular texture round the male urethra.
This is not confined by any proper covering, as in the male,
but is connected by loofe cellular fubftance to the furround-
ing parts. At the front, the urethra and vagina are nearly
confolidated into one fubftance, and arc covered by a com-
mon layer of convoluted veins, called the plexus retiformis.
The internal furface of the urethra is lined by a thin mucous
membrane, continuous- at one end with that of the bladshi*,
8 ... .3^^

KIDNEY,

and at the other with the lining of the pudenda. It is
m:irked by five or fix lonpiifidinal lines, in the intervals of
which muco»is lacnnx open in rows. There may be from
tour to feven orifices in each of the grooves, leading to
canals, which are continued obliquely into the fpongy tex-
ture of the uretiira, and capable of receiving briftlcs. On
the tumid edge ot the meatus urinarius two very lar^e linufes
open, capable of admitting the end of a probe. The (Iruc-
tiire of thefe organs refembles entirely that of the lacuna; in
the male urethra. The mucous fluid' fecretcd by them de-
fends the furface of the urethra from the irritation of the
urine : it icems alfo to be poured out more particularly in
coition, or imdcr the influence of (Irong deiires.

Befides the difference of length and fi/.e in the urethra of
the two fexes, arifing out of the additional fundion belong-
ing to this canal in the male, of conveying the fecundating
fluid into the vagina, the want of proftate in the female is
another remarkable diftiuClion. There is no foundation
whatever for ihc opinion of De Graaf concerning the female
prollate.

Fundions of the Unnary Bladder. — The urine fecreted, as
we have already obferved, inceffantly by the kidnies, is
tranfirtitted, without interruption, through the ureters into
the bladder, retained there for a certain length of time, and
then expelled by an operation under the controul uf the
will. The bladder, in it!^ empty ilatc, occupies a very fmall
fpace, is concealed entirely within the pelvis, and has its rc-
kitions to the furronnding organs reduced within a finali ex-
tent. Its contrafted coats are thick, but all of them are
not equally concerned in producing this ftate of the organ.
T!ie ferous coat, and the cellular layer, have nothing to do
with it ; and the mucous membrane, incapable of a quick
and confiderable contraction, fonns the numerous wrinkles
of the internal furface, which may be feen both in living
animals, and in the dead fubjett. The continued contradion
of the mufcnlar covering produces the ftate in which the
empty bladder is found ; and if its coats at this time are
thicker than ihofe of tiie ilomach and intelliiies ; it is be-
caufe the mufcular fibres are ilronger and more abundant.
At this time there is, properly fpeaking, no cavity of the
bladder. The urine, depolited drop by drop, dilates the
organ infenfibly, and makes it conlraCl new relations to the
iurroimding parts. Although this dillentioii takes place in
every direction, except towanls the front, it is mod fcnfible
in the long diameter, or from below upwards. Its bails
prelTes on the retlum in man, and the vagina in woman ;
but the natural limits which the connections of thele parts
offer, prevent it from extending much downwards. In the
oppofite direction there is no obltaclc to prevent its enlarge-
ment : it rifes freely above the pubcs, the mufcular coat is
dillended, the wrinkles of the mucous membrane are effaced,
and the whole organ is confequently rendered thinner.

The peculiar conformation of the ureters, at their entrance
into the bladder, accounts for the urine not returning along
thefe canals to the kidney. When the bladder is dillended
with urine or air, the ureters are compreffed between the
mucous and mufcular coats, in that portion which is included
between thefe coverings : aiwi the obftacle becomes more
complete, in proportion as the dillention of the bladder is
increafed. This mechanifm does not depend on any vital
properties : you may throw air or any fluid into the dead
bladder, through the urethra, but not a drop will gain ad-
milTion into the ureters ; force the injection, and the bladder
will burlt. Hence, when the urethra is impervious during
life, and the bladder is dillended far beyond its ufual dimcu-
fions, the ureters are continually adding to the collection,
itretclijngihe organ fo as to produce moll fevcre pains, and

ultimately caufing rupture. If the mufcular covering be
dilTefted away, fluids efcape immediately.

Thus, we have no difficulty in explaining why no urine
pafle« in a retrograde courfe into the ureters ; but the
eaufe, which prevetits it from entering the urethra, is not
equally obvious. Although this be the natural courfe, the
urinary fluid docs not pafs conllanlly tlirough the urethra,
as it does through the ureters : it is retained for a confider-
able time, both m man and in quadrupeds, and never efcapres
fpontaneoufly, in cither inftaiice, in the healthy flatc. After
a certain delay, a fenlc of inconvenience and pain produces
a voluntary mufcular exertion, by which it is expelled. As
there is an uninterrupted flow of urine into the bladder, why
does it not conllanlly efcape ? The voluntary aft, by
which we fuddenly interrupt the dream in micturition, or
refill an urgent defire to void the urine, is manifeflly the
contraction of the accelerator, which doles the bulb of
the urethra, and confequently intercepts the communication
between the bladder and the front of the canal. But we in-
quire the caufe which aCts perpetually, not only indepen-
dently of the will, but when we are not attending, evem
when we are aflcep, in preventing the urine from flowing
guttntim through the urethra, as it arrives from the ureters.
It is the more intcrelling to difcovrr tliis caufe, fince there
fcems to be in the bladder a natural tendency to contraction,
in virtue of its irritable powers. Hence, where a diredt
opening is made into its cavity, when the refilling power of
the neck is delloyed by paralyfis, or when an open catheter
is left in the urethra, the urine efcapes conflantly as it it
fecreted, and no accumulation takes phice in the bladder.
The effect cannot be produced by a fphinCter, obedient to
the adtion of the will, becaufe it takes place in an infant
unconfcious of the ufages of fociety and the laws of deco-
rum, and in an animal which has never been- trained to clean-
linefs. Both expel the urine at intervals, and in obedience
to a llimulus, which feems to be the natural motive of the
aCl. Moreover, the evacuation is fo far from being fponta-
neous, that it requires a confiderable effort.

Phyfiologilts have commonly referred the clofing of the
urethra to the fphinfter veficx mufcle, and have confidered
it analogous, in every refpeCl, to the fphinCter ani. But
this is unfatisfaftory, when the very exillence of the part, as
a mufcle, is queltioned. To the aCtion of this, which he
acknowledges to be inadequate to the effeCl, Haller join*
the relative pofition of the bladder and urethra. He ob-
ferves, that the inferior portion of the receptacle defcenda
below the level of the urethra, and may confequently be
dilated without the urine running off through that opening ;
and that a greater portion of the bladder is fo placed when
the organ is dillended. Hence, he adds, the bladder may be
dillended, m fome degree, in the dead iubjeft, before its con-
tents will efcape by the urethra. The French anatomift;s
feem to be of opinion that there is fome peculiar contradtile
and refilling power in the neck of the bladder : this is
termed in the Anatomic Defcriptive of Bichat, " le refforc
ou la refinance organique du col ;" t. v. p. 157. Boyer
fpeaks of the " habitual contradlion of the fibres furround-
ing the neck of the bladder, and the elallic force of the
neck and proftate." Traitc complet d'Anat. t. iv.
p. 493.

We do not pretend to explain clearly the exaft mode in
which this bulinels is effected. We fee no fphiixitcr nmfclc
adequate to the purpofe, and the cir£umltance noticed by
Haller will not at all account for the retention of the urhie
until the fundus of the bladder has afcqided far iiitq th<;
abdomen. We mull be contented to rccognifc the exill-
ence, without knowing the nature of a powerful contradtile
5 D / properly

K 1 D

property in the neck of the bladder, retaining tlie urine, in
ordinary circumftances, until the fenfe of inconvenience in-
duces us to make the reqiiifite voluntary exertion for its
evacuation, and, in paralyfis of the mufcular coat, and other
ftates of difeafe, holding it until the bladder, enormoudy
diftcnded, fphacelates and burfts. The advantages of this
arrangement, in enabhng us to retain the urinary fecretion,
until it has accumulated in confideieble quantity, and in fe-
curing us from the fetor, excoriation, and other annoyances,
which a conllant involuntary flow of urine produces, are too
obvious to need a more particular detail.

Does the retention of the urine in the bladder produce
any alteration in it's qualifies ? Phyfiologifts generally be-
lieve that the water is partly ahfoibed. The urine voided
at different times poffeffes, as we have already remarked, very
different properties : if, after emptying the bladder, we make
water again in a fhort time, it is almoft colourleis and in-
odorous ; allow a long time to elaple, and it will be high
coloured, acrid, and have a itrong imell. The latter pro-
perties particularly characterize what is voided after a night's
lleep. Thefe circumllances are moll eafily explained by the
agency of the lymphatics. The admixture of fecretions
from the furface of the bladder is another important fource
of modifications in the urine, particularly when the organ
is irritated or difeafed.

• The increafe in the quantity of urine accumulated in the
bladder produces an unpleafant feeling, which foon amounts
to pain, and ends, if the caufe continues, in the moft excru-
ciating agonies. Many circumllances influence the length
of time, during which the urine is retained, and the quan-
tity that may be accumulated before the defire to expel it is
felt. The qualities of the fluid, as being more or lefs irri-
tating, and the quantity fecreted in a given time, produce
confiderable differences : a much larger quantity can be re-
tained, when introduced gradually, than when fecreted very
fall. Habit has confiderable influence ; and hence women,
from the ufages of fociety, can generally i'upport a greater
diilention than men. The bladder itfelf, without any dif-
eafe, varies in its retentive power in the fame individual,
according to his Hate of health : the effecl of age is alio
very perceptible : the irritable bladder of the child empties
itfelf very frequently ; in advanced age the contrary is ob-
ferved. But the effedts of difeafe are more obvious and im-
portant ; in paralyfis, diilention produces no feeling, and the
natural ftimulus to evacuation does not take place. When
the organ is affefted by any irritating caufe, as the prelence
ef a llone, it will hardly bear a few drops of fluid.

The evacuation of the bladder is the joint efted of two
powers ; viz. the aftion of the refpiratory mufcles, and that
of the mufcular coat of the organ. By the firll we over-
come the refinance of the neck of the bladder; and the
operation is finifhed by the fecond. We begixi, as in all
fimilar eff'orts, by a deep infpiration ; then, retaining this
air in the cheft, we exert alfo the abdominal mulclcs. The
perpendicular pofition of the body fnbjefts the bladder, in
the mod favourable way, to the downward pielfure of the
diaphragm : the bufinefs is accomplilhed more difficultly
in the recumbent podure. The effort is always greater in
proportion to the diftention of the bladder : wlien the quan-
tity of urine is fmall, the exertion may be flight ; but infpi-
ration in all cafes precedes mifturition. A few drops, or a
very flender tlream, come through the urethra firll, proving
that the orifice of the bladder is very completely clofed in
the healthy flate. It then comes in a larger and larger cm--
rrnt, and with increafing force ; being propelled further in
yorung than in old fubjeft^. When it flows in a full
ftrtam, we remit the effort with which the operation began,
3

K I D

and continue refpiration in the ordinary manner : the process
is completed by the powers of the bladder, which force out
its contents in a continuous llream. We may ftiil increafe
the impetus by renewing the effort ; or we may projeft a
portion of the fluid more forcibly by the affiflance of the
accelerator urinx mufcle. Perhaps the contraftion of the
bladder is the moll important circumflance in the operation ;
for, when that is paralyfed, we put the refpiratory powers
in aftion without effeft. Diilention of the organ very much
weakens its expuliive power ; fo that, when we have re-
tained the urine beyond the proper time, we exert the abdo-
minal mufcles and diaphragm very violently for a confider-
able time without effecl.

Towards tlie end of mifturition, the urine again flows
guttatim, as at the beginning; and the lall portions are
thrown into the urethra with fo feeble an effort, that they
muil be expelled from that tube by the accelerator urinx.

Kidneys, Infammcition of. See Nepiikitls.

Kidneys, Calculus in. See Nephuatcia.

Kidneys of Birds and Vijhes. See Anatomy of Birds,
and Fisii.

KiDXEV-ifa«, in Gardening, a common name which is
often applied to a particular fort of bean. See Phaseolus.

KiDXEY'-A.''(in Tree, the common name of a particular kind
of tree. See Glycine.

KiDN'EY-iJrfri, the common name of a peculiar fort of
vetch. See Anthyi.lis.

KIDONIA, or ClDON'lA, in Geography, a province of
Crete, or Candia, which has retained the name of the ancient
city of the Cretans, produces oil, grain, cotton, tiax, filk,
honey, wax, fome fruits, and a tolerably large quantity of
cheefe : its territory is in general extremely fertile. The
nearefl mountains which lie to the fouth, being more tempe-
rate and more cool than the territory of Canea, yield a great
many fruits ; bur little wine, much oil, and fome wheat and
barley are produced in this province. See Candia.

KIDWELLY, or Cidwelly, a market town and parifh
of Caermarthenfhire, South Wales, is feated on the banks
of the river Gwandraeth, over which is a bridge, ccnnefting
two portions of the town called the new and old town. In
the year iSoo, the parifli contained 333 houfesand 1388 in-
habitants. Kidwelly has been for many ages a town of con-
fiderable traffic. " Its harbours were fo well frequented as
to render it the rival to Caermarthen ; tlie fifheries of this
port were confiderable ; its coal trade great, and it had be-
fides a flourifhing internal bufinefs in the clothing line.
But the conditon of the place has been for years on the de-
cline. By virtue of its charter, the affairs of the town are
regulated by a mayor, who is chofen annually. About the
middle of the fixtecnth century, Leland fpeaks of Caermar-
then having increafed in confcquence of the decay of Kid-
welly harbour, the entrance of which became fuddenly inter-
cepted by a dangerous fand-bank, driven up by the fea, that
prevented veflels of large burden from failing up the river
as before. It is worthy of remark, that this bar of fand,
after lying fo long in the fituation above-mentioned, as to al-
moll ruin the Kidwelly port, feparated, a few years back,
of its own accord, in the middle, and now affords afufliciont
depth of water for the veffcls commonly employed m the
trade of this part of the country to come up the river. The
old town, in the time of Leland, was nearly defolated, but
the walk furrounding it appears, from his words, to have
been entire, for he tells us, this part was " pretily waulid,"
and that he faw " three gates ther." The old town is at pre-
fent inconfiderable." The catlle, at one extremity of it,
ilands proudly elevated on an artificial mount, on the fide of
the marlhts. U is allowed to be the moil pcrfeft building^

K I E

K IE

KIEN-NING, a city of China, of the firft clafs, in the
province of I'o-kien. To its dillriCt belonjr eight cities of
the tliird clafs. It is fituated on the river Minhn, which
renders it a place of conliderable trade. At tlic time of the
conqucft of China by the Tartars, this city fullained two
'ieges, and refufed to fubmit to the power of theconque-

ftf the kind in Wale', and, according to Mr, Donovan, " is
certainly a magniiiecnt remain of ancient mihtary architec-
ture. There is an air of folemn majelly in its appearance,
that befpeaks a noble origin." In the fame author's " De-
fcriptive Excurlions," is a print of this calUe, and a long note
on the hiftory of the building controverts the alTertioiis of

Camden, Buck, and Grofe, who :.ffii m that '= Kidwelly ror ; but fomc time after it was taken, and all the inhabit
calUe was built loon after the coiiquelt by Maurice de Lon- ants were put to the Iword. It was afterwards re-eilabliihed
dres, ore of the Norman knights, who conquered Glamor, by the Tartars, who dellroyed it. N. lat. 27 c'. E. lone
ganlhire." Ir.llead of this, Mr. Donovan fays it was built 117 2'. ^'

m 1189, by Rhys, Prince of Wales. Since that time it has KIEN-TCHANG, a city of China, of the firfl clafs,
undergone various alterations and enlargements. The pre- in the province of Kiang-fi, iituated on the frontier"! of the
fent remains are carefully pn ferved from "' every fpecies of province of Fo-kien. It has five cities under its jurifdiftion.

I" the adjjcent country, which is fertile, the common rice is
ufed in making wine, and a reddiOi fort is ufcd by the richer
people for food. N. lat. 27 ' 35'. E. long. 1 18 20'.
KIEOU-CARPOU, a town of Corea ; 500 miles

ianton depredation." The ground plan is nearly quadran
gular, with four round towers at the angles ; and fmaller
towers in the walls. At the weft end is the chief entrance,
between two other round towers. Several of the apartments

are nearly perfeft. The prolpefts from the fummit "are E.N. E. of Peking,
uncommonly fine." KIEOU-KIANG,

Near the church, in the new town, was a priory, or cell in the province of Kiang-li, fituated on the S. fide of tli(

of Black monks. Donovan's " Defcriptive E.\curfions river Yang-tfe-kiang, or Kian-ku ; it has five cities undei

through South Wales," 2 vols. 8vo. 180J. its jurifdiction. This city is the rendezvous of all the

KIE, or Kii;ii, a town of Pcrfia, in the province of barks whicli pafs and repafs from the other cities of this

Mekran ; 100 miles NiN.E. of Kidge. N. lat. 27° 40'. province, and the provinces of Kiang-nan and Hou-quang

E. long. 60° 8. Although it is 300 miles diftant from thefea, falmoii, dol-

. town of China, of the firft clafs,

and llurgeon are taken in its river ; which ebbs and
very new and full moon. N. lat. 29" 53'. E. long.

miles E.S.E. of Chunar

lERADY, a town of Hindooftan,

in ijenares ;

15

KIERALI, a town of Turkilh Armenia, on the coall
of the Black fea, at the mouth of a river of the fame name ;
30 miles S.W. of Trebifond.

KIERE, a tosvn of Perfia, in the province of Irak;
20 miles S.E. of Cafbin.

KIERNOW, a town of Ruffian Lithuania; 2^ miles

KIEKERNES, a town of Pruflia, in the province of
Jamland, fituated on an ifland in the Rufs ; 19 iniles N.W.
of Tilht.

KIEL, a town of Sweden, in the lapmark of Afcle ;
5-5 miles S.S.E. of Afele.

Kiel, a town of the duchy of Holftein, fituated at
the bottom of a bay or gulf in the Baltic, and forming a
convenient harbour. It contains 800 houfes, three churches,
an univerfity founded in the year 1650 by Chriitian Albert,
duke of Holftein-Gottorp, and confiderably enlarged by
the late king. It contains 24 profelTors, and wlien Mr.
Coxevifited it about 300 lludents. It has alfo a college ef- N.W. of Wilna.
tablifhed in 1768. The profperity of this place very much KIERTEMINDE, a fea-port town of Denmark, in-
depends upon an annual refort to it of the nobility and perfons the ifland of Funen, on the fide of a large bay. The mer-
cf wealth in Holftein and Slefwick, for the transfer and dif- chants of Odenfee luive warehoufes in this town; eight
pofal of their monies; this pecuniary intercourfe ufually miles E.N. E. of Odenfee. N. lat. 55- 22'. E. long. 10 40'.
Med eight days, at which time was held a confiderable fair, KIESELSCHIEFER, in Miaerolosy, a Ipccies of

which commenced by the ringing of a bell on Twelfth-day, Hone, which, according to Werner, comprehends the iw)
and terminated in the fame manner on the eve of the Purifica- following fubfpecies, wz. the Si/iceous fckijliis of Kirwan,
tion. It was formerly one of the Hanfe towns, and the ftaple and the ia^n;/4• of the fame author. The principal colour
~ ' "" of the former is a(h-grey, blueilh or greenilh-grey, with

occalional fpots or ftripes of red, and is often crofTed by
of quartz. It occurs in mafs, forming whole beds.

for a)l goods exported from or imported to Denmark. The
didrid of Kiel is that portion of the ducliy of Holftein,
which dcfcended to the line of Hulltein-Gottorp, and be-
longed to Peter III. as part of his hereditary dominions, in fmooth rounded pieces. Internally it is dull, rarely fomc.
In 1773, the emprefs of Ruflia ceded it to liie king of Den- what glimmering. Its fra(Sure in the great is imperfectly
mark, in exchange for the counties of Oldenburgh and Del- flaty, and in the fmall intermediate between fplintery and
menhorft, which (he gave to the prince bilhop of Lubec. uneven, inclining fometimes to flat conchoidal. Its fnig-
This exchange was favourable to Denmark, as it pofTcHed ments are diarp-edged, indeterminate. It is opaque, oc-
the whole duchy of Holftein. For an account of the canal cafionaily fomew hat tranflucent on the edges It is hard,
of Kiel, fee Can'al. but not difficult to break, and is moderately heavy. Before

Kiel, Lake of, a lake of Norway, in the province of the blowpipe it becomes white and friable. It is found
Chritlarfand ; j6 miles N. of Chriftanfand. an.ong tranfition mountains, in thick beds, in Bohemia,

KIELEE, or KlALTZE, a town of Auftrian Poland, Saxony, Switzerland, the fouth of Scotland, and Siberia,
in the palatinate of Sandomirz, the fee of a bilhop ; 24 miles &c. Wiedcnmann fuppofes that this fubftance is argillii
E. of Malagoez.

KIELO, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak;
35 miles N.E. of Sultania.

KIEMI. See Kemi.

KIEN, a town on the E. coaft of the ifland of Ceram,
one of the M^ lucca iflands.

KIENG-HIEVER, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Irak; 39 miles S. S.W. of Hamadan.

containing a larger proportion than ufual of Clex. It i
of the numerous rock niaftes called by the Germans Horn,
fchiefer. The fecond fubfpecies is the bajanitc of Kirwan,
the Lydian ftone, or touch-ftonc. Its c lour is grcyi/h,
paffing intoblucifh-biack It occurs in mafs and in rounded
fragments, generally pcj etratcd by veins of quartz. Inter-
nally it is glimmerng. Its frafture is even, approaching to
conchoidal, and fometimes to fpliutcry : in mafs it is ge-
nerally

K I G

nerall)' (laty. Its fragments are indeterminate and fliarp.
edited, often trapezoidal. It is opaque, moderately hard,
and eaiily frangible. Sp. grav. 2. 4 to 2.8. It is found in
fnnilar fituations with the preceding. It is ufed, on account
of its hardnefs and colour, asa touch-ftone to afcertain the
comparative purity of the various kinds of gold and lilvcr
alloys. (See Touch stone.) Humboldt afcribes its
black colour to a portion of carbon See ScinsTL's.

KIEV, Kief, K'tof, or Kiow, in Geography, a govcrn-
meiit of Ruffia, bounded on t!ie N. and N.E. by the go-
vernment of Tchernigof, on the S.E. by the government of
Ekaterinoflav, on the S.W, and N.W. by Poland ; about
148 miles long and 60 broad ; fif.iated for the mod
part on the left fide of the Dnieper. Being part of the
Ukraine, or Little Ruffia, it was once a duchy belonging
to the great dukes, and Kief was their principal refidence.
This country was conquered by the Tartars, and came again
into the pofTeflion of tlie great dukes ; but was afterwards
over-ran and poffefled by the ColTacks, under the protection
of Poland. In 1654, the natives, difcontented with John
Cafimir, king of Poland, fubmitted to Ruffia, and have ever
fince continued fubje.t to that empire. The vaft privileges
enjoyed by the natives have been gradually aboliflied, and
they are now reduced to the fame ilate as the other pro-
vinces of the Ruffian empire. The country is a continued
plain, very fertile, and producing abundance of grain and
pafture, honey, flax, tobacco, &c. Its capital is Kiev or
Jviof.

Kiev, Kief, or Kiof, the capital of the above go-
vcrnment, and of the dillrift belonging to it, is fituated on
the Dnieper, which fee. It confills of three fmall towns,
■'.iz. thecaftle of Petfhcrflcy, with its fuburbs ; the old city
of Kiev; and the town of Podol, which lies below the latter.
All thefe are partly inclofed by a common fortification, and
comnuinicate by a large entrenchment, carried on as the
inequality. of mountains would allow. The firft mentioned
caiUe Hands on an eminence facing the fouth ; and, befides bar-
racks for the garrifon, magazines, officers' houfes, and fouie
churches, includes a rich and ilatcly monaftery, founded in
the eleventh century, and called " Petfherflvy," becaufe the
monks formerly lived in a " petfhera,*' like a cavern, on
the mountain where the convent now ftands. In its fubter-
raneou« vaults, which refemble a labyrinth, and confiftof cells,
chapels, &c. are found great ntmibers of undecayed bodies,
fuppofed to be the remains of faints and martyrs. The
old city of Kiev ftands on an eminence -facing the north,
and is fortified, according to the mountainous nature of the
country, with horn-works, &c. Here ftands the cathedral.
Podol lies below old Kiev, in the plain on the banks of the
.Dnieper, and befides the univerfity, churches, and convents,
entirely confifts of fliops and Iradcfmen's houfes. This city
is the fee of a Greek aichbiftiop ; 420 miles E. of Cracow'.
N. lat. 50' 32'. ,E. long. 30^ 56'.

KIEUSK, a town of Natclia ; 40 miles N.N.W. of
Mogla.

KIEZVENSKOE, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Perm ; 80 miles N. of Perm.

KIFANTAN, a town of Bootan ; 64 miles N. of
Dinagepour.

KIFFER, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, about 20
miles in circumference, near the north coaft of the ifland of
Timor. S. lat. 8' o'. E. long, i iCy 20'.

KIFTELAK, a town of Hungary ; 18 miles N.W. of
Zcgedin.

KIGELGA, one of the Fox-iflands, which fee. N.
J»t. /4°. E. long. .194'' 28'.

K I G

KIGGELARIA, in Botany, was named by Linn»«i
in honour of Francis Kiggelar, a Dutchman, who imported
many new and rare plants into Europe from America, and
who publiQied the Hortus Beaunionlianus in 1690, and ob-
fervations on Commelins Hortus Amjidodamenfis in 1697 —
Linn. Gen. ,-28. Schieb. 697. Mart. Mid. Dic^. v. :;.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v 3. 409. Juffi 387. Lamarck. Dift.
v. 3. 36). Illuftr. t. 821. Gacrtn. t. 44. — Clafs and or-
der, Dioecia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Columr.ifers, Linn.
Euphorbia, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Pjsrianth of one leaf, concave, di-
vided into five lanceolate, concave fegments. Cor. Petals
five, lanceolate, concave, a little longer than the calyx, and
forming with it a fort of cup ; neftary of five fmall, obtufely
three-lobed, deprefled, coloured glands, the middle lobe
larger ; each gland attached to the claw of a petal. Stam.
Filaments ten, very fniall ; anthers oblong, fiiorter than the
calyx, opening at the tips by two perforations. — Female,
Cal. and Cor. as in the male. PiJ}. Germeii fuperior,
roundifh ; ftylcs live, limple ; ftigmas obtule, (lightly cloven.
Peric. Capfule leathery, globofe, rough, of one cell,' and iwit
valves. Seeds numerous, about eight, roundilh, afterwards
angulated, each covered with a tunic.

Eir. Ch. Male, Calyx five-cleft. Corolla of five petals ;
glands five, three-lobed. Anthers perforated at the tips.
Female, Calyx and Corolla like the male. Styles live.
Capfule of one cell, live valves, and many feeds.

I. K. afriama. Linn. Sp. PI. 1466.' Hort. Cliff. 462^
t. 29.— A native of the Cape of Good Hope. It flowers
in May and June, and was cultivated, fo early as 1690, in
the Royal Garden at Hampton Court. This tree generally
rifes to the height of fix or feven feet. Stems ftroiig ai d
woody. The bark of the branches is at firil fmooth and
green, but afterwards purplifli. Leaves on footftalks, alter-
nate, lanceolate, ferrated, fpreading. On the male plant,
panicles of Jloiuers appear on branched ftalks, with white
petals and yellow ncClaries ; on the female, each flower
ftands on a fimple ftalk. Capfule rugged, and pubefcent on
the outlide, containing a reddifli or rully-coloured pulp, in
which the f-eds are imbedded. The fruit has attained its
full fize in Chelfea Garden, but the feeds rarely cume to ma.
turity in this country.

KlGGEL.>\uiA, in Gardening, comprifes a plant of the
ever-green fhrubby kind, which is the African kiggelaria,
(K. Africana.)

Method of Culture. — Plants of this fort may be increafcd
by feeds, layers, and cuttings; but the feed method is the
beft, as they root but fparingly in the other two modes.

The feeds fliould be ibwn in the early autumn, in pots
filled with frefh loamy earth, being plunged in a hot-bed.
After they have a few inches growth, they fhould be re-
moved into feparate fmall pots, re -plunging them in the hot-
bed ; and when well rooted, they ought to be gradually
hardened to the effects of the open air. The layers fhould
be made from the young flioots of the fame year, putting
them down in the fummer months. *

The cuttings of the young fhoots fliould be planted in the
fpring, immediately before the plants begin to Ihoot, in pots
filled with foft loamy earth, being plunged in a very mo-
derate fiot-bed, and covered with glalTes to exclude the air ;
due fhade being afforded, and but little water given after the
fifft planting. Such plants as ilrike root may be removed .
into feparate fmall pots of loamy earth, and be expofed to
the air, in a warm ftieltered fituation, until the autumn,
when tliey fhould be placed under the protedion of the
green-houle, and managed in the fame mode as orange
trees.

Thefe

K I L

TFiefe plants afford variety among other plauts of the
green-houfe kind, that are in pots.

KIGLEY, or KiGiiLEV, in Geography. SlC Keioh-
rF.Y.

KIJASA, a mountain of Thibet; 25 miles S.E. of
Giti.

KIKACCO, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Congo ; JO miles S.E. of Pango.

KIKALA, a town of &>veden, in South Finland; 40
miles E.S.E. of Abo.

KIKIANY, one of the fmall Japanefe iflands. N. lat.
29" 40'. E. long. 1^2 35'.

KIKOV", a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 15
miles S.E. of Iwata.

KIKUKOVI, a to>vn of Rnfiia, in tlie government of
Tiibolfe, on the Tchutim ; 64 miles N.W. of Atchinlk.

KIKUTZ, a town of Japan, in the ifland »f Xinio ; 15
miles N.N.E. of Udo.

KIL, a town of Sweden, in the prOTince of Warmeland ;
12 miles S. of Chriflinehanm.

KIL AN, a province of the fouth-callern part of Great
Bi'.charia, deriving its name, like the other provinces of this
coimtry, from its chief city.

KILANG. See Kelaxg.

KILANOI, a town of Sweden, in Well Bothnia; 105
miles N. of Tornca.

KILAR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ; 14
miles S.E. of Taheran.

KILBARCHAN, a fmall town of Renfrewftire, about
4 miles N.W. from Paifley, and nearly the fame dillance
from Renfrew. Kilbarchan is a thriving place, chiefly in-
habited by the tradefpeople employed in the various pro-
cefTes of the extenfive cotton manufactures carried on
through the whole of this diftrift. There are alio confider-
abie manufaclories of Scotch thread eftabliflied here.

KILBEGGAN, a po.t-town of the county of Weft-
meath, Ireland, which, before the union, had the privilege
of fending members to the houfe of commons. It is a fmall
town, on the river Brofna, and is remarkable for two old
monafteries. It is on the road from Dublin to Galway ;
44 miles W. from Dublin, and 15 E. from Athlone.

KILBIRNIE, a village of Renfrewihire, near Beith,
where there is a fine loch or lake of water. It is a populous,
thriving, little place, engaged, like moil others in that part
of the country, in the manufaftures of cotton goods and
thread.

KILBRIDE, East, is a fmall village in Lanarkfhire,
about 10 miles S.E. from Glafgow. It is remarkable for
fome Roman antiquities, which have engaged the attention
of antiquarians, who have pubhflied detailed accounts of
various curioiities found and dug up in this neighbourhood.
At prefent the great quantities of fine lime, which are
worked in its neighbourhood, engage a confiderably greater
portion of attention, as it is found of great advantage to the
whole furroundmg dillricl, both for the purpofes of agri-
culture and building.

Kilbride, Wejl, is a fmall village contiguous to the
firtli of Clyde, in Ayrlhire.

KILBURG, a town of France, in the department of
the Jarre, and chief ],-lace of a canton, in the diltrift of
Prum. The place contains 561, and the canton 4307 in-
habitants, in 26 communes.

KILCH, in Ichthyology, a name ufed by fome for a
fpcciei of hill of the albula kind, caught in the lakes of Ger-
many, of a fine firm fleftl and delicate flavour, and fcems
Tery li-'le, if at all, different from the ferra.

klLCOCKj in Geography, a poft-iown of the county of

K I L

KUdarc, province of Leinfter, Ireland, fituated upon the
rivir Blackwater. It is a fmall town, 14 miles W. by Ni
from Dublin, on the road to Mullingar.

KILCOKNELL, a fmall potl-town or village of the
county of Galway, Ireland ; 7S miles W. from Dublin, and
almoll 2j E. from Galway.

KILCULLEN, or KiLCUiLEN-BRincE, a poft-town
of the cotnity of Kildare, province of Leinller, Ireland,
fituaied on the river Liffey, over which it has a bridge. It
is on the great fouthern road from Dublin, in confequcnce
of which its inns are mucli frequented. One mile and half
fouth of it is the village of Old Kilcu len, where is a church, .
and refident clergyman. Here is a round tower, not ex-
ceeding JO feet in height ; and tlie (haft of a crofs, of a
fingle Hone, 10 feet higlu KJcuUeu-bridge is 3a miles
S.W. from Dubhn. Cariifle.

KILDA, St., or Hiiita, a remote ifland among the
Hebrides, or weftern iflands of Scotland. It is feated m
the Northern ocean, at the diilance of about 60 miles from
Harris, and 160 miles from the nearelk point of the main
land of Scotland. This ifland is fmall, being only three
miles in diameter from eall to well, and tvvo miles in a tranf-
verfe direction : the whole circumference is about ten miles..
It is nearly furrounded with a perpendicular face of rock,
which rifes to a confiderable elevation ; a fmall bay or land-
ing-place is found to the fouth-call. Mr. Macaulay, the
hillorian of this ifland, fay?, it " may be ranked among the
greateil curiofities of the Britifli empire. The lituation of
the place, the genius of the inhabitants, their maimers and
cuiloms, the conftitution of their little commcmwealth, that

dexterity with which they manage the moll im-
portant branches of their bufincfs, that unexampled courage
with which they encounter dangers infurmountable to any
other race of men, and that perhaps happy ignorance which
renders them abfolute ilrangers to thofe extravagant defirea
and endlefs purfuits which keep the great and active world
in a conftant agitation ;— all theie, and fome other extra-
ordinary circumllances, taken together at one view, feem
highly to merit the attention of the inquifitive." The fur-
face of the ifland is moftly rocky : in fome places are patches
of mofs, and in others grafs. The foil, though in many
places well adapted to corn, is chiefly employed in pailure ;
as the inhabitants are rather averfe to agricultural purfuits.
In the vicinity of the village a little corn is cultivated, and
the pailure is richly manured. Barley and oats are only
fown : potatoes and cabbages, and fome other garden plants,
have recently been introduced into the ifland. Several
fprings ifl"ue from the hills, and form two fmall ilreams
which run into the fea on the eail and on the well. The
village confills of two rows of houfes, which are fituated
about a quarter of a mile from the bay, and contains all the
inhabitants of Kilda. In the year 1 764, when Macaulay
publilhed his Hillory, the ifland contained only 88 perfons ;
but he aflerts that a contagious diflemper (the fmall-pox)
" fwept away the greateil part of the people about four-
and-thirty years ago." Martin found 180 perfons, when
he vilited the ifland at the time here alluded to, .;. f. 1690.
The dwellings are all low, common huts, or cottages ; di-
vided into two rooms each, and peculiarly flat in the roof.
One of the apartments is appropriated to the dwelling and
fleeping of the inhabitants, and the otlicr for the cattle
during winter. In thefe rooms they prepare the chief ma-
nure tor the lands. Befides thefe cottages, there are feveral .
cells or (lorehoufes in different parts ot the ifland. Thcfc,
are compofed wholly of Hones, and are from lito I S feet
in length, by 7 feet in breadth and height. Fowl, eggs,
and flieep are the pvincipal objects oJ care and-Xulidlude 'o

UkC.

K I L

the Kildeans, who entirely fupport tliemfelves, and pay
tlieir rents with thefe. The inhabitants manifell particular
fl<ill and courage in obtaining the firft : for as their places of
refort for rearing their young, for roofting, &c. are recefll-s
in the lofty cliffs on the coalt, it requires particular adroit-
nefs and courage to reach fuch ipots. A fowling party
confifts of four men, who are provided with a ftrong rope
made from thongs of raw cow-hide. One end of this is faf-
teued on the top of the cliff, whilfl two men defcend by
means of the rope to various cliffs in the rock, where they
fearch for eggs and young birds. Among thefe, the foland
goofe or gannct is deemed the moll valuable prize.

The laird of Macleod is proprietor of this ifland, and its
<lependants, rocks, S:c. He fends his fteward annually to
i.oileft the rents, which are paid in (lieep, butter, chcefe,
a'.id wild-fowl. Around the ifland are feveral fmall infulated
rocks, which are often covered with wild-fowl. Fluors,
fpars, and rock cryftals are found on the north fide of the
ifland. This infulated fpot was certainly vilited by religious
perfons at a remote period. Macaulay defcribes a circular
arrangement of upright Hones, which he calls a Druidical
temple ; with other remnants of pagan worfhip and monallic
rites. See his Hiftory of St. Kilda, Svo. 1764.

KILDARE, a county in the province of Leinfter, Ire-
land, bounded on the north by Meath, on the eaft by
Dublin and Wicklow, on the fouth by Carlow, and on the
well by the King's county and Queen's county. It ex-
tends from north to fouth 33 Irifh (40^ Englifh) miles,
and from eafl to well 21 Irifli (26^ EngUfh) miles, forming
an area of 242,245 plantation acres, or 369 fquare miles,
equal to 389,198 Engliih or llatute acres. Of thefe, there
are 41,035 acres of beg. The number of parifhes is Rated
by Dr. Beaufort to be 113 ; of which, 57 pariflics belong
to the fee of Dublin, and 56 to that of Kildare. From
unions tliere are, however, only 39 benefices, and 23
churches. The number of houfes flated in the return ufed
by Dr. Beaufort is 11,205, from which the inhabitants are
eiliraated at 56,000. This is a thin population for a county
lo near the capital, and not at all encumbered with moun-
tains or high hills : but belides the great proportion of bog
it contains, upwards of 3000 acres are occupied by the
Curragh ; and although this beautiful plain affords pallure to
an immenfe number of fheep, there are but a very few
habitations fcattered around its edge;. This county is
raoftly tlat, of fine arable foil, but much exhaulled, as,
from its vicinity to Dublin, it has been for centuries the
county from which the capital has principally drawn its
fupplies of grain. " In a county where one-fifth is bog,''
lays Mr. Rawfon in his Survey, " much water mull lie on
the furface : this, of courfe, attrafts the rain from every
pafling cloud. It may be remarked in the fummer feafon,
that wliere a cloud paffes over an extenlive bog or river, it is
arrclled and drawn down. This caufes the county to be
fubjeft to more moiflure than any in Ireland; and this evil
mull continue until the kingdom be relieved by a general
drainage aft, which ihall compel floihful occupiers and pro-
prietors to come forward, and contribute to fuch extenlive
drainingp, on a great public fcale, as the le^illature may in
its wifd )m direft, according to the benefit to be derived by
Bach eflatc or property, through which fuch drains fliall be
pointed out." Since the preceding remarks were written,
au act of parliament has been paiTed, and fums of money
granted, for afcertaining the nature and extent of the various
large trails of bog in Ireland ; and the reports of the en-
gincers employed contain much valuable information. For
this tlep, preparatory to a more efl'eitive meafure, if the
Jegiflature Ihall be uiduccd to proceed, the country is in-

K I L

dehted, as for many other advantages, to the right honour-
able John Poller, late chancellor of the Irilh exchequer; — 3
gentleman who, though now often loaded with reproaches
from a fpirit of party, will in future times be numbered
amongll the greatefl benefadlors of Ireland. The county
of Kildare is full of fpringsand rivulets, The river Barrow
forms its fouth-well boundary, and receives the Grees.
The Liffey takes a circular courfe through the north-
eafl of the county, and the river Boyne rifes in the bog of
Allen. The Barrow is navigable from Athy, where it
meets the Grand Canal, which, from Dublin, palfes through
this county, croffing the Liffey on an aq\icdu<l bridge, and
foon after branches off. Near Claine is a collateral cut te
the Shannon. The Royal Canal alfo has been carried
through the northern part of the county, fo that great ad-
vantage is derived to the inhabitants from the cheap con-
veyance of their produfts to market. The principal towns
are Naas, the afiize town, Athy, Moualferaven, and Kil-
dare ; for account of which, fee the articles under the refpec-
tive names. As there is no borough of fufficient extent to
return a member to parhament, the county is reprefented
by the two knights of the fliire only ; whilll, before the
union, it had ten members. Kildare was part of the terri-
tory acquired by earl Strongbow, in right of his wife, Eva,
daughter of Dermot, king of Leiniler. From its neigh-
bourhood to Dublin it was early colonized, and formed part
of the Englifh pale, when confined to four counties. There
are in it the ruins of many caftles and abbeys, fome of which
are mentioned in otlier parts of this work. It was alfo the
fcene of much diflrefs during the rebellion of 1798; many
battles having been fought in it, and a vail number of houfes
deftroyed, both by the rebels, and by the military force
fent to fubdue them. Beaufort's Memoir. Rawfon's Sta-
tiftical Account.

Kildare, a pofl-town of the county of Kildare, Ireland.
It is a fmall and ruinous place, but it retains fome vefligcs of
having been of more importance in former times. There is
a very fine round tower 130 feet high, and the ruins of two
abbeys and of its cathedral. Except %vhen there are races
or encampments on the Curragh, which is very near it, it
has no trade. It is 25 miles W.S.W. from Dubhn.

KiLD.\UE, a bilhopric in the province of Dubhn, founded
about the end of the 5th century. It comprehends part
of three counties, -ytx. Kildare, King's county. Queen's
county, and contains 332,200 plantation acres, which are
dii'ided into Si parifhes. The crown is patron of 27,
the bifhop of 30, and different laymen of 24 parifhes.
In confequence of unions, however, there are but 3 i bene-
fices, and 28 churches. The bifhop has no place of refi-
dence in his diocefe, but being always dean of Cbriil-church,
Dublin, refides in or near that capital. Beaufort.

KILDERKIN, a kind of liquid meafure, which contains
two firkins, or eighteen gallons, beer-meafure, and fixtcen
ale-meafure.

Two kilderkins make a barrel, and four an hogfliead.

KILDORRERY, in Gt-osra^by, a fmall polt-town of
the county of Cork, province ot Munller, Ireland; 107
miles S.W. from Dublin.

KILDUIN, a fmall ifland in the North fca. N. lat. 69^
E. long. 34 14'.

KILDYSART, a fmall pofl-town of the county of
Clare, province of Munfler, Ireland, on the river Shannon ;
122 miles S.W. from Dublin.

KILEF, a town of Great Bucharia, in the country of
Balk, on the left fide of the Gihon ; 60 miles N.W. of
Balk. N. lat. 37° 10'. E. long. 64'^ 30'.

KILFIT, A fea-port town of Nubia, on the Red fea,

with

K I L

■■^ith a harbour, feven miles in circumference, fafe from winds.
N. lat. 2i"4(;'. E. long. ^6' 40'.

KILGRUND, a fmairifland on tlieE. fide of the gulf
•of Bothnia. N. lat. 62^ 5'. E. long. 21° 4'.

KILI A, or Kn.i.\-NovA, a town of European Turkey,
in the province of Beffarabia, at the mouth of tlie Danube,
near the Black fea ; 20 miles E.N.E. of Ifmail. N. lat.
45 2'?'. E. long. 30" 12'.

KILIOS, a town of Afiatia Turkey, in Natoha, on the
<oaft of the Black fea ; 20 miles W.S.W. of Amafich.

KILK.A.RE. a town of Hindooftan, in Marawar ; 10
miles S.W. of Ramanadporum.

KILKE ALE, a poll-town of Ireland, in the county of
Down, and province of UHter. It is iiluated on the Irilh
fea, under the iSIaurne mountains, great part of which are
jn the panih of Kilkeale. It is 6: miles N. by E. from
DuWin.

KILKENNY, the name of a county of Ireland, in the
•province of Leinller. The furface of it extends from J2 14'
to52- j'z' N. lat. and from 6 56' to y 37' W. long from
Greenwich. Its greateft length from N. to S. from the
.Slewmagy hills to the Suire is 36 Iriih (4,1 Englidi)
miles; and its greateil breadth from E. to W. is about 19
■Iriili (24 Enghfh) miles, but in the narrowell part is not
above 1 2 miles. The area, according to Dr. Beaufort, is
300,3^0 Iridi, equal to 482,464 Englifli I'cres ; but Mr.
Tigiie, in his valuable ttatiltical furvey, frcm which this ar-
ticle is chiefly e.'itracted, fays, that by a furvey lately made
for the ufe of the grand jury, they are ftated at 31^,249
Irifh, which are equal to 510,882 Enghfh acres. The po-
pulation, as calculated with great care from the hearth returns
in 1800, is about 108,000 in 17,212 houfcs. Dr. Beau-
fort, however, in 1792, llated the houfes as 17,569, though
he did not make the inhabitants exceed 100,000 ; and he
obferves that the houfes are much fewer than what might
be expedled in a county which has been generally elleemed
one of the mofl: populous in Ireland. The latter writer
ttates the number of paridies to be 127, of which 121,
united in 45 benefices, are in the diocefe of OITory, and the
i^maining iix, forming four benefices, in that of LeighUa.
The entire number of churches in the county is ouly 31, a
very confiderable proportion of the population being Ro-
man Catholic. The pofition of a country ihongly aiiecrts
the climate. Tliis is agreeably experienced in this county.
The declivity from the northern to the fouthcrn boundary
is' about 500 feet, which conveys, with fufficient rajaiJity,
the water that falls upon the furface ; and the river Nore
flowing through the centre, defcends about 13 feet during
the run of a mile. Befides this defccnt, which carries oif
the water, the furface of the county enjoys a favourable
fxpofure to the fou:h-ea(l. There is little cither of bog or
mardi to contain llagnant water, and the greater part of the
fubdratum is limcdone, brittle fchiftus, or porous argilli:c,
and only in a fmallpart, a retentive clay. The vicinity of
the ocean tends to render the climate mild, while the clouds,
whicli are driven forward by the wellern and fouth-wellern
winds, are not arreiled here by higli mouutaius, but pulfing
over the low fecondary hills and extended plains of this
couiity, arc attraded towards llie lofty and primary ranges
of rocks which nle on the north-eall. From thefe circuin-
Jlances the crops are earlier in general than m the tillage
countries to the nortliward. The quality of the foil is in
general excellent. The northern part rather bears the ap-
pear.ince of poverty, but bv judicious management, and the
prudent appl.cation'of hme and limeftonc gravel, it may be
rendered connderabiy productive in co.-n and grafs. The
Vux. XIX.

K I L

fouthern part is more favoured by nature ; and where tiic
hiila fubfide into plains or vallies, fertility fmiles in all its
native excellence. The Nore exhibits upon its banka tlie
moll delightful profpedls and the mod luxuriant fields. It
is not difficult to trace the nature of the different minerals
in this county. Here is a termination of a chain of granite
hills which take their rile in Wicklow. The Hone which
ufually joins the granite, appearing to be impofed on it, is
filiceous fchillus, and lower down occurs argillaceous flate ;
ou the furface of the lower grounds are found large boulders
of quartz, fometimcs pure white, fometimes lireakcd witli
red, and fometimes enclofing yellow mica. In this granitL-
diilricl are alfo found a few beds of inarle and limeftone
gravel near the foot of Brandon hill. Many of the lower
hills confiil of filiceous breccia, which is eompofed of n
filicious cement enveloping rounded pebbles of quartz,
which have often a reddilh tinge, and <ire from the fize of
a pea to two of three inches diameter. Such a breccia alio
forms many liills in the S. of Ireland, as the Galtees and
other mountains in Cork and Limerick, and at lead part of
Magiliicuddy's rocks in Kerry. This breccia, when of a
fine grain, is worked for milldones. In the northern part of
the county are excellent quarries for flags, efpecially that of
Shankill. The flags railed here are fent to Dublin, Cork,
and otlier places, where they chiefly go under the denomi-
nation of Carlovv flags, being raifed in the neiglibourliooJ--
of that county, and modly lent through the town of Car-
low. The collieries of Cadlccomcr have been worked for
about a century, and are yet uuexhauded. The coal found
in them, and in other parts of the S. of Ireland, is un-inflam-
mable, and is called Stone coal and Kilkenny coal, alid when
of inferior quahty, culm. By Mr. Kirwan's analyfis it
contains 97.3 per cent, of pure carbon. Mr. Tiglie has
given a very full account of the accompanying ilrata, the
manner of working, the expence, &c. The late lord Wan-
desford ufed to clear 6000/. or 7000/. a-year by thefe col-
lieries, and fometimes more. Tlity now belong to lady
Ormonde. The excellent qualities of the Kilkenny coal
are well known in Ireland ; ou this account it is font to the
north and the fouth, to Londonderry, to Belfall, to Cork,
and to Watcrford, as well as to Dublin. No fuel dries malt
fo well, and this without any preparation ; it is excellent for
the forge, and for mod works in iron ; in every n.anufatlure
where lltady heat is required devoid of fmoke it cannot be
excelled ; nor does it dirty the flues where it is ufed.
Manganefe, iron ore, lead ore, and fome indications of
copper ore, are perceived iii different parts. As long as
timber laded near Cadlecomcr, iron ore was fmelted there ;
but it is now above feventy years fince the forges have been
ufed. In the limedone didridl of this county aremany va-
luable marble quarries. The marble is black, though often
with white marks, which appear more drong.y, or increafe by
long expofure to the air. That wliich approaches neared to
black is mod valued. It contains a great variety ot impreflions,
of madrepores, of bivalve, and of turbinate fliells. By
analyfis, a fpecimen of the kind moll ufual in chimney-
pieces with marks of bivalve dieils, contained 98 per cent.
foluble in marine acid, and left 2 per c^nt. of a black pow-
der, which appeared to be carbon, and burned without leav-
ing any allies. On tiie whole, Kilkenny marble may be
confidered as containing 97 per cent, pure carbonate of limi,
two per cent, carbon, and 1 per cent, magncfia and iron, of
which the former is in the larged proportion. This marble
is a valuable article of commerce. The quantity exported,
DOtwithdaiiding the difadvantage of land carriage, is about
50 tons annuallv j if a canal were made it would copfidei-
5 E at!/

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ably iiicreafe the demand, by lowering the price. There is
a mill near Kilkenny, by which the marble is fawed and po-
lifhcd, which makes the price of chimney-pieces on the fpot
very reafonable. There h a chalybeate ipa at Ballyfpel'lin,
near Johnftown, the medical efferfs of which have been often
celebrated, and which is much frequeiited. The rivers of
this county excel both in utility and beauty. The following
poetical account of them by the immortal Spenfer prefents
an accurate, concife, and clear account of the origin, ter-
mination, and quahties of the three principal ones.

" And there the three renowned brethren were,
Which that great giant Blomius begot

Of the fan- nymph Rheiifa wand'ring there.
One day as Ihe to fhun tlie feafon hot,
Under Slewbloome in fhady grove was got,

Tiiis giant- found her, and by force deflowered;
Whereof conceiving flie in time forth brought

Thefe three fair fons, which being thenceforth poured

In three great rivers ran, and many countries fcoured.

The firft the gentle Shure, that making way

By fweet Clonmell, adorns rich Waterford ;
The next the ftubborn Ncwre, whofe waters grey

By fair Kilkenny and Roffe-ponte board;

The third, the goodly Barrow, which doth hoard
Great heaps of falmon in his deep bofom :

All which long fundred, do at lall accord
To join in one, ere to the fca they come.
So flowing all from one-, all one at laft become.''

The 5uir, which divides Kilkenny from Waterford, in a
winding and majeftic courfe of about i6 miles, conveys
along the fouthern border of this county, the trade that
paffcs between Waterford, Carrick, and Clonmell. The
Barrow fliirts the eatlern borders for about 20 miles, di-
viding it from Wexford and part ofCarlow. This river is
navigable to the town of Carlow, and thence communicates
with the grand canal. The Newre, or Nore, more peculiarly
belongs to this county, flowing nearly through its central
part, in a winding courfe of not lefs than 36 miles from
tlie neighbourhood of Durrow to its junftion with the
Barrow, pafliiig by the city of Kilkenny. This laft river
receives many tributary flreams, and is navigable for fmall
vefTels to Iniltioge. It is unneceifary to enter into a minute
detail of the obvious advantages of thefe rivers, both to the
external appearance of the country and to the accommoda-
tion of the inhabitants. The natural and local advantages
of this county tend to promote the interells of agriculture,
which flourifh in great perfeftion in diflierent places, and the
eafy conveyance by water affords a ready market for all the
produftions of the foil. The roads in general are in good
repair, and their fituation judicioudy chofen.

The county town is Kilkenny ; befides, Callan, Iniftioge,
Tluimaftown, Gowran, Knocktopher, Graignc Durrow,
Cafl;lecomer, and Frefliford, are entitled to the name of
townsj though all of them are fmall ones. There are five
round towers in this county, namely, at St. Canice, TuUo-
herin, Kilree; Fartagli, and Aghaviller. The lall is the
moll ruinous. Thefe are all fituated clofe to the churches,
and whatever may have been their origin, appear adniir-
ably fitted for belfries. Graraig, or Grandifon calUe, is one
of the moil confiderable remains of antiquity ; it is fituated
on the banks of the river Suir. The whole county is full
of callles, having been one of the firll in which the Englilh
fettled. It became part of the property of earl Strong-
bow, from whom ifdefcendcd to the Marcfchals, earls of

K I L

Pembroke. Ifabella, one of the daughters and coheirelTes
of William, the laft earl, conveyed it to Gilbert Clare, earl of
Gloucefter and Hereford. The greater part of it after-
wards came into poflefiion cf the Butlers, carls and
dukes of Ormond. The lioufes of fome of the abfentecs
bear evident marks of decay ; thefe, however, are outweighed
by the modern ftrudlures, many of which are ornamented
by the tafte of the proprietors. Tighe's Kilkenny ; Beau-
fort's Memoirs; Robertfon's Traveller's Guide.

Kilkenny, a city of Ireland, in the county of the fame
name, and province of Leinlter, which, with the borough
of St. Canice, forms cue large town, furrounded by a dif-
trift, called the county of the city of Kilkenny ; it is de-
lightfully fituated on the river Nore, over which are two
handfome bridges ; it contains 2870 houfes, and a popula-
tion of nearly 16,000. There are nisny large and good build-
ings, among which, the moft remarkable are the biftiop's
palace, the magnificent caftle of the earl of Ormond, and
the celebrated free fchool or college, where many learned
men, among whom Swift, Berkeley, and Congreve are con-
fpicuous, were educated. The inhabitants of Kilkenny
have been long noted for the po'.itenefs of their manners.
In this city and its environs abundance of blankets and
much coarfe woollen cloth are manufadlured. Kilkenny
was formerly reprefented by four members, two for the
city, and two for the borough of St. Canice. At prefent
it has only one reprefentative. In former times parliaments
were often held here, and the famous conftitutions of Kil-
kenny, made when Lionel, duke of Clarence, was chief go-
vernor, in the reign of Edward III., long conti) ned to be
regarded as of the utmoll importance to tlie welfare of the
Englifti colony. Kilkenny was alfo the feat of the Catho-
lic council during the civil war, that fucceeded the in-
furreftion cf 1641. There are but two churches in the
city, but there are feveral Roman Catholic chapels, each of
which has congregations more numerous than both the
churches. Kilkenny is ^j^ miles S.W. from Dublin.
N. lat. 52° 38'. W. long. 7 15'. Beaufort. Tighe.

KiLKEMNY, a town of America, in Grafton county.
New Hampfhire, incorporated in 1774, and containing 18
inhabitants.

Kilkenny' Cenl. See Coal, and K11.KT.V sy, fupra.

Kilkenny Marhk, a fine black marble full ot iheils,
and coralloid bodies, and much ufed in chimney-pieces.
Sec. See Coralloid Marble, and Kilkenny.

KILKERRAN Bay, mGeography, aharbourof Ireland,
in the county of Galvvav, in that part of it called Connamara ;
in it there is good anchorage for vefTels of any burden, but
the wild Hate of the country prevents its being of mucii
ufe. Its entrance is in N. lat. 53^ jj'. W. long, g" ^o'.
Beaufort. M'Kenzie.

KILKILA, a town of Perfian Armenia ; 26 miles N.W.
of Kanja.

KILL, an Irifli word fignifying a church or cemetery,
which is ufed as a prefix to the names of many places in
Ireland. There arc two or three villages of this name, one
on the great fo\ithern road, about 12 miles from Dublin.

KILLACK. in Geography, a town »f Perfia, in the
province of Mekran, on the coaft of the Arabian fea ; 60
miles W. of Tiz. N. lat. zy"-' 27'. E. Fong. 59- 20'.

KILLALI, a town of Abyfiinia; 100 miles S. of
Mme.

KILLALLA, a fea-port and poft-town of the county

of Mayo, province of Connaught, Ireland. It is fituated

on tiic weltern coaft of a bay of that name, opening into

the Atlantic ocean, and is the fee of a bilhop. There are>

1 fome

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fome coarfe linen and woollen cloths made in it, but fifliing
is the chiefs occupation of the inhabitants. The French
landed at this place on the 22d of Augutt, 179*^, and took
polVeffion (if it. A very interclling narrative of their pro-
ceedings, till tliL-ir departure, was publidied by Dr. Stock,
at that lime bifliop, \vht> was a prifoner. Killalla is
127 niiks NAV. from Dublin, and 24 nearly N. from
Call ebur.

KiLLALi.A, a biftiopric in Ireland, founded in the fifth
century, which is united with Achonry, and is in the ec-
clefiaftical province of Tuam. The united fees extend into
the counties of Mayo and Sligo, the river May and the Ox
mountains forming tlie boundary between them. They niea-
fure E. and W. ^^ miles, and from N. to S. 21 miles. Large
as this diftricl is, there are only 20 benefices, each of which
has a church, though only eight have glc-be houfes. The
cathedral is fmall, but venerable for its antiquity ; it is the
only church in the parifii, though a round tower at the
other end of the town indicates the ancient fcite of another
church, of which no veftige now remains. Beaufort.

KILL. ALOE, a bifliopric in Ireland, in the ecclefi-
aRicai province of Cafhel. It was founded early in the fifth
eentury, and in 17)2 was united with Killfenora, which,
though fmall in extent and value, had continued feparate till
after the revolution, and was then annexed for feveral years
to the fees of Tuam and Clonfert fuccefiively. The united
fees comprehend moft of the county of Clare, and part of
Tipperary, with fmall portions of the King's and Queen's
counties, Galway, and Limerick. The 138 parilhes,
united and condeiifed into 50 benefices, have only :5s churches
and four glebe houfes. The church of Killaloe is not
large for a cathedral, but venerable for its antiquity, and
in good prefervatioii, though built above 660 years. Beau-
fort.

Killaloe, a fmall pod-town of Inland, in the county
of Clare, and province of Munller, Ireland. It is fituated
on the Shannon, over which it has a bridge of 19 arches.
Below the bridge is a ledge of rocks whidi prevents the na-
vigation of the river : here is a confiderable falmon and eel
fiftery ; but there is nothing beautiful in the town except
the fituation : very near the tov/n, in the midll of a fine.
demefne, on the wellern bank of the Shannon, the bifhop
has a hanJfome rcfidence, lately erected. Killaloe is 86i
miles S. W. by W. from Dublin, and 2j miles from
Ennis.

■ KILL ANORE, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnalic ;
9 miles N W. of Tritchinopoiy.

KILLANY Bay, a bay on the E. coaft of the ifiand
of Arranmore. N. lat. 53 5'. W. long. 9 36'.

KILL A RD Point, a cape of Ireland, in the county of
Down, at the S. of the entrance to Strangford Lough,
and fix miles E. from Downpatrick. N. lat. 54^ 22'. W.
long, j" 27'.

KILLARNEY, a market and poft-town of Ireland,
in tbe county of Kerry, and province of Munder. It is a
neat and populous town, much freqaented by (Irangerson
account of the adjoining lake, the pi<iturefque beauties of
which charm every beholder. Lough Lane, or as it is
more frequently called, the lake of Killarney, conlills of
tv.'o lakes, joined by a long narrow channel ; in the lower
and larger lake, the plcafing and the fublirae are moft hap-
pily combined ; the upper lake rclcfts a more folemn gran-
deur from the ftupcndous crags, with which it is encircled :
biit the profpeCts in both arc infinitely divcrfificd. The
feveral ifiands, the white rocks of Mucrufs, the groves of
arbutus, tlie venerable woods, the variety of waterfalls,
and the impending clifis, are feparately as delightful and in-

K I L

tcreftiiig as their afTcmblage is infinitely grand and magni-
ficent. Mr. Weld has pubhfhed an interclling 410. volume
defcriptive of the various objetls that defervc the notice of
the traveller, but as thcfe cannot well be abridged, we mull
pafs them over in this work. In the peii ifula of Mucrufs,
cobalt and other minerals have been found, hut they are
not worked. In Ro!s ifiand, in the lower lake, is a valuable
mine, containing copper and lead ; of the former there is
not only rich fulplmret, particularly the kind called /iMr/>/f
ore, but alfo grey ore, which brings a high price. Kil-
larney is the refidence of the Roman Catholic bilhop of
Kcrrv, and the jiopulation is chiefly of that religion. It
is 144 miles S.W. from Dublin, and 38 W. from Cork.
Beaufort.

KILLAS, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by the
people, who dig in the mines of Cornwall, to a kind of
greyifli-whitc earth, which is of great hardnefs, and feems
to approach very much to the nature of the IikIus Helmoiit'il
of fome kinds, only that it is fon.ewhat lefs hard than that,
and has nothing of the fepta or partitions that make the
charadcr of that fofiil. This eartb contains fo grea'. a
quantity of fpar, that it ferments with acids very llrongly,
though that !par being once dilTolved, and the earthy part
of the fubftance only left, it will no longer ferment with
thcfe menilruums ; whence it is evident, that its terreftrial
matter is not alkaline, though the fpar it contains is fo.

This is the certain character of what is called killas in
many parts of Cornwall, where it lies in ftrata of two,
throe, or more feet thick, and often befide this is laid on
each fide of the vein of tin or other ore. Its texture is
either lamellar or coarfely granular ; the lamellar is fofter
and lefs martial than the roof fchiftus : its fpecilic gravity
from 2.63. to 2.666. Kirwan found 100 grains of the
lamellar fort to contain about 60 of filex, 25 of argil, 9 of
magncfia, and 6 of iron ; the greenifh fort contains more
iron, and gives a grecnidi colour to the nitrous acid. In
fome other parts of England, the miners ufe the fame
word to exprefs a kind of white, brittle, and (battery ftone,
fomewhat like the flag-llone with which they cover houfes
in Northamptonlhire, and many other counties.

Kii.LAS is alio ufed as the name of a flaty Hone of various
colours, fpangled all over with talc in fmall flakes in the
place where they ufe it. In this fenfe they generally ex-
prefs themfelves, when talking of the earth defcribed above,
by the plirafe ivhhe killas. They alfo foractimes call this
flaky Hone fay the name ddv'in.

KILLEAM, in Geography, a parochial village in Stir-
lingfliire, fituated on the water of Enrick, near its junction
with Loch Lomond. Kllleam is the birth-place of the
celebrated hillorian and poet George Buchanan, whofe hif-
tory of Scotland, and Latin paraphrafe of the Pialms of
David, are fo univcrfally known. A Irandfome pillar near
Killeam was lately ercftcd as a monument to his memory.
An extenfive prinlfield is the only manufafturing eftablifh-
ment in this neighbourhood. The pure foft water of the
Eirick is indeed extremely well fitted for all the operations
of bleaching, dyeing, and printing, but the want of coal
is an almoll infuperable objeftion in point of ecoeomv to
fuch works. The nearefl are ncp.rly twelve miles diliant.
In the neighbourhood is Buchanan houfe, the family man-
fion of the dnke of Montrofe.

KILLENAULE, a poll-town of Ireland, in the county
of Tipperary, and province of Munfter. The country
around it is very fine. In the neigUbourhood coal is found,
of the fame kind as that in the county of Kilkenny. It is
72'^ miles S.W. from Dublin.

klLLERIES' Haubour, a bay of the Atlantic, on
5 E a llwk

444060

K I L

the wed coaft of Ireland, between the counties of Mayo
and Galway. A vaft number of herring bufTes rendezvous
here in the fifhing feafon, from all parts of Galway and
Mayo. N. lat. jV' 38'. W. lung. 9 46'.

KILLESANDR A, or Killemiandra, a pofl-town
of Ireland, in the county of Cavan, ar}d province of Ulller.
It is 61 miles N.W. from Dublin, and 8 miles E.W. from
Cavan.

KILLFENORA, a village of the county of Clar.-,
Ireland, which is the feat of a bilhopric, united to Killalloe.
It is four miles N.N.E. from Enniitymond, which is its
pod-town.

KILLICRANKY, a village of Perthfhirc, in Scotland,
jiear which is a famous road, cut in the fide of a mountain,
called " Killicranky Pafs :" on one fide is a lofty mountain,
and on the other a precipice of loo yards ; 12 miles N. of
Dunkeld.

KILLIGRAY, a fmall iiland of Scotland, between

Lewis and North Uift. N. lat. 57^ 4^'. W. long. 7 .V-

KILLINCHY, a poll-town of Ireland, iUuated on

Strangford Lough, in the county of Down. It is 92

Biilcs N. by E. from Dublin.

KILLINESS Point, a cai-e of Sc-;tland, on the coaft
of the county of Wigton, in Luce bay ; 3 miles N. from
the iMull of Galloway.

KILLING. See Ho.micidk and Ml-rdku.
KILLINGIA, in Bolnuy. See KyLLlxcaA.
KILLINGLY, in Gfogmphy, a town of America, in
Windham county, Cunnciftieut, iituatcd in the north-eaftern
part of the ftate, bordering on Rhode ifiand, and feparated
from Pomfret by Qiiincbaug river; about 18 miles E. of
Windham: incorporated in 1 70S, and containing 2279 in-
habitants.

IsJLLINGTON, now S)ikri!UUSe, a mountainous
towiifhip of America, in Rutland county, Vermont, having
on the W. Medway, N.E. Barnard, S.E Saltafh, a: d con-
taining 32 inhabitants. KilHngton peaii is the highell land
in Vermont, 34-54 feet above the level of the ocean.

lOLLlNGTRlNGAN Bay, a bay of Scotland, on
the Vv'. coalt of the county of Wigton. N. lat. i;4 58'.
-\V. long. 5 12'.

KILLINGWORTII, a poll-town of America, in
Middlefex county, ConneSicut, iituatcd on Long idand
Sound ; 9 miles E. of Guilford, from which it is feparated
by a llrcam called Hammonallet, the Indian name of the
townfhip. It was fettled in 1663, incorporated in 1 703,
and contains 2040 inhabitants.

KILLISTINOES, Indians who originally inhabited a
territory N. of Lake Superior, and could fnrnifh 2jo war-
riors. They extend to the lake of the Hills, and N. to the
Tfl<imo3. According to Mr. Mackenzie, they were originally
f lie fame people with the Algcnkuis, or inhabitants of the
Atlantic coall. Their manners are defcribed by Mackenzie.
See our article Knistenkaux.

KILLM ACDUAGH, a village of the county of Gal-
way, which is an old epifcopal fee, united to Clonfert. It
is 2A miles from Gort, where is the parilh church. No-
thing but the walls of the cathedral remain, near which are
the ruins of a monallery, and of feveral chapels. Thefe,
with a large round tower, of very ancient and rude mafonry,
denote the former confequence of this wretched village. It
is 12 miles N. from Ennis.

KILLMACTHOMAS, a fair and poft-town of the
county of Waterford, on the road from Cappoqnin and
Dungarvan to Waterford. It is 83 miles S.S.W. from
Dnbhn.

KILLMALLOCK^ a poa-town of Ireland, wljitU

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formerly fent members to parliament. Two centuries ago,
it was one of the beft built inland towns in Ireland ; the
walls of many large hoafes of ftone, and CKcellent workman-
fhip, remain to this day, whilll the ruins of the chnrchd* and
monalleries, walls and gates, denote its former fplendour,
and have procured for it the name of the Balbec of Ireland.
It is often mentioned in tlie military hiftory of Ireland,
and there is an extenilve dillridl round it called the " Li-
bercy ot Kdlmallock." It is now, however, little more than
a village ; 4 miles from Charleville, 16 S. from Limerick,
and 1 07 A S.W. from Dublin. Beaufort, &c.

KILLMICHAEL Point, a cape of Ireland, on the
W. coall of the county of Wexford, in the Iriili fea. N.
lat. 52" 44'. W. long 6" 9'.

KILLMORE, a village v.-\nch gives name to a bifliopric
in Ireland, in the province of Armagh. The bifliopric wa5
founded in the ijth century, and in- tlie 15th, changed
its ancient name of Brefny, into Killmore. There is°no
cathedral, but a fmall parifh church, 3J; miles from Cavan.
It is iituatcd in fuur counties, but chiefly in Cavan and'
Leitrim. There are 39 pariflies in 30 benefices, and 36
churches.

KILLOS, a name given by the miners of Cornwall to
a Hone of the flate kind, found in the mines there. Sec
Gkowan.

KILl^OUGH, m Geography, a village of the county of
Down, Ireland, on a bay to which it gives name, on the Irilk
fea. Here is a remarkable well, called St. Scordin's well,
which is highly eileemed for the extraordinary brightnefs of
its water. It is 7 miles S.E. from Clough.

KILLOW, or CuLj.ow, an Englilh name for a black
earth of a very remarkable llrudure, feeming of a n;ixed
nature between the marbles, ochres, and clay ; and ufnally
containing a large quantity of the matter of the coinniou
vitrioUc pyrites or ink-ftone,. which gives it a very fharp
unpleafant talle, and makes it, wlicn thrown on the lire
emit a Qight blue flame of a fnlphureous fmell, asd call
cine to a deep red. It is common in many parts cf En"--
laiid, Wales, and Ireland. It is lighter than ar.y of' the
otlier clays, though that is the genus'^to which it liioft pro-
perly belongs; and it is of an uneven furface, and fhuttery
llrudure. '

KILLREA, in Gcographv, a palt-town of Ireland, in
the county of Londonderry ; it is (itur.ted near the river
Lann, and is 102 miles N. from Dublin.

KILLRUSH, a poft-town of Ireland, in the county of
Clare, and province of Mnnfter. It is fituated upon the
river Siiannon, and is a place of foine trade, fome of the
merchants of Limerick having agents refidino- here. It is
142 miles S.W. from Dublin.

KILLUC.AN, a poll-town of Ireland, in the county of
Weftmeath, and province of Lcinftcr ; it is 28 miles W. by
N. from Dnbhn, '

KILLWORTH, a poft-town of Ireland, in the county
of Cork, Muntler, fituated on the river Fnncheon. It lias
gone very much to decay, on account of the neighbourhood
o Fermoy ; ,t is loS miles S.W. from Dublin, and i8
N.E. from Cork.

KILLYBEGS, a poft-town of Ireland, in the county
of Donegal, which, before the Union, was reprefentcd in
parliament. It is fituated on a creek, on the N. fide of
Donegal bay, and has an extenfive herring-fifticry ; it is
124 mdes N.W. from Dublin, and 13 miles W. from
Donegal.

KILLY-IIOLM, one of the fmaller Orkney idands :
about half a mile N. of Eglllha.

KILLYLEAGII, a poll-town of Ireland, in the county
iL of.

K I L

tf Down, and province of Ulftcr. It is fituated on the \V.
cuait of Siraiigfurd lough, and has a fnfe harbour for fmall
veflfels. Here lir Hans Sloaiie, the famous natiiraliil, was
born, in 1660 j it is So miles N. by E. from Dublin, and
15 S.S.E. from Bclfalt.

KILLYTH-STALI.ION, in our Old Writers, is where
lords of manors were bound by cirilom to provide a ftallion
for the ufe of their tenants' mares.

KILMARNOCK, in Geography, a very indu;irious,
thriving, manufaAu:ing town in Ayrlhire, Scotland, 22
miles S.W. from Glafgow. Its prmcipal articles of llaple
manufadure arecoarle woollens and carpets, and low priced
gloves, belides which a great number of weavers are cm-
ployed in the cotton trade by the manufaclurers of Glaf-
gow and Paifley. Kilmarnock is fituated in a very fertile
i)art of the country, and is very plentifully fnpplied with

K I L

coals from the cxtenfive coal-worlvs of fir William Cnnning-
ha:ii of Ct.pnnglon, which arc in the immediate neighbour-
hood, liefidsb ilr William Caiiningham, the chief laniied
proprietors in this neighbourhood arc, the duchefs of Port-
land, and the countefs of Loudon and Moira, both of whom
here poffcls very lai-f^e eltates in their own right. The
immenfecalUc of Loudon, now building, will, when finifhed,
be one of the noblelt family-feats in Britain. Kilmarnock,
not being a royal bpro'.igh, has no clei'tive franchife for a
member of parliament. In l8oi, it contained 8079 inhabit-
ants, of whom 6757 were employed in trade and manufac-
tures N. lat. 55 40'. W. long. 4 27'.

KILMES, a tcwn of Ruflin, in the govcrmnent of
Viatka; 28 miles N.K. of M-dmifch.— Affo, a rive: rf
Rufiia, which runs into the Viatka ; 3 a miles N.E. of Mai-
milch.

END OF VOL. XIX.

Sir..)i,in ant! rrf-Oor,
New-S««ci bijiurc, Lundon,

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